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40,052 | 1,107,520,205 | 1056 | [
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"plaintext": " Abdallah ibn Buluggin (the Conqueror), emir of Granada",
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"plaintext": " Baldwin II of Mons, count of Hainaut (approximate date)",
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"plaintext": " Ermengol IV (or Armengol), Spanish nobleman (d. 1092)",
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"plaintext": " Hildegarde of Burgundy, French noblewoman (approximate date)",
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"plaintext": " Ibn Tahir of Caesarea, Arab scholar and historian (d. 1113)",
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"plaintext": " Nestor the Chronicler, Russian monk and historian (d. 1114)",
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"plaintext": " Sæmundur Sigfússon, Icelandic priest and scholar (d. 1133)",
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"plaintext": " William II (or William Rufus), king of England (d. 1100)",
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"plaintext": " February 10 Æthelstan (or Athelstan), bishop of Hereford",
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"plaintext": " February 11 Herman II (or Heriman), archbishop of Cologne",
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"plaintext": " June 16 Leofgar (or Leovegard), bishop of Hereford",
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"plaintext": " August 31 ",
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"plaintext": " Odda of Deerhurst, English nobleman",
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"plaintext": " Theodora, empress of the Byzantine Empire",
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"plaintext": " September 10 William, margrave of the Nordmark",
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"plaintext": " October 5 Henry III (the Black), Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1017)",
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"plaintext": " November 25 Flann Mainistreach, Irish poet and historian",
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"plaintext": " Áed Ua Forréid, bishop of Armagh (Church of Ireland)",
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"plaintext": " Anselm of Liège, French chronicler (approximate date)",
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"plaintext": " Benedict IX, pope of the Catholic Church (approximate date)",
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"plaintext": " Ekkehard IV, Swiss monk and chronicler (approximate date)",
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"plaintext": " Hilal al-Sabi', Buyid historian, bureaucrat and writer",
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"plaintext": " Yahya ibn Umar al-Lamtuni, Almoravid chieftain",
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40,054 | 1,100,083,568 | 1059 | [
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"plaintext": "Year 1059 (MLIX) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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"plaintext": " At-Turtushi, Andalusian political philosopher (d. 1126)",
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"plaintext": " Fujiwara no Akinaka, Japanese nobleman (d. 1129)",
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"plaintext": " Fulcher of Chartres, French priest and chronicler",
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"plaintext": " Henry I, count of Limburg and Arlon (approximate date)",
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"plaintext": " Ngok Loden Sherab, Tibetan Buddhist monk (d. 1109)",
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"plaintext": " Raynald I, French nobleman and abbot (d. 1090)",
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"plaintext": " Robert of Burgundy, bishop of Langres (d. 1111)",
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"plaintext": " April 4 Farrukh-Zad, Ghaznavid sultan (b. 1025)",
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"plaintext": " June 29 Bernard II, German nobleman",
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"plaintext": " July 7 Abdallah ibn Yasin, Almoravid ruler",
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"plaintext": " Cathal mac Tigernán, king of Iar Connacht",
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"plaintext": " Eilika of Schweinfurt, German noblewoman",
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"plaintext": " Michael I (Cerularius), Byzantine patriarch",
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"plaintext": " Michael VI (Bringas), Byzantine emperor",
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"plaintext": " Peter Orseolo (the Venetian), king of Hungary",
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"plaintext": " Vyacheslav Yaroslavich, prince of Smolensk",
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"1059"
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40,055 | 1,103,147,532 | Nordic_combined | [
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"plaintext": "Nordic combined is a winter sport in which athletes compete in cross-country skiing and ski jumping. The Nordic combined at the Winter Olympics has been held since the first ever Winter Olympics in 1924, while the FIS Nordic Combined World Cup has been held since 1983. Many Nordic combined competitions use the Gundersen method, where placement in the ski jumping segment results in time (dis)advantages added to the contestant's total in the cross-country skiing segment (e.g. the ski jumping winner starts the cross-country skiing race at 00:00:00 while the one with the lowest jumping score starts with the longest time penalty).",
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"plaintext": "The first major competition was held in 1892 in Oslo at the first Holmenkollen ski jump. King Olav V of Norway was an able jumper and competed in the Holmenkollen Ski Festival in the 1920s. Nordic combined was in the 1924 Winter Olympics and has been on the program ever since. Until the 1950s, the cross-country race was held first, followed by the ski jumping. This was reversed as the difference in the cross-country race tended to be too big to overcome in ski jumping. The sport has been dominated by the Norwegians, supported by the Finns. It was not until 1960 that the Nordic grip on this discipline was broken when West German Georg Thoma won the gold medal at the 1960 Winter Olympics.",
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"plaintext": "It was decided in early-November 2016 that women's competitions were to be established on FIS-level starting during the second half of the 2010s with inclusion at world championships starting in 2021 and at the Olympic Winter Games in 2022. But Olympic debut for women in 2022 was cancelled in July 2018 by IOC who was asking for more development time for this discipline; they likely will be added in 2026. In May 2018 the FIS Congress made several decisions regarding the inclusion of women in the sport of Nordic Combined. At the 2022 Winter Olympics, Nordic combined is the only sport with exclusively men's events. As of 2019, women will be officially included in FIS Junior World Championships. It was confirmed that 2021 will mark the start of the FIS World Championship program for women (senior level). 2018 marks the second year of the Continental Cup program for women, which will include a total of 12 events.",
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"plaintext": "Formats and variations currently used in the World Cup are:",
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"plaintext": " Individual Gundersen: competition starts with one competition jump from a normal or large hill. Later on the same day, the cross-country race takes place. The winner starts at 00:00:00 and all other athletes start with time disadvantages according to their jumping score. The first to cross the finish line is the winner. A variation of this is the Final Individual Gundersen, consisting of two jumps and of cross-country skiing in free technique.",
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"plaintext": " Nordic Combined Triple: introduced in the 2013–14 FIS Nordic Combined World Cup, it features three different events on three days and one overall winner who is awarded extra World Cup points and prize money:",
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"plaintext": " Day 1: 1 jump & Prologue",
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"plaintext": " Day 2: 1 jump & Individual Gundersen (Top 50 from Day 1's competition)",
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"plaintext": " Day 3: 2 jumps & Final Individual Gundersen (Top 30 from Day 2's competition)",
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{
"plaintext": " Team Event: introduced in the 1980s, one team consists of four athletes who have one competition jump each. The total score of all four athletes determines the time disadvantages for the start of the ensuing cross-country race. The first team to cross the finish line wins.",
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"plaintext": " Team Sprint: teams consist of two athletes each. In the ski jumping part, every athlete makes one competition jump like in the Individual Gundersen or Team Event formats and the time behind for the start of the successive cross-country race. The team to arrive first at the finish line wins the competition.",
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"plaintext": "Included in the rules but currently not used in World Cup:",
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"plaintext": " Penalty Race: instead adding a time disadvantage, distance is added to the cross-country part.",
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"plaintext": " Mass Start: the only format in which the cross-country part takes place before the ski jumping. All competitors start into a cross-country race in free technique at the same time. The final cross-country times are then converted into points for the ski jumping part. The winner is determined in a points-based system.",
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"plaintext": "Events in the Olympics are: the sprint K120 individual, ski jumping K90 (70m), and Team/4x5km.",
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"plaintext": " Ski bindings: secure only the toe of the boot to the ski. In cross-country, it must be placed so that not more than 57% of the entire ski length is used as the front part. In jumping, a cord or aluminum post attaches the heel of the boot to the ski to prevent tips from dropping and/or wobbling of skis during flight.",
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"plaintext": " Ski boot",
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"plaintext": " For jumping, a high-backed, flexible yet firm boots with a low cut at the front, designed to allow the skier to lean forward during flight.",
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"section_name": "Equipment",
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"plaintext": " For cross-country a skating boot is used.",
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"plaintext": " Ski suit and helmet",
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"plaintext": " Skis: jumping skis may have a length of a maximum 145% of the total body height of the competitor. Cross-country skis may be up to 2 meters long.",
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"plaintext": " Ski wax: glide wax for speed is used in both types, and kick wax is used in cross-country.",
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"Nordic combined skiing"
] |
40,056 | 1,078,276,157 | Ski_jumping | [
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"plaintext": "Ski jumping is a winter sport in which competitors aim to achieve the farthest jump after sliding down on their skis from a specially designed curved ramp. Along with jump length, competitor's aerial style and other factors also affect the final score. Ski jumping was first contested in Norway in the late 19th century, and later spread through Europe and North America in the early 20th century. Along with cross-country skiing, it constitutes the traditional group of Nordic skiing disciplines.",
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"plaintext": "The ski jumping venue, commonly referred to as a hill, consists of the jumping ramp (in-run), take-off table, and a landing hill. Each jump is evaluated according to the distance traveled and the style performed. The distance score is related to the construction point (also known as the K-point), which is a line drawn in the landing area and serves as a \"target\" for the competitors to reach. ",
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"plaintext": "The score of each judge evaluating the style can reach a maximum of 20 points. The jumping technique has evolved over the years, from jumps with the parallel skis with both arms pointing forwards, to the \"V-style\", which is widely used today.",
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"plaintext": "Ski jumping has been included at the Winter Olympics since 1924 and at the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships since 1925. Women's participation in the sport began in the 1990s, while the first women's event at the Olympics has been held in 2014. All major ski jumping competitions are organised by the International Ski Federation. Stefan Kraft holds the official record for the world's longest ski jump with , set on the ski flying hill in Vikersund in 2017. Ski jumping can also be performed in the summer on an in-run where the tracks are made from porcelain and the grass on the slope is covered with water-soaked plastic. The highest level summer competition is the FIS Ski Jumping Grand Prix, contested since 1994.",
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"plaintext": "Like most of the Nordic skiing disciplines, the first ski jumping competitions were held in Norway in the 19th century, although there is evidence of ski jumping in the late 18th century. The recorded origins of the first ski jump trace back to 1808, when Olaf Rye reached . Sondre Norheim, who is regarded as the \"father\" of the modern ski jumping, won the first-ever ski jumping competition with prizes, which was held in Høydalsmo in 1866.",
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"plaintext": "The first larger ski jumping competition was held on Husebyrennet hill in Oslo, Norway, in 1875. Due to its poor infrastructure and the weather conditions, in 1892 the event was moved to Holmenkollen, which is today still one of the main ski jumping events in the season.",
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"plaintext": "In the late 19th century, Sondre Norheim and Nordic skier Karl Hovelsen immigrated to the United States and started developing the sport in that country. In 1924, ski jumping was featured at the 1924 Winter Olympics in Chamonix, France. The sport has been featured at every Olympics since.",
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"plaintext": "Ski jumping was brought to Canada by Norwegian immigrant Nels Nelsen. Starting with his example in 1915 until late 1959, annual ski jumping competitions were held on Mount Revelstoke — the ski hill Nelsen designed — the longest period of any Canadian ski jumping venue. Revelstoke's was the biggest natural ski jump hill in Canada and internationally recognized as one of the best in North America. The length and natural grade of its hill made possible jumps of over —the longest in Canada. It was also the only hill in Canada where world ski jumping records were set, in 1916, 1921, 1925, 1932, and 1933.",
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"plaintext": "In 1935, the origins of the ski flying began in Planica, Slovenia, where Josef Bradl became the first competitor in history to jump over . At the same venue, the first official jump over was achieved in 1994, when Toni Nieminen landed at 203 meters.",
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"plaintext": "In 1964 in Zakopane, Poland, the large hill event was introduced at the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships. In the same year, the normal hill event was included on the Olympic programme at the 1964 Winter Olympics. The team event was added later, at the 1988 Winter Olympics.",
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"plaintext": "A ski jumping hill is located on a steep slope, and it consists of the jumping ramp (in-run), take-off table, and a landing hill. Competitors glide down from a common point at the top of the in-run, achieving considerable speeds at the take-off table, where they take off, carried by their own momentum. While airborne, they maintain an aerodynamic position with their bodies and skis, which allows them to maximize the length of their jump. The landing slope is constructed so that the jumper's trajectory is near-parallel with it, and the athlete's relative height to the ground is gradually lost, allowing for a gentle and safe landing. The landing space is followed by an out-run, a substantial flat or counter-inclined area that permits the skier to safely slow down. The out-run area is fenced and surrounded by a public auditorium.",
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"plaintext": "The slopes are classified according to the distance that the competitors travel in the air, between the end of the table and the landing. Each hill has a construction point (K-point), which serves as a \"target\" that the competitors should reach. The classification of the hills are as follows:",
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"plaintext": "Competitors are ranked according to a numerical score obtained by adding up components based on distance, style, inrun length (gate factor) and wind conditions. In the individual event, the scores from each skier's two competition jumps are combined to determine the winner.",
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"plaintext": "Distance score depends on the hill's K-point. For K-90 and K-120 competitions, the K-point is set at 90 meters and 120 meters, respectively. Competitors are awarded 60 points (normal and large hills) and 120 points (flying hills) if they land on the K-point. For every meter beyond or below the K-point, extra points are awarded or deducted; the typical value is 2 points per meter in small hills, 1.8 points in large hills and 1.2 points in ski flying hills. A competitor's distance is measured between the takeoff and the point where the feet came in full contact with the landing slope (for abnormal landings, touchpoint of one foot, or another body part is considered). Jumps are measured with accuracy of 0.5 meters for all competitions.",
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"plaintext": "During the competition, five judges are based in a tower to the side of the expected landing point. They can award up to 20 points each for jumping style, based on keeping the skis steady during flight, balance, optimal body position, and landing. The highest and lowest style scores are disregarded, with the remaining three scores added to the distance score.",
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"plaintext": "Gate and wind factors were introduced by the 2009 rules, to allow fairer comparison of results for a scoring compensation for variable outdoor conditions. Aerodynamics and take-off speed are important variables that affect the jump length, and if weather conditions change during a competition, the conditions will not be the same for all competitors. Gate factor is an adjustment made when the inrun (or start gate) length is adjusted from the initial position in order to provide optimal take-off speed. Since higher gates result in higher take-off speeds, and therefore present an advantage to competitors, points are subtracted when the starting gate is moved up, and added when the gate is lowered. An advanced calculation also determines compensation points for the actual unequal wind conditions at the time of the jump; when there is back wind, points are added, and when there is front wind, points are subtracted. Wind speed and direction are measured at five different points based on average value, which is determined before every competition.",
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"plaintext": "If two or more competitors finish the competition with the same number of points, they are given the same placing and receive same prizes.",
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"plaintext": "Ski jumpers below the minimum safe body mass index are penalized with a shorter maximum ski length, reducing the aerodynamic lift they can achieve. These rules have been credited with stopping the most severe cases of underweight athletes, but some competitors still lose weight to maximize the distance they can achieve. In order to prevent an unfair advantage due to a \"sailing\" effect of the ski jumping suit, material, thickness and relative size of the suit are regulated.",
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"plaintext": "Each jump is divided into four parts: in-run, take-off (jump), flight, and landing.",
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"plaintext": "By using the V-style, firstly pioneered by Swedish ski jumper Jan Boklöv in the mid-1980s, modern skiers are able to exceed the distance of the take-off hill by about 10% compared to the previous technique with parallel skis. Previous techniques included the Kongsberger technique, the Däescher technique and the Windisch technique. Until the mid-1960s, the ski jumper came down the in-run of the hill with both arms pointing forwards. This changed when the Däscher technique was pioneered by Andreas Däscher in the 1950s, as a modification of the Kongsberger and Windisch techniques. A lesser-used technique as of 2017 is the H-style which is essentially a combination of the parallel and V-styles, in which the skis are spread very wide apart and held parallel in an \"H\" shape. It is prominently used by Domen Prevc.",
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"plaintext": "Skiers are required to touch the ground in the Telemark landing style (), named after the Norwegian county of Telemark. This involves the landing with one foot in front of the other with knees slightly bent, mimicking the style of Telemark skiing. Failure to execute a Telemark landing leads to the deduction of style points, issued by the judges.",
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"plaintext": "All major ski jumping competitions are organized by the International Ski Federation.",
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"plaintext": "The large hill ski jumping event was included at the Winter Olympic Games for the first time in 1924, and has been contested at every Winter Olympics since then. The normal hill event was added in 1964. Since 1992, the normal hill event is contested at the K-90 size hill; previously, it was contested at the K-60 hill. Women's debuted at the Winter Olympics in 2014.",
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"plaintext": "The FIS Ski Jumping World Cup has been contested since the 1979–80 season. It runs between November and March every season, and consists of 25–30 competitions at most prestigious hills across Europe, United States and Japan. Competitors are awarded a fixed number of points in each event according to their ranking, and the overall winner is the one with most accumulated points. FIS Ski Flying World Cup is contested as a sub-event of the World Cup, and competitors collect only the points scored at ski flying hills from the calendar.",
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"plaintext": "The ski jumping at the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships was first contested in 1925. The team event was introduced in 1982, while the women's event was first held in 2009.",
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"plaintext": "The FIS Ski Flying World Championships was first contested in 1972 in Planica.",
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"plaintext": "The Four Hills Tournament has been contested since the 1952–53 season. It is contested around the New Year's Day at four venues – two in Germany (Oberstdorf and Garmisch-Partenkirchen) and two in Austria (Innsbruck and Bischofshofen), which are also scored for the World Cup. Those events are traditionally held in a slightly different format than other World Cup events (first round is held as a knockout event between 25 pairs of jumpers), and the overall winner is determined by adding up individual scores from every jump.",
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"plaintext": "Other competitions organised by the International Ski Federation include the FIS Ski Jumping Grand Prix (held in summer), Continental Cup, FIS Cup, FIS Race, and Alpen Cup.",
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"plaintext": "In January 1863 in Trysil, Norway, at that time 16 years old Norwegian Ingrid Olsdatter Vestby, became the first-ever known female ski jumper, who participated in the competition. Her distance is not recorded.",
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"plaintext": "Women began competing at the high level since the 2004–05 Continental Cup season. International Ski Federation organized three women's team events in this competition and so far the only team events in history of women's ski jumping.",
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"plaintext": "Women's made a premiere FIS Nordic World Ski Championships performance in 2009 in Liberec. American ski jumper Lindsey Van became the first world champion.",
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"plaintext": "In the 2011–12 season, women competed for the first time in the World Cup. The first event was held on 3 December 2011 at Lysgårdsbakken at normal hill in ",
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"plaintext": "Lillehammer, Norway. The first-ever female World Cup winner was Sarah Hendrickson, who also became the inaugural women's World Cup overall champion. Previously, women had only competed in Continental Cup seasons.",
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"plaintext": "In 2006, the International Ski Federation proposed that women could compete at the 2010 Winter Olympics, but the proposal was rejected by the IOC because of the low number of athletes and participating countries at the time.",
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"plaintext": "A group of fifteen competitive female ski jumpers later filed a suit against the Vancouver Organizing Committee for the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games on the grounds that it violated the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms since men were competing. The suit failed, with the judge ruling that the situation was not governed by the charter.",
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"plaintext": "A further milestone was reached when women's ski jumping was included as part of the 2014 Winter Olympics at normal hill event. The first Olympic champion was Carina Vogt.",
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"plaintext": "Since 1936, when the first jump beyond was made, all world records in the sport have been made in the discipline of ski flying. As of March 2017, the official world record for the longest ski jump is , set by Stefan Kraft at Vikersundbakken in Vikersund, Norway. Two years prior, also in Vikersund, Dimitry Vassiliev reached but fell upon landing; his jump is unofficially the longest ever made.",
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"plaintext": "Daniela Iraschko-Stolz has held the women's world record of since 2003.",
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"plaintext": "The lists below show the progression of world records through history at 50-meter milestones. Only official results are listed, invalid jumps are not included.",
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"plaintext": "Those who have managed to show a perfect jump, which means that all five judges attributed the maximum style score of 20 points for their jumps. Kazuyoshi Funaki, Sven Hannawald and Wolfgang Loitzl were attributed 4x20 (plus another 19.5) style score points for their second jump, thus receiving nine times the maximum score of 20 points within one competition. Kazuyoshi Funaki is the only one in history who achieved this more than once. So far only seven jumpers are recorded to have achieved this score in total of ten times:",
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"plaintext": " Nordic combined",
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"plaintext": " List of FIS Nordic World Ski Championships medalists in ski jumping",
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"plaintext": " List of FIS Ski Jumping World Cup team events",
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"plaintext": " List of Olympic medalists in ski jumping",
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"plaintext": " List of Four Hills Tournament winners",
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"plaintext": " Medicinernes Skiklub Svartor ",
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"plaintext": " FIS Ski Flying World Cup",
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"plaintext": "General",
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40,057 | 1,098,008,540 | Freestyle_skiing | [
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"plaintext": "Freestyle skiing is a skiing discipline comprising aerials, moguls, cross, half-pipe, slopestyle and big air as part of the Winter Olympics. It can consist of a skier performing aerial flips and spins and can include skiers sliding rails and boxes on their skis. Known as \"hot-dogging\" in the early 1970s, it is also commonly referred to as freeskiing, jibbing, as well as many other names, around the world.",
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"plaintext": "Ski acrobatics have been practiced since the 1930s. Aerial skiing was popularized in the 1950s by Olympic gold medalist Stein Eriksen. Early US competitions were held in the mid-1960s. ",
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"plaintext": "In 1969, Waterville Valley Ski Area in New Hampshire, formed the first freestyle instruction program, making the resort the birthplace of freestyle skiing. The following year, Corcoran and Doug Pfeiffer, organized the first National Open Championships of Freestyle Skiing on the Sunnyside trails. In 1971, Waterville Valley Hosted the first Professional Freestyle Skiing Competition, which attracted freestyle skiing legends to Waterville Valley. Some of these competitors, such as Wayne Wong, Floyd Wilkie, and George Askevold, stayed at Waterville Valley as coaches of the first Freestyle Ski Team. ",
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"plaintext": "International Ski Federation (FIS) recognized freestyle skiing as a sport in 1979 and brought in new regulations regarding certification of athletes and jump techniques in an effort to curb the dangerous elements of the competitions. The first FIS Freestyle Skiing World Cup was staged in 1980 and the first FIS Freestyle World Ski Championships took place in 1986 in Tignes, France. Freestyle skiing was a demonstration event at the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary. Mogul skiing was added as an official medal event at the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville, and the aerials event was added for the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer. In 2011, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) approved both halfpipe and slopestyle freeskiing events to be added to the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, Russia.",
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"plaintext": "Aerialists ski off 2-4 meter jumps, that propel them up to 6 meters in the air (which can be up to 20 meters above the landing height, given the landing slope). Once in the air, aerialists perform multiple flips and twists before landing on a 34 to 39-degree inclined landing hill about 30 meters in length. The top male aerialists can currently perform triple back flips with up to four or five twists.",
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"plaintext": "Aerial skiing is a judged sport, and competitors receive a score based on jump takeoff (20%), jump form (50%) and landing (30%). A degree of difficulty (DOD) is then factored in for a total score. Skiers are judged on a cumulative score of LIMA two jumps. These scores do not generally carry over to the next round.",
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"plaintext": "Aerialists train for their jumping maneuvers during the summer months by skiing on specially constructed water ramps and landing in a large swimming pool. An example of this is the Utah Olympic Park training facility. A water ramp consists of a wooden ramp covered with a special plastic mat that when lubricated with sprinklers allows an athlete to ski down the ramp towaРrds a jump. The skier then skis off the wooden jump and lands safely in a large swimming pool. A burst of air is sent up from the bottom of the pool just before landing to break up the surface tension of the water, thus softening the impact of the landing. Skiers sometimes reinforce the skis that they use for water-ramping with 6mm of fiberglass or cut holes in the front and back in order to soften the impact when landing properly on their skis.",
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"plaintext": "Summer training also includes training on trampolines, diving boards, and other acrobatic or gymnastic training apparatus.",
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"plaintext": "Moguls are a series of bumps on a trail formed when skiers push the snow into mounds or piles as they execute short-radius turns. Moguls can also be formed deliberately, by piling mounds of snow.",
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"plaintext": "In competitions, athletes are judged on their technique as well as on their speed by mastering the bumps in a calm yet aggressive way. Usually there are two jumps. In the early days the location was chosen by the competitors. Since the mid 1980s those jumps have become part of the official slope. While at the beginning only upright jumps were allowed, from the mid 1990s onward flips were added as an option. ",
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"plaintext": "Moguls has become part of the Olympics since 1992. Canadian athlete Alexandre Bilodeau has won the Gold Medal twice: 2010 and 2014.",
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"plaintext": "Ski ballet, later renamed acroski (or \"acro\"), was a competitive discipline in the formative years of freestyle skiing. Competitors devised routines lasting 3 to 5 minutes and executed to music. The routines consisted of spins, jumps, and flips on a prepared flat course. For a short period of time (in the 1980s) there was also pair ballet competitions, a variation of ballet, where two people performed tricks that not only included spins, jumps and leg crossing but also lifts and sychronic movements and was similar to ice dancing. The routines were scored by judges who assessed the choreography, technical difficulty, and mastery of skills demonstrated by the competitors. Early innovators in the sport were American Jan Bucher, Park Smalley, Swiss Conny Kissling and German Hermann Reitberger. The first skier who performed a one handed pole flip in a world cup competition was German Richard Schabl in the early 1980s. Acro ski was part of the demonstration at the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary. The International Ski Federation ceased all formal competition of this event after 2000 because they focused on both aerials (1990) and moguls (1992) for making it an Olympic discipline.",
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"plaintext": "Ski cross is based on the snowboarding boardercross. Despite it being a timed racing event, it is often considered part of freestyle skiing because it incorporates terrain features traditionally found in freestyle.",
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"plaintext": "Halfpipe skiing is the sport of riding snow skis on a half-pipe. Competitors gradually ski to the end of the pipe by doing flips and tricks. It became an Olympic event for the first time at the 2014 Olympic Games in Sochi, Russia.",
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"plaintext": "In slopestyle, athletes ski or snowboard down a course including a variety of obstacles including rails, jumps, and other terrain park features. Points are scored for amplitude, originality and quality of tricks. Twin-tip skis are used and are particularly useful if the skier lands backwards. Slopestyle tricks fall mainly into four categories: spins, grinds, grabs and flips. Slopestyle became an Olympic event, in both skiing and snowboarding forms, at the 2014 Winter Games in Sochi, Russia.",
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"plaintext": "Twin-tip skis are used in events such as slopestyle and halfpipe. Mogul skis are used in moguls and sometimes in aerials. Specially designed racing skis are used in ski cross. Ski bindings took a major design change to include plate bindings mounted to the bottom of the skiers boot to allow for multi-directional release. Ski poles are a staple in the all aspects of freestyle skiing, however, slopestyle athletes have more recently opted to ski without them in order to free their hands for grabs and other personal preferences in their riding.",
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"plaintext": "FIS Freestyle World Ski Championships",
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"plaintext": " Furrer, Art; Renggli, Sepp (1970) Skiakrobatik für jedermann Bern: Benteli ",
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"plaintext": " Broze, Matt Charles (1972) Freestyle skiing Seattle: Wildcat Books ",
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"plaintext": " Johnston, John; Daigle, Michel; Bowie, Darryl (1974) Freestyle Skiing: Technique Manual Vancouver: Winter Habit Productions ",
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},
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"plaintext": " Luini, Mario; Brunner, André (1975) Akroski : alles über Skiakrobatik u. Skikunst Bern: Benteli ",
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},
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"plaintext": " United States Ski Association (1977) Official freestyle competition rules ",
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"plaintext": " Mohan, John; Hiltner, Walt (1978) Freestyle Skiing New York: Winchester Press ",
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"plaintext": " Wieman, Randy; Newman, Robbi (1979) Freestyle Skiing: A Complete Guide to the Fundamentals of Hot Dogging Angus & Robertson ",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": " Smalley, Park (1986) Skiing Freestyle: Official Training Guide of the U.S. Freestyle Ski Team Taylor Publishing Company ",
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},
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"plaintext": " Riess, Steven A. (2015) Sports in America from Colonial Times to the Twenty-First Century: An Encyclopedia Routledge ",
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"plaintext": " Waterville Valley, Birthplace of Freestyle Skiing",
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{
"plaintext": " FIS homepage",
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"plaintext": " Freestyle skiing – olympic.org",
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"plaintext": " wiki.fis-ski.com The resource of information and knowledge on Freestyle Skiing, Ski Jumping, FIS World Ski Championships",
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"plaintext": " freestylebc.ski The largest provincial sport organization for freestyle skiing in Canada. ",
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},
{
"plaintext": " freestylecanada.ski The official site of the Canadian Freestyle Ski Association. Your source for moguls, aerials, halfpipe and slopestyle skiing in Canada.",
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40,058 | 1,087,210,567 | Short-track_speed_skating | [
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"plaintext": "Short-track speed skating is a form of competitive ice speed skating. In competitions, multiple skaters (typically between four and six) skate on an oval ice track with a length of . The rink itself is long by wide, which is the same size as an Olympic-sized figure skating rink and an international-sized ice hockey rink. Related sports include long track speed skating and inline speed skating.",
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"plaintext": "Short-track skating developed from speed skating events that were held with mass starts. This form of speed skating was mainly practised in the United States and Canada, as opposed to the international form, where athletes skated in pairs. At the 1932 Winter Olympics, speed skating events were conducted in the mass start form. Competitions in North America tended to be held indoors, for example in Madison Square Garden, New York, and therefore on shorter tracks than was usual for outdoor skating.",
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"plaintext": "In 1967, the International Skating Union (ISU) adopted short-track speed skating, although it did not organize international competitions until 1976. World Championships in short-track speed skating have been officially held since 1981, although events held in 1976–1980 under different names have since received the status of World Championships retrospectively. The name of the competition was changed several times before it was eventually titled the \"World Short Track Speed Skating Championships\" in 1989; the championships are now held annually.",
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"plaintext": "Short-track speed skating was introduced as a demonstration sport at the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary, Canada. It was upgraded to a full Olympic sport in 1992 and has been part of the Winter Olympics ever since. There were only four short-track events in the 1992 Winter Games, but the program was expanded to include six events in 1994 and 1998, and finally eight events in the 2002 Winter Games. The events are the same for both men and women: 500 meters, 1000 meters, 1500 meters, plus the relay event (5000 meters for men, 3000 meters for women). Starting with the 2018–19 World Cup season, a 2000-meter mixed-team relay was added, and will appear in the 2022 Winter Olympics. A 3000-meter super-final event is included in the European Championships, but this is not currently part of the Olympic short-track program.",
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"plaintext": "Skaters who commit one of the following offences risk immediate disqualification from a race and having their times rendered invalid.",
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"plaintext": "Off track: Skating outside the designated track",
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"plaintext": "Assistance: Giving physical assistance to another skater. For example: pushing a teammate from behind for an extra boost, or allowing a teammate to lean on another for stability in corners",
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"plaintext": "Shooting the line or Kicking out: Driving the foot in lead ahead to reach the finish faster, resulting in the lead foot lifting off the ice and creating a dangerous situation for others",
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"plaintext": "Unsportsmanlike conduct: Acting in a manner not befitting an athlete or a role model. Including cursing at a competitor, kicking your feet, striking other skaters or officials, etc.",
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"plaintext": "Equipment: Not wearing the proper safety equipment, losing equipment during the race, or exposure of skin not on face or neck.",
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"plaintext": "False Start: Leaving before firing of the starter's pistol. On the second violation in the race, the offender on that start risks disqualification & must leave.",
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"plaintext": "Did not finish: Usually due to injury, the skater did not finish the race.",
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"plaintext": "Did not skate: The skater did not go to the starting line.",
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"plaintext": "In relay races, each team has four skaters, who can take turns freely by tagging. A skater may be relayed at any time except during the last two laps. Usually, the outgoing skater pushes the incoming skater to help the teammate to gain speed.",
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5741464,
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1,
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{
"plaintext": " John de Braose (Tadody), English nobleman (or 1198)",
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28978421,
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1,
15
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34,
42
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47,
51
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},
{
"plaintext": " Naratheinga Uzana, Burmese prince and regent (d. 1235)",
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44860960,
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1,
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39,
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50,
54
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},
{
"plaintext": " Nicola Paglia, Italian priest and preacher (d. 1256)",
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1,
14
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48,
52
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},
{
"plaintext": " Nikephoros Blemmydes, Byzantine theologian (d. 1272)",
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5454161,
39988
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1,
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48,
52
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{
"plaintext": " Oberto Pallavicino, Italian nobleman (signore) (d. 1269)",
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2442651,
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19
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39,
46
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56
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},
{
"plaintext": " Raymond VII, French nobleman and knight (d. 1249)",
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1131943,
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1,
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45,
49
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},
{
"plaintext": " Richard of Chichester, bishop of Chichester (d. 1253) ",
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998713,
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1,
22
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34,
44
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},
{
"plaintext": " William de Braose, English nobleman (d. 1230)",
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170568,
40064
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[
1,
18
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41,
45
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},
{
"plaintext": " April 23 Davyd Rostislavich, Kievan Grand Prince (b. 1140)",
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1,
9
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11,
29
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55,
59
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},
{
"plaintext": " April 28 Rhys ap Gruffydd, Welsh prince of Deheubarth ",
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1639,
26532,
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1,
9
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11,
27
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45,
55
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},
{
"plaintext": " June 1 Gertrude of Bavaria, queen consort of Denmark",
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15856,
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1,
7
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28
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47,
54
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},
{
"plaintext": " July 9 Rudolf of Wied (or Rudolph), archbishop of Trier",
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15883,
50590391,
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1,
7
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[
9,
23
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[
52,
57
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 10 Henry I (or Henry II), king of Jerusalem (b. 1166)",
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28020,
374167,
16822,
40011
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1,
13
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[
15,
22
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[
46,
55
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[
60,
64
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 18 Margaret of France, daughter of Louis VII ",
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28146,
2471885,
48436
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1,
13
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[
15,
33
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[
47,
56
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 28 Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1165)",
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27533,
27485318,
38919
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1,
13
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15,
23
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[
48,
52
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 13 Homobonus of Cremona, Italian merchant ",
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21761,
5569660
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1,
12
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[
14,
34
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 12 Wu (or Xiansheng), Chinese empress (b. 1115)",
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8633,
33574589,
36267
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
16
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[
53,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alix of France, French countess consort and regent (b. 1150)",
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1881222,
40083
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[
1,
15
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[
56,
60
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bretislav III, bishop of Prague (House of Přemyslid) (b. 1137)",
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548924,
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1,
14
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26,
32
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[
34,
52
],
[
58,
62
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Burhan al-Din al-Marghinani, Arab Hanafi jurist (b. 1135)",
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219231,
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[
1,
28
],
[
35,
41
],
[
53,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jamal al-Din al-Ghaznawi, Arab scholar and theologian",
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61981923
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[
1,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jón Loftsson, Icelandic chieftain and politician (b. 1124)",
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4902770,
35545
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[
1,
13
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54,
58
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jordan Lupin, Italo-Norman nobleman and rebel leader",
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52476485
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[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Margaritus of Brindisi, Sicilian Grand Admiral (b. 1149)",
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4932821,
40081
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1,
23
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52,
56
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Owain ap Gruffydd (or Cyfeiliog), Welsh prince (b. 1130)",
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35543
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[
1,
18
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52,
56
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Peter II (or Theodor-Peter), ruler (tsar) of the Bulgaria ",
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39879893,
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1,
9
],
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37,
41
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50,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Peter Cantor (the Chanter), French theologian and writer",
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7456388
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[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ruadhri Ua Flaithbertaigh, Irish king of Iar Connacht",
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24564641,
1450294
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[
1,
26
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42,
54
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tughtakin ibn Ayyub, Ayyubid emir (prince) of Arabia",
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36555011,
47858
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[
1,
20
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47,
53
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Walter Devereux, Norman nobleman and knight (b. 1173)",
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43037255,
36052
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[
1,
16
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[
49,
53
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " William de Longchamp, Norman nobleman and bishop",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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654565
],
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[
1,
21
]
]
}
] | [
"1197"
] | 19,749 | 232 | 27 | 90 | 0 | 0 | 1197 | year | [] |
40,061 | 1,100,083,486 | 1198 | [
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"plaintext": "Year 1198 (MCXCVIII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " May 4 Kyaswa, ruler of the Pagan Empire (d. 1251)",
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1,
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14
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29,
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[
46,
50
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 11 Hōjō Shigetoki, Japanese samurai (d. 1261)",
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15873,
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42496
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1,
8
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10,
24
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[
35,
42
],
[
47,
51
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 24 Alexander II, king of Scotland (d. 1249)",
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1629,
1594,
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42488
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1,
10
],
[
12,
24
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[
34,
42
],
[
47,
51
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 25 Ai Zong, Chinese emperor (d. 1234)",
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28203,
13150367,
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],
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[
1,
13
],
[
15,
22
],
[
44,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Baldwin III, Flemish nobleman and knight (d. 1244)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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35775140,
28978421,
42484
],
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[
1,
12
],
[
22,
30
],
[
46,
50
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Beatrice of Savoy, countess of Provence (d. 1266)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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5263517,
48503,
42501
],
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[
1,
18
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[
32,
40
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[
45,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Beatrice of Swabia, Holy Roman Empress (d. 1212)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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10120435,
39996
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
],
[
44,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hugh I of Châtillon, French nobleman and knight (d. 1248)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
3096440,
36071
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
],
[
53,
57
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Branca of Portugal, Portuguese princess (d. 1240)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
2430641,
42479
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
],
[
45,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Fujiwara no Tameie, Japanese waka poet (d. 1275)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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9867847,
34999845,
39985
],
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[
1,
19
],
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30,
34
],
[
44,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Humbert V de Beaujeu, French constable (d. 1250)",
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48459097,
1689336,
38708
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[
1,
21
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[
30,
39
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[
44,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jalaluddin Surkh-Posh Bukhari, Arab missionary (d. 1292)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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17232716,
39981
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[
1,
30
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[
52,
56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " John de Braose (Tadody), English nobleman (d. 1232)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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1555021,
36068
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[
1,
15
],
[
47,
51
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Konrad the Curly, Polish nobleman (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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21357329
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Koun Ejō, Japanese Sōtō Zen monk and priest (d. 1280)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
21203678,
193543,
42508
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[
1,
9
],
[
20,
28
],
[
49,
53
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Marie of France, French princess and duchess (d. 1224)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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22574528,
36065
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
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50,
54
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Minamoto no Ichiman, Japanese nobleman (d. 1203) ",
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"section_name": "Births",
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19535809,
40002
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[
1,
20
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[
44,
48
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ordoño Álvarez, Spanish abbot and cardinal (d. 1285)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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11813568,
1143,
42511
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[
1,
15
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[
25,
30
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[
48,
52
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ramon Berenguer IV, Spanish nobleman (d. 1245)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1321541,
42485
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[
1,
19
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42,
46
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Siraj al-Din Urmavi, Ayyubid philosopher (d. 1283)",
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67557167,
42510
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[
1,
20
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46,
50
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sybilla of Lusignan, queen of Lesser Armenia (d. 1230)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
403632,
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1,
20
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31,
45
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50,
54
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 8 Celestine III, pope of the Catholic Church (b. 1106)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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15988,
24154,
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42475
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1,
10
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12,
25
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[
39,
54
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[
59,
63
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 1 Walram I (of Laurenburg), German nobleman",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
10846,
21234402
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1,
11
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13,
21
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 11 Marie of France, French princess and countess (b. 1145)",
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19530,
174282,
40079
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1,
9
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11,
26
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61,
65
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 16 Frederick I (the Catholic), duke of Austria (b. 1175)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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1334,
1219994,
6490884,
40087
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1,
9
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[
11,
22
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[
47,
54
],
[
59,
63
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 7 George II (Xiphilinos), patriarch of Constantinople ",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15863,
32992002,
5646
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[
1,
7
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[
9,
18
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[
46,
60
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 24 Berthold of Hanover, German apostle and bishop",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15888,
19217178
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
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[
10,
29
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 13 Hellicha of Wittelsbach, duchess of Bohemia",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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34793854,
424966
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1,
10
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12,
35
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48,
55
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 10 Richard FitzNeal, bishop of London (b. 1130)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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28020,
3691372,
1444501,
35543
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1,
13
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[
15,
31
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[
43,
49
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[
54,
58
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},
{
"plaintext": " November 27 ",
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21448
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[
1,
12
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Abraham ben David, French rabbi (b. 1125)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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51273,
36274
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1,
18
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27,
32
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[
37,
41
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Constance I, queen regent of Sicily (b. 1154)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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204331,
641373,
34923
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1,
12
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30,
36
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41,
45
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},
{
"plaintext": " November 29 Al-Aziz Uthman, sultan of Egypt (b. 1171)",
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1,
12
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14,
28
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40,
45
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[
50,
54
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},
{
"plaintext": " December 2 Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair, High King of Ireland",
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"plaintext": " December 11 Averroes, Arab judge and physician (b. 1126)",
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14,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Abu Madyan, Andalusian mystic and Sufi master (b. 1126)",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Alix of France, French princess and countess (approximate date)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Constantine II (de Martis), ruler of the Judicate of Logudoro",
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1,
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42,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Donatus of Ripacandida, Italian monk and saint (b. 1179)",
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{
"plaintext": " Dulce of Aragon (or Barcelona), queen of Portugal (b. 1160)",
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1,
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42,
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55,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Nerses of Lambron, Armenian archbishop and writer (b. 1153)",
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{
"plaintext": " Walter Fitz Robert, English nobleman and knight (b. 1124)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " William of Newburgh, English historian and writer (b. 1136)",
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782822,
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Yaroslav II Vsevolodovich, Kievan Grand Prince (b. 1139)",
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22368290,
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1,
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[
52,
56
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}
] | [
"1198"
] | 19,750 | 337 | 44 | 118 | 0 | 0 | 1198 | year | [] |
40,062 | 1,086,653,549 | 1199 | [
{
"plaintext": "Year 1199 (MCXCIX) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " April 17 Marie of Ponthieu, French noblewoman (d. 1250)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Aisha Al-Manoubya, Almohad female Sufi mystic (d. 1267)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Al-Mansur al-Hasan, Yemeni imam and politician (d. 1271)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Bohemond V, prince of Antioch (House of Poitiers) (d. 1252)",
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55,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ferdinand III (the Saint), king of Castile and León (d. 1252)",
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Guttorm of Norway (Sigurdsson), king of Norway (d. 1204)",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ibn al-Abbar, Andalusian biographer and historian (d. 1260)",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Isobel of Huntingdon, daughter of David of Scotland (d. 1252)",
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[
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu, Khwarezmid ruler (shah) (d. 1231)",
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1,
23
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[
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Joan of Constantinople, Flemish noblewoman (d. 1244)",
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355729,
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[
1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sturla Sighvatsson, Icelandic chieftain (or goði) (d. 1238)",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Thomas II, Flemish nobleman (House of Savoy) (d. 1259)",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 23 Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur, Almohad caliph (b. 1160)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " February 9 Minamoto no Yoritomo, Japanese shogun (b. 1147)",
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11
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50
],
[
55,
59
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 13 Stefan Nemanja, Serbian Grand Prince (b. 1113)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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276533,
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14,
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[
55,
59
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 17 Jocelin of Glasgow (or Jocelyn), Scottish bishop",
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1,
9
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[
11,
29
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 5 Ashikaga Yoshikane, Japanese samurai and monk ",
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1,
8
],
[
10,
28
],
[
39,
46
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 6 ",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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1008
],
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[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pierre Basile (or Bertran de Gurdun), French knight",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1252445
],
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[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Richard I (the Lionheart), king of England (b. 1157)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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1,
10
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43
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[
48,
52
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 10 Hugh de Roxburgh (or Hugo), Scottish bishop ",
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15809,
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[
1,
8
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[
10,
26
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]
},
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"plaintext": " August 20 Matthew, Scottish churchman and bishop",
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18933271,
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[
1,
10
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[
12,
19
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 4 Joan of England, queen of Sicily (b. 1165)",
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27765,
4693026,
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38919
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1,
12
],
[
14,
29
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[
40,
46
],
[
51,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 9 Bobo of San Teodoro, Italian cardinal-deacon",
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"target_page_ids": [
22549,
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[
1,
10
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[
12,
31
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 6 Hatim ibn Ibrahim, Yemeni religious leader",
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21758,
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[
1,
11
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[
13,
30
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 25 Albert III (the Rich), count of Habsburg",
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"target_page_ids": [
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24530517,
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1,
12
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[
14,
24
],
[
46,
54
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 25 Helena of Hungary, duchess of Austria",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
8270,
22028729,
6490884
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
31
],
[
44,
51
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alexios Komnenos, son of Andronikos I (Komnenos)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
25880222,
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
],
[
26,
38
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Azalais of Toulouse (or Adelaide), French noblewoman",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
8402586
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Benedicta Ebbesdotter of Hvide, queen of Sweden (or 1200)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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5058739,
36394
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[
1,
31
],
[
42,
48
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[
53,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Date Tomomune, Japanese nobleman and samurai (b. 1129)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
59571053,
36278
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Michael the Syrian (the Great), Syriac patriarch (b. 1126) ",
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10394189,
36275
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
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[
54,
58
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Raymond IV (or Raimund), count and regent of Tripoli",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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[
1,
11
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[
36,
42
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[
46,
53
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Vladimir II Yaroslavich, Kievan prince (House of Rurik)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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[
1,
24
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[
41,
55
]
]
}
] | [
"1199"
] | 19,752 | 346 | 24 | 91 | 0 | 0 | 1199 | year | [] |
40,063 | 1,101,464,233 | 1231 | [
{
"plaintext": "Year 1231 (MCCXXXI) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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25657,
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105,
120
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},
{
"plaintext": " March 17 Shijō (Mitsuhito), emperor of Japan (d. 1242)",
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20223,
195034,
15573,
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1,
9
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11,
16
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Guo Shoujing, Chinese astronomer and engineer (d. 1316)",
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1559807,
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " James Salomoni, Italian Dominican priest and prior (d. 1314)",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " John de Warenne, English nobleman and knight (d. 1304)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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},
{
"plaintext": " John of Burgundy, French nobleman and knight (d. 1268)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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36808177,
42503
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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},
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"plaintext": " Philip of Castile, Spanish prince and archbishop (d. 1274)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Roger Mortimer, English nobleman and knight (d. 1282)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Tommaso degli Stefani, Italian painter and artist (d. 1310)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Yolanda of Vianden, Luxembourgian prioress (d. 1283)",
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"plaintext": " April 6 William Marshal, English nobleman (b. 1190)",
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1,
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10,
25
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52
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},
{
"plaintext": " May 7 Beatrice II, French countess palatine (b. 1193)",
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1,
6
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[
8,
19
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[
50,
54
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},
{
"plaintext": " June 13 Anthony of Padua, Portuguese priest (b. 1195)",
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1,
8
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10,
26
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50,
54
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 2 Henry I, German nobleman (House of Zähringen)",
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1,
7
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16
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35,
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},
{
"plaintext": " August 3 Richard le Grant, archbishop of Canterbury",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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1,
9
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11,
27
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[
43,
53
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},
{
"plaintext": " August 28 Eleanor of Portugal, queen of Denmark ",
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1,
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12,
31
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42,
49
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 3 William II, French nobleman (b. 1196)",
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36136
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1,
12
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[
14,
24
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[
46,
50
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 15 Louis I, German nobleman (b. 1173)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
28145,
3153711,
36052
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[
1,
13
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[
15,
22
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[
44,
48
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},
{
"plaintext": " November 3 Władysław III, Polish nobleman (b. 1167)",
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21764,
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40010
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1,
11
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[
13,
26
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[
48,
52
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},
{
"plaintext": " November 6 Tsuchimikado, emperor of Japan (b. 1196)",
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21758,
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1,
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13,
25
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1,
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14,
32
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},
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1,
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13,
22
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},
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1,
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14,
29
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47,
53
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},
{
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1,
12
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14,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi, Abbasid physician (b. 1162)",
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49,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Abu Said al-Baji, Almohad leader and scholar (b. 1156)",
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1,
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1,
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31,
46
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},
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1,
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47,
51
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},
{
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15240
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19
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},
{
"plaintext": " Jalal al-Din Mangburni, ruler of the Khwarazmian Empire",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Matthew FitzHerbert, English nobleman and high sheriff",
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64997558
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1,
20
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},
{
"plaintext": " Meinhard II (the Elder), German nobleman and knight",
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36674922
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1,
12
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " William of Auxerre, French archdeacon and theologian",
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1793212
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[
1,
19
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zhao Rukuo, Chinese historian and politician (b. 1170)",
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13945874,
36459
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[
1,
11
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[
50,
54
]
]
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] | [
"1231"
] | 5,417 | 228 | 26 | 87 | 0 | 0 | 1231 | year | [] |
40,064 | 1,096,613,270 | 1230 | [
{
"plaintext": "Year 1230 (MCCXXX) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Anna of Hohenstaufen, empress of Nicaea (d. 1307)",
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"plaintext": " Adelaide of Holland, Dutch countess and regent (d. 1284)",
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52,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Bentivenga da Bentivengi, Italian cardinal (d. 1289)",
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"plaintext": " Boniface VIII, pope of the Catholic Church (d. 1303)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Edmund de Lacy, English nobleman and knight (d. 1258)",
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15
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53
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Elisabeth of Brunswick, German queen consort (d. 1266)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Gottfried Hagen, German cleric and writer (d. 1299)",
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1,
16
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Guillaume de Beaujeu, French Grand Master (d. 1291)",
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9465748,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Guillaume Durand, French bishop and writer (d. 1296)",
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Henry of Castile (the Senator), Spanish prince (d. 1303)",
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1,
17
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hermann of Buxhoeveden, German bishop (d. 1285)",
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53207913,
42511
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1,
23
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47
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hugh Aycelin, French cardinal and theologian (d. 1297)",
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14904788,
36062
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[
1,
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50,
54
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hu Sanxing (or Shenzhi), Chinese historian (d. 1302)",
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1,
11
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48,
52
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jacobus de Voragine, Italian archbishop (d. 1298)",
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1,
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49
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Leonardo Patrasso, Italian cardinal-bishop (d. 1311)",
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1,
18
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48,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Margaret Sambiria, Danish queen consort (d. 1282) ",
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1,
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45,
49
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Masuccio Primo, Italian architect and sculptor (d. 1306) ",
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1,
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52,
56
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},
{
"plaintext": " Maud de Lacy, Norman-Irish noblewoman (d. 1304)",
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1,
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43,
47
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Odo (or Eudes), French nobleman and knight (d. 1266)",
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628885
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[
1,
4
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Peter Quinel, English archdeacon and bishop (d. 1291)",
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[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Squarcino Borri, Italian mercenary leader (d. 1277)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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29942609,
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[
1,
16
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47,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Yaroslav III of Tver, Kievan Grand Prince (d. 1271) ",
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"target_page_ids": [
701440,
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[
1,
21
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47,
51
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 30 Pelagio Galvani, Leonese cardinal (b. 1165)",
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13,
28
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[
51,
55
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 1 Matsudono Motofusa, Japanese nobleman ",
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"target_page_ids": [
10846,
1860429
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[
1,
11
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13,
31
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 2 William de Braose, English nobleman and knight",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
19349,
170568
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[
1,
6
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[
8,
25
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]
},
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"plaintext": " May 13 Casimir I of Opole, Polish nobleman and knight",
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"target_page_ids": [
19675,
22335188
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[
1,
7
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[
9,
27
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 12 Margaret of Blois, French noblewoman (b. 1170)",
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"target_page_ids": [
15971,
3093564,
36459
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
27
],
[
51,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 19 Theobald le Botiller, Norman nobleman (b. 1200)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
16091,
1597415,
36394
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[
1,
8
],
[
9,
29
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[
51,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 25 Rudolph van Coevorden, Dutch nobleman (b. 1192)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15804,
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38572
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[
1,
8
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[
10,
31
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[
52,
56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 28 Leopold VI, German nobleman and knight (b. 1176)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
16040,
1117998,
38921
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[
1,
8
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[
10,
20
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[
53,
57
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 29 Hōjō Tokiuji, Japanese nobleman and spy (b. 1203)",
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"target_page_ids": [
15968,
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
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[
10,
22
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[
54,
58
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 24 Geoffrey de Saye, English nobleman (b. 1155)",
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"target_page_ids": [
1629,
10679700,
38569
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[
1,
10
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[
12,
28
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[
51,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 9 Siegfried II, archbishop of Mainz (b. 1165)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
28544,
21303841,
253137
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[
1,
12
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[
14,
26
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[
42,
47
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 24 Alfonso IX, king of León and Galicia (b. 1171)",
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151250,
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3255313,
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1,
13
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[
15,
25
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[
35,
39
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[
44,
51
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[
56,
60
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 25 Gilbert de Clare, English nobleman (b. 1180)",
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22333,
373687,
36395
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[
1,
11
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[
13,
29
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[
52,
56
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 20 Nicola de la Haye, English noblewoman",
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21575,
8708974
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[
1,
12
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[
14,
31
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 24 Matthew II, French nobleman and knight",
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21522,
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[
1,
12
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[
14,
24
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},
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"plaintext": " December 15 Ottokar I of Bohemia, German nobleman",
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8145,
246359
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[
1,
12
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[
14,
34
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},
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"plaintext": " December 23 Berengaria of Navarre, queen of England",
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70949,
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
35
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[
46,
53
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Al-Dakhwar, Ayyubid physician and medical officer (b. 1170)",
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22795725
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[
1,
11
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},
{
"plaintext": " Alfonso Téllez de Meneses (the Old), Spanish nobleman ",
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36601535
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[
1,
26
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Beatrice of Viennois, French noblewoman (b. 1160) ",
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30695542,
40014
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
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[
45,
49
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Demetrius of Montferrat, king of Thessalonica (b. 1205)",
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309810,
36372
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[
1,
24
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34,
46
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[
51,
55
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Guérin de Montaigu, French nobleman and Grand Master",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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10177953
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[
1,
19
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},
{
"plaintext": " Hugues IV de Châteauneuf, French nobleman (b. 1185)",
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67792171,
40094
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[
1,
25
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47,
51
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ibn Hammad, Hammadid historian and writer (b. 1153)",
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1,
11
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47,
51
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},
{
"plaintext": " Robert de Gresle, English landowner and knight (b. 1174)",
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29193776,
40086
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[
1,
17
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52,
56
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},
{
"plaintext": " Samuel ibn Tibbon, French rabbi, doctor and philosopher",
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715370,
51273
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1,
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27,
32
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},
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"plaintext": " Urraca López de Haro, queen of León (approximate date)",
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[
1,
21
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] | [
"1230"
] | 5,412 | 555 | 46 | 112 | 0 | 0 | 1230 | year | [] |
40,065 | 1,097,646,961 | 1233 | [
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"plaintext": "Year 1233 (MCCXXXIII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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4589770,
39987
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[
1,
21
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[
34,
41
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[
46,
50
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Al-Nawawi, Syrian scholar, jurist and writer (d. 1277)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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262203,
35497
],
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[
1,
10
],
[
50,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Choe Ui, Korean military leader and dictator (d. 1258)",
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55643859,
42493
],
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[
1,
8
],
[
50,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ibn al-Quff, Ayyubid physician and surgeon (d. 1286)",
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31527491,
42320
],
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[
1,
12
],
[
48,
52
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ibn Manzur, Arab lexicographer and writer (d. 1312)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
26371783,
39955
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
47,
51
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sancho of Castile, archbishop of Toledo (d. 1261)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
36272495,
2701054,
42496
],
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[
1,
18
],
[
34,
40
],
[
45,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 6 Matilda (or Maud), English noblewoman (b. 1171)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15986,
21480530,
40085
],
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
19
],
[
54,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 18 Yang (or Gongsheng), Chinese empress (b. 1162)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
16202,
33575374,
40012
],
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
17
],
[
54,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 12 Ermengarde de Beaumont, queen of Scotland",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
11158,
5141156,
23248387
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
14,
36
],
[
47,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 1 Thomas I (or Tommaso), count of Savoy (b. 1178)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
19346,
68923,
27885,
40089
],
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
18
],
[
42,
47
],
[
52,
56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 8 Konoe Motomichi, Japanese nobleman (b. 1160)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15874,
9943918,
28978421,
40014
],
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[
1,
7
],
[
9,
24
],
[
35,
43
],
[
48,
52
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 26 Wilbrand of Oldenburg, prince-bishop of Utrecht ",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15892,
24318566,
70839
],
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
31
],
[
50,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 27 Ferdinand (or Ferrand), count of Flanders (b. 1188)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15922,
2227062,
43008790,
36055
],
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
19
],
[
43,
51
],
[
56,
60
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 29 Savari de Mauléon, French nobleman (b. 1181)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15968,
2421922,
38925
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
10,
27
],
[
49,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 30 Konrad von Marburg, German priest (b. 1180)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15911,
486231,
36395
],
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
28
],
[
48,
52
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 8 Ugo Canefri, Italian health worker (b. 1148)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
22543,
14034743,
40080
],
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
23
],
[
51,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 22 Helena, duchess of Brunswick-Lüneburg",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
21526,
34318481,
248957
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
14,
20
],
[
33,
51
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 27 Shi Miyuan, Chinese politician (b. 1164)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
21448,
55427432,
38435
],
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
24
],
[
49,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ali ibn al-Athir, Seljuk historian and biographer (b. 1160)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1138639
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bertran de Born (lo Filhs), French troubadour (b. 1179)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
16129232,
63788,
36053
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
],
[
36,
46
],
[
51,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bohemond IV (the One-Eyed), prince of Antioch (b. 1175)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
531594,
256387,
40087
],
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[
1,
12
],
[
39,
46
],
[
51,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Fujiwara no Shunshi, Japanese empress consort (b. 1209)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
34392507,
36057
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
],
[
51,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gökböri (Blue-Wolf), Ayyubid general and ruler (b. 1154)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
44265798,
34923
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
52,
56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Guillén Pérez de Guzmán, Spanish nobleman (b. 1180)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
41777954
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " John Apokaukos, Byzantine bishop and theologian ",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
23933632
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Marianus II of Torres, Sardinian Judge of Logudoro",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
10101226,
9283082
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
],
[
34,
51
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mathilde of Angoulême, French noblewoman (b. 1181)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
23159965
],
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[
1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sayf al-Din al-Amidi, Ayyubid scholar and jurist (b. 1156)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
16141911,
36051
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
],
[
54,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Simon of Joinville, French nobleman and knight (b. 1175)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
65548429
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " William Comyn, Scoto-Norman nobleman (b. 1163)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
5895412,
34924
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
],
[
42,
46
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Yolanda de Courtenay, queen consort of Hungary ",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
16536664,
41235373
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
],
[
40,
47
]
]
}
] | [
"1233"
] | 5,421 | 389 | 23 | 82 | 0 | 0 | 1233 | year | [] |
40,066 | 1,097,039,232 | 1235 | [
{
"plaintext": "Year 1235 (MCCXXXV) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
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25657,
168880,
15651
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[
11,
18
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[
26,
56
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[
102,
117
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "November 2 Henry of Almain, King of the Romans (d. 1271)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
21461,
1449363,
302609,
39989
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[
0,
10
],
[
12,
27
],
[
29,
47
],
[
52,
56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "probable",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Pope Boniface VIII (approximate date; d. 1303)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
24060,
39950
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
18
],
[
41,
45
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ramon Llull, Catalan writer and philosopher (d. 1315)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
69677,
39959
],
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[
1,
12
],
[
49,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Yolanda of Poland, saint (d. 1298)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
11791950,
39976
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
],
[
30,
34
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Arnold of Villanova, Spanish alchemist and physician (d. 1311)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
2513642,
39956
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
],
[
58,
62
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Qian Xuan, Chinese painter (d. 1305)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
2903925,
39952
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
32,
36
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 5 Henry I, Duke of Brabant (b. 1165)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
27990,
75973,
38919
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
14,
38
],
[
43,
47
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 21 King Andrew II of Hungary (b. 1175)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
27532,
1755,
40087
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
20,
40
],
[
45,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 5 Elisabeth of Swabia, queen consort of Castile and León (b. 1205)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
21565,
9859504,
36372
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
13,
32
],
[
72,
76
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " date unknown",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Andronikos I Gidos, Emperor of Trebizond",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1867096,
652643
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
],
[
21,
41
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rabbi David Kimhi, French Biblical commentator (b. 1160)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1553832,
40014
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
7,
18
],
[
52,
56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ibn al-Qabisi (b. 1163) ",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
61777234,
34924
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
],
[
19,
23
]
]
}
] | [
"1235"
] | 5,425 | 318 | 35 | 32 | 0 | 0 | 1235 | year | [] |
40,067 | 1,086,653,847 | 1236 | [
{
"plaintext": "Year 1236 (MCCXXXVI) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
"target_page_ids": [
25657,
319727,
15651
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[
11,
19
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[
27,
56
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102,
117
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 1 Baldwin de Redvers, English nobleman (d. 1262)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15787,
5099904,
28978421,
42497
],
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
30
],
[
40,
48
],
[
53,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 6 Wen Tianxiang, Chinese poet and politician (d. 1283)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15794,
447610,
42510
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
9,
22
],
[
56,
60
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 8 Violant of Aragon, queen consort of Castile (d. 1301)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15864,
10343401,
750274,
39948
],
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[
1,
7
],
[
9,
26
],
[
45,
52
],
[
57,
61
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 8 Lu Xiufu, Chinese general and politician (d. 1279)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
21759,
28019046,
42506
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
13,
21
],
[
58,
62
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Albert I (the Great), German nobleman and regent (d. 1279)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
3042047,
28978421,
35348624
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
30,
38
],
[
43,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alice de Lusignan (or Angoulême), English countess (d. 1290)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
17727609,
39983
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
],
[
56,
60
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bayan of the Baarin (or Boyan), Mongol general (d. 1295)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
13983827,
39978
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
],
[
52,
56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Elizabeth of Hungary, duchess consort of Bavaria (d. 1271)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
23637921,
1463463,
39989
],
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[
1,
21
],
[
42,
49
],
[
54,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Henry II of Rodez, French nobleman and troubadour (d. 1304) ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
14611489,
63788,
39951
],
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[
1,
18
],
[
40,
50
],
[
55,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Olivier II de Clisson, Breton nobleman and knight (d. 1307)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
69270113,
36032
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
],
[
55,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, Persian polymath and poet (d. 1311)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
2014775,
39956
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
],
[
55,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Stephen the Posthumous, Hungarian pretender (d. 1271)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
35617274,
526207
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
],
[
35,
44
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 14 Sava (the Enlightener), Serbian archbishop",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
16192,
33817491
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
13,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 15 Mu'in al-Din Chishti, Persian preacher (b. 1143)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
19635,
517548,
35544
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
11,
31
],
[
54,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 28 Conon of Naso, Italian priest and abbot (b. 1139)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
19347,
23730500,
1143,
36046
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
11,
24
],
[
45,
50
],
[
55,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 11 Walter II de Beauchamp, English sheriff (b. 1192)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
2395,
33062785,
38572
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
11,
33
],
[
55,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 1 William d'Aubigny (or d'Albini), English nobleman",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
19348,
2548129
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
],
[
8,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 6 Roger of Wendover, English monk and chronicler",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
19514,
157980
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
],
[
8,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 7 Agnellus of Pisa, Italian Franciscan friar (b. 1195)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
19582,
2508632,
64176,
40004
],
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[
1,
6
],
[
8,
24
],
[
34,
44
],
[
55,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 10 Diana degli Andalò, Italian nun and saint (b. 1201)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15805,
19352878,
40003
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
28
],
[
56,
60
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 18 Valdemar of Denmark, Danish statesman (b. 1158)",
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10,
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},
{
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1,
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10,
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40,
46
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[
51,
55
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]
},
{
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1448,
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1,
10
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12,
28
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 17 William de Blois, English bishop and sheriff",
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1,
10
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12,
28
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 12 Thomas of Marlborough, English abbot",
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28021,
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15,
36
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 22 Volkwin von Naumburg, German knight",
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27889,
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1,
13
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15,
35
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 15 Lope Díaz II, Castilian nobleman (b. 1170)",
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35715117,
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1,
12
],
[
14,
26
],
[
51,
55
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 26 Al-Aziz Muhammad, Ayyubid ruler (b. 1213)",
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1,
12
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14,
30
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[
50,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Barisone III of Torres, Sardinian judge of Logudoro (b. 1221)",
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1,
23
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[
44,
52
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[
57,
61
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dirk I van Brederode, Dutch nobleman and knight (b. 1180)",
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25294359,
36395
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[
1,
21
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53,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Fakhr-i Mudabbir, Ghaznavid historian and writer (b. 1157)",
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68565557,
36214
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1,
17
],
[
54,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gautier de Coincy, French abbot and troubadour (b. 1177)",
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16831174,
40088
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1,
18
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52,
56
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " John of Ibelin, constable and regent of Jerusalem (b. 1179)",
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1742465,
16822,
36053
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1,
15
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41,
50
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[
55,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Philip d'Aubigny, French nobleman and chancellor (b. 1166)",
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49417976,
40011
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[
1,
17
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54,
58
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Saifuddin Aibak, Mamluk Sultanate governor and politician",
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21763372
],
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[
1,
16
]
]
}
] | [
"1236"
] | 5,427 | 339 | 26 | 95 | 0 | 0 | 1236 | year | [] |
40,068 | 1,099,860,082 | 1237 | [
{
"plaintext": "Year 1237 (MCCXXXVII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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25657,
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11,
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106,
121
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 7 Ibn Abd al-Malik, Almohad historian (d. 1303)",
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25
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49,
53
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Agnes of Dampierre, French noblewoman (d. 1288)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Bohemond VI (the Fair), prince of Antioch (d. 1275)",
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[
1,
12
],
[
35,
42
],
[
47,
51
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Isabel de Redvers, English noblewoman (d. 1293)",
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[
1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " John II, margrave of Brandenburg-Stendal (d. 1281)",
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1,
8
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33
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[
34,
41
],
[
46,
50
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ladislaus of Salzburg, German archbishop (d. 1270)",
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1,
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50
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Munio of Zamora, Spanish friar and bishop (d. 1300)",
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524407,
35241
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[
1,
16
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51
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},
{
"plaintext": " February 2 Joan (Lady of Wales), English princess",
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11322,
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[
1,
11
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},
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"plaintext": " March 14 Guigues VI of Viennois, count of Albon (b. 1184)",
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1,
9
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[
11,
33
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[
44,
49
],
[
54,
58
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 16 Guðmundur Arason, Icelandic bishop (b. 1161)",
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4356256,
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1,
9
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[
11,
27
],
[
50,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 27 John of Brienne (or John I), king of Jerusalem",
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20585,
182917,
16822
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1,
9
],
[
11,
26
],
[
48,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 12 ",
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1009
],
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[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Berengaria of León, Latin empress consort (b. 1204)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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17418413,
34986
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[
1,
19
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[
47,
51
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Philip II (de Méréville), French priest and bishop",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 15 Richard Poore, English prelate and bishop ",
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1,
9
],
[
11,
24
],
[
34,
41
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 5 Fujiwara no Ietaka, Japanese waka poet (b. 1158)",
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"target_page_ids": [
19352,
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38574
],
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1,
6
],
[
8,
26
],
[
37,
41
],
[
51,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 31 Kayqubad I, Seljuk ruler of the Sultanate of Rum",
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"target_page_ids": [
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6338807,
580296
],
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[
1,
7
],
[
9,
19
],
[
41,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 6 John of Scotland, Scottish nobleman (b. 1207)",
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15794,
2682735,
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40000
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[
1,
7
],
[
9,
25
],
[
36,
44
],
[
49,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 29 Ingeborg of Denmark, queen of France (b. 1174)",
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"target_page_ids": [
15968,
5735390,
376974,
40086
],
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
29
],
[
40,
46
],
[
51,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 27 Al-Ashraf Musa, Ayyubid ruler of Damascus",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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1013,
14791279,
8914
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
26
],
[
45,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 31 Huijong, Korean ruler of Goryeo (b. 1181)",
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1711,
877263,
188435,
38925
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
19
],
[
37,
43
],
[
48,
52
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 21 Yuri Igorevich, Grand Prince of Ryazan",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
8850,
56678158,
485322
],
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
28
],
[
46,
52
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Anna Maria, empress of the Bulgarian Empire (b. 1204)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
7590704,
2843773
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[
1,
11
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[
28,
44
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Emo of Friesland, Dutch scholar, abbot and writer (b. 1175)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
8306808,
1143,
40087
],
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[
1,
17
],
[
34,
39
],
[
55,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " John Halgren of Abbeville, French philosopher and writer",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
10344239
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jordan of Saxony, German preacher and religious leader",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
4155713
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Julius I (the Elder), Hungarian nobleman and landowner",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
39952992
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kamal al-Din Isfahani, Persian poet and writer (b. 1173)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
41400590,
36052
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
],
[
52,
56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Shunten (or Shunten-Ō), ruler of Okinawa Island (b. 1166)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
24673563,
725125,
40011
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
34,
48
],
[
53,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Wei Liaoweng, Chinese politician and philosopher (b. 1178)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
52836669,
40089
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
54,
58
]
]
}
] | [
"1237"
] | 5,430 | 503 | 32 | 80 | 0 | 0 | 1237 | year | [] |
40,069 | 1,086,653,874 | 1239 | [
{
"plaintext": "Year 1239 (MCCXXXIX) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
"target_page_ids": [
25657,
321295,
15651
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[
11,
19
],
[
27,
59
],
[
105,
120
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 17 or June 18 Edward I (Longshanks), king of England (d. 1307)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15798,
15815,
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407950,
36032
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[
1,
8
],
[
12,
19
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[
21,
29
],
[
52,
59
],
[
64,
68
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 17 Kujō Yoritsugu, Japanese ruler (shogun) (d. 1256)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
8322,
371101,
28943,
40499
],
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
28
],
[
46,
52
],
[
58,
62
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Álvaro (the Castilian), Spanish nobleman and knight (d. 1268)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
9827188,
28978421,
42503
],
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[
1,
7
],
[
33,
41
],
[
58,
62
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Balian of Arsuf, Cypriot nobleman (House of Ibelin) (d. 1277)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
12259087,
1507810,
35497
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[
1,
16
],
[
36,
51
],
[
57,
61
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Constance of Aragon, Spanish princess (infanta) (d. 1269)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
22332457,
1305133,
42504
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
],
[
40,
47
],
[
53,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " John II of Brittany, French nobleman and knight (d. 1305)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
637178,
39952
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
],
[
53,
57
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Robert de Ferrers, English nobleman and knight (d. 1279)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
14139659,
42506
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
],
[
52,
56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Stephen V, king of Hungary (House of Árpád) (d. 1272)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
161730,
41235373,
549494,
39988
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[
1,
10
],
[
20,
27
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[
29,
43
],
[
49,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Thomas I of Saluzzo, Italian nobleman and knight (d. 1296)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
4696353,
39977
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
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[
54,
58
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 3 Kujō Ninshi, Japanese empress consort (b. 1173)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
11323,
33824714,
36052
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
24
],
[
55,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 3 Vladimir IV (Rurikovich), Kievan Grand Prince (b. 1187)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
19633,
964676,
36054
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
21
],
[
60,
64
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 20 Hermann von Salza, German Grand Master (b. 1165)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
14563107,
649293,
38919
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
11,
28
],
[
54,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 28 Go-Toba (or Toba II), emperor of Japan (b. 1180)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
19347,
195040,
15573,
36395
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
11,
18
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[
44,
49
],
[
54,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 7 William I de Cantilupe, Norman nobleman (b. 1159)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
2735,
32633761,
40084
],
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
32
],
[
54,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 5 Władysław Odonic (the Spitter), Polish nobleman ",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15820,
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[
1,
7
],
[
9,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 21 Simon of Dammartin, French nobleman ",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
27532,
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[
1,
13
],
[
15,
33
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 13 Henry II of Bar, French nobleman (b. 1190)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
21761,
17143783,
40008
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
29
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[
51,
55
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 13 Albert IV (the Wise), German nobleman",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
8852,
24530219
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
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[
14,
23
]
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},
{
"plaintext": " December 21",
"section_idx": 3,
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8850
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1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Henry de Turberville, English nobleman and knight",
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35780608
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[
1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Richard Wilton, English scholastic philosopher",
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18676089
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[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati, Andalusian pharmacist (b. 1166)",
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34884475,
192605,
40011
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[
1,
23
],
[
36,
46
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[
51,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Aimery III of Narbonne (or Aimeric), French nobleman",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Ibn al-Khabbaza, Moroccan historian, poet and writer",
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17136076
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[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ibn al-Mustawfi, Ayyubid governor and historian (b. 1169)",
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42616459,
40009
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[
1,
16
],
[
53,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Muhammad bin Hasan al-Baghdadi, Arab cuisine writer",
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7799061,
6656
],
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[
1,
31
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[
38,
45
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Robert of Courtenay, French nobleman and knight (b. 1168)",
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55887084,
36216
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[
1,
20
],
[
53,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Thomas of Capua, Italian prelate, cardinal and diplomat",
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65963429,
6221
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
],
[
35,
43
]
]
}
] | [
"1239"
] | 5,434 | 228 | 30 | 71 | 0 | 0 | 1239 | year | [] |
40,071 | 1,086,652,961 | 1131 | [
{
"plaintext": "Year 1131 (MCXXXI) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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25657,
321344,
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[
11,
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25,
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103,
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},
{
"plaintext": " January 14 Valdemar I (the Great), king of Denmark (d. 1182)",
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16192,
184507,
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1,
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13,
23
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[
45,
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[
57,
61
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},
{
"plaintext": " November 8 Myeongjong, Korean king of Goryeo (d. 1202)",
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21759,
877079,
188435,
36056
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1,
11
],
[
13,
23
],
[
40,
46
],
[
51,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Eudoxia of Kiev, high duchess of Poland (approximate date)",
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24948403,
45367947
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[
1,
16
],
[
34,
40
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Henry of Sandomierz, Polish nobleman (approximate date)",
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11232226,
28978421
],
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[
1,
20
],
[
29,
37
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Fujiwara no Teishi, Japanese noblewoman (d. 1176)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
33824787,
38921
],
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[
1,
19
],
[
45,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ladislaus II, king of Hungary and Croatia (d. 1163)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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4947383,
879716,
755314,
34924
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[
1,
13
],
[
23,
30
],
[
35,
42
],
[
47,
51
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nakayama Tadachika, Japanese nobleman (d. 1195)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
37296536,
40004
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[
1,
19
],
[
43,
47
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 7 Canute Lavard, duke of Schleswig (b. 1096)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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15987,
2897696,
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42440
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
25
],
[
35,
44
],
[
49,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 30 Adjutor, French knight and saint",
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"target_page_ids": [
1011,
11955294,
16897
],
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
18
],
[
27,
33
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 21 Baldwin II, king of Jerusalem ",
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1499,
254731,
16822
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
22
],
[
32,
41
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 30 Hervey le Breton, English bishop",
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"target_page_ids": [
1794,
3481985
],
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
28
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 5 Frederick I, German archbishop",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
22536,
6872063
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 13 Philip, co-king of France (b. 1116)",
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"target_page_ids": [
22554,
7585866,
376974,
36268
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
19
],
[
32,
38
],
[
43,
47
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 24 Gerard II, count of Guelders",
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22345,
22700422,
59002
],
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
22
],
[
33,
41
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 16 Dobrodeia of Kiev, Byzantine princess",
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"target_page_ids": [
21726,
57147617
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
31
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 4 Omar Khayyám, Persian astronomer (b. 1048)",
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8354,
92550,
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40046
],
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
25
],
[
35,
45
],
[
50,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Abu Ali Ahmed ibn al-Afdal, Fatimid vizier",
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59435693
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[
1,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alger of Liège, French monk and writer (b. 1055)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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1643,
36290
],
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[
1,
15
],
[
44,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Andronikos Komnenos, Byzantine prince (or 1130)",
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57118149,
35543
],
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[
1,
20
],
[
43,
47
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani, Persian philosopher (b. 1098)",
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2666097,
35160
],
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[
1,
22
],
[
48,
52
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Elizabeth of Vermandois, English countess ",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
3262027
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Feardana Ua Cárthaigh, Irish chief poet",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
29078532
],
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[
1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gaston IV of Béarn, French nobleman",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1362804
],
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[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Harald Haakonsson, Norse Earl of Orkney",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
5860166,
445892
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[
1,
18
],
[
26,
40
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Joscelin I (Courtenay), count of Edessa",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
296046,
255790
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[
1,
11
],
[
34,
40
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mahmud II, sultan of the Seljuk Empire ",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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758296,
13090194
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[
1,
10
],
[
26,
39
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Maud (or Matilda), queen of Scotland",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
545565,
23248387
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[
1,
5
],
[
29,
37
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Meng, Chinese empress and regent (b. 1073)",
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"target_page_ids": [
33558301,
35348624,
36696
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[
1,
5
],
[
27,
33
],
[
39,
43
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ramon Berenguer III, count of Barcelona (b. 1082)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
242493,
3409591,
42464
],
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[
1,
20
],
[
31,
40
],
[
45,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Stephen II, king of Hungary and Croatia (b. 1101)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
2319037,
36301
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
45,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zheng (or Xiansu), Chinese empress (b. 1079)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
33572902,
35052
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
],
[
40,
44
]
]
}
] | [
"1131"
] | 19,579 | 209 | 24 | 78 | 0 | 0 | 1131 | year | [] |
40,072 | 1,103,403,263 | 1132 | [
{
"plaintext": "Year 1132 (MCXXXII) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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"section_name": "Introduction",
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25657,
321374,
15651
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11,
18
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26,
54
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100,
115
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 2 William of Norwich, English martyr (d. 1144)",
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11322,
557203,
35549
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1,
11
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[
13,
31
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[
52,
56
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 21 Sancho VI (the Wise), king of Navarre (d. 1194)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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2483,
1238391,
693507,
40005
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
20
],
[
41,
48
],
[
53,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Andronikos Kontostephanos, Byzantine aristocrat (or 1133)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
18776181,
40073
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
26
],
[
53,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ephraim of Bonn, German Jewish rabbi and writer (d. 1196)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
13579616,
51273,
36136
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[
1,
16
],
[
32,
37
],
[
53,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Maurice II de Craon, Norman nobleman and knight (d. 1196)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
38305833,
28978421
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
],
[
29,
37
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Philip of France, French prince and archdeacon (d. 1160)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
45490411,
40014
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
],
[
52,
56
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rhys ap Gruffydd, Welsh prince of Deheubarth (d. 1197)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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26532,
285557,
40060
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[
1,
17
],
[
35,
45
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[
50,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Vladimir III Mstislavich, Kievan Grand Prince (d. 1171)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
940718,
40085
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[
1,
25
],
[
51,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 9 Maredudd ap Bleddyn, king of Powys (b. 1047)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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11361,
3320092,
629082,
40045
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
32
],
[
42,
47
],
[
52,
56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 26 Geoffrey of Vendôme, French abbot (b. 1070)",
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20427,
8031362,
1143,
36293
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
30
],
[
39,
44
],
[
49,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 1 Hugh of Châteauneuf, bishop of Grenoble (b. 1053)",
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1175,
10935180,
5796314,
36698
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
29
],
[
41,
49
],
[
54,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 14 Mstislav I (the Great), Kievan Grand Prince (b. 1076)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1862,
935924,
42461
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
21
],
[
59,
63
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 6 Taj al-Muluk Buri, Seljuk governor and regent",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15794,
32344887,
35348624
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[
1,
7
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[
9,
26
],
[
48,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 26 Floris the Black, Dutch count of Holland",
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"target_page_ids": [
22403,
25397385,
691057
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
13,
29
],
[
46,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Conrad von Plötzkau, margrave of the Northern March",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
50427550,
496924
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
],
[
38,
52
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hugh III of Le Puiset, French nobleman and crusader",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
52278589
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " William of Zardana (or Saône), French nobleman (or 1133)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
58859216
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
}
] | [
"1132"
] | 19,582 | 183 | 16 | 49 | 0 | 0 | 1132 | year | [] |
40,073 | 1,097,067,858 | 1133 | [
{
"plaintext": "Year 1133 (MCXXXIII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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"section_name": "Introduction",
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25657,
168851,
15651
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11,
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27,
57
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103,
118
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]
},
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"plaintext": " February 23 Al-Zafir, Fatimid caliph (d. 1154)",
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5796869,
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1,
12
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14,
22
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[
43,
47
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]
},
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"plaintext": " March 5 Henry II (Curtmantle), king of England (d. 1189)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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20314,
26042562,
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36215
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
18
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[
41,
48
],
[
53,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 13 Hōnen, Japanese religious reformer (d. 1212)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
19675,
222428,
39996
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
9,
14
],
[
48,
52
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Abu al-Abbas al-Jarawi, Moroccan poet (d. 1212)",
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30262341
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[
1,
23
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Andronikos Doukas Angelos, Byzantine aristocrat ",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
44430132
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Andronikos Kontostephanos, Byzantine aristocrat",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
18776181
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[
1,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Faidiva of Toulouse, countess of Savoy (d. 1154)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
30695568,
27885
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
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[
34,
39
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jean de Gisors, Norman nobleman (d. 1220)",
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1,
15
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[
24,
32
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[
37,
41
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ralph de Sudeley, English nobleman (d. 1192)",
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26589451,
38572
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[
1,
17
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[
40,
44
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sigurd II (or Sigurd Munn), king of Norway (d. 1155)",
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[
1,
10
],
[
37,
43
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[
48,
52
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Stephen IV, king of Hungary and Croatia (d. 1165)",
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41235373,
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[
1,
11
],
[
21,
28
],
[
33,
40
],
[
45,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Thorlak Thorhallsson, Icelandic bishop (d. 1193)",
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10328100,
40006
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[
1,
21
],
[
44,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Urraca of Castile, queen of Navarre (d. 1179)",
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29141948,
693507,
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[
1,
18
],
[
29,
36
],
[
41,
45
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zhang Shi, Chinese Confucian scholar (d. 1181)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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28407272,
5820,
38925
],
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[
1,
10
],
[
20,
29
],
[
42,
46
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 19 Irene Doukaina, Byzantine empress (b. 1066)",
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2657081,
35054
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
28
],
[
52,
56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 1 Manegold von Mammern, German abbot",
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"target_page_ids": [
19348,
62208045,
1143
],
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[
1,
6
],
[
8,
28
],
[
37,
42
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 4 Bernard degli Uberti, Italian bishop ",
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"target_page_ids": [
8354,
16618216
],
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
33
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 18 Hildebert, French hagiographer (b. 1055)",
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8334,
1583854,
36290
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
23
],
[
49,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 21 Guigues III (the Old), French nobleman ",
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8850,
10934814
],
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dirmicius of Regensburg, Irish monk and abbot ",
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"target_page_ids": [
35941251
],
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[
1,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gregory of Catino, Italian monk and historian (b. 1060)",
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28318318,
36292
],
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[
1,
18
],
[
51,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " þorlákur Runólfsson, Icelandic bishop (b. 1086)",
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10820249,
36699
],
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[
1,
20
],
[
43,
47
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " William of Zardana (or Saône), French nobleman",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
58859216
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
}
] | [
"1133"
] | 19,586 | 190 | 18 | 57 | 0 | 0 | 1133 | year | [] |
40,074 | 1,100,083,491 | 1134 | [
{
"plaintext": ".",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Year 1134 (MCXXXIV) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " June 1 Geoffrey VI, count of Nantes (d. 1158)",
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14750183,
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1,
7
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[
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20
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[
31,
37
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[
42,
46
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 9 Abdul Razzaq Gilani, Persian jurist (d. 1207)",
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28544,
48099936,
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
33
],
[
54,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bernhard III, German nobleman (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
18852007,
28978421
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
22,
30
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Fujiwara no Kinshi, Japanese empress (d. 1209)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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33824802,
36057
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
],
[
42,
46
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gerardo dei Tintori, Italian mystic and founder (d. 1207)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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33395161,
29174999
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
],
[
30,
36
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Neophytos of Cyprus, Cypriot Orthodox priest (d. 1214)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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[
1,
20
],
[
30,
38
],
[
50,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Oda of Brabant (or Anderlues), Belgian prioress (d. 1158)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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10802131
],
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[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Oldřich (or Oldericus), duke of Olomouc (d. 1177)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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[
1,
8
],
[
33,
40
],
[
45,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ralph I, French nobleman (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
20001347
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Raymond V, count of Toulouse (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1131851,
261988
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
21,
29
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sancho III (the Desired), king of Castile (d. 1158)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1653512,
750274
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
35,
42
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sverker I (the Elder), king of Sweden (d. 1156)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
827557,
5058739,
36051
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
32,
38
],
[
43,
47
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Yesugei (Baghatur), Mongol chieftain (d. 1171)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
36297604,
40085
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
42,
46
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 28 Stephen Harding, English abbot",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
19347,
1752594,
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],
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
26
],
[
36,
41
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 4 Magnus I (Nilsson), king of Sweden",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
19279145,
917022
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
9,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 6 Norbert of Xanten, German archbishop",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15794,
518201
],
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[
1,
7
],
[
9,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 25 Niels (or Nicholas), king of Denmark",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15799,
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
10,
15
],
[
39,
46
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 17 ",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
16089
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Beltrán de Risnel, Aragonese diplomat",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
25551990
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Centule VI (or Centulle), French nobleman",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
8961050
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 9 Gilbert Universalis, English bishop",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1027,
13083054
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
11,
30
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 13 Irene of Hungary, Byzantine empress (b. 1088)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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5272316,
36281
],
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
28
],
[
52,
56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 7 Alfonso I (the Battler), king of Aragon",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
27949,
1679,
586776
],
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
23
],
[
47,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 23 Abu al-Salt, Andalusian astronomer",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
22572,
27579858
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
13,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alexander of Jülich, prince-bishop of Liège",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
5397079,
1835742
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
],
[
39,
44
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Al-Fath ibn Khaqan, Andalusian anthologist",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15692084
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Allucio of Campugliano, Italian diplomat (b. 1070)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
21631761,
36293
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
],
[
46,
50
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bjørn Haraldsen (Ironside), Danish prince",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
2701981
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hugh II (du Puiset), French nobleman",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1596098
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " John IX (Agapetos), Byzantine patriarch ",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
30629474
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mary and Eliza Chulkhurst, English conjoined twins (b. 1100)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
417052,
95801,
36300
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
26
],
[
36,
51
],
[
56,
60
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Minamoto no Yoshitsuna, Japanese samurai",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
8571068,
28288
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
],
[
34,
41
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Robert II (Curthose), duke of Normandy (b. 1051)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
60213,
379489,
40049
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
31,
39
],
[
44,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Urban (or Gwrgan), bishop of Llandaff (b. 1076)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
7164508,
3254485,
42461
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
],
[
30,
38
],
[
43,
47
]
]
}
] | [
"1134"
] | 19,590 | 222 | 24 | 75 | 0 | 0 | 1134 | year | [] |
40,075 | 1,103,403,276 | 1136 | [
{
"plaintext": "Year 1136 (MCXXXVI) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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25657,
321387,
15651
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11,
18
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26,
57
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103,
118
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 22 William of Anjou, viscount of Dieppe (d. 1164)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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8783165,
191055,
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8
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[
10,
26
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[
40,
46
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[
51,
55
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Amalric I (or Amalricus), king of Jerusalem (d. 1174)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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1871,
16822,
40086
],
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[
1,
10
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[
35,
44
],
[
49,
53
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Humbert III (the Blessed), count of Savoy (d. 1189)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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27885,
36215
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1,
12
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[
37,
42
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[
47,
51
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ismail al-Jazari, Artuqid polymath and inventor (d. 1206)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
271981,
25121,
40001
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1,
17
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[
27,
35
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[
53,
57
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Marie I (or Mary), countess consort of Boulogne (d. 1182)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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1640871,
681741,
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
40,
48
],
[
53,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " William of Newburgh, English historian and writer (d. 1198)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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782822,
40061
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
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55,
59
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},
{
"plaintext": " Xia (Shenfu), Chinese empress consort (d. 1167)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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33571398,
40010
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
4
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[
43,
47
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 15 Richard Fitz Gilbert de Clare, Norman nobleman",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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1750759,
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
40
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[
49,
57
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 24 Hugues de Payens, French nobleman and knight ",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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19459,
189688
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[
1,
7
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[
9,
25
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 15 Leopold III, margrave of Austria (b. 1073)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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1100736,
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36696
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
25
],
[
39,
46
],
[
51,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 21 William de Corbeil, archbishop of Canterbury",
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"target_page_ids": [
21576,
155816,
1916875
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
32
],
[
48,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 14 Harald IV (Servant of Christ), king of Norway ",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
8851,
66067,
47392864
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
23
],
[
53,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Abraham bar Hiyya, Spanish mathematician and astronomer ",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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628931
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jutta von Sponheim, German noblewoman and abbes (b. 1091)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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37115042,
42469
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
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[
43,
48
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[
53,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gwenllian ferch Gruffydd, Welsh princess of Deheubarth",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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2394604,
285557
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
25
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[
45,
55
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mael Isa Mac Mael Coluim, Irish monk and chronologist",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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55931
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
25
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[
42,
54
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},
{
"plaintext": " Wanyan Zonghan, Chinese nobleman and general (b. 1080)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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36039
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22,
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35,
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45,
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"plaintext": " Zayn al-Din Gorgani, Persian physician (b. 1041)",
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48
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] | [
"1136"
] | 19,599 | 218 | 23 | 54 | 0 | 0 | 1136 | year | [] |
40,076 | 1,094,485,870 | 1137 | [
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"plaintext": "Year 1137 (MCXXXVII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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6929129
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3190225
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14232816
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55
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47
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},
{
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15866,
16105740
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"plaintext": " March 6 Olegarius, archbishop of Tarragona (b. 1060)",
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13974605,
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35,
44
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[
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53
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{
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46
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{
"plaintext": " March 25 Pons, count of Tripoli (b. 1098)",
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26,
33
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[
38,
42
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},
{
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41,
50
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[
55,
59
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},
{
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45
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17
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27,
34
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},
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10,
16
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28,
37
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1618054,
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8
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10,
20
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41
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},
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10,
23
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32,
40
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39,
45
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50,
54
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},
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13
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15,
22
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32,
39
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44,
48
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13,
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34,
40
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11
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13,
24
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53
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},
{
"plaintext": " Amaury III de Montfort, French nobleman",
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1,
23
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},
{
"plaintext": " Bruno II of Berg, archbishop of Cologne",
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17
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33,
40
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},
{
"plaintext": " Eustorge de Scorailles, bishop of Limoges",
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1,
23
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35,
42
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},
{
"plaintext": " Gottfried II of Raabs, German nobleman",
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36147472
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1,
22
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gruffudd ap Cynan, king of Gwynedd",
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1,
18
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28,
35
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},
{
"plaintext": " Gruffydd ap Rhys, king of Deheubarth",
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27,
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{
"plaintext": " John XI bar Mawdyono, patriarch of Antioch",
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324337
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1,
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43
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lucienne de Rochefort, French princess (b. 1088)",
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1,
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48
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},
{
"plaintext": " Nicephorus Bryennius, Byzantine statesman (b. 1062)",
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160649,
42412
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[
1,
21
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51
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ramanuja, Indian Sri Vaishnavism philosopher (b. 1017)",
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[
18,
33
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[
50,
54
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]
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] | [
"1137"
] | 19,602 | 526 | 23 | 96 | 0 | 0 | 1137 | year | [] |
40,077 | 1,103,403,277 | 1138 | [
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},
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"plaintext": " Casimir II (the Just), duke of Poland (d. 1194)",
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"plaintext": " Conan IV (the Young), duke of Brittany (d. 1171)",
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44,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Fujiwara no Narichika, Japanese nobleman (d. 1178)",
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28978421,
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46,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Hōjō Tokimasa, Japanese nobleman and regent (d. 1215)",
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2322632,
35348624,
36058
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1,
14
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38,
44
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49,
53
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},
{
"plaintext": " Saladin (the Lion), sultan of Egypt and Syria (d. 1193)",
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26983,
377373,
600848,
40006
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1,
8
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[
31,
36
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[
41,
46
],
[
51,
55
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Taira no Shigemori, Japanese nobleman (d. 1179)",
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1860236,
36053
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[
1,
19
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43,
47
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{
"plaintext": " Tancred (\"the Monkey King\"), king of Sicily (d. 1194)",
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157907,
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1,
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38,
44
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},
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"plaintext": " January 13 or January 14 Simon I, duke of Lorraine (b. 1076)",
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16192,
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1,
11
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15,
25
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[
27,
34
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[
44,
52
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[
57,
61
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},
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"plaintext": " February 19 Irene Doukaina, Byzantine empress ",
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11006,
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1,
12
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14,
28
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},
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"plaintext": " May 11 William de Warenne, 2nd Earl of Surrey",
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19452,
642974,
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1,
7
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9,
27
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33,
47
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},
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"plaintext": " May 27 Hadmar I of Kuenring, German nobleman ",
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19624,
37920458
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1,
7
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9,
29
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"plaintext": " June 6 Al-Rashid, caliph of the Abbasid Caliphate (b. 1109)",
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1,
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34,
51
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[
56,
60
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"plaintext": " August 12 Suero Vermúdez, Asturian nobleman",
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1,
10
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12,
26
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36699
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1,
11
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52
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57,
61
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},
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"plaintext": " Amhlaoibh Mór mac Fir Bhisigh, Irish poet and cleric",
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1,
30
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},
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"plaintext": " Arwa al-Sulayhi, queen and co-ruler of Yemen (b. 1048)",
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350939,
40046
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1,
16
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40,
45
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50,
54
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},
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"plaintext": " Avempace, Andalusian polymath and philosopher (b. 1085)",
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536739,
25121,
42466
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1,
9
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22,
30
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51,
55
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},
{
"plaintext": " Chen Yuyi, Chinese politician of the Song Dynasty (b. 1090)",
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56978,
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1,
10
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38,
50
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55,
59
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},
{
"plaintext": " David the Scot, bishop of Bangor (approximate date)",
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3471928,
48950722
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1,
15
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27,
33
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"plaintext": " Kiya Buzurg Ummid, ruler of the Nizari Isma'ili State",
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40007083,
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1,
18
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33,
54
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},
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"plaintext": " Rodrigo Martínez, Leonese nobleman and diplomat",
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25029308
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[
1,
17
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},
{
"plaintext": " Rudolf of St. Trond, French Benedictine chronicler",
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16395665,
4240
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1,
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29,
40
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"plaintext": " Someshvara III, ruler of the Western Chalukya Empire",
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7054509,
4900499
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30,
53
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"plaintext": " Vakhtang (or Tsuata), Georgian nobleman (b. 1118)",
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45,
49
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] | [
"1138"
] | 19,606 | 221 | 21 | 66 | 0 | 0 | 1138 | year | [] |
40,078 | 1,100,083,418 | 1140 | [
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{
"plaintext": " Alan Fitz Walter, Scottish High Steward (d. 1204)",
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{
"plaintext": " Cadfan ap Cadwaladr, Welsh nobleman (d. 1215)",
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36
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"plaintext": " Davyd Rostislavich, Kievan Grand Prince (d. 1197)",
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1,
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"plaintext": " Domhnall Caomhánach, king of Leinster (d. 1175)",
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1,
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30,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Eliezer ben Joel HaLevi, German rabbi (d. 1225)",
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1,
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43,
47
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},
{
"plaintext": " Fujiwara no Tashi, Japanese empress (d. 1202)",
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33824775,
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1,
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"plaintext": " Gerard de Ridefort, Flemish Grand Master (d. 1189)",
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1,
19
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29,
41
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[
46,
50
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hedwig, margravine of Meissen (approximate date)",
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33546650,
40674
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[
1,
7
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23,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Hugh de Paduinan, Norman nobleman (d. 1189)",
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25464311,
36215
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[
1,
17
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39,
43
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " John I, archbishop of Trier (approximate date)",
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47547876,
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[
1,
7
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[
23,
28
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " John I, Norman nobleman (approximate date) ",
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[
1,
7
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " John of Ford, English Cistercian abbot (d. 1224)",
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1,
13
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[
23,
33
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[
44,
48
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Manfred II, marquess of Saluzzo (approximate date)",
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4696220,
1122841
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[
1,
11
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25,
32
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Minamoto no Yoshihira, Japanese nobleman (d. 1160)",
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1601691,
40014
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1,
22
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46,
50
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Peter Waldo, French spiritual leader (d. 1205)",
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52315,
36372
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[
1,
12
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42,
46
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Raymond III, crusader and count of Tripoli (d. 1187)",
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1,
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36,
43
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[
48,
52
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Raymond the Palmer, Italian pilgrim (d. 1200) ",
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21819438,
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[
1,
19
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[
41,
45
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Simon II, duke of Lorraine (approximate date)",
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655705,
49149
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[
1,
9
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27
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},
{
"plaintext": " Sophia of Minsk, queen of Denmark (d. 1198)",
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76972,
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1,
16
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27,
34
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39,
43
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Walter Map, Welsh clergyman and writer (d. 1210)",
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[
1,
11
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44,
48
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " William FitzRalph, English High Sheriff (d. 1200)",
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36394
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[
1,
18
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[
45,
49
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Yuan Cai, Chinese scholar and official (d. 1195)",
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4473355,
40004
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[
1,
9
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[
44,
48
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 12 Louis I, German nobleman",
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[
1,
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[
13,
20
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 6 Thurstan, archbishop of York",
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1,
11
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[
13,
21
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[
37,
41
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 14 ",
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10882
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[
1,
12
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Leo I, prince of Armenia",
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406258,
1118477
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[
1,
6
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[
18,
25
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Soběslav I, duke of Bohemia",
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3347573,
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1,
11
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[
21,
28
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 21 Yang Zaixing, Chinese general",
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1,
10
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[
12,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 31 Godebold, bishop of Meissen",
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[
1,
10
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[
12,
20
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[
32,
39
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 15 Adelaide, duchess of Bohemia",
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28145,
34793741
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[
1,
13
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[
15,
23
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 16 Wulgrin II, count of Angoulême",
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7435538,
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
24
],
[
35,
44
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Aibert, French monk and hermit (b. 1060)",
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271054,
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1,
7
],
[
25,
31
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[
36,
40
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Baldwin of Rieti, Italian Benedictine abbot ",
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23536438,
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[
1,
17
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27,
38
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Diego Gelmírez, Galician archbishop (b. 1069)",
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2249520,
42458
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[
1,
15
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41,
45
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gaucherius, French priest and hermit (b. 1060)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hugh the Chanter, English historian and writer",
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[
1,
17
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kumarapala, Indian ruler of the Pala Empire",
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1193780
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[
1,
11
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33,
44
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lhachen Naglug, Indian ruler of Ladakh (b. 1110)",
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1,
15
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39
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[
44,
48
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Li Gang, Chinese Grand Chancellor (b. 1083)",
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2452013,
42465
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1,
8
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18,
34
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[
39,
43
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Toba Sōjō, Japanese artist-monk (b. 1053)",
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36698
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1,
10
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27
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[
37,
41
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Wanyan Xiyin, Chinese chief adviser",
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
}
] | [
"1140"
] | 19,611 | 366 | 36 | 100 | 0 | 0 | 1140 | year | [] |
40,079 | 1,086,653,031 | 1145 | [
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"plaintext": "Year 1145 (MCXLV) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Al-Adil I, Ayyubid general and sultan (d. 1218)",
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1492311,
39993
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},
{
"plaintext": " Adalbert III, archbishop of Salzburg (d. 1200)",
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[
42,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Adam of Perseigne, French Cistercian abbot (d. 1221)",
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50409,
36189
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18
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[
27,
37
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52
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Aoife MacMurrough (or Eva), Irish princess (d. 1188)",
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4710377,
36055
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1,
18
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48,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad, Arab historian (d. 1234)",
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[
1,
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49
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Christina Hvide, queen of Sweden (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
16792160,
217473
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
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27,
33
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Elizabeth of Hungary, German duchess (d. 1189)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
34793835,
36215
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[
1,
21
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42,
46
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gregory IX, pope of the Catholic Church (d. 1241)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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606848,
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1,
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25,
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45,
49
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ibn Jubayr, Andalusian geographer and traveller (d. 1217)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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2174304,
39992
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Margaret of Huntingdon, Scottish princess (d. 1201)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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24127264,
40003
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[
1,
23
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47,
51
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Maria of Antioch, Byzantine empress and regent (d. 1182)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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35348624,
40091
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1,
17
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41,
47
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[
52,
56
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Marie of Champagne, French noblewoman (d. 1198)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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174282,
28978421,
40061
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1,
19
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28,
38
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43,
47
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Manuel Komnenos, son of Andronikos I (d. 1185)",
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1762,
40094
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1,
16
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25,
37
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[
42,
46
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Najmuddin Kubra, founder of the Kubrawi order (d. 1221)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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2318622,
3010923,
36189
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1,
16
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33,
40
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[
51,
55
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Reginald FitzUrse, English knight and assassin (d. 1173)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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8937887,
36052
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1,
18
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56
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ruben III, ruler of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (d. 1187)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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406435,
1118477,
36054
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[
1,
10
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[
25,
52
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[
57,
61
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Shihab al-Din 'Umar al-Suhrawardi, Persian scholar (d. 1234)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
5138945
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
34
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Theodora Komnene, queen of Jerusalem (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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1878313,
16822
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
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28,
37
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 15 Lucius II, pope of the Catholic Church",
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11020,
46079
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[
1,
12
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[
14,
23
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 23 Tashfin ibn Ali, Almoravid emir",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
20210,
30715834
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1,
9
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[
11,
26
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 5 Gabriel II, patriarch of Alexandria",
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1808503,
7601
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[
1,
8
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10,
20
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[
35,
45
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 6 Baldwin, archbishop of Pisa",
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10071544
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1,
10
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12,
19
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[
35,
39
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 26 Bellinus of Padua, Italian bishop ",
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21581,
23537395
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
12
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14,
31
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},
{
"plaintext": " Fujiwara no Tamako, Japanese empress (b. 1101)",
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36301
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[
1,
19
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42,
46
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},
{
"plaintext": " Magnus Haraldsson, king of Norway (approximate date)",
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47392864
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1,
18
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28,
34
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},
{
"plaintext": " Sophia of Bavaria, German noblewoman (b. 1105)",
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42474
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
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42,
46
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},
{
"plaintext": " William of Malines, Flemish priest (approximate date)",
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[
1,
19
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zhang Zeduan, Chinese landscape painter (b. 1085)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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] | [
"1145"
] | 19,624 | 231 | 27 | 68 | 0 | 0 | 1145 | year | [] |
40,080 | 1,103,403,271 | 1148 | [
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},
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},
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ugo Canefri, Italian knight and health worker (d. 1233)",
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},
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{
"plaintext": " January 6",
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15986
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1,
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},
{
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48
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},
{
"plaintext": " William de Warenne, 3rd Earl of Surrey (b. 1119)",
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48
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},
{
"plaintext": " January 24 Ascelin (or Anselm), English bishop",
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1,
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{
"plaintext": " April 16",
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9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Robert de Bethune, bishop of Hereford",
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13051031,
3520271
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1,
18
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30,
38
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Roger de Clinton, bishop of Coventry",
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12968049,
1351375
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},
{
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1,
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12,
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33,
39
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44,
48
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 17 Conan III, duke of Brittany (b. 1095)",
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1,
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24
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42
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[
47,
51
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},
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1,
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15,
31
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},
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"plaintext": " November 2 Malachy, Irish archbishop (b. 1094)",
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1,
11
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13,
20
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43,
47
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi, Andalusian scholar (b. 1076)",
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1,
22
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51
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},
{
"plaintext": " Alberic of Ostia, French cardinal-bishop (b. 1080)",
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36039
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1,
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"plaintext": " Alfonso I (Jordan), count of Toulouse (b. 1103)",
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{
"plaintext": " Amadeus III, count of Savoy and Maurienne",
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42
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ari Thorgilsson, Icelandic chronicler (b. 1067)",
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47
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},
{
"plaintext": " Hedwig of Gudensberg, German countess (b. 1098)",
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1,
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47
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Henry of Lausanne, French monk and preacher",
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1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mahaut of Albon, countess of Savoy (b. 1112)",
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36264
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1,
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40,
44
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Reginald III (or Renaud), count of Burgundy",
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1,
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36,
44
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Roger III, duke of Apulia and Calabria (b. 1118)",
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1,
10
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20,
39
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44,
48
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Simon of Vermandois, French bishop (b. 1093)",
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36211
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[
1,
20
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40,
44
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " William of St. Thierry, French abbot and writer",
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[
1,
23
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32,
37
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Wuzhu, Chinese prince, general and minister",
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1,
6
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ye Mengde, Chinese minister and poet (b. 1077)",
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256577,
42462
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1,
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33,
37
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[
42,
46
]
]
}
] | [
"1148"
] | 19,633 | 326 | 30 | 89 | 0 | 0 | 1148 | year | [] |
40,081 | 1,097,646,020 | 1149 | [
{
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321295,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Albert of Vercelli, patriarch of Jerusalem (d. 1214)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Al-Fa'iz bi-Nasr Allah, Fatimid caliph (d. 1160)",
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40014
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},
{
"plaintext": " Choe Chung-heon, Korean ruler of Goryeo (d. 1219)",
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188435,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Fujiwara no Kanezane, Japanese nobleman (d. 1207)",
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28978421,
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1,
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45,
49
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Majd al-Din ibn Athir, Zangid historian (d. 1210)",
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39998
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45,
49
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Margaritus of Brindisi, Sicilian admiral (d. 1197)",
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4932821,
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Minamoto no Michichika, Japanese nobleman (d. 1202)",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Muhammad of Ghor, ruler of the Ghurid Empire (d. 1206)",
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32,
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50,
54
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},
{
"plaintext": " Odon of Poznań, duke of Greater Poland (d. 1194)",
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1,
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48
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Shikishi, Japanese princess, poet and nun (d. 1201)",
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1340820,
40003
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},
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"plaintext": " January 15 Berengaria of Barcelona, queen of Castile (b. 1116)",
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13,
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47,
54
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59,
63
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},
{
"plaintext": " March 10 Reginald I (the One-Eyed), count of Bar",
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11,
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},
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"plaintext": " April 24 Petronille de Chemillé, French abbess ",
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11,
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"plaintext": " May 8 Bernard du Bec, French Benedictine abbot",
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22
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42
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},
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"plaintext": " June 29 Raymond of Poitiers, prince of Antioch ",
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"plaintext": " August 28 Mu'in al-Din Unur, Seljuk ruler of Damascus",
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12,
29
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55
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 30 Arnaud de Lévezou, French archbishop",
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27843,
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1,
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15,
32
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},
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"plaintext": " October 8 Al-Hafiz, caliph of the Fatimid Caliphate",
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2234054,
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1,
10
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12,
20
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36,
53
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},
{
"plaintext": " Joseph ibn Tzaddik, Spanish Jewish rabbi and poet",
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51273
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Machig Labdrön, Tibetan Buddhist teacher (b. 1055)",
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30988,
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1,
15
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25,
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46,
50
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},
{
"plaintext": " Pedro Helías, archbishop of Santiago de Compostela",
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5424330
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1,
13
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29,
51
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},
{
"plaintext": " Qadi Ayyad, Almoravid imam and chief judge (b. 1083)",
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15240,
42465
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1,
11
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23,
27
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48,
52
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},
{
"plaintext": " Stephen Kontostephanos, Byzantine aristocrat (b. 1107)",
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38339
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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[
50,
54
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] | [
"1149"
] | 19,638 | 206 | 19 | 63 | 0 | 0 | 1149 | year | [] |
40,082 | 1,100,083,435 | 1151 | [
{
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168880,
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"plaintext": " April 3 Igor Svyatoslavich, Russian prince (d. 1202)",
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15
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Unkei, Japanese sculptor (d. 1223)",
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34
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14,
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45,
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},
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"plaintext": " Li Qingzhao, Chinese poet (b. 1084)",
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1,
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] | [
"1151"
] | 19,642 | 142 | 17 | 23 | 0 | 0 | 1151 | year | [] |
40,083 | 1,100,727,906 | 1150 | [
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59,
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41,
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{
"plaintext": " Azalaïs of Montferrat, Italian noblewoman (d. 1232)",
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"plaintext": " Baldwin V, count of Hainaut and Flanders (d. 1195)",
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1,
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{
"plaintext": " Geoffrey of Villehardouin, French knight (d. 1213)",
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1,
26
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46,
50
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1,
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41,
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36189
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1,
28
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47,
51
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"plaintext": " Henry de Longchamp, English High Sheriff (d. 1212)",
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1539792,
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1,
19
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46,
50
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{
"plaintext": " Henryk Kietlicz, archbishop of Gniezno (d. 1219)",
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1,
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44,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Hermann Joseph, German priest and mystic (d. 1241)",
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1,
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41
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46,
50
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{
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47,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Hugh II of Saint Omer, prince of Galilee (d. 1204)",
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"plaintext": " John Comyn, archbishop of Dublin (approximate date)",
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1,
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27,
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{
"plaintext": " John de Courcy (or Courci), Norman knight (d. 1219)",
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1,
15
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},
{
"plaintext": " Judah ben Samuel, German Jewish rabbi (d. 1217)",
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1,
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{
"plaintext": " Leo I (or Levon), king of Armenian Cilicia (d. 1219)",
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{
"plaintext": " Minamoto no Noriyori, Japanese general (d. 1193)",
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"plaintext": " Otto I, count of Guelders and Zutphen (d. 1207)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Qutb al-Din Aibak, ruler of the Delhi Sultanate (d. 1210)",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ramon I, Catalonian nobleman (approximate date)",
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1,
8
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},
{
"plaintext": " Robert IV, French nobleman and Grand Master (d. 1193)",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Rosamund Clifford, English noblewoman (d. 1176)",
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1,
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43,
47
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},
{
"plaintext": " Stephen Langton, English archbishop (d. 1228)",
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1,
16
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41,
45
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Theodore Apsevdis, Byzantine painter (d. 1215)",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Umadevi, Indian queen and general (d. 1218)",
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1,
8
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},
{
"plaintext": " William de Braose, English nobleman (d. 1211)",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Wincenty Kadłubek, bishop of Kraków (d. 1223)",
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1,
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45
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ye Shi, Chinese scholar and philosopher (d. 1223)",
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1,
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},
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"plaintext": " January 9 Xi Zong, Chinese emperor of the Jin Dynasty (b. 1119)",
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1,
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64
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},
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},
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10,
31
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56
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"plaintext": " August 27 Guarinus of Sitten, French bishop (b. 1065)",
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12,
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54
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},
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"plaintext": " September 16 Sibylla of Burgundy, queen of Sicily (b. 1126)",
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1,
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45,
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56,
60
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},
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"plaintext": " November 12 Hartbert van Bierum, bishop of Utrecht",
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1,
12
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14,
33
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45,
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]
},
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"plaintext": " November 21 García IV (the Restorer), king of Navarre",
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1,
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14,
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48,
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},
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"plaintext": " December 16 Raynald of Bar, French abbot",
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1,
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14,
28
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42
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Barisan of Ibelin (the Old), French nobleman ",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Henry VI (Berengar), co-ruler of Germany",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Hervé de Bourg-Dieu, French biblical scholar",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ibn Masal, Fatimid general, official and vizier",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Jabir ibn Aflah, Andalusian astronomer (b. 1100)",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Kjeld (or Ketil), Danish clergyman and saint",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Reinward, bishop of Meissen (approximate date)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Renier de Huy, Flemish goldsmith and sculptor",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Robert de Sigello, English bishop and chancellor ",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Suryavarman II, ruler of the Khmer Empire",
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},
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"plaintext": " Teobaldo Roggeri, Italian shoemaker (b. 1100)",
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},
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"plaintext": " William the Simple, French nobleman (b. 1085)",
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] | [
"1150"
] | 19,640 | 459 | 39 | 122 | 0 | 0 | 1150 | year | [] |
40,084 | 1,067,918,799 | 1159 | [
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{
"plaintext": "<onlyinclude>",
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"plaintext": " The Heiji Rebellion breaks out in Japan.",
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},
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"plaintext": " Tunis is reconquered from the Normans, by the Almohad caliphs.",
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"plaintext": " (Approximate date): Churchman Richard FitzNeal is appointed Lord High Treasurer in England, in charge of Henry II of England's Exchequer, an office he will hold for almost 40 years.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Minamoto no Yoshitsune, Japanese general (d. 1189)",
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},
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"plaintext": " May 30 Wladislaus II, the Exile of Poland (b. 1105)",
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"plaintext": " August 29 Bertha of Sulzbach, Byzantine Empress (b. 1110s)",
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"plaintext": " September 1 Pope Adrian IV (b. c. 1100)",
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"plaintext": " October 11 William of Blois, Count of Boulogne and Earl of Surrey (b. c. 1137)",
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"plaintext": " Joscelin II, Count of Edessa",
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"1159"
] | 19,659 | 171 | 22 | 34 | 0 | 0 | 1159 | year | [] |
40,085 | 1,086,653,200 | 1171 | [
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"plaintext": " Yesugei (Baghatur), Mongol chieftain (b. 1134)",
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"1171"
] | 19,685 | 224 | 32 | 71 | 0 | 0 | 1171 | year | [] |
40,086 | 1,086,653,219 | 1174 | [
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"plaintext": " Gerard of Villamagna, Italian hermit (d. 1242)",
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"plaintext": " Robert de Gresle, English landowner (d. 1230)",
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"plaintext": " Enguerrand (or Ingram), bishop of Glasgow",
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"plaintext": " Everard des Barres, French Grand Master",
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"plaintext": " Miles of Plancy (or Milo), French nobleman",
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"plaintext": " Peter II of Tarentaise, French bishop (b. 1102)",
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"plaintext": " Shin Panthagu, Burmese monk (b. 1083)",
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"plaintext": " Walter of Mortagne, French philosopher",
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},
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"plaintext": " William de Chesney, English nobleman",
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"1174"
] | 19,690 | 243 | 22 | 70 | 0 | 0 | 1174 | year | [] |
40,087 | 1,100,083,466 | 1175 | [
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39993
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1,
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[
30,
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49,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Philip I (the Noble), margrave of Namur (d. 1212)",
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1,
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35,
40
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[
45,
49
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Raymond of Penyafort, Spanish Dominican friar (d. 1275)",
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3054587,
39985
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[
1,
21
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[
51,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Robert Grosseteste, English statesman (d. 1253)",
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94721,
42489
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[
1,
19
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43,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Roger III, king of Sicily (House of Hauteville) (d. 1193)",
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1,
10
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[
20,
26
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[
28,
47
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[
53,
57
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Śārṅgadeva, Indian musicologist and writer (d. 1247)",
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1,
11
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20,
32
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48,
52
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Subutai, Mongol general and strategist (d. 1248)",
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1130618,
36071
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[
1,
8
],
[
44,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Theodore I (Laskaris), emperor of Nicaea (d. 1221)",
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1,
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35,
41
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46,
50
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Yolanda, empress of the Latin Empire (d. 1219)",
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174215,
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[
1,
8
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[
25,
37
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[
42,
46
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 12 Yi Ui-bang, Korean military leader (b. 1121)",
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16112,
8745113,
36273
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
23
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[
52,
56
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 24 Ibn Asakir, Syrian historian and mystic (b. 1105)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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15954,
7102026,
29174999,
42474
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[
2,
12
],
[
14,
24
],
[
47,
53
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[
58,
62
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 5 Frederick of Hallum, Frisian priest and abbot",
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20314,
17647646
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1,
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10,
29
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},
{
"plaintext": " May 15 Mleh I, prince of Armenia (\"Lord of the Mountains\")",
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19674,
406289,
1118477
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[
1,
7
],
[
9,
15
],
[
27,
34
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 25 Ishoyahb V, patriarch of the Church of the East ",
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19354,
26681020,
26176567
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[
1,
7
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[
9,
19
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[
38,
56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 1 Reginald de Dunstanville, English nobleman (b. 1110)",
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"target_page_ids": [
15844,
3217708,
36280
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[
1,
7
],
[
9,
33
],
[
56,
60
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 27 Ponce de Minerva, French nobleman and general ",
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15922,
25986898
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
26
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 19 Andrew of Saint Victor, English abbot and scholar",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
22568,
47937666
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[
1,
11
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[
13,
35
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 13 Henry of France, archbishop of Reims (b. 1121)",
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21761,
7586974,
1788185,
36273
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
29
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[
45,
50
],
[
55,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Clementia of Zähringen, duchess of Bavaria and Saxony",
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30695591,
1463463,
264007
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[
1,
23
],
[
36,
43
],
[
48,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Maria Torribia (or la Cabeza), Spanish laywoman and hermit",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
6232157,
271054
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[
1,
15
],
[
53,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nicholas Hagiotheodorites, Byzantine scholar and official",
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"target_page_ids": [
52583916
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
26
]
]
}
] | [
"1175"
] | 19,692 | 233 | 28 | 85 | 0 | 0 | 1175 | year | [] |
40,088 | 1,053,894,915 | 1177 | [
{
"plaintext": "Year 1177 (MCLXXVII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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25657,
321295,
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[
11,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February/March Philip of Swabia, rival of Otto IV, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1208)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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19344,
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[
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[
17,
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[
44,
71
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[
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August Baldwin V, King of Jerusalem (d. 1186)",
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1,
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],
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],
[
20,
37
],
[
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Marie of Oignies, French beguin (d. 1213)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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17140619,
39995
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[
1,
17
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sylvester Gozzolini, Italian founder of the Sylvestrines (d. 1267)",
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1825029,
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45,
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[
62,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 13 Henry II, Duke of Austria (b. 1107)",
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1116423,
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1,
11
],
[
13,
38
],
[
43,
47
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January Eystein Meyla, leader of the Birkebeiner in Norway. (b. 1157)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15642,
2245721,
541442,
21241,
36214
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
23
],
[
39,
50
],
[
54,
60
],
[
66,
70
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June William of Montferrat, Count of Jaffa and Ascalon, father of Baldwin V of Jerusalem (b. early 1140s)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15785,
650882,
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[
1,
5
],
[
7,
56
],
[
101,
106
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " probable Hugh Bigod, 1st Earl of Norfolk (b. 1095)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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249302,
36041
],
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[
11,
21
],
[
27,
42
],
[
47,
51
]
]
}
] | [
"1177"
] | 19,694 | 270 | 21 | 31 | 0 | 0 | 1177 | year | [] |
40,089 | 1,100,083,401 | 1178 | [
{
"plaintext": "Year 1178 (MCLXXVIII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
"section_idx": 0,
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25657,
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11,
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28,
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[
104,
119
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 27 Zhen Dexiu, Chinese politician (d. 1235)",
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23
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[
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 22 Antoku, emperor of Japan (d. 1185)",
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195041,
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40094
],
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1,
12
],
[
14,
20
],
[
33,
38
],
[
43,
47
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alam al-Din al-Hanafi, Ayyubid mathematician (d. 1251)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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56447306,
38709
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
],
[
50,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Al-Faqih al-Muqaddam, Arab religious leader (d. 1232)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
41717323,
36068
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
],
[
49,
53
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Armand de Périgord, French Grand Master (d. 1244)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1933519,
42484
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
],
[
45,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hugh I, Sardinian ruler (Judge of Arborea) (d. 1211)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
8236902,
8740392,
39997
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[
1,
7
],
[
26,
42
],
[
48,
52
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Matteo Rosso Orsini, Italian politician (d. 1246)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
18330239,
42486
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[
1,
20
],
[
45,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Peter II (the Catholic), king of Aragon (d. 1213)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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586776,
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],
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[
1,
9
],
[
34,
40
],
[
45,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Roland of Cremona, French theologian (d. 1259)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
4734279,
42494
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
],
[
42,
46
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Thomas I (or Tommaso), count of Savoy (d. 1233)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
68923,
27885,
40065
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
33,
38
],
[
43,
47
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Wei Liaoweng, Chinese politician and philosopher (d. 1237)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
52836669,
40068
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
54,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Wuzhun Shifan, Chinese calligrapher and painter (d. 1249)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
11941872,
1119765,
42488
],
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[
1,
14
],
[
24,
36
],
[
53,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 17 Evermode of Ratzeburg, German bishop ",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
11164,
4171268
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
14,
35
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 27 Godfrey van Rhenen, bishop of Utrecht",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
19624,
24313896,
70839
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
9,
27
],
[
39,
46
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 30 Pribislav, prince of Mecklenburg",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
8677,
13278072,
20193
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
14,
23
],
[
35,
46
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Áedh Ua Flaithbheartaigh, king of Iar Connacht",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
24564592,
1450294
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
25
],
[
35,
47
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ada de Warenne, Scottish noblewoman (b. 1120)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
10411698,
28978421,
36272
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
],
[
26,
36
],
[
41,
45
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Amadeus I, Swiss nobleman (House of Geneva)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
43730288,
6281217
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
28,
43
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Anthelm of Belley, French prior and bishop (b. 1107)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
11381300,
5114012,
38339
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
],
[
27,
32
],
[
48,
52
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Frowin of Engelberg (the Blessed), Swiss abbot",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
17441792,
1143
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
],
[
42,
47
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Fujiwara no Narichika, Japanese nobleman (b. 1138)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
12564744,
40077
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
],
[
46,
50
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kristin Sigurdsdatter, Norwegian princess (b. 1125)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
26472673,
36274
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
],
[
47,
51
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nashwan al-Himyari, Arab theologian and writer",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
61405060
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Petrus Comestor, French theologian and writer",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
3944595
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Philippa of Antioch, princess of Antioch (b. 1148)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
27890758,
256387,
40080
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[
1,
20
],
[
34,
41
],
[
46,
50
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Richard the Chaplain, bishop of Cell Rigmonaid",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
5758110,
28365871
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
],
[
33,
47
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Walter de Bidun, English bishop and chancellor",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
6141696
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " William of Lucca, Italian theologian and writer",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
16254960
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
}
] | [
"1178"
] | 19,696 | 255 | 18 | 67 | 0 | 0 | 1178 | year | [] |
40,091 | 1,100,083,492 | 1182 | [
{
"plaintext": "Year 1182 (MCLXXXII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
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25657,
168855,
15651
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[
11,
19
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[
27,
57
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[
103,
118
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 11 Minamoto no Yoriie, Japanese shogun (d. 1204)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
27935,
189411,
28943,
34986
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1,
13
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[
15,
33
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[
44,
50
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[
55,
59
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 19 Reginald de Braose, Norman nobleman (d. 1228)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
28147,
433122,
28978421,
36263
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
15,
33
],
[
42,
50
],
[
55,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alexios I (Megas Komnenos), emperor of Trebizond (d. 1222)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1870446,
652643,
36260
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
40,
49
],
[
54,
58
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alexios IV (Angelos), Byzantine emperor (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
176324
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alice of Vergy, duchess and regent of Burgundy (d. 1251)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
23160316,
35348624,
441671,
38709
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
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[
29,
35
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[
39,
47
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[
53,
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{
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{
"plaintext": " Eleanor of Aragon, Spanish princess and countess (d. 1226)",
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{
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{
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{
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{
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},
{
"plaintext": " Lutgardis (or Lutgarde), Flemish nun and saint (d. 1246)",
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{
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{
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " January 13 Agnes of Austria, queen of Hungary (b. 1154)",
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1,
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{
"plaintext": " May 12 Valdemar I (the Great), king of Denmark (b. 1131)",
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{
"plaintext": " May 16 John Komnenos Vatatzes, Byzantine general",
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{
"plaintext": " July Maria Komnene, Byzantine princess (poisoned) (b. 1152)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " July Renier of Montferrat (the Caesar John), Italian husband of Maria Komnene (poisoned) (b. 1162)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1924611,
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7,
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},
{
"plaintext": " July 25 Maria I, countess of Boulogne (b. 1136)",
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{
"plaintext": " August 1 Pietro da Pavia, Italian cardinal-bishop",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 15 Robert III, Italo-Norman nobleman",
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},
{
"plaintext": " October 6 Richard Peche, bishop of Coventry",
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1,
10
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12,
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37,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ahmed-Al-Kabeer, Arab preacher and teacher (b. 1119)",
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[
1,
16
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},
{
"plaintext": " Farrukh Shah, Ayyubid ruler and nephew of Saladin",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Fujiwara no Kiyoko, Japanese empress (b. 1122)",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Henry I, count of Guelders and Zutphen (b. 1117)",
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1,
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32,
39
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44,
48
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},
{
"plaintext": " Hugo Etherianus, Italian cardinal and adviser (b. 1115)",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Cyril of Turov (or Kirill), Russian bishop (b. 1130)",
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1,
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{
"plaintext": " Maria of Antioch, Byzantine empress (b. 1145)",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Sonam Tsemo, Tibetan Buddhist leader (b. 1142)",
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{
"plaintext": " Zhao Boju, Chinese landscape painter (b. 1120)",
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1,
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20,
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42,
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}
] | [
"1182"
] | 19,708 | 231 | 28 | 88 | 0 | 0 | 1182 | year | [] |
40,092 | 1,073,355,479 | 1183 | [
{
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},
{
"plaintext": "<onlyinclude>",
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{
"plaintext": " Andronicus I Comnenus becomes Byzantine Emperor.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " June 25 The Peace of Constance is signed, between Frederick Barbarossa and the Lombard League, forming the legal basis for the autonomy of the Italian city republics.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Joseph of Exeter writes the first account of a sport resembling cricket.",
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"plaintext": " Three-year-old Emperor Go-Toba ascends to the throne of Japan, after the forced abdication of his brother Emperor Antoku, during the Genpei War.",
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"plaintext": " August 14 Taira no Munemori and the Taira clan take the young Emperor Antoku and the three sacred treasures, and flee to western Japan to escape pursuit by the Minamoto clan (traditional Japanese date: Twenty-fifth Day of the Seventh Month of the Second Year of Juei).",
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"plaintext": " November 17 Battle of Mizushima: The Taira Clan defeats the Minamoto Clan.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " February Raynald of Châtillon has at least five ships freighted over the Isthmus of Suez, which he then uses to pillage the shores of the Red Sea around Jeddah.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " William of Tyre is excommunicated by the newly appointed Heraclius of Jerusalem, firmly ending their struggle for power.",
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"plaintext": " The Siege of Kerak is waged between the Ayyubids and the Crusaders, in which regent Guy of Lusignan refuses to fight.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Saladin conquers Syria and becomes sultan.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Chagatai Khan, second son of Genghis Khan, Khan of the Chagatai Khanate (d. 1241 or 1242)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Philippa of Armenia, empress consort of Nicaea",
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"plaintext": " June 11 Henry the Young King, son of Henry II of England (b. 1155)",
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},
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"plaintext": " October Alexios II Komnenos, Byzantine Emperor (b. 1167)",
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1615,
4016,
40010
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},
{
"plaintext": " November 23 William Fitz Robert, 2nd Earl of Gloucester (b. 1116)",
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1789972,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Queen Gongye, Korean queen consort (b. 1109)",
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1,
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] | [
"1183"
] | 19,723 | 196 | 24 | 68 | 0 | 0 | 1183 | year | [] |
40,093 | 1,107,846,158 | 1184 | [
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},
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},
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"plaintext": " Ahmad al-Tifashi, Almohad poet and anthologist (d. 1253)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Eleanor (Beauty of Brittany), English countess (d. 1241)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Fujiwara no Hideyoshi, Japanese nobleman (d. 1240)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Guigues VI, count of Albon (House of Burgundy) (d. 1237)",
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29,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Jutta of Thuringia, margravine of Meissen (d. 1235)",
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1,
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},
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"plaintext": " William of Modena, Italian bishop and diplomat (d. 1251)",
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"plaintext": " January 2 Theodora Komnene, duchess of Austria",
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12,
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},
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"plaintext": " January 13 Gerard la Pucelle, English bishop (b. 1117)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " February 16 Richard of Dover, English archbishop",
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1,
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{
"plaintext": " February 21 ",
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Imai Kanehira, Japanese military leader (b. 1152)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Minamoto no Yoshinaka, Japanese shogun (b. 1154)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " March 27 George III, king of Georgia (House of Bagrationi)",
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11,
19
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40,
51
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},
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"plaintext": " June 15 Magnus V (Erlingsson), king of Norway (b. 1156)",
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1,
8
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[
10,
18
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[
41,
47
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52,
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},
{
"plaintext": " July 29 Abu Yaqub Yusuf, Almohad caliph (emir) (b. 1135)",
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1,
8
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[
10,
25
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[
43,
47
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[
53,
57
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 30 Arnold of Torroja, Catalan Grand Master",
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27843,
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1,
13
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[
15,
32
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},
{
"plaintext": " October 24 Siegfried, prince-archbishop of Bremen (b. 1132)",
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255372,
40072
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
22
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[
45,
51
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[
56,
60
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},
{
"plaintext": " November 15 ",
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21763
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1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Beatrice I, Holy Roman Empress (b. 1143)",
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2396541,
35544
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[
1,
11
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[
36,
40
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " William de Beaumont, 3rd Earl of Warwick",
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25920679,
294270
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[
1,
20
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[
26,
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},
{
"plaintext": " November 18 Josceline de Bohon, English bishop (b. 1111)",
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21452,
3492457,
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
32
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[
53,
57
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 17 Simon de Tosny, Norman-Scottish bishop",
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8322,
11021006
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
28
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Abu al-Bayan ibn al-Mudawwar, Jewish physician (b. 1101)",
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5290954,
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[
1,
29
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52,
56
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},
{
"plaintext": " Agnes of Antioch, queen of Hungary (approximate date)",
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14998473,
41235373
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[
1,
17
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[
28,
35
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Aindréas of Caithness, Gaelic-Scottish monk and bishop",
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[
1,
22
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Grimaldo Canella, Italian nobleman (House of Grimaldi)",
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1852071,
966848
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[
1,
17
],
[
37,
54
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Li Tao (or Renfu), Chinese historian and writer (b. 1115)",
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24118096,
36267
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[
1,
7
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[
53,
57
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pedro Fernández de Castro, Spanish nobleman (b. 1115)",
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1,
26
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},
{
"plaintext": " Sasaki Hideyoshi, Japanese nobleman and samurai (b. 1112)",
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28288,
36264
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1,
17
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[
41,
48
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[
53,
57
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Taira no Atsumori, Japanese warrior and samurai (b. 1169)",
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1716435,
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[
1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Taira no Koremori, Japanese nobleman (approximate date)",
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1362650
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[
1,
18
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Taira no Tadanori, Japanese warrior and general (b. 1144)",
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1619105,
35549
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[
1,
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57
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " William de Vesci, High Sheriff of Northumberland (b. 1125)",
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59769,
36274
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[
1,
17
],
[
35,
49
],
[
54,
58
]
]
}
] | [
"1184"
] | 19,728 | 356 | 32 | 89 | 0 | 0 | 1184 | year | [] |
40,094 | 1,090,070,498 | 1185 | [
{
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},
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"plaintext": " April 23 Afonso II (the Fat), king of Portugal (d. 1223)",
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53,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alexander of Hales, English philosopher (d. 1245)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Angelus of Jerusalem, Israeli priest and martyr (d. 1220)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Dietrich V, German nobleman (approximate date)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Engelbert II, archbishop of Cologne (approximate date)",
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2499852,
14780436
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1,
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29,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Fujiwara no Reishi, Japanese empress (d. 1243)",
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33824720,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Gerard III, count of Guelders and Zutphen (d. 1229)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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1,
11
],
[
22,
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[
35,
42
],
[
47,
51
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gertrude of Merania, queen of Hungary (d. 1213)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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41235373,
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1,
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44,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Inge II (Bårdsson), king of Norway (d. 1217)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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1,
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40,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Michael of Chernigov, Kievan Grand Prince (d. 1246)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Patrick II, Anglo-Scottish nobleman (d. 1249)",
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[
1,
11
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41,
45
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Raymond Roger, French nobleman (d. 1209)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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1197868,
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[
1,
14
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},
{
"plaintext": " Robert III, count of Dreux and Braine (d. 1234)",
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1,
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],
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[
32,
38
],
[
43,
47
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Shams Tabrizi, Persian poet and writer (d. 1248)",
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1,
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],
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48
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tancred of Siena, Italian missionary (d. 1241)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " February 9 Theodoric I, margrave of Lusatia (b. 1130)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
24
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[
38,
45
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[
50,
54
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 16 Baldwin IV (the Leper), king of Jerusalem (b. 1161)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
21
],
[
43,
52
],
[
57,
61
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 22 Satō Tsugunobu, Japanese warrior (b. 1158)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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[
1,
9
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[
11,
25
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[
48,
52
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 25 Battle of Dan-no-Ura:",
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[
1,
9
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[
11,
31
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Antoku, child-emperor of Japan (b. 1178)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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15573,
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[
1,
7
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[
26,
31
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[
36,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Taira no Tokiko, Japanese Buddhist nun (b. 1126)",
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1,
16
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27,
35
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44,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Taira no Norimori, Japanese nobleman (b. 1128)",
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[
1,
18
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},
{
"plaintext": " Taira no Noritsune, Japanese nobleman (b. 1160)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1364986,
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[
1,
19
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43,
47
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},
{
"plaintext": " Taira no Tomomori, Japanese nobleman (b. 1152)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1323580,
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[
1,
18
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42,
46
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Taira no Tsunemori, Japanese nobleman (b. 1124)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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[
1,
19
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[
43,
47
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},
{
"plaintext": " June 16 Richeza of Poland, queen of Castile (b. 1140)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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40078
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
27
],
[
38,
45
],
[
50,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 30 Constantine Makrodoukas, Byzantine nobleman",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
19654,
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[
1,
7
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[
9,
32
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 19 Taira no Munemori, Japanese samurai (b. 1147)",
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[
1,
8
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[
10,
27
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[
38,
45
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[
50,
54
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 18 Stefan, archbishop of Uppsala (b. before 1143)",
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1,
8
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[
10,
16
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[
32,
39
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[
51,
55
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 11 Stephen Hagiochristophorites, Byzantine official",
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27935,
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[
1,
13
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[
15,
43
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 12 ",
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28021
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[
1,
13
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},
{
"plaintext": " Andronikos I (Komnenos), Byzantine emperor (b. 1118)",
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36270
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[
1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " John Komnenos, Byzantine co-emperor (b. 1159)",
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[
1,
14
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[
41,
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},
{
"plaintext": " November 25 Lucius III, pope of the Catholic Church (b. 1097)",
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1,
12
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[
14,
24
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[
38,
53
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[
58,
62
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},
{
"plaintext": " December 6 Afonso I (the Great), king of Portugal (b. 1109)",
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1657,
42477
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[
1,
11
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[
13,
21
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[
56,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Abd Allah al-Suhayli, Moorish scholar and writer (b. 1114)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Bhāskara (the Teacher), Indian mathematician (b. 1114)",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Fernando Rodríguez de Castro, Spanish nobleman (b. 1125)",
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"plaintext": " Ibn Tufail, Arab-Andalusian polymath and writer (b. 1105)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Máel Íosa Ua Dálaigh, Irish Chief Ollam and writer",
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"plaintext": " Taira no Shigehira, Japanese general (b. 1158)",
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[
1,
19
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] | [
"1185"
] | 19,729 | 297 | 54 | 109 | 0 | 0 | 1185 | year | [] |
40,095 | 1,100,083,483 | 1186 | [
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"plaintext": "Year 1186 (MCLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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40,096 | 1,107,608,963 | History_of_Bangladesh | [
{
"plaintext": "Civilisational history of Bangladesh previously known as East Bengal, dates back over four millennia, to the Chalcolithic. The country's early documented history featured successions of Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms and empires, vying for regional dominance.",
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"plaintext": "Islam arrived during the 6th-7th century AD and became dominant gradually since the early 13th century with the conquests led by Bakhtiyar Khalji as well as activities of Sunni missionaries such as Shah Jalal in the region. Later, Muslim rulers initiated the preaching of Islam by building mosques. From the 14th century onward, it was ruled by the Bengal Sultanate, founded by king Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah, beginning a period of the country's economic prosperity and military dominance over the regional empires, which was referred by the Europeans as the richest country to trade with.",
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"plaintext": "Afterwards, the region came under the Mughal Empire, as its wealthiest province. Bengal Subah generated almost half of the empire's GDP and 12% of the world's GDP, larger than the entirety of western Europe, ushering in the period of proto-industrialization. The population of the capital city, Dhaka, exceeded a million people.",
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"plaintext": "Following the decline of the Mughal Empire in the early 1700s, Bengal became a semi-independent state under the Nawabs of Bengal, ultimately led by Siraj ud-Daulah. It was later conquered by the British East India Company at the Battle of Plassey in 1757. Bengal directly contributed to the Industrial Revolution in Britain but led to its deindustrialization. The Bengal Presidency was later established.",
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"plaintext": "The borders of modern Bangladesh were established with the separation of Bengal and India in August 1947, when the region became East Pakistan as a part of the newly formed State of Pakistan following the end of British rule in the region. Proclamation of Bangladeshi Independence in March 1971 led to the nine-month long Bangladesh Liberation War, that culminated with East Pakistan emerging as the People's Republic of Bangladesh.",
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"plaintext": "After independence, the newly-founded state endured famine, natural disasters, and widespread poverty, as well as political turmoil and military coups.",
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"plaintext": "The exact origin of the word Bangla or Bengal is unknown. According to Mahabharata, Purana, Harivamsha Vanga was one of the adopted sons of King Vali who founded the Vanga Kingdom. The earliest reference to \"Vangala\" (Bôngal) has been traced in the Nesari plates (805AD) of the south Indian ruler Rashtrakuta Govinda III, who invaded northern India in the 9th century, which speak of Dharmapala as the king of Vangala. The records of Rajendra Chola I of the Chola dynasty, who invaded Bengal in the 11th century, affirms Govinda Chandra as the ruler of Bengal. Shams-ud-din Ilyas Shah took the title \"Shah-e-Bangalah\" and united the whole region under one government for the first time.",
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"plaintext": "The Vanga Kingdom (also known as Banga) was located in the eastern part of the Indian Subcontinent, comprising part of present-day modern Bangladesh and India's West Bengal. Vanga and Pundra were two dominant tribes in Bangladesh in ancient time.",
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"plaintext": "The Oxford History of India categorically claims that there is no definitive information about Bengal before the third century BCE. It is believed that there were movements of Indo-Aryans, Dravidians and Mongoloids, including a people called Vanga, into Bengal.",
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"plaintext": "The Bengal delta was made up of thick jungles and wetlands for several millennia. A major part of this geography lasted till historical times. The loss of the jungle was due to human activity. Bengal had an early human presence, but there is no consensus for the time frame of the first human activity in Bengal nor are there plenty of remains. One view contends that humans entered Bengal from China 60,000 years ago. Another view claims that a distinct regional culture emerged 100,000 years ago. There is weak evidence for a prehistoric human presence in the region. There is scant evidence of a human presence during the Neolithic and Chalcolithic eras. This could be because of the shifts in the rivers' courses. The Bengali climate and geography is not suitable for tangible archaeological remains. Due to lack of stones the early humans in Bengal probably used materials such as wood and bamboo that could not survive in the environment. South Asian archaeologists have tended to focus on other parts of the subcontinent. Archaeologists interested in Bengal have focused on more recent history.",
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"plaintext": "Archaeological discoveries are almost entirely from the hills around the Bengal delta. West Bengal and Bangladesh's eastern terrain offer the best source of information about the early peoples of Bengal. Industries of fossil-wood manufacturing blades, scrapers and axes have been discovered in Lalmai, Sitakund and Chaklapunji. These have been connected with similar findings in Burma and West Bengal. Large stones, thought to be prehistoric, were constructed in north eastern Bangladesh and are similar to those in India's nearby hills. Farming was practised before the first millennium BCE. West Bengal holds the earliest evidence of settled agrarian societies.",
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"plaintext": "Agricultural success gave ground in the fifth century BCE for a stationary culture and the emergence of towns, cross-sea trade and the earliest polities. Archaeologists have uncovered a port at Wari-Bateshwar which traded with Ancient Rome and Southeast Asia. The archaeologists have discovered coinage, pottery, iron artefacts, bricked road and a fort in Wari-Bateshwar. The findings suggest that the area was an important administrative hub, which had industries such as iron smelting and valuable stone beads. The site shows widespread use of clay. The clay, and bricks, were used to build walls. The most famous terracotta plaques, made by clay, are from Chandraketurgah and depicts deities and scenes of nature and ordinary life. The early coinage discovered in War-Bateshwar and Chandraketugarh (West Bengal, India) depict boats.",
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"plaintext": "Many of archaeological excavations in Bangladesh revealed evidences of the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW or NBP) culture of the Indian Subcontinent (c. 700–200BC), which was an Iron Age culture developed beginning around 700BC and peaked from c. 500–300BC, coinciding with the emergence of 16 great states or mahajanapadas in Northern India, and the subsequent rise of the Mauryan Empire. The eastern part of ancient India, covering much of current days Bangladesh was part of one of such mahajanapadas, the ancient kingdom of Anga, which flourished in the 6th century BC.",
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"plaintext": "Well developed towns had emerged by 300 BCE such as Tamralipti ( present-day Tamluk, West Bengal, India), Mahasthan and Mainamati. Instead of the seaside, main towns sprang up by the riversides. Mahasthan contains the earliest piece of writing in Bangladesh, a stone inscription. It indicates that the site was an important town in the Maurya empire. Mahasthan is believed to have then been a provincial centre. The inscription, in Prakrit, apparently contains a command to stock up supplies in case of an emergency. The inscription is called the Mahasthan Brahmi Inscription. Bengal was the eastern frontier of the Mauryan empire. Western Bengal with its port of Tamralipti achieved importance under the Mauryas.",
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"plaintext": "A prominent view in scholarship is that the Mauryan and Gupta empires exercised authority over most parts of the Bengal delta. The incomplete evidence which exists suggests that Bengal's western rather than eastern regions were parts of larger empires. The ancient zones in Bengal were the Bhagirathi-Hooghly basin, Harikela, Samatata, Vanga and Varendra. Vanga is believed to be central Bengal, Harikela and Samitata were apparently Bengal's eastern zones and Varendra was northern Bengal. The names of sites indicate that Tibeto-Burman, Austro-Asiatic and Dravidian languages were spoken by the majority of people. Indo-European languages became prominent from 400 BCE.",
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"plaintext": "The Vanga Kingdom was a powerful seafaring nation of Ancient Bengal. They had overseas trade relations with Java, Sumatra and Siam (modern day Thailand). According to Mahavamsa, the Vanga prince Vijaya Singha conquered Lanka (modern day Sri Lanka) in 544BC and gave the name \"Sinhala\" to the country. Bengali people migrated to the Maritime Southeast Asia and Siam (in modern Thailand), establishing their own settlement there.",
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"plaintext": "Though north and west Bengal were part of the empire southern Bengal thrived and became powerful with her overseas trades. In 326BCE, with the invasion of Alexander the Great the region again came to prominence. The Greek and Latin historians suggested that Alexander the Great withdrew from India anticipating the valiant counter-attack of the mighty Gangaridai empire that was located in the Bengal region. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer, Coenus, was convinced that it was better to return. Diodorus Siculus mentions Gangaridai to be the most powerful empire in India whose king possessed an army of 20,000 horses, 200,000 infantry, 2,000 chariots and 4,000 elephants trained and equipped for war. The allied forces of the Gangaridai Empire and Nanda Empire (Prasii) were preparing a massive counter-attack against the forces of Alexander on the banks of the Ganges. Gangaridai, according to the Greek accounts, kept on flourishing at least up to the 1st century CE.",
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"plaintext": "Bengal was left on its own after Mauryan power declined. Little is known of the period after that although parts of Bengal were probably under the Pataliputra-based Sunga dynasty. During this time Pundra was still a significant Buddhist location. Local rulers retained power while paying tribute to the Gupta Empire in the 300s and 400s. The Bengal delta became the kingdom of Samatata; its hub near the contemporary Chandpur. A Gupta inscription indicates that the Gupta empire possessed influence in Samatata without ruling it directly. Bengal remained a frontier despite its rare associations with the Indian heartland. Several dynasties changed during the next few centuries. While not much information is available about them, plates and other forms of evidence obtained from the Comilla district indicate that Gopachandra ruled the area in the early 500s. The Khargas became rulers in the next century. They were followed by the Deva dynasty, Harikela kingdom, Chandras and the Varmans. They were based in different sites of the Comilla district and Dhaka district's Vikrampur. Around that time, Bengalis first ruled in Varendra. Gaur was ruled by Sasanka in the early 600s. He was based in Karnasuvarna in modern-day Murshidabad district. Contemporary Chinese reports and coinage suggest that he was a firm Shaivite who was vehemently opposed to Buddhism. Opposition to Buddhism and a commitment to Brahminism apparently continued under the Sura dynasty, founded by Adisura around 700 CE. Around the middle of the eighth century a firm Buddhist, Gopala, assumed power in Bengal, possibly supported by Buddhist chiefs who were opposed to the effects of the Suras and Sasanka's faithful Brahmanism. During this time, the kingdoms of the Bay of Bengal were trading with the nations of nearby South Asia and Southeast Asia, thereby exporting Buddhism into Sri Lanka to the south and both Hinduism and Buddhism into Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore and the Philippines to the east.",
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"plaintext": "By the 6th century, the Gupta Empire, which ruled over the northern Indian subcontinent had largely broken up. Eastern Bengal splintered into the kingdoms of Vanga, Samatata and Harikela while the Gauda kings rose in the west with their capital at Karnasuvarna (near modern Murshidabad). Shashanka, a vassal of the last Gupta Emperor proclaimed independence and unified the smaller principalities of Bengal (Gaur, Vanga, Samatata). He vied for regional power with Harshavardhana in northern India after treacherously murdering Harsha's elder brother Rajyavardhana. Harsha's continuous pressure led to the gradual weakening of the Gauda kingdom founded by Shashanka and finally ended with his death. This burst of Bengali power ended with the overthrow of Manava (his son), Bengal descended into a period marked by disunity and intrude once more.",
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"plaintext": "The Pala dynasty ruled Bengal until the middle of the twelfth century and expanded Bengali power to its farthest extent and supported Buddhism. It was the first independent Buddhist dynasty of Bengal. The name Pala ( pal) means protector and was used as an ending to the names of all Pala monarchs. The Palas were followers of the Mahayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism. Gopala was the first ruler from the dynasty. He came to power in 750 in Gaur, after being elected by a group of feudal chiefs. He reigned from 750 to 770 and consolidated his position by extending his control over all of Bengal. He was succeeded by Dharmapala. The Palas promoted Buddhism and opposed Brahmanism. They provided support to Buddhist universities in Vikramashila and Nalanda. During the Pala dynasty the Vajrayana was developed in Bengal and introduced to Tibet. The Palas patronised the arts.",
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"plaintext": "The empire reached its peak under Dharmapala and Devapala. Dharmapala extended the empire into the northern parts of the Indian Subcontinent. This triggered once more for the control of the subcontinent. Devapala, successor of Dharmapala, expanded the empire considerably. The Pala inscriptions credit him with extensive conquests in hyperbolic language. The Badal pillar inscription of his successor Narayana Pala states that he became the suzerain monarch or Chakravarti of the whole tract of Northern India bounded by the Vindhyas and the Himalayas. It also states that his empire extended up to the two oceans (presumably the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal). It also claims that Devpala defeated Utkala (present-day Orissa), the Hunas, the Dravidas, the Kamarupa (present-day Assam), the Kambojas and the Gurjaras. Historian B. P. Sinha wrote that these claims about Devapala's victories are exaggerated, but cannot be dismissed entirely. Besides, the neighbouring kingdoms of Rashtrakutas and the Gurjara-Pratiharas were weak at the time, which might have helped him extend his empire. Devapala is also believed to have led an army up to the Indus river in Punjab. Devapala shifted the capital from Monghyr to Pataliputra. Although they were Bengali the dynasty considered the Ganges valley as the centre of its power.",
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"plaintext": "The dynasty's power declined after Devapala's death. During the rule of Mahipala I the South Indian Chola dynasty challenged the Palas.",
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"plaintext": "During the later part of Pala rule, Rajendra Chola I of the Chola Empire frequently invaded Bengal from 1021 to 1023 to get Ganges water and in the process, succeeded in humbling the rulers and acquiring considerable booty. The rulers of Bengal who were defeated by Rajendra Chola were Dharmapal, Ranasur and Govindachandra of the Candra Dynasty who might have been feudatories under Mahipala of the Pala Dynasty. The invasion by the south Indian ruler Vikramaditya VI of the Western Chalukya Empire brought his countrymen from Karnataka into Bengal which explains the southern origin of the Sena Dynasty. Around the 1150s the Palas lost power to the Senas.",
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"plaintext": "The Chandra dynasty were a family who ruled over the kingdom of Harikela in eastern Bengal (comprising the ancient lands of Harikela, Vanga and Samatata) for roughly a century and a half from the beginning of the 10th century CE. Their empire also encompassed Vanga and Samatata, with Srichandra expanding his domain to include parts of Kamarupa. Their empire was ruled from their capital, Vikrampur (modern Munshiganj) and was powerful enough to militarily withstand the Pala Empire to the north-west. The last ruler of the Chandra Dynasty, Govindachandra, was defeated by the south Indian Emperor Rajendra Chola I of the Chola dynasty in the 11th century.",
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"plaintext": "The Sena dynasty started around 1095 but only finally defeated the Palas around 1150. They apparently originated in Karnataka. Vijayasena took control of northern and western Bengal, removed the Palas from the former regions and based his rule in Nadia. The greatest ruler from the dynasty was Lakshmanasena. He established the dynasty's writ in Orissa and Benares. In 1202, Ikhtiyarrudin Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji took Nadia from the Senas, already having taken Bihar. Lakshmanasena left for Vikrampur in southeastern Bengal. His sons inherited the dynasty, which came to an end around 1245 because of feudal revolts and Muslim pressure.",
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"plaintext": "The dynasty has been staunchly Brahminist and had attempted to restore Brahminism to Bengal. They also established the system of kulinism in Bengal; through which higher caste males could take lower caste brides and enhance the status of these women's children. Some postulate that the dynasty's suppression of Buddhism became a cause for the conversions to Islam, especially in eastern Bengal.",
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"plaintext": "The Deva Kingdom was a Hindu dynasty of medieval Bengal that ruled over eastern Bengal after the collapse Sena Empire. The capital of this dynasty was Bikrampur in present-day Munshiganj District of Bangladesh. The inscriptional evidences show that his kingdom was extended up to the present-day Comilla-Noakhali-Chittagong region. A later ruler of the dynasty Ariraja-Danuja-Madhava Dasharathadeva extended his kingdom to cover much of East Bengal.",
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"plaintext": "Muslim rule in the region was inaugurated with the taking of Nadia in 1202. Initially, Bengal was administered by the Delhi Sultanate's governors, then by independent sultanates and then was under the rule of the Mughal empire. While Muslims had advanced into Sindh in the 700s, it was in Afghanistan that the ultimate Muslim conquest of South Asia originated from, starting with the raids by Mahmud of Ghazni in the early 11th century. The Afghanistan-based Ghurids replaced the Ghaznavids and they started expanded into the Ganges region. As part of this eastward expansion Ikhtiyaruddin Muhammad Bakhtiar Khan defeated the Palas in Bihar and in 1202 was victorious over the Senas in Nadia. In 1206, the Delhi Sultanate was created. It was not a true dynasty but the rulers was known as Mamluk. The Sultanate continued till 1290. The conquest of Nadia did not entail swift conversions to Islam. The authority of the Senas persisted in Vikrampur till 1245 and a large part of eastern Bangladesh had neither been conquered nor converted.",
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"plaintext": "Four dynasties based in Delhi succeeded the Slave dynasty. The Khaljis ruled from 1290 to 1320. The Tughluq dynasty's rule lasted until 1413. Sayyid rule ran from 1414 to 1451. The Lodhi dynasty ruled in the 1451-1526 period. But the writ of the Delhi Sultanate had been weak in its outer regions and Bengal like other similar areas turned into an independent region. Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah became the ruler of independent Bengal in 1342 and his dynasty ruled until 1486, barring a short interlude. He had come to power after a Bengali revolt against the Tughluq dynasty's governor. Shamsuddin's state was based in Pandua, modern-day Malda district. Shamsuddin drove up the Ganges to contest Tughluq rule. The Tughluqs, in return drove Ilyas Shah out of Pandua into eastern Bengal. Shamsuddin reclaimed Pandua and continued ruling Bengal. Shamsuddin's heir repelled Tughluq incursions and like his predecessor expanded the dynasty's authority into Bihar.",
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"plaintext": "The dynasty constructed grand buildings in Pandua. They built India's biggest mosque, the Adina mosque. Richard Eaton cites diplomatic accounts about the grandeur of Pandua's buildings. Eaton observes the influence of both Islamic and pre-Islamic Persian courts. Hindu landlords possessed a large quantity of land even under the Muslim rulers. The Hindu domination was opposed by the Muslim leadership, exemplified by the Faraizi campaign and leaders like Titu Mir in the 1800s.",
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"plaintext": "When the dynasty's third ruler died in 1410 there was a conflict over the throne. Raja Ganesh, who was a Hindu feudal, had become the most powerful personality at the Ilyas Shahi court. In 1414, he used the successor-ship conflict to seize control of Bengal. He repelled an incursion on Bengal by the Jaunpur sultanate in north India. His son, who embraced Islam, and then his grandson ruled after him. In 1433, the latter was assassinated and the Ilyas Shahi dynasty was restored.",
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"plaintext": "The dynasty began importing Abyssinian slaves. This population became more significant. They became so important that in 1486 an Abyssinian, Barbak Shahzada, seized power from Jalaluddin Fateh Shah. Barbak Shahzada's dynasty was short, lasting for the next seven years. The last Abyssinian ruler, Shamsuddin Muzaffar Shah, lost power to the Arab principal minister, Alauddin Husain.",
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"plaintext": "The initiation in 1493 of the Hussain Shahi dynasty brought a period which has been considered Bengal's golden age. The government was genuinely Bengali and while land ownership remained concentrated in Hindu hands, both religious groups had pivotal roles in the government. The sultanate expanded to acquire Cooch Behar and Kamrup. The Sultanate also dominated Orissa, Tripura and the Arakan region.",
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"plaintext": "Babar defeated the Lodhis at Panipat in 1526 and the Mughals established India's greatest state since the time of the Mauryas. But during Sheh Shah Suri's rebellion against the second Mughal ruler Humayan, he triumphed over the Hussain Shahi dynasty's Ghiyasuddin Mahmud Shah in 1538, thus bringing an end to the independent status of Bengal. For a short time Humayun ruled Gaur.",
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"plaintext": "Bengal along with other parts of eastern India was ruled by Sheh Shah Suri. He implemented many reforms such as introducing parganas. These were land survey based local tax units. He is most famous for designing the Grand Trunk Road between Calcutta and Punjab. Humayun retook Delhi in 1556. But the Suris continued ruling Bengal until 1564 when they were replaced by the Karrani dynasty. Like the Suris, they were not native to Bengal. They had been raiders whom the Mughal armies had driven eastwards.",
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"plaintext": "In 1204CE, the first Muslim ruler, Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji, a Turko Afghan, captured Nadia and established Muslim rule. The political influence of Islam began to spread across Bengal with the conquest of Nadia, the capital city of the Sen ruler Lakshmana. Bakhtiyar captured Nadia in an interesting manner. Being made aware of the presence of a strong army of Lakshmana Sen on the main route to Nadia, Bakhtiyar proceeded instead through the jungle of Jharkhand. He divided his army into several groups, and he himself led a group of 17 horsemen and advanced towards Nadia in the guise of horse-traders. In this manner, Bakhtiyar had no problem in entering through the gates of the city. Shortly afterwards, Bakhityar's main army joined him and within a short while Nadia was captured.",
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"plaintext": "After capturing Nadia, Bakhtiyar advanced towards Gauda (Lakhnuti), another major city of the Sena kingdom, conquered it and made it his capital in 1205. In the following year, Bakhtiyar set out on an expedition to capture Tibet, but this attempt failed and he had to return to Bengal in poor health and with a reduced army. Shortly afterwards, he was killed by one of his commanders, Ali Mardan Khilji. In the meantime, Lakshman Sen and his two sons retreated to Vikramapur (in the present-day Munshiganj District in Bangladesh), where their diminished dominion lasted until the late 13th century.",
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"plaintext": "Khiljis were Turko Afghan. The period after Bakhtiar Khilji's death in 1207 involved infighting among the Khiljis. This was typical of a pattern of succession struggles and intra-sultanate intrigues during later Turko Afghan regimes. In this case, Ghiyasuddin Iwaj Khilji prevailed and extended the Sultan's domain south to Jessore and made the eastern Bang province a tributary. The capital was established at Lakhnauti on the Ganges near the older Bengal capital of Gaur. He managed to make Kamarupa and Trihut pay tribute to him. But he was later defeated by Shams-ud-Din Iltutmish.",
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"plaintext": "Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah ruled an independent kingdom in areas that lie within modern-day eastern and south-eastern Bangladesh from 1338 to 1349. He was the first Muslim ruler to conquer Chittagong, the principal port in the Bengal region, in 1340. Fakhruddin's capital was Sonargaon which emerged as the principal city of the region and as the capital of an independent sultanate during his reign. Ibn Batuta, after visiting his capital in 1346, described the Shah as \"a distinguished sovereign who loved strangers, particularly the fakirs and Sufis.\"",
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"plaintext": "Shamsuddin Iliyas Shah founded an independent dynasty that lasted from 1342 to 1487. The dynasty successfully repulsed attempts by Delhi to conquer them. They continued to extend their territory across what is modern-day Bengal, reaching to Khulna in the south and Sylhet in the east. The sultans developed civic institutions and became more responsive and \"native\" in their outlook and became increasingly independent from Delhi influence and control. Considerable architectural projects were completed including the massive Adina Mosque and the Darasbari Mosque which still stands in Bangladesh near the border with India. The Sultans of Bengal were patrons of Bengali literature and began a process in which Bengali culture and identity would flourish. During the rule of this dynasty, Bengal, for the first time, achieved a separate identity. Indeed, Ilyas Shah named this province as 'Bangalah' and united different parts into a single, unified territory. The Ilyas Shahi Dynasty was interrupted by an uprising by the Hindus under Raja Ganesha. However, the Ilyas Shahi dynasty was restored by Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah. The Moroccan traveller and scholar, Ibn Battuta, arrived in Bengal during Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah's reign. In his account of Bengal in his Rihla, he depicts a land full of abundance. Bengal was a progressive state with commercial links to China, Java and Ceylon. Merchant ships arrived and departed from various destinations.",
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"plaintext": "The Ganesha dynasty began with Raja Ganesha in 1414. After Raja Ganesha seized control over Bengal, he faced an imminent threat of invasion. Ganesha appealed to a powerful Muslim holy man named Qutb al Alam to stop the threat. The saint agreed on the condition that Raja Ganesha's son, Jadu, would convert to Islam and rule in his place. Raja Ganesha agreed and Jadu started ruling Bengal as Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah in 1415. Qutb al Alam died in 1416 and Raja Ganesha was emboldened to depose his son and return to the throne as Danujamarddana Deva. Jalaluddin was reconverted to Hinduism by the Golden Cow ritual. After the death of his father Jalaluddin once again converted to Islam and started ruling again. Jalaluddin's son, Shamsuddin Ahmad Shah ruled for only 3 years due to chaos and anarchy. The dynasty is known for its liberal policies as well as its focus on justice and charity.",
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"plaintext": "The Habshi rule gave way to the Hussain Shahi dynasty which ruled from 1494 to 1538. Alauddin Hussain Shah, is considered one of the greatest sultans of Bengal, for his encouragement of a cultural renaissance during his reign. He extended the sultanate all the way to the port of Chittagong, which witnessed the arrival of the first Portuguese merchants. Nasiruddin Nasrat Shah gave refuge to the Afghan lords during the invasion of Babur though he remained neutral. Later, Nasrat Shah made a treaty with Babur which saved Bengal from a Mughal invasion. The last sultan of the dynasty, who continued to rule from Gaur, had to contend with rising Afghan activity on his north-western border. Eventually, the Afghans broke through and sacked the capital in 1538 where they remained for several decades until the arrival of the Mughals.",
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"plaintext": "A major Mughal victory in 1576, in which Akbar took Bengal, was followed by four decades of efforts dedicated to vanquishing rebels in the Bhati region. The initial victory was accompanied by destruction and severe violence. The Mughals were opposed by the Bengalis. Akbar appointed a Hindu servant Raja Man Singh as Bengal's governor. Singh based his rule at Rajmahal, Bihar, thinking that he could administer the region beyond.",
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"plaintext": "The Bara Bhuiyan, or twelve landlords, resisted the Mughal attempts to annex Bengal. The landlords were mainly Afghan and Hindu aristocrats. Pratapaditya was one of the Hindu landlords among these leaders. They were led by the landlord Isa Khan, who was based in Sonargaon. Isa Khan is known for his resistance to outside rule, particularly from Delhi and Urdu-speaking soldiers. His actions were to serve as an inspiration in 1971.",
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"plaintext": "The landlords spearheaded an extensive revolt. Both the Mughals and rebels committed atrocities such as massacre, rape and looting. They defeated the Mughal navy in 1584. After this battles continued on land. In 1597, they again defeated the Mughal navy, however, Isa Khan died in the following year. The struggle against Mughal rule weakened. Man Singh, realising the strategic value of controlling Dhaka to administer eastern Bengal, created a military base there. He also realised its utility in controlling Aranakese and Portuguese influence.",
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"plaintext": "This base became more important in the late 1500s when the Ganges started to change its course. The change in the river's course allowed the clearing and harvesting of more land. The waterways of Dhaka allowed easy movement of soldiers to various parts of Bengal. In 1610, Dhaka became a provincial capital. By then several of the internationally known muslin looms had shifted to Dhaka from Sonargaon. Dhaka flourished both as an administrative and handloom center.",
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"plaintext": "The Bengal region was historically an international hub of various activities. Merchants, pilgrims and voyagers traversed Bengal to travel to Nepal and Tibet. Bengal's waterways were a place where various peoples interacted. In 1346, the Moroccan voyager Ibn Battuta followed the trade route through Sri Lanka when he traveled to Bengal from the Maldives in 1346. In the 1300s Bengal traded its paddy for cowries from the Maldives. Evidence from the 1500s demonstrates that rice grown in Bengal was eaten as far as eastern Indonesia and Goa. Bengal also exported other materials and food products at the same time. Bengali traders dominated trade with southeast Asia. Chinese merchants in the 1400s and 1500s introduced gold, satin, silks, silver and porcelain. A European traveler in 1586 reported that the quality of the cotton textiles produced in Sonargaon was better than in other parts of the subcontinent. These fabrics were sent to international markets.",
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"plaintext": "Under the Mughal Empire, which had 25% of the world's GDP, Bengal Subah generated 50% of the empire's GDP and 12% of the world's GDP. Bengal, the empire's wealthiest province, was an affluent region with a Bengali Muslim majority and Bengali Hindu minority. According to economic historian Indrajit Ray, it was globally prominent in industries such as textile manufacturing and shipbuilding.",
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"plaintext": "Dhaka was renamed to Jahangirnagar by the governor for Jahangir, the emperor. The governor managed to defeat and make the chieftains accept Mughal authority. During Mughal rule, Dhaka's architecture was enriched. In 1678, Aurangzeb's son started the construction of the Lalbagh fort, which encloses the tomb of Nur Jahan's grand niece. Surviving Mughal buildings are the Bara Katra, Chhota Katra and the Husaini Dalan (a Shi'a mosque).",
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"plaintext": "During the Mughal rule many civilian and military administrators entered Bengal. A lot of these officials received land grants and became domiciled. Despite the Hindu domination of the landed class, Muslims formed a crucial section and maintained possession of significant land grants until the land reforms after 1947.",
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"plaintext": "The form of Bengal's government had been less rigid than the ones in other parts of the Mughal empire. The Mughals asserted a centralised form of rule on top of the differing local administrative structures. Consequently, local rulers administered control in the rural areas. These \"zamindars\" were autonomous and were a secular elite, differentiated from the general populace by their authority. Surnames in modern Bangladesh such as Chowdhury, Khan, Sarkar and Talukdar originate from the names of ranks in the Mughal elite. This elite functioned alongside the Mughal officials. The latter's duty was to keep charge over tax collection. The diwan was the most important tax officer and was directly selected by the Mughal ruler. Each Mughal conquest in Bengal was accompanied with the establishment of a thana (garrison) for the purpose of maintaining peace. After that the territory would be merged into the empire's administrative system. In the empire's system each province would comprise several regions, called \"sarkar\", which in turn would be made up of subdivisions called parganas. The lowest tier in the system was the mouza (revenue village).",
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"plaintext": "The agricultural borderland during Mughal rule in the 1500s started moving towards the eastern portion of Bengal. The region's agricultural productivity increased. To increase their revenues the Mughal administration promoted forest clearing and wet-rice farming. The officials gave land grants to entrepreneurs who were willing to give taxes in exchange for rights over the lands. The colonists required labour and this was advantageous for the religious elite. Most communities in the region were boatmen and fishermen on the margins of society who were nominally Hindu but in reality had very weak ties to Hinduism. These were the labourers who cultivated the rice and would make up the bulk of peasantry in eastern Bengal. Land grants would require the construction of a shrine and the colonists would gather settlers around these shrines. Society was ordered around the shrine. New communities would engage in forest clearing and cultivation. Locals either merged with these communities or moved away while keeping trading contacts with the rice cultivators.",
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"plaintext": "The Mughal government had no attitude of encouraging Islam in the region and Hindus made up many of these pioneers who had government backing. But most of the pioneers were Muslim. A large number of them were pirs. Richard Eaton asserts that Islam was understood to be linked with the government-accepted acquisition of land in eastern Bengal which had only weak connections with Hindu civilization. The traditions and rituals of eastern Bengal, mosques and shrines blended together. Islam spread in Bengal because of its localisation. Islamic agencies were inserted into the contemporary cosmology, were then associated with local divinities and eventually the Islamic agencies took over the local culture. Local Hindus, in response to the conversion, closed ranks and became more conservative, expelling those who were 'polluted' by contact with Muslims. This increased the number of Muslims.",
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"plaintext": "Islam Khan was appointed the Subahdar of Bengal in 1608 by Mughal emperor Jahangir. He ruled Bengal from his capital Dhaka which he renamed as Jahangir Nagar. His major task was to subdue the rebellious Rajas, Bara-Bhuiyans, Zamindars and Afghan chiefs. He fought with Musa Khan, the leader of Bara-Bhuiyans, and by the end of 1611 Musa Khan was subdued. Islam Khan also defeated Pratapaditya of Jessore, Ram Chandra of Bakla and Ananta Manikya of Bhulua. He annexed the kingdom of Kamrup and subdued Koch Bihar and Kachhar, thus taking total control over entire Bengal other than Chittagong.",
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"plaintext": "Shaista Khan was appointed the Subahdar (Governor) of Bengal upon the death of Mir Jumla II in 1663. He was the longest-serving governor of Bengal. He ruled the province from his administrative headquarters in Dhaka for almost 24 years from 1664 to 1688.",
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"plaintext": "Shaista Khan's great fame in Bengal chiefly rests on his re-conquest of Chittagong. Though Chittagong came under the control of Bengal during Sultan Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah's reign in the mid-14th century, it subsequently fell into the hands of Arakanese rulers. Shaista Khan gave priority to recapturing Chittagong, and was able to do so in January 1666. The conquest brought a relief and peace to the people of Chittagong as pirates had caused a great distress to the local population.",
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"plaintext": "Mughal appointments of agents in Bengal ceased by 1713 because the empire was weakening. In 1715, the capital was shifted to Murshidabad. This resulted in Dhaka's decline. This transfer happened when the province's main tax officer, Murshid Quli Khan, who had transferred his office to Maksudabad (renamed Murshidabad after him) became governor. Murshidabad was located at a more central position in Bengal, whose administrative limits at the time also included Bihar and Orissa. In addition to changing the capital, Murshid Quli Khan modified the tax collection system.",
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"plaintext": "Murshid Quli Khan wanted to create a line of governing nawabs like the contemporary governors of Oudh. He was succeeded by family members. However, Alivardi Khan established another nawab family. He collaborated with Jagat Seth to defeat the governor and secured the post of governor from the Mughal ruler through bribery. He also became diwan of Orissa. However, he faced problems from Maratha raiders present in Orissa.",
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"plaintext": "Nawab Alivardi Khan repulsed the first three Maratha invasions of Bengal. But they invaded again, and in 1751, Alivardi Khan signed a peace treaty with the Marathas. He ceded the province of Orissa to the Maratha Empire and agreed to pay twelve lakhs of rupees annually as chauth (tribute). He crushed an uprising of the Afghans in Bihar and made the British pay 150,000 Tk for blocking Mughal and Armenian trade ships.",
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"plaintext": "His maternal grandson Sirajuddaulah succeeded him when he died in 1756. Sirajuddaulah tried to stop uncertified trade in Bengal. Because of this he clashed with British merchants and was eventually defeated by 1757 in Polashi. The British governed Bengal and large areas to its west by 1764.",
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"plaintext": "In 1517, the Portuguese installed an outpost at Chittagong. A Portuguese settlement was also created at Satgaon. In 1579, with a land grant from Akbar, the Portuguese created another station at Hooghly. The Portuguese traded and proselytised until 1632 when they were expelled by Shah Jahan, who allowed them to re-enter in the next year. The hostility towards them was a consequence of piracy by the Portuguese and Maghs. By 1651 the British obtained control of Hooghly. The Portuguese presence came to an end.",
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"plaintext": "The Portuguese had traded through the government but other European powers traded through companies instead. A Dutch station was established at Chinsura but the Dutch directed their interests to Ceylon and Southeast Asia. In 1825, they exchanged Chinsura with the British for posts in Southeast Asia. In 1755, a Danish station was established at Serampore. In 1845, the British bought it. The French Company lasted longer. Their position was second to the British. The latter overtook the French. The first British factory was established in 1608 in western India. Soon afterwards the British entered Bengal.",
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"plaintext": "The British founded factories in Balasore, Cossimbazar, Dhaka, Hooghly and Patna. In 1681, a \"presidency\" was established. In 1690, Job Charnock established Calcutta. During this time the British came into conflict with Bengal's Mughal governors. In 1652, the British had been exempted from customs payments in exchange for giving yearly sums to the nawab. But the nawab foisted fees upon them, which the British opposed. The British met the nawab Shaista Khan in Dhaka in 1652 and secured the exemption again.",
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"plaintext": "British trading activities expanded during Shaista Khan's administration. Alivardi Khan disliked the British and French plans to secure their possessions. Alivardi Khan disputed the British application of Emperor Fakukhsiyar's order which had allowed the British unfettered trading privileges in the Mughal empire. Alivardi Khan was perturbed by the stipulation in the order which provided the British with tax exemptions on the transportation of goods. This meant lower revenues for Alivardi Khan.",
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"plaintext": "Alivardi's successor Sirajuddaulah set about eliminating the foreign presence. In 1756, he seized Calcutta and incarcerated the resident British population. Robert Clive and his troops took Calcutta back in January 1757. Clive compelled Sirajuddaulah to assent to a treaty which would restore Emperor Fakukhsiyar's order allowing the British to trade unrestricted. Clive then conspired with Sirajuddaulah's relative, Mir Jafar, and obtained the support of a major banker, Jagat Seth. Robert Clive and Sirajuddaulah's troops battled each other at Plassey in June 1757. Mir Jafar abandoned the nawab during the battle, who suffered defeat and was killed. Many historians see this battle as the start of British colonialism in the subcontinent which would last until 1947.",
"section_idx": 7,
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"plaintext": "After their triumph at Plassey the British transformed Bengal into the center of their growing Indian colony. The British could fully obtain financial authority in Bengal if the diwani was given to the East India Company in place of the Nawab. When Mir Jafar died in 1765 the Emperor Shah Alam implemented that transfer. This guaranteed British authority in the province. while a semi-feudal association was maintained with the Mughal empire. The diwani was used with the approval of the Mughal ruler. While the British East India Company was nominally a diwan, it was practically independent of the Mughals.",
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"plaintext": "Indian nationalist historiography pinpoints the battle in Plassey as the start of a foreign and exploitative colonialism which ended in 1947. But the Bangladeshi perspective is that the people of Bengal had been used to fleecing administrations run by foreigners before the rise of the British authority. Bangladeshi historians also contend that colonialism persisted during the post-colonial period when the region was included in Pakistan. The Battle of Plassey did not mark an end to native rule in Bengal. It marked an end to the Mughal system.",
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"plaintext": "The British goal was to increase the productivity of the Bengali economy. They experimented on Bengal's administration and economy. The results of some of the experiments were not always successful. The increased taxation in Bengal's unstable climate was a calamity. The taxation was not eased even during the drought and floods of 1769–1770. Along with unmonitored exploitation this caused a severe famine, in which it is believed ten million residents of Bengal died.",
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"plaintext": "The Mughal State was disintegrated, causing the principal governor of Bengal to become the de facto ruler. After a replacement was sought by the British East India Company, in the mid-eighteenth century, the border of Cooch Behar was marked the northernmost limit of British Territory. Cooch Behar survived as a princely state till the end of the colonial rule, this was due to the indirect ruling of the British expedition in 1772, when it invaded and conquered the territory: the Maharaja and his administration were thence retained under the control of a British political agent.",
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"plaintext": "Capital amassed from Bengal by the East India Company was invested in various industries such as textile manufacturing in Great Britain during the initial stages of the Industrial Revolution. Company policies in Bengal also led to the deindustrialization of the Bengali textile industry during Company rule.",
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"plaintext": "The famine disaster made British officials look for viable methods of tapping into the colony's resources. In 1790, the British introduced \"permanent settlement\" and made it law three years later. It was a framework for taxation on land. The system was the core of the colonial form of government. It was an agreement between the British and the zamindars who were effectively given landholdings in exchange for timely payment of taxes.",
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"plaintext": "The aim of the permanent settlement was that the zamindars would eventually invest in the development of agriculture and improve the economy of Bengal. The aim did not materialise because the zamindars did not have state backing for agrarian growth and because of newfound ways of generating wealth. A common method was fleecing the peasants. The increasingly rich zamindars moved away from agrarian and taxation activities. They appointed intermediaries. A multilayered form of landholdings developed, which benefited from the land's revenue. This structure was most pronounced in the southern areas of modern Bangladesh. The permanent settlement scheme deprived peasants of any proprietary rights over the land.",
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"plaintext": "While Muslims had comprised most of the landlord class during Mughal rule, Hindus became prominent during the colonial rule. While Muslim landlords and Hindu occupants did exist, eastern Bengal witnessed an amalgamation of religion with class, with Hindu landlords presiding over mainly Muslim peasants. Hindu landlords were also prominent in western Bengal, but most peasants there were Hindus. This factor would become politically important by the end of the colonial rule.",
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"plaintext": "Another change during British rule was the system of cash cropping. During colonial rule cash cropping was organised and produced for international markets. It was significant because of the links it created between the Bengali countryside's economy with markets in Asia and Europe. Because of cash cropping the eastern region of modern Bangladesh emerged as the centre for jute cultivation. The western portion of modern Bangladesh produced silk and sugar. The northern areas produced tobacco. Crops were associated with specific types of land organisation. Peasantry in the eastern areas were compelled by financial needs towards market production. The countryside's elite in the western and northern areas were protected from the immediate impact of market factors because they provided agrarian credit.",
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"plaintext": "The British abandoned the former official language, Persian, in the 1830s and English medum educational institutions prepared a small part of the Bengali elite for jobs in the lower and middle tiers of government. Muslims took up the British improvements more slowly and lagged behind the Hindus educationally and commercially. Hindus comprised most of the college students. There were changes in health. The population growth during colonial rule was because people had more knowledge of hygiene and increased access to hospitals and medication. Transport became less reliant on the rivers with the construction of bridges and railways. Improvements in technology aided communications. Despite the government's authoritarian form, the British tried out limited democratic systems in the later part of their rule due to political constraints.",
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"plaintext": "A vital development under British rule was the rise of Calcutta to political and cultural prominence. It became colonial India's capital. From 1757 to 1931 the Government of India was located in the city. Aspiring Bengalis migrated to Calcutta and obtained education and government employment. They are known to historians as the \"bhodrolok\" and high caste Hindus comprised most of them. Old centers such as Dhaka and Murshidabad declined while the trading class became concentrated in Calcutta.",
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"plaintext": "The authoritarian regime functioning in alliance with the rural elite was susceptible to resistance and revolts happened frequently during the British rule. However, British rule in Bengal faced no threat by the second half of the 1800s. Bengal did not participate in the 1857 revolt which nearly ended British administration over large swathes of India. While there was a revolt by troops in Chittagong it dwindled because the landlords and peasants did not support the rebellion. Instead political grievances nor revolved around peasant rights and the commercialization of agriculture. The struggle was usually characterised by peasants and the middle class in opposition to the landlords, Western businessmen and the British administration. Many campaigns eventually ended the indigo industry. These were led by Wahhabi influenced Islamic missionaries.",
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"plaintext": "There had been prominent Hindu reformist movements in the early 1800s but no equivalent Muslim movement. A departure from this rule was the Faraizi movement which Haji Shariatullah started in 1828. It was a conservative Islamic movement grounded in Wahhabi ideology. It opposed the exaltation of saints and the repression by landlords and indigo traders. Shariatullah regarded India as a dar al-harb and thus believed that festivals and Friday prayers should cease. His heir, Dudu Mia, expanded the movement and claimed that the landlords did not possess permanent land rights. The Faraizi movement eventually ended after his demise.",
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"plaintext": "Titu Mir led another Wahhabi campaign at the same time as the Faraizi movement. This movement was violent and opposed to the British presence. He died in 1831 during a confrontation with the British. Two years later his followers supported indigo farmers in a clash against the European planters and Hindu landlords. The protest was ultimately muted by 1860 when the peasants were granted more security. But not all rural rebellions were inspired by religion.",
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"plaintext": "By the late 1800s parts of the elite and peasants became politically connected. This link was to become a crucial prototype of later campaigns in Bengal. The movement for self determination joined communist and nationalist movements, several of which were associated with all-India organisations.",
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"plaintext": "The Bengal renaissance refers to a social reform movement during the 19th and early 20th centuries in Bengal. Historian Nitish Sengupta describes it as taking place from Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1775–1833) through Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941). This flowering in Bengal of religious and social reformers, scholars, and writers is described by historian David Kopf as \"one of the most creative periods in Indian history\". Bangladeshi people are also very proud of their national poet Kazi Nazrul Islam. He is greatly remembered for his active voice against the oppression of the British rulers in the 20th century. He was imprisoned for writing his most famous poem of \"Bidrohee\".",
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"plaintext": "The decision to effect the Partition of Bengal was announced in July 1905 by the Viceroy of India, Lord Curzon. The partition took place on 16 October 1905 and separated the largely Muslim eastern areas from the largely Hindu western areas. The former province of Bengal was divided into two new provinces \"Bengal\" (comprising western Bengal as well as the province of Bihar and Orissa) and Eastern Bengal and Assam with Dacca as the capital of the latter. Partition was promoted for administrative reasons: Bengal was geographically as large as France and had a significantly larger population. Curzon stated the eastern region was neglected and under-governed. By splitting the province, an improved administration could be established in the east, where subsequently, the population would benefit from new schools and employment opportunities. The Hindus of West Bengal who dominated Bengal's business and rural life complained that the division would make them a minority in a province that would incorporate the province of Bihar and Orissa. Indians were outraged at what they recognised as a \"divide and rule\" policy.",
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"plaintext": "The British regarded politically active Muslims as their supporters and the partition created a Muslim-dominated province. The Muslims universally reacted to the division with approval. Hindus denounced it. The partition highlighted the flaw in the political unity of the members of different religions in Bengal. Hindus and Muslims became distinct political groups. This was due to several reasons. Muslims comprised the majority in the new eastern province. Muslims anticipated careers in the province's administration. The second reason was that the initial enthusiasm of some Bengali Muslims for the protest against the partition diminished because of the protest's culture. The predominantly Hindu bhodrolok led the anti-partition campaign and connected it with Hindu revivalism. They identified their homeland with Kali and selected Bande Mataram as anthem, which Muslims opposed. The third reason was that Bengal's Muslims identified themselves as members of a community. The British had promoted religion as a grounds for political identification. This had been difficult because the Muslims of Bengal had not perceived themselves as a separate community. Muslim unity had been hindered by significant internal differences. Most Bengali Muslims had been more a member of a religiously diverse Bengali community than a Muslim one, until the end of the 1800s.",
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"plaintext": "The Islam they practised had a significant foundation in the culture of the Bengali countryside. The elite Muslims identified themselves as ashraf (of foreign descent) and sought to copy North Indian Islamic culture and they saw themselves as the protectors of the true Islam in Bengal. To them, the Islam practised by the local peasants and craftsmen was contaminated by un-Islamic associations. While a large number of well-taught Muslims remained hesitant to accept the peasants who practised Bengali culture, the idea of a single Muslim community had come to exist just before partition. Economic issues increased Hindu-Muslim conflict in Bengal. The Muslim occupants began to demand their rights against the mainly Hindu landed and moneylending class. Middle class Muslims were unable to achieve their political goals because of the Hindu elite's contemptuous attitude. Hindus and Muslims clashed in Comilla and Mymensingh in 1906 and 1907. The violence boosted religious identities and supported stereotyping. The Hindu elite regarded the countryside Muslims as British agents and inferior. To Muslims, the Hindus were cunning exploiters. The British reversed the partition in 1911 and declared they would move India's capital to Delhi. New Delhi was inaugurated after two decades of construction in 1931.",
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"plaintext": "Dhaka was the scene of a meeting of Muslim leaders in late 1906. They created a party for Muslims and declared its loyalty to the British, believing that the British could best protect the interests of Muslims. The late 1800s had seen the introduction of a system of elections based on limited franchise. The franchise was broadened later to increase the number of voters. However, universal franchise never materialized but the Muslim leadership did secure a separate voting system for Muslims in 1909. In the Lucknow Pact of 1916 the Muslim League and Indian National Congress accepted both separate electorates and provincial weightage for minorities. This reduced Bengali Muslim seats to forty percent in a Muslim majority province. The Muslim League regretted this decision.",
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"plaintext": "Until 1920, the elections happened on a non-party basis. When party candidature was introduced the independent candidates maintained their importance. They won a third of seats in Bengal in the 1937 elections. Congress had been the main contestant for the general seats while the Muslim League vied with Fazlul Huq's Krishak Praja Party (KPP) for the Muslim seats. The 1937 elections showed that no party could establish a ministry on its own. The Krishak Praja Party established a ministry with the Muslim League. The League could not win the three other Muslim provinces. Muslim prime ministers who were not members of the Congress agreed to support the League nationally even as they would keep control of their provincial matters. Fazlul Huq was a member of both the KPP and the Muslim League.",
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"plaintext": "Congress ministries resigned to protest the declaration of war against Germany by viceroy, Lord Linlithgow, which he had done so without seeking the opinion of the provincial governments. The Muslim governments in Punjab, Bengal and Sindh did not resign. But a rift emerged between Fazlul Huq and the League when the viceroy created an advisory council, thus Huq's ministry fell. According to Fazlul Huq, who resigned from the party, the Muslim League represented the interests of Muslim minority provinces more than the Muslim provinces. Fazlul Huq had advanced the Lahore Resolution in 1940, before resigning. The resolution had used the word \"states\" which indicated that a united Pakistan was not intended by this resolution.",
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"plaintext": "Fazlul Huq recreated his government, this time without the Muslim League, in late 1941. Muslim League members led by Khawaja Nazimuddin and Suhrawardy campaigned against Fazlul Huq. Huq resigned in 1943 under pressure from the governor. On 24 April 1943 Nazimuddin inaugurated his own ministry at the governor's invitation. Nazimuddin's ministry was seen unfavourably by both the viceroy, Lord Wavell, and the governor. In particular, the Viceroy was disturbed by Nazimuddin's response to the famine. Bengal experienced a great famine during the second world war. Approximately 3 and a half million died, mainly in the countryside of east Bengal.",
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"plaintext": "The 1945-1946 elections restored a responsible provincial government. In the 1946 elections the politics was dominated by two organisations. They were the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League. The Congress was never able to win Bengal. The 1946 election was mainly contended over the question of creating a Muslim homeland: Pakistan. To many it represented a plebiscite. Bengal's Muslim League ignored local matters in its campaign over partition. The KPP of Fazlul Huq was defeated. The Muslim League captured 110 out of the 117 seats for Muslims. Out of all Muslim provinces, Bengal was the biggest supporter of the Muslim League. The majority of East Bengal's peasantry saw Pakistan as a good way of eliminating the feudal system. More than religious reasons, it had been because of economic factors they supported the Muslim League and Pakistan.",
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"plaintext": "In 1946, the British government sent a mission, which ultimately advanced a scheme for a united India. The scheme encapsulated a loose union. A key point for Bengal was the maintenance of its unity under the scheme. The plan was agreed to by Jinnah but Nehru negated it. The Muslim League declared Direct Action Day on 16 August. Rioting followed in Calcutta and many died. The Bhodrolok decided that dividing Bengal would be better than accepting the rule of Muslims. The Muslim League did not want Bengal to be divided, and wanted it fully included in Pakistan. However, the Congress demanded the partition of the province. A few leaders of the Muslim League and Congress started advocating an independent United Bengal. While some politicians like Jinnah and Gandhi supported this idea, the national Congress rejected it in favour of partition. Eastern Bengal was to join Pakistan while Western Bengal would join India. Most of Assam's mainly Muslim Sylhet district opted for Bengal in a plebiscite. The rest joined India with Assam.",
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"plaintext": "Bengal became part of a unique state experiment. Pakistan was based on religious nationalism, did not inherit British India's institutions and its territories were disconnected from each other physically. While the western wing was larger, 55 percent of Pakistanis lived in Bengal. A rift developed over the question of the national language.",
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"plaintext": "The Bengali Language Movement was a political effort in Bangladesh (then known as East Pakistan), advocating the recognition of the Bengali language as an official language of Pakistan. Such recognition would allow Bengali to be used in government affairs. It was led by Mufti Nadimul Quamar Ahmed.",
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"plaintext": "When the state of Pakistan was formed in 1947, its two regions, East Pakistan (also called East Bengal) and West Pakistan, were split along cultural, geographical, and linguistic lines. On 23 February 1948, the Government of Pakistan ordained Urdu as the sole national language, sparking extensive protests among the Bengali-speaking majority of East Pakistan. Facing rising sectarian tensions and mass discontent with the new law, the government outlawed public meetings and rallies. The students of the University of Dhaka and other political activists defied the law and organised a protest on 21 February 1952. The movement reached its climax when police opened fire on the students that day. The deaths provoked widespread civil unrest led by the Awami Muslim League, later renamed the Awami League. After years of conflict, the central government relented and granted official status to the Bengali language in 1956. On 17 November 1999, UNESCO declared 21 February International Mother Language Day for the whole world to celebrate, in tribute to the Language Movement and the ethno-linguistic rights of people around the world.",
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"plaintext": "The 1952 events caused the people of East Pakistan to abandon the Muslim League. In East Pakistan's 1954 provincial elections, the League captured only 7 out of the 390 seats. The United Front won the elections. Until 1956, when the state declared that both Bengali and Urdu would be state languages, the language movement continued.",
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"plaintext": "Great differences began developing between the two wings of Pakistan. While the west had a minority share of Pakistan's total population, it had the largest share of revenue allocation, industrial development, agricultural reforms and civil development projects. Pakistan's military and civil services were dominated by the Punjabis. Bengalis had been designated as a \"non-martial\" race by the British. Bengali participation in the military was very low. The British preferred to recruit Punjabi Muslims. The Punjabis dominated the army Pakistan inherited from British India's military. Because Bengalis did not have a tradition of military service in their families, it was hard to recruit Bengali officers.",
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"plaintext": "By the middle of the 1960s the East Pakistani elite concluded that the protection of their interests lay in autonomy. Abdul Momen Khan, who was governor in the 1962-1968 period, persecuted opposition and censored media. The regime became more unpopular during 1965, in the year of a war between India and Pakistan. Patriotism was high in East Pakistan during the war against India, but this was one of the last cases of national solidarity. East Pakistanis felt they had not been protected by the army from a possible Indian invasion.",
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"plaintext": "In 1966, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the leader of the Awami League, proclaimed a 6-point plan titled Our Charter of Survival at a national conference of opposition political parties at Lahore, in which he demanded self-government and considerable political, economic and defence autonomy for East Pakistan in a Pakistani federation with a weak central government. This led to the historic Six point movement. The six points for a confederation were more extreme than previous calls for autonomy.",
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"plaintext": "In early 1968, the Agartala Conspiracy Case was filed against Mujib with the allegation that the accused was conspiring for the secession of East Pakistan with Indian aid. The government expected this to harm Mujib's popularity. But popular demonstrations made the government drop the case.",
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"plaintext": "A West Pakistani movement aimed at removing Ayub Khan spread to East Pakistan where it adopted Bengali nationalist connotations. Ayub Khan resigned in March 1969 and his position was taken by General Yahya Khan. Yahya tried to reconcile the politicians. He announced that elections would be held in 1970 and political organisation would be permitted. He declared that his own position was temporary and that his job was to run elections for an assembly who would be tasked with creating a new constitution. He ended the One Unit Scheme",
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"plaintext": "and permitted popular representation, thereby allowing East Pakistan 162 of the 300 seats. Yahya created a legal framework order (LFO) as a guideline for the assembly. It stipulated principles such as the federalism of the state, paramountcy of Islam, provincial autonomy with sufficient provisions for the federal government to carry out its duties and defend the country's integrity. The latter point clashed with Mujib's points. Yahya highlighted that a constitution would not be accepted if it did not adhere to the LFO. Mujib's party had drafted its own constitution based on six points.",
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"plaintext": "The Awami League captured 160 of East Pakistan's 162 seats in the 1970 Pakistani general election. Nurul Amin won one of the remaining seats. The Pakistan Peoples Party, led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, won a majority of seats in West Pakistan. Yahya organised talks between Bhutto and Mujib to arrive at a consensus on the form of the future constitution. Mujib asserted his majority and intent to base the constitution on his six points. Bhutto's argument was that there were two majorities. The talks failed. Mujib rejected Bhutto's demands for a share in power. Bhutto boycotted the National Assembly session of 3 March and intimidated other West Pakistani politicians from participating. Bhutto requested that Yahya delay the National Assembly session. On 1 March protests and confrontations broke out when Yahya did this.",
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"plaintext": "Leftists in East Pakistan pressured Mujib to immediately declare independence. The West Pakistani government deployed soldiers to deter such a possibility. Mujib chose a middle-ground option by starting a non-cooperation movement. The movement was successful, freezing the machinery of government and effectively giving Mujib command over East Pakistan. Mujib announced that East Pakistanis would fight for independence but he simultaneously attempted to achieve a solution within a united Pakistan.",
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"plaintext": "Yahya Khan went to Dhaka in the middle of March as a last attempt to obtain a resolution. Bhutto joined him. However, the three parties could not arrive at a consensus on the transfer of power. Yahya was willing to accept the Six Points and its demand for autonomy and also agreed to Mujib becoming prime minister. However, for Bhutto this was treachery to East Pakistan. On 23 March the Awami League told Yahya that he was to issue regional autonomy within 2 days or East Pakistan would turn lawless. While the talks were still underway, Yahya opted for a military solution for the problem. On the night of 25 March, Yahya secretly went back to West Pakistan and commanded the military to attack the core members of the autonomy campaign.",
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"plaintext": "On 3 March, student leader Shahjahan Siraj read the 'Sadhinotar Ishtehar' (Declaration of Independence) at Paltan Maidan in front of Mujib at a public gathering under the direction of the Swadhin Bangla Biplobi Parishad.",
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"plaintext": "On 7 March, there was a public gathering in Suhrawardy Udyan to hear updates on the ongoing movement from Sheikh Mujib, the leader of the movement. Although he avoided directly referring to independence, as the talks were still underway, he warned his listeners to prepare for any imminent war. The speech is considered a key moment in the War of Liberation, and is remembered for the phrase,",
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"plaintext": "\"Ebarer Shongram Amader Muktir Shongram, Ebarer Shongram Shadhinotar Shongram....\"",
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"plaintext": "\"Our struggle this time is a struggle for our freedom, our struggle this time is a struggle for our independence....\"",
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"plaintext": "In the early hours of 26 March 1971, a military crackdown by the Pakistan army began. The Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was arrested and the political leaders dispersed, mostly fleeing to neighbouring India where they organised a provisional government. Before being arrested by the Pakistani Army, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman passed a hand written note which contained the Bangladeshi Declaration of Independence. This note was widely circulated and transmitted by the then East Pakistan Rifles' wireless transmitter. The world press reports from late March 1971 also made sure that Bangladesh's declaration of independence by Bangabandhu was widely reported throughout the world. Bengali Army officer Major Ziaur Rahman captured the Kalurghat Radio Station in Chittagong and read the declaration of independence of Bangladesh during the evening hours on 27 March.",
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"plaintext": "This is Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendra. I, Major Ziaur Rahman, at the direction of Bangobondhu Mujibur Rahman, hereby declare that the Independent People's Republic of Bangladesh has been established. At his direction, I have taken command as the temporary Head of the Republic. In the name of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, I call upon all Bengalees to rise against the attack by the West Pakistani Army. We shall fight to the last to free our motherland. Victory is, by the Grace of Allah, ours. Joy Bangla.",
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"plaintext": "The Provisional Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh was formed on 10 April in Meherpur (later renamed as Mujibnagar, a town adjacent to the Indian border). Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was announced to be the Head of the State. Tajuddin Ahmed became the Prime Minister, Syed Nazrul Islam became the acting president and Khondaker Mostaq Ahmed the Foreign Minister. There the war plan was sketched out with Bangladesh armed forces established and named \"Muktifoujo\". Later these forces were named \"Muktibahini\" (freedom fighters). M. A. G. Osmani was appointed as the Chief of the Armed Forces.",
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"plaintext": "For military purposes, Bangladesh was divided into 11 sectors under 11 sector commanders. In addition to these sectors, later in the war, three special forces were formed: Z Force, S Force and K Force. These three forces' names were derived from the initial letters of the commander's name. The training and most of the arms and ammunitions were arranged by the Meherpur government which was supported by India. As fighting grew between the Pakistan Army and the Bengali Mukti Bahini, an estimated ten million Bengalis, mainly Hindus, sought refuge in the Indian states of Assam, Tripura and West Bengal.",
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"plaintext": "The freedom fighters were not able to beat the military. The Pakistani military created civilian and paramilitary groups to neutralise the freedom fighters. They recruited Biharis and Bengalis who did not support the separation of East Pakistan.",
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"plaintext": "When it became clear that neither the Pakistani military nor the freedom fighters could win, India gradually started its invasion. It increased its efforts at the international level and increased its military activities in East Pakistan but did not declare war out of fear of the geopolitical aftermath. India had its opportunity to declare war when Pakistan attacked Indian airfields on 3 December. The Indian military and Mukti Bahini had the edge with better weaponry, complete air and naval supremacy and support from most locals. The Pakistani army killed and raped many Bengalis. Pro-Pakistan militias killed Bengali intellectuals near the war's end. Pakistan's administration collapsed and the army surrendered on 16 December.",
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"plaintext": "On 16 December 1971, Lt. Gen A. A. K. Niazi, CO of Pakistan Army forces located in East Pakistan, signed the Instrument of Surrender and the nation of Bangla Desh (\"Country of Bengal\") was finally established the following day. At the time of surrender only a few countries had provided diplomatic recognition to the new nation. Over 90,000 Pakistani troops surrendered to the Indian forces making it the largest surrender since World War II.",
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"plaintext": "The new country changed its name to Bangladesh on 11 January 1972 and became a parliamentary democracy under a constitution. Shortly thereafter on 19 March Bangladesh signed a friendship treaty with India. Bangladesh sought admission in the UN with most voting in its favour, but China vetoed this as Pakistan was its key ally. The United States, also a key ally of Pakistan, was one of the last nations to accord Bangladesh recognition. To ensure a smooth transition, in 1972 the Simla Agreement was signed between India and Pakistan. The treaty ensured that Pakistan recognised the independence of Bangladesh in exchange for the return of the Pakistani PoWs. India treated all the PoWs in strict accordance with the Geneva Convention, rule 1925. It released more than 93,000 Pakistani PoWs in five months.",
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"plaintext": "Furthermore, as a gesture of goodwill, nearly 200 soldiers who were sought for war crimes by Bengalis were also pardoned by India. The accord also gave back more than of land that Indian troops had seized in West Pakistan during the war, though India retained a few strategic areas; most notably Kargil (which would in turn again be the focal point for a war between the two nations in 1999).",
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"plaintext": "The real number of victims during the war is still not certain. and estimates of those killed range from Bangladeshi estimates of 3 million to Pakistani estimates of 26,000. According to one source 1.7 million died. A large number of women had been raped by Pakistani, Bengali and Biharis. The government conferred upon them an honorary title of birangina (\"brave heroines\") but they suffered discrimination afterwards.",
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"plaintext": "Besides the Pakistani prisoner of wars there were still collaborators in Bangladesh. In 1973, the Bangladeshi government announced an amnesty for them in exchange for Pakistani recognition. Demands that these be collaborators be tried resurfaced in the 1990s. There was also a large population of non-Bengali Muslims who mostly supported Pakistan. Bengali mobs, who identified them as \"Bihari\", had killed them before the war and the Biharis had aided the Pakistani army during it. Thousands suffered a counter genocide and at least a million were made homeless.",
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"plaintext": "The Provisional Government of Bangladesh was the country's first government. The Provisional Government was formed in Mujibnagar on 17 April 1971. It issued the proclamation of independence and drafted an interim constitution, declaring \"Equality, Human Dignity and Social Justice\" as its fundamental principles. Its prime minister was Tajuddin Ahmad and military chief of staff was M A G Osmani. Other important cabinet members included Syed Nazrul Islam and Muhammad Mansur Ali. It included the newly formed Bangladesh Civil Service with defecting members of the Civil Service of Pakistan. It also had a prominent diplomatic corps, led by Abu Sayeed Chowdhury, Humayun Rashid Choudhury and Rehman Sobhan among others. The Bangladesh Forces included eleven sector commanders, among whom prominent figures included Ziaur Rahman, Khaled Mosharraf and K M Shafiullah.",
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"plaintext": "Neighboring India provided diplomatic, economic and military support for the Provisional Government. The government's capital in exile was Calcutta. The Indian military intervened in the final two weeks of the war in December 1971, ensuring the surrender of Pakistan.",
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"plaintext": "The left-wing Awami League, which had won the 1970 election in Pakistan, formed the first post-independence government in Bangladesh. Awami League leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman became the 2nd Prime Minister of Bangladesh on 12 January 1972 and is widely regarded as the nation's independence hero and founding father. Nation-building under his regime was based on secular Bengali nationalist principles. The original Constitution of Bangladesh, drafted by Dr. Kamal Hossain, laid down the structure of a liberal democratic parliamentary republic with socialist influences in 1972.",
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"plaintext": "On the international stage, Rahman and his Indian counterpart Indira Gandhi signed the 25-year Indo-Bangladeshi Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Peace. Bangladesh joined the Organization of the Islamic Conference, the Commonwealth of Nations and the Non-Aligned Movement. Rahman was invited to Washington DC and Moscow for talks with American and Soviet leaders. In the Delhi Agreement of 1974, Bangladesh, India and Pakistan pledged to work for regional stability and peace. The agreement paved the way for the return of interned Bengali officials and their families stranded in Pakistan, as well as the establishing of diplomatic relations between Dhaka and Islamabad. Japan became a major aid provider to the new country. Although Israel was one of early countries to recognise Bangladesh, the government in Dhaka strongly supported Egypt during the Arab-Israeli War of 1973. In return, Egypt gifted Bangladesh's military with 44 tanks. Many Eastern European countries, particularly Yugoslavia, East Germany and Poland, enjoyed excellent relations with Bangladesh. The Soviet Union supplied several squadrons of MiG-21 planes for the Bangladesh Air Force.",
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"plaintext": "Domestically, Rahman's regime became increasingly authoritarian. There was an insurgency by the radical socialist Jashod, as well as agitation by pro-business and conservative forces, who felt the Awami League was unfairly taking exclusive credit for the liberation struggle. Rahman imposed a three-month state of emergency in 1974 to quell protests. He formed the Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini, which was accused of human rights abuses. The Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini was also distrusted by many in the Bangladesh Army.",
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"plaintext": "Economically, Rahman embarked on a huge nationalisation programme that failed to deliver the benefits intended. Soviet and Indian aid also failed to materialise in the desired quantity. The Bangladesh famine of 1974 was a major economic blow and humanitarian crisis.",
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"plaintext": "In January 1975, Sheikh Mujib assumed the presidency with extraordinary powers, dissolved the parliamentary system, and established a one party state. Various political parties were merged into a sole legal national party, the Bangladesh Krishak Sramik Awami League, popularly known by its acronym BAKSAL. Most Bangladeshi newspapers were banned, except for four nationalised dailies. Sheikh Mujib quickly lost the support of most social groups in Bangladesh. The failure of his economic policies alienated the population. From \"Father of the Nation\", he had by 1975 fallen to what journalist Anthony Mascarenhas described as \"the most hated man in Bangladesh\".",
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"plaintext": "On 15 August 1975, a group of junior army rebels assassinated Sheikh Mujib and most of his family at his private residence in Dhaka.",
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"plaintext": "The coup leaders installed Vice-President Khondaker Mostaq Ahmad as Sheikh Mujib's immediate successor. A staunch conservative, Ahmad promulgated martial law and jailed many prominent confidantes of Sheikh Mujib, including Bangladesh's first Prime Minister Tajuddin Ahmad. The jailed leaders were executed on 3 November 1975. Ahmad reshuffled the leadership of the Bangladesh Armed Forces, paving the way for the country's future military dictatorship.",
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"plaintext": "A counter-coup led by Brigadier General Khaled Mosharraf overthrew Ahmad from the presidency on 6 November 1975. The chief justice, Abu Sadat Mohammad Sayem, was installed as president. Mosharraf was killed by renegade socialist troops led by Abu Taher on 7 November 1975. The army chief, Lieutenant General Ziaur Rahman, emerged as the country's most powerful figure in 1976. He served as deputy martial law administrator under President Sayem.",
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"plaintext": "Under the dramatically altered dispensation, Bangladesh feared an invasion from India backed by the Soviet Union, as the new government in Dhaka received recognition from Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and China. According to declassified US records, Bangladesh received assurances from the United States of Western support for its sovereignty and territorial integrity. The dispute over the sharing the water of the Ganges, due to India's construction of the Farakka Barrage, led Bangladesh to seek the intervention of the United Nations in 1976. The dispute was addressed through a bilateral agreement in 1977.",
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"plaintext": "Lt Gen Ziaur Rahman (popularly known as Zia) assumed the presidency from Justice Sayem on 21 April 1977. Zia formed the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP). Parliamentary elections were held in 1979, in which the BNP gained a landslide majority and the Awami League became the principal opposition party.",
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"plaintext": "President Zia restored free markets, redefined socialism as \"economic and social justice\" in the constitution and crafted a foreign policy which emphasised solidarity with Muslim majority countries and regional co-operation in South Asia. Bangladesh achieved rapid economic and industrial growth under Zia's presidency. The government built the country's first export processing zones. It operated a popular food-for-work programme, reversed the collectivisation of farms and promoted private sector development.",
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"plaintext": "Bangladesh's growing anti-communist profile saw President Zia strongly opposing the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.",
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"plaintext": "Zia faced twenty one attempted coups against his government, including one by the air force. His one time ally Colonel Abu Taher was tried for treason and executed. Similar fates were met by many of his perceived rivals in the armed forces. However, the final coup attempt resulted in his assassination in 1981. Zia was killed by troops loyal to Major General Abul Manzoor who stormed his official residence in Chittagong on 30 May 1981. The mutiny was later suppressed by army chief Lieutenant General Hussain Muhammad Ershad.",
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"plaintext": "Zia was succeeded by Vice-President Abdus Sattar. President Sattar received a popular mandate during the 1981 presidential election, despite allegations of vote rigging by his rival Kamal Hossain. Sattar's presidency was marked by infighting within the ruling BNP, which forced cabinet reshuffles and the resignation of Vice-President Mirza Nurul Huda. A national security council was formed amid anti-Bengali Muslim violence in Northeast India and Burma. Sattar also suffered from health problems due to old age.",
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"plaintext": "The 1982 Bangladesh coup d'état deposed President Sattar and his civilian government. The Bangladesh military cited food shortages, corruption and economic mismanagement as reasons behind the coup.",
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"plaintext": "Sattar was replaced by the chief justice A. F. M. Ahsanuddin Chowdhury. Lieutenant General Hussain Muhammad Ershad proclaimed martial law and became the Chief Martial Law Administrator. He appointed himself as the President of the Council of Ministers and the naval and air force chiefs as deputy martial law administrators. Ershad geared Bangladesh's foreign policy more towards the anti-Soviet bloc.",
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"plaintext": "In 1983, Ershad assumed the presidency. Political repression was rife under Ershad's martial law regime. However, the government implemented a series of administrative reforms, particularly in terms of devolution. The eighteen districts of the country were divided into sixty-four districts. The upazila system was also created.",
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"plaintext": "Among his major actions were to privatise the largely state-owned economy (up to 70% of industry was in public ownership) and encourage private investment in heavy industries along with light manufacturing, raw materials, and newspapers. Foreign companies were invited to invest in Bangladeshi industry as well, and stiff protectionist measures were put in place to safeguard manufacturing. All political parties and trade unions were banned for the time being, with the death penalty to be administered for corruption and political agitation. Ershad's takeover was generally viewed as a positive development, as Bangladesh was in a state of serious economic difficulty. The country was facing significant food shortages. The government also faced a severe budget deficit to the tune of 4billion takas, and the IMF declared that it would not provide any more loans until Bangladesh paid down some of its existing debts. During most of 1984, Ershad sought the opposition parties' participation in local elections under martial law. The opposition's refusal to participate, however, forced Ershad to abandon these plans. Ershad sought public support for his regime in a national referendum on his leadership in March 1985. He won overwhelmingly, although turnout was small. Two months later, Ershad held elections for local council chairmen. Pro-government candidates won a majority of the posts, setting in motion the President's ambitious decentralisation programme.",
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"plaintext": "Political life was further liberalised in early 1986, and additional political rights, including the right to hold large public rallies, were restored. At the same time, the Jatiya (National) Party, designed as Ershad's political vehicle for the transition from martial law, was established. Despite a boycott by the BNP, led by President Zia's widow, Begum Khaleda Zia, parliamentary elections were held on schedule in May 1986. The Jatiya Party won a modest majority of the 300 elected seats in the National Assembly. The participation of the Awami League—led by the late President Mujib's daughter, Sheikh Hasina Wajed—lent the elections some credibility, despite widespread charges of voting irregularities.",
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"plaintext": "Ershad resigned as Chief of Army Staff and retired from military service in preparation for the 1986 presidential elections, scheduled for October. Protesting that martial law was still in effect, both the BNP and the AL refused to put up opposing candidates. Ershad easily outdistanced the remaining candidates, taking 84% of the vote. Although Ershad's government claimed a turnout of more than 50%, opposition leaders, and much of the foreign press, estimated a far lower percentage and alleged voting irregularities.",
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"plaintext": "In November 1986, his government mustered the necessary two-thirds majority in the National Assembly to pass the seventh constitutional amendment bill, protecting Ershad and his regime from prosecution for actions taken under the years of military rule. Martial law was subsequently lifted on 11 November and the opposition parties took their elected seats in the National Assembly.",
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"plaintext": "In July 1987, however, after the government hastily pushed through a controversial legislative bill to include military representation on local administrative councils, the opposition walked out of Parliament. Passage of the bill helped spark an opposition movement that quickly gathered momentum, uniting Bangladesh's opposition parties for the first time. The government began to arrest scores of opposition activists under the country's Special Powers Act of 1974. Despite these arrests, opposition parties continued to organise protest marches and nationwide strikes. In order to prevent a 72-hour strike planned for 29 November, Ershad declared a state of emergency on 27 November. Parliament was dissolved on 6 December, and fresh elections scheduled for March 1988.",
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"plaintext": "All major opposition parties refused government overtures to participate in these polls, maintaining that the government was incapable of holding free and fair elections. Despite the opposition boycott, the parliamentary elections proceeded. The ruling Jatiya Party won 251 of the 300 seats. The Parliament, while still regarded by the opposition as an illegitimate body, held its sessions as scheduled, and passed numerous bills, including, in June 1988, a",
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"plaintext": "the controversial eighth amendment to the Constitution, which made Islam the state religion, in contrast to the original secular nature of the Constitution.",
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"plaintext": "Provision for setting up High Court benches in major cities outside of Dhaka was also passed. While Islam remains the state religion, the provision for decentralising the High Court division has been struck down by the Supreme Court.",
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"plaintext": "By 1989, the domestic political situation in the country seemed to have quieted. The local council elections were generally considered by international observers to have been less violent and more free and fair than previous elections. However, opposition to Ershad's rule began to regain momentum, escalating by the end of 1990 in frequent general strikes, increased campus protests, public rallies, and a general disintegration of law and order.",
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"plaintext": "Ershad resigned under the pressure from the military and international community, as the pro-democracy movement spearheaded by Khaleda Zia and Sheikh Hasina engulfed the entire country and drew the participation of the middle and upper classes.",
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"plaintext": "The chief justice, Shahabuddin Ahmed, was sworn in as acting president and formed the first caretaker government of Bangladesh. Ahmed placed Ershad under arrest and organised free and fair elections in 1991.",
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"plaintext": "The centre-right BNP won the 1991 Bangladeshi general election with 140 seats, but was short of an overall parliamentary majority. However, they formed a government with support from the Islamic party Jamaat-e-Islami, with Khaleda Zia, widow of Ziaur Rahman, obtaining the post of prime minister. Only four parties had more than 10 members elected to the 1991 Parliament: The BNP, led by Prime Minister Begum Khaleda Zia; the AL, led by Sheikh Hasina; the Jamaat-I-Islami (JI), led by Ghulam Azam; and the Jatiya Party (JP), led by acting chairman Mizanur Rahman Choudhury while its founder, former President Ershad, served out a prison sentence on corruption charges. Khaleda Zia became the first female prime minister in Bangladeshi history.",
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"plaintext": "In September 1991 a constitutional referendum was held, which sought the transfer of executive powers from the President, which had been held by the Office since 1975, to the Prime Minister – making the President largely a ceremonial role. The vote was overwhelmingly in favour of the constitutional amendment and Bangladesh was restored to a Parliamentary democracy, as per its founding constitution. In October 1991, members of Parliament elected a new head of state, President Abdur Rahman Biswas.Finance Minister Saifur Rahman launched a series of liberal economic reforms, which set a precedent in South Asia and was seen as a model in India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.",
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"plaintext": "In March 1994, controversy over a parliamentary by-election, which the opposition claimed the government had rigged, led to an indefinite boycott of Parliament by the entire opposition. The opposition also began a programme of repeated general strikes to press its demand that Khaleda Zia's government resign and a caretaker government supervise a general election. Efforts to mediate the dispute, under the auspices of the Commonwealth Secretariat, failed. After another attempt at a negotiated settlement failed narrowly in late December 1994, the opposition resigned en masse from Parliament. The opposition then continued a campaign of marches, demonstrations, and strikes in an effort to force the government to resign. All major opposition parties, including Sheikh Hasina's Awami League, pledged to boycott national elections scheduled for 15 February 1996.",
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"plaintext": "In February, Khaleda Zia was re-elected by a landslide in voting boycotted and denounced as unfair by the three main opposition parties. This administration was short-lived however, only lasting 12 days and in March 1996, following escalating political turmoil, the sitting Parliament enacted a constitutional amendment to allow a neutral caretaker government to assume power and conduct new parliamentary elections in June 1996.",
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"plaintext": "The chief justice Muhammad Habibur Rahman became the 1st Chief Advisor of Bangladesh under the country's constitutional caretaker government system. During this period, President Abdur Rahman Biswas sacked army chief Lieutenant General Abu Saleh Mohammad Nasim for alleged political activities, causing the general to attempt a coup in response. The sacked army chief ordered troops in Bogra, Mymensingh and Jessore to march towards Dhaka. However, the military commander of Savar sided with the president and deployed tanks in the capital and its surrounding highways, and also suspended ferry services, as part of operations to deter the coup forces. Lt Gen Nasim was later arrested in Dhaka Cantonment.",
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"plaintext": "The Chief Advisor successfully held free and fair elections on 12 June 1996. The Awami League emerged as the single largest party, with 146 seats in parliament, followed by the BNP with 116 seats and Jatiya Party with 32 seats.",
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"plaintext": "Sheikh Hasina's Awami League won 146 of 300 seats in the June 1996 elections, just short of a majority. However, with the support of Jatiya party she formed what she called a \"Government of National Consensus\" in June 1996, which included one minister from the Jatiya Party and another from the Jatiyo Samajtantric Dal, a very small leftist party. The Jatiya Party never entered into a formal coalition arrangement, and party president H.M. Ershad withdrew his support from the government in September 1997. Only three parties had more than 10 members elected to the 1996 Parliament: the Awami League, BNP, and Jatiya Party. Jatiya Party president, Ershad, was released from prison on bail in January 1997.",
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"plaintext": "International and domestic election observers found the June 1996 election free and fair, and ultimately, the BNP party decided to join the new Parliament. The BNP soon charged that police and Awami League activists were engaged in large-scale harassment and jailing of opposition activists. At the end of 1996, the BNP staged a parliamentary walkout over this and other grievances but returned in January 1997 under a four-point agreement with the ruling party. The BNP asserted that this agreement was never implemented and later staged another walkout in August 1997. The BNP returned to Parliament under another agreement in March 1998.",
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"plaintext": "The first Hasina administration is credited for landmark initiatives in environmental and inter-ethnic peacemaking. It was responsible for signing the Ganges Water Sharing Treaty with India and the Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord with ethnic insurgents, for which Hasina won the UNESCO Peace Prize. Hasina was also one of the founding leaders of the Developing 8 Countries. In 1998, Hasina hosted a rare and unprecedented trilateral economic summit in Dhaka with Prime Ministers Nawaz Sharif of Pakistan and I. K. Gujral of India. Her summits with US President Bill Clinton in Dhaka and Washington DC focused on American energy investments for Bangladesh's natural gas reserves and the extradition of her father's killers. However, Hasina was not keen to allow the export of Bangladeshi natural gas, despite demands from multinational firms.",
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"plaintext": "In June 1999, the BNP and other opposition parties again began to abstain from attending Parliament. Opposition parties staged an increasing number of nationwide general strikes, rising from six days of general strikes in 1997 to 27 days in 1999. A four-party opposition alliance formed at the beginning of 1999 announced that it would boycott parliamentary by-elections and local government elections unless the government took steps demanded by the opposition to ensure electoral fairness. The government did not take these steps, and the opposition subsequently boycotted all elections, including municipal council elections in February 1999, several parliamentary by-elections, and the Chittagong city corporation elections in January 2000.",
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"plaintext": "In July 2001, the Awami League government stepped down to allow a caretaker government to preside over parliamentary elections. Political violence that had increased during the Awami League government's tenure continued to increase through the summer in the run up to the election. In August, Khaleda Zia and Sheikh Hasina agreed during a visit of former President Jimmy Carter to respect the results of the election, join Parliament win or lose, forswear the use of hartals (violently enforced strikes) as political tools, and if successful in forming a government allow for a more meaningful role for the opposition in Parliament.",
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"plaintext": "The caretaker government, led by Chief Advisor Latifur Rahman, was successful in containing the violence, which allowed a parliamentary general election to be successfully held on 1 October 2001. The election saw a landslide victory of the BNP-led coalition, which included the far-right Jamaat-e-Islami and Islami Oikya Jote. The BNP won 193 seats and the Jamaat won 17 seats.",
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"plaintext": "Following the September 11 attacks, the government of Prime Minister Khaleda Zia allowed the United States to use Bangladeshi airports and airspace for combat operations in Afghanistan. Bangladesh was also quick to respond to relief efforts in Afghanistan after the overthrow of the Taliban, with BRAC becoming the largest development agency in the war-torn country. The United States praised Bangladesh as an \"elegant, compelling and greatly needed voice of moderation\" in the Muslim world. Khaleda Zia also developed a strategic partnership with China and signed a Defense Cooperation Agreement with Beijing.",
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"plaintext": "Despite her August 2001 pledge and all election monitoring groups declaring the election free and fair, Sheikh Hasina condemned the last election, rejected the results, and boycotted Parliament. In 2002, however, she led her party legislators back to Parliament, but the Awami League again walked out in June 2003 to protest derogatory remarks about Hasina by a State Minister and the allegedly partisan role of the Parliamentary Speaker. In June 2004, the AL returned to Parliament without having any of their demands met. They then attended Parliament irregularly before announcing a boycott of the entire June 2005 budget session.",
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"plaintext": "Khaleda Zia's administration was marked by improved economic growth, corruption allegations and growing rifts between the country's secular and conservative forces. Her son Tarique Rahman was described in American diplomatic cables released by WikiLeaks as being \"notorious for flagrantly and frequently demanding bribes in connection with government procurement actions and appointments to political office\". A series of high-profile assassinations targeted the Awami League-led opposition. Former Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina narrowly escaped an assassination attempt in 2004. The Jamaatul Mujahadeen Bangladesh launched several terrorist attacks in 2005. The League accused the BNP and Jamaat of having complicity in the rise of militancy. Relations with neighbouring India deteriorated over allegations that Bangladeshi territory was allowed to be used by Northeast Indian insurgents.",
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"plaintext": "A major political crisis erupted after the end of the BNP's tenure, as the Awami League-led coalition demanded a neutral candidate for Chief Advisor. Weeks of strikes, protests and blockades paralysed the country. President Iajuddin Ahmed assumed the responsibilities of Chief Advisor but failed to allay the fears of the opposition of an impending rigged election. The Bangladeshi press accused the president of acting under the influence of the BNP. Violent protests continued even as the military was deployed in aid of civil administration.",
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"plaintext": "On 11 January 2007, a state of emergency was declared by President Ahmed, who resigned from the office of chief advisor under widely reported pressure from the military, particularly the army chief General Moeen U Ahmed. The former governor of the central bank, Dr. Fakhruddin Ahmed, was appointed as the Chief Advisor and the cabinet was reshuffled with many technocrats. The military-backed caretaker government started an anti-corruption drive, which saw the arrest of over 160 politicians, businessmen and bureaucrats, including former prime ministers Khaleda Zia and Sheikh Hasina, as well as Khaleda's two sons. Student protests in Dhaka University demanded the restoration of democracy in August 2007, but were suppressed by a curfew. Khaleda and Hasina were released in 2008.",
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"plaintext": "The state of emergency lasted for two years. The December 2008 general election saw a landslide victory for the Awami League-led coalition, which also included the Jatiya Party.",
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"plaintext": "Within two months of assuming office, Sheikh Hasina's second government faced the BDR Mutiny, which provoked tensions with sections of the military. Hasina successfully tackled the threat from mutineers and enraged elements in the military. She formed the international crimes tribunal to prosecute surviving Bengali Islamist collaborators of the 1971 genocide. The tribunal has criticism over its fairness and impartiality. Most of its convicted and executed war criminals are senior leaders of the Jamaat-e-Islami, a party accused of opposing Bangladesh's independence and aiding Pakistan during the genocide.",
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"plaintext": "An anti-terror crackdown dramatically improved relations with neighbouring India. Bangladesh and India have increasingly focused on regional connectivity and trade.",
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"plaintext": "In 2010, the Supreme Court of Bangladesh reaffirmed secularism as a fundamental principle in the constitution. The war crimes tribunal mobilised public opinion in favour of secularism, which was manifested in the March 2013 Shahbag protests. In response, a huge Islamist mobilisation also took place led by the Hefazat-e-Islam group in May 2013.",
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"plaintext": "The intense bickering between the League and BNP, often dubbed the Battle of the Begums, has continued. The Hasina government abolished the provision of caretaker government in the constitution through the controversial Fifteenth Amendment. The move was seen by the BNP as an attempt to corrupt the election process in favour of the League.",
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"plaintext": "In 2013, the hard-line, right-wing, Islamic party, Jamaat-e-Islami was banned from registering and therefore contesting in elections by the High Court, citing their charter violates the constitution. Street violence between the League, BNP and the Jamaat intensified in the run up to the general election. In 2014, the general elections were boycotted by the BNP. The elections were criticized by the United States, United Kingdom, European Union and the United Nations. Sheikh Hasina was sworn in for a third tenure as prime minister.",
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"plaintext": "In 2015 and 2016, Bangladesh saw increasing assassinations targeting minorities and secularists, including Hindus, Buddhists, Christians, Western and Asian expatriates, LGBT activists, Sufi Muslims, bloggers, publishers and atheists. The country's worst terrorist attack saw the death of 20 people after an upmarket restaurant was sieged by gunmen in July 2016. The Islamic State of Iraq and Levant has claimed responsibility for many of the attacks, although the Hasina government insists local terror outfits are more likely to be responsible. Since this attack, the Government took stricter measures against extremists as the security forces led a numerous raids on suspected militant hide-outs. The measures led to reduction in extremist attacks and fatalities.",
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"plaintext": "In 2017, the country faced fresh challenge from incoming Rohingya refugees. Starting in early August 2017, the Myanmar security forces began \"clearance operations\" against the Rohingya in northern Rakhine state – killing thousands of Rohingya, brutalizing thousands more, and driving hundreds of thousands out of the country into neighboring Bangladesh. In the first four weeks of the conflict, over 400,000 Rohingya refugees (approximately 40% of the remaining Rohingya in Myanmar) fled the country on foot or by boat (chiefly to Bangladesh) creating a major humanitarian crisis. The governments of Myanmar and Bangladesh signed a memorandum of understanding on 23 November 2017 regarding the repatriation of Rohingya refugees to Rakhine State. However, till the end of the decade over 740,000 refugees remained in Bangladesh creating pressure on the country's economy and infrastructure.",
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"plaintext": "The 2018 General elections brought another landslide victory for the Awami League led by Sheikh Hasina. While the opposition was already weak due to key leaders being in either jail or exile, the elections were further marred by violence and claims of vote rigging. However, this gave the Awami League Government stability and opportunity to complete key infrastructure projects for the country including the Padma Bridge and the Dhaka Metro Rail.",
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"plaintext": "The Chittagong Hill Tracts is the south-eastern mountainous frontier of Bangladesh with Myanmar and Northeast India. The area enjoyed autonomy under British Bengal. Its autonomous status was revoked by Pakistan, which built the controversial Kaptai Dam that displaced the area's indigenous people. When Bangladesh became independent, the government of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman adopted a Bengali nationalist constitution, which denied recognition of the country's ethnic minorities. Manabendra Narayan Larma, a member of parliament form the hill tracts, called for constitutional recognition of the indigenous people of the area. He gave a notable speech at the Constituent Assembly of Bangladesh demanding the use of \"Bangladeshi\" as the country's nationality definition, instead of Bengali. During the 1970s and '80s, there were attempts by the government to settle with the Bengali people. These attempts were resisted by the hill tribes, who, with the latent support of neighbouring India, formed a guerrilla force called Shanti Bahini. As a result of the tribal resistance movement, successive governments turned the Hill Tracts into a militarised zone.",
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"plaintext": "Following years of unrest, the Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord was formed between the government of Bangladesh and the tribal leaders which granted a limited level of autonomy to the elected council of the three hill districts.",
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"plaintext": " List of presidents of Bangladesh",
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"plaintext": " CIA World Factbook (July 2005). Bangladesh",
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"plaintext": " US Department of State (August 2005). \"Background Note: Bangladesh\"",
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"plaintext": " Library of Congress (1988). A Country Study: Bangladesh",
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{
"plaintext": " Hussain, Aklam. History of Bangladesh, 1704–1971 (Vol. 1. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, 1997).",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Raghavan, Srinath. 1971: A Global History of the Creation of Bangladesh (Harvard University Press; 2014) 258 pages; scholarly history with worldwide perspective.",
"section_idx": 14,
"section_name": "Further reading",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Van Schendel, Willem. A history of Bangladesh (Cambridge University Press, 2009).",
"section_idx": 14,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " D. K. Chakrabarti, 1992 Ancient Bangladesh: A Study of the Archaeological Sources (1992) Delhi: Oxford University Press",
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{
"plaintext": " Rulers.org — Bangladesh List of rulers for Bangladesh",
"section_idx": 15,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " All Bangla Newspaper",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Bangla Newspapers and magazine directory",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Bangla Newspapers and magazine directory",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Online Bangla Newspapers and magazine directory",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "External links",
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] | [
"History_of_Bangladesh",
"History_of_Bengal",
"History_of_South_Asia_by_country"
] | 839,809 | 16,444 | 257 | 435 | 0 | 0 | history of Bangladesh | history of region now comprising Bangladesh | [] |
40,097 | 1,094,199,783 | Collecting | [
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"plaintext": "The hobby of collecting includes seeking, locating, acquiring, organizing, cataloging, displaying, storing, and maintaining items that are of interest to an individual collector. Collections differ in a wide variety of respects, most obviously in the nature and scope of the objects contained, but also in purpose, presentation, and so forth. The range of possible subjects for a collection is practically unlimited, and collectors have realised a vast number of these possibilities in practice, although some are much more popular than others.",
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"plaintext": "In collections of manufactured items, the objects may be antique or simply collectable. Antiques are collectable items at least 100 years old, while other collectables are arbitrarily recent. The word vintage describes relatively old collectables that are not yet antiques.",
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"plaintext": "Collecting is a childhood hobby for some people, but for others a lifelong pursuit or something started in adulthood. Collectors who begin early in life often modify their aims when they get older. Some novice collectors start purchasing items that appeal to them then slowly work at learning how to build a collection, while others prefer to develop some background in the field before starting to buy items. The emergence of the internet as a global forum for different collectors has resulted in many isolated enthusiasts finding each other.",
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"plaintext": "The most obvious way to categorize collections is by the type of objects collected. Most collections are of manufactured commercial items, but natural objects such as birds' eggs, butterflies, rocks, and seashells can also be the subject of a collection. For some collectors, the criterion for inclusion might not be the type of object but some incidental property such as the identity of its original owner.",
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"plaintext": "Some collectors are generalists with very broad criteria for inclusion, while others focus on a subtopic within their area of interest. Some collectors accumulate arbitrarily many objects that meet the thematic and quality requirements of their collection, others—called completists or completionists—aim to acquire all items in a well-defined set that can in principle be completed, and others seek a limited number of items per category (e.g. one representative item per year of manufacture or place of purchase). Collecting items by country (e.g. one collectible per country) is very common. The monetary value of objects is important to some collectors but irrelevant to others. Some collectors maintain objects in pristine condition, while others use the items they collect.",
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"plaintext": "After a collectable has been purchased, its retail price no longer applies and its value is linked to what is called the secondary market. There is no secondary market for an item unless someone is willing to buy it, and an object's value is whatever the buyer is willing to pay. Depending on age, condition, supply, demand, and other factors, individuals, auctioneers, and secondary retailers may sell a collectable for either more or less than what they originally paid for it. Special or limited edition collectables are created with the goal of increasing demand and value of an item due to its rarity. A price guide is a resource such as a book or website that lists typical selling prices.",
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"plaintext": "Products often become more valuable with age. The term antique generally refers to manufactured items made over 100 years ago, although in some fields, such as antique cars, the time frame is less stringent. For antique furniture, the limit has traditionally been set in the 1830s. Collectors and dealers may use the word vintage to describe older collectables that are too young to be called antiques, including Art Deco and Art Nouveau items, Carnival and Depression glass, etc. Items which were once everyday objects but may now be collectable, as almost all examples produced have been destroyed or discarded, are called ephemera.",
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"plaintext": "Psychological factors can play a role in both the motivation for keeping a collection and the impact it has on the collector's life. These factors can be positive or negative.",
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"plaintext": "The hobby of collecting often goes hand-in-hand with an interest in the objects collected and what they represent, for example collecting postcards may reflect an interest in different places and cultures. For this reason, collecting can have educational benefits, and some collectors even become experts in their field.",
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"plaintext": "Maintaining a collection can be a relaxing activity that counteracts the stress of life, while providing a purposeful pursuit which prevents boredom. The hobby can lead to social connections between people with similar interests and the development of new friendships. It has also been shown to be particularly common among academics.",
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"plaintext": "Collecting for most people is a choice, but for some it can be a compulsion, sharing characteristics with obsessive hoarding. When collecting is passed between generations, it might sometimes be that children have inherited symptoms of obsessive–compulsive disorder. Collecting can sometimes reflect a fear of scarcity, or of discarding something and then later regretting it.",
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"plaintext": "Carl Jung speculated that the widespread appeal of collecting is connected to the hunting and gathering that was once necessary for human survival. Collecting is also associated with memory by association and the need for the human brain to catalogue and organise information and give meaning to ones actions.",
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"plaintext": "Collecting is a practice with a very old cultural history. In Mesopotamia, collecting practices have been noted among royalty and elites as far back as the 3rd millennium BCE. The Egyptian Ptolemaic dynasty collected books from all over the known world at the Library of Alexandria. The Medici family, in Renaissance Florence, made the first effort to collect art by private patronage, this way artists could be free for the first time from the money given by the Church and Kings; this citizenship tradition continues today with the work of private art collectors. Many of the world's popular museums—from the Metropolitan in New York City to the Thyssen in Madrid or the Franz Mayer in Mexico City—have collections formed by the collectors that donated them to be seen by the general public.",
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"plaintext": "The collecting hobby is a modern descendant of the \"cabinet of curiosities\" which was common among scholars with the means and opportunities to acquire unusual items from the 16th century onwards. Planned collecting of ephemeral publications goes back at least to George Thomason in the reign of Charles I and Samuel Pepys in that of Charles II. Collecting engravings and other prints by those whose means did not allow them to buy original works of art also goes back many centuries. The progress in 18th-century Paris of collecting both works of art and of curiosité, dimly echoed in the English curios, and the origins in Paris, Amsterdam and London of the modern art market have been increasingly well documented and studied since the mid-19th century.",
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"plaintext": "The involvement of larger numbers of people in collecting activities came with the prosperity and increased leisure for some in the later 19th century in industrial countries. That was when collecting such items as antique china, furniture and decorative items from oriental countries became established. The first price guide was the Stanley Gibbons catalogue issued in November 1865.",
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"plaintext": "The Internet offers many resources to any collector: personal sites presenting one's collection, tools for tracking conditions and number of items collected, item identification tools, pricing guides, online collectable catalogs, online marketplaces, trading platforms, collector clubs, autograph clubs, collector forums, and collector mailing lists.",
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"plaintext": "Some of the most popular collecting websites are StampWorld, Delcampe, and Numista.",
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"plaintext": "Some of the most spread collectables online are stamps and coins.",
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"plaintext": "Alfred Chester Beatty — various collections",
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"plaintext": "Barry Halper — baseball memorabilia",
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"plaintext": "Bella Clara Landauer — various, primarily ephemera",
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"plaintext": "Charles Wesley Powell — orchids",
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"plaintext": "Demi Moore — dolls",
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"plaintext": "Donald Kaufman — antique toys",
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"plaintext": "Forrest J Ackerman — books and movie memorabilia",
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"plaintext": "Geddy Lee — bass guitars",
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"plaintext": "George Gustav Heye — Native American artifacts",
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"plaintext": "George Weare Braikenridge — primarily art of Bristol",
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"plaintext": "Hans Sachs — posters",
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"plaintext": "Hans Sloane — natural history",
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"plaintext": "Harvey H. Nininger — meteorites",
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"plaintext": "Henry Wellcome — medical objects",
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"plaintext": "James Allen — antiques and photographs",
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"plaintext": "Joaquín Rubio y Muñoz — antique coins",
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"plaintext": "J. P. Morgan — various, primarily gems",
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"plaintext": "Kenneth W. Rendell — historical documents, primarily World War II",
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"plaintext": "King George V — stamps",
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"plaintext": "Magnus Walker — Porsches",
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"plaintext": "Margaret Bentinck, Duchess of Portland — primarily natural history",
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"plaintext": "Philipp von Ferrary — stamps and coins",
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"plaintext": "Raleigh DeGeer Amyx — historical memorabilia",
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"plaintext": "Sam Wagstaff — various collections",
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"plaintext": "Tim Rowett — children's toys and novelties",
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"plaintext": "William Dixson — primarily Australiana",
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"plaintext": " Antique toy show",
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"plaintext": "Blom, Philipp (2005) To Have and To Hold: an intimate History of collectors and collecting. ",
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"plaintext": " Castruccio, Enrico (2008) \"I Collezionisti: usi, costumi, emozioni\". Cremona: Persico Edizioni ",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Chaney, Edward, ed. (2003) The Evolution of English Collecting. New Haven: Yale University Press",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Schulz, Charles M. (1984) Charlie Brown's Super Book of Things to Do and Collect: based on the Charles M. Schulz characters. New York: Random House, 1984, paperback, , (hardcover in library binding )",
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"plaintext": " Redman, Samuel J. (2016) Bone Rooms: From Scientific Racism to Human Prehistory in Museums. Cambridge: Harvard University Press ",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Shamash, Jack, (2013) George V's Obsession – a King and His Stamps",
"section_idx": 7,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Shamash, Jack (2014) The Sociology of Collecting",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Thomason, Alison Karmel (2005) Luxury and Legitimation: Royal Collecting in Ancient Mesopotamia. Hampshire, U.K.: Ashgate Publishing Limited.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " van der Grijp, Paul (2006) Passion and Profit: Towards an Anthropology of Collecting. Berlin: LIT Verlag. ",
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"plaintext": " Journal of the History of Collections",
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"plaintext": " Center for the History of Collecting at the Frick Collection. (Art collecting.)",
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"plaintext": " \"Amass Appeal\" Essay by Richard Rubin, AARP Magazine, March/April 2008.",
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"plaintext": "Mueller, Shirley M. (2019). Inside the Head of a Collector : Neuropsychological Forces at Play. Seattle. . OCLC 1083575943.",
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] | [
"Collecting",
"Collections_care",
"Museology",
"Museum_collections",
"Lifestyles"
] | 208,165 | 3,824 | 325 | 71 | 0 | 0 | collecting | activity of seeking out and acquiring items of interest | [
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] |
40,112 | 1,107,448,948 | Salvador_Dalí | [
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"plaintext": "Salvador Domingo Felipe Jacinto Dalí i Domènech, Marquess of Dalí of Púbol (; ; ; 11 May 190423 January 1989) was a Spanish surrealist artist renowned for his technical skill, precise draftsmanship, and the striking and bizarre images in his work.",
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"plaintext": "Born in Figueres, Catalonia, Spain, Dalí received his formal education in fine arts in Madrid. Influenced by Impressionism and the Renaissance masters from a young age he became increasingly attracted to Cubism and avant-garde movements. He moved closer to Surrealism in the late 1920s and joined the Surrealist group in 1929, soon becoming one of its leading exponents. His best-known work, The Persistence of Memory, was completed in August 1931, and is one of the most famous Surrealist paintings. Dalí lived in France throughout the Spanish Civil War (1936 to 1939) before leaving for the United States in 1940 where he achieved commercial success. He returned to Spain in 1948 where he announced his return to the Catholic faith and developed his \"nuclear mysticism\" style, based on his interest in classicism, mysticism, and recent scientific developments.",
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"plaintext": "Dalí's artistic repertoire included painting, graphic arts, film, sculpture, design and photography, at times in collaboration with other artists. He also wrote fiction, poetry, autobiography, essays and criticism. Major themes in his work include dreams, the subconscious, sexuality, religion, science and his closest personal relationships. To the dismay of those who held his work in high regard, and to the irritation of his critics, his eccentric and ostentatious public behavior often drew more attention than his artwork. His public support for the Francoist regime, his commercial activities and the quality and authenticity of some of his late works have also been controversial. His life and work were an important influence on other Surrealists, pop art and contemporary artists such as Jeff Koons and Damien Hirst.",
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"plaintext": "There are two major museums devoted to Salvador Dalí's work: the Dalí Theatre-Museum in Figueres, Spain, and the Salvador Dalí Museum in St. Petersburg, Florida.",
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"plaintext": "Salvador Dalí was born on 11 May 1904, at 8:45am, on the first floor of Carrer Monturiol, 20 in the town of Figueres, in the Empordà region, close to the French border in Catalonia, Spain. Dalí's older brother, who had also been named Salvador (born 12 October 1901), had died of gastroenteritis nine months earlier, on 1 August 1903. His father, Salvador Luca Rafael Aniceto Dalí Cusí (1872–1950) was a middle-class lawyer and notary, an anti-clerical atheist and Catalan federalist, whose strict disciplinary approach was tempered by his wife, Felipa Domènech Ferrés (1874–1921), who encouraged her son's artistic endeavors. In the summer of 1912, the family moved to the top floor of Carrer Monturiol 24 (presently 10). Dalí later attributed his \"love of everything that is gilded and excessive, my passion for luxury and my love of oriental clothes\" to an \"Arab lineage\", claiming that his ancestors were descendants of the Moors.",
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"plaintext": "Dalí was haunted by the idea of his dead brother throughout his life, mythologizing him in his writings and art. Dalí said of him, \"[we] resembled each other like two drops of water, but we had different reflections.\" He \"was probably the first version of myself but conceived too much in the absolute\". Images of his brother would reappear in his later works, including Portrait of My Dead Brother (1963).",
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"plaintext": "Dalí also had a sister, Anna Maria, who was three years younger. In 1949, she published a book about her brother, Dalí as Seen by His Sister.",
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"plaintext": "His childhood friends included future FC Barcelona footballers Emili Sagi-Barba and Josep Samitier. During holidays at the Catalan resort town of Cadaqués, the trio played football together.",
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"plaintext": "Dalí attended the Municipal Drawing School at Figueres in 1916 and also discovered modern painting on a summer vacation trip to Cadaqués with the family of Ramon Pichot, a local artist who made regular trips to Paris. The next year, Dalí's father organized an exhibition of his charcoal drawings in their family home. He had his first public exhibition at the Municipal Theatre in Figueres in 1918, a site he would return to decades later. In early 1921 the Pichot family introduced Dalí to Futurism. That same year, Dalí's uncle Anselm Domènech, who owned a bookshop in Barcelona, supplied him with books and magazines on Cubism and contemporary art.",
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"plaintext": "On 6 February 1921, Dalí's mother died of uterine cancer. Dalí was 16 years old and later said his mother's death \"was the greatest blow I had experienced in my life. I worshipped her... I could not resign myself to the loss of a being on whom I counted to make invisible the unavoidable blemishes of my soul.\" After his wife's death, Dalí's father married her sister. Dalí did not resent this marriage, because he had great love and respect for his aunt.",
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"plaintext": "In 1922, Dalí moved into the Residencia de Estudiantes (Students' Residence) in Madrid and studied at the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando (San Fernando Royal Academy of Fine Arts). A lean tall, Dalí already drew attention as an eccentric and dandy. He had long hair and sideburns, coat, stockings, and knee-breeches in the style of English aesthetes of the late 19th century.",
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"plaintext": "Also in 1922, he began what would become a lifelong relationship with the Prado Museum, which he felt was, 'incontestably the best museum of old paintings in the world.' Each Sunday morning, Dalí went to the Prado to study the works of the great masters. 'This was the start of a monk-like period for me, devoted entirely to solitary work: visits to the Prado, where, pencil in hand, I analyzed all of the great masterpieces, studio work, models, research.'",
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"plaintext": "Those paintings by Dalí in which he experimented with Cubism earned him the most attention from his fellow students, since there were no Cubist artists in Madrid at the time. Cabaret Scene (1922) is a typical example of such work. Through his association with members of the Ultra group, Dalí became more acquainted with avant-garde movements, including Dada and Futurism. One of his earliest works to show a strong Futurist and Cubist influence was the watercolor Night-Walking Dreams (1922). At this time, Dalí also read Freud and Lautréamont who were to have a profound influence on his work.",
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"plaintext": "In May 1925 Dalí exhibited eleven works in a group exhibition held by the newly formed Sociedad Ibérica de Artistas in Madrid. Seven of the works were in his Cubist mode and four in a more realist style. Several leading critics praised his work. Dalí held his first solo exhibition at Galeries Dalmau in Barcelona, from 14 to 27 November 1925. This exhibition, before his exposure to Surrealism, included twenty-two works and was a critical and commercial success.",
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"plaintext": "In April 1926 Dalí made his first trip to Paris where he met Pablo Picasso, whom he revered. Picasso had already heard favorable reports about Dalí from Joan Miró, a fellow Catalan who later introduced him to many Surrealist friends. As he developed his own style over the next few years, Dalí made some works strongly influenced by Picasso and Miró. Dalí was also influenced by the work of Yves Tanguy, and he later allegedly told Tanguy's niece, \"I pinched everything from your uncle Yves.\"",
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"plaintext": "Dalí left the Royal Academy in 1926, shortly before his final exams. His mastery of painting skills at that time was evidenced by his realistic The Basket of Bread, painted in 1926.",
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"plaintext": "Later that year he exhibited again at Galeries Dalmau, from 31 December 1926 to 14 January 1927, with the support of the art critic . The show included twenty-three paintings and seven drawings, with the \"Cubist\" works displayed in a separate section from the \"objective\" works. The critical response was generally positive with Composition with Three Figures (Neo-Cubist Academy) singled out for particular attention.",
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"plaintext": "From 1927 Dalí's work became increasingly influenced by Surrealism. Two of these works, Honey is Sweeter than Blood (1927) and Gadget and Hand (1927), were shown at the annual Autumn Salon (Saló de tardor) in Barcelona in October 1927. Dalí described the earlier of these works, Honey is Sweeter than Blood, as \"equidistant between Cubism and Surrealism\". The works featured many elements that were to become characteristic of his Surrealist period including dreamlike images, precise draftsmanship, idiosyncratic iconography (such as rotting donkeys and dismembered bodies), and lighting and landscapes strongly evocative of his native Catalonia. The works provoked bemusement among the public and debate among critics about whether Dalí had become a Surrealist.",
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"plaintext": "Influenced by his reading of Freud, Dalí increasingly introduced suggestive sexual imagery and symbolism into his work. He submitted Dialogue on the Beach (Unsatisfied Desires) (1928) to the Barcelona Autumn Salon for 1928 but the work was rejected because \"it was not fit to be exhibited in any gallery habitually visited by the numerous public little prepared for certain surprises.\" The resulting scandal was widely covered in the Barcelona press and prompted a popular Madrid illustrated weekly to publish an interview with Dalí.",
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"plaintext": "Some trends in Dalí's work that would continue throughout his life were already evident in the 1920s. Dalí was influenced by many styles of art, ranging from the most academically classic, to the most cutting-edge avant-garde. His classical influences included Raphael, Bronzino, Francisco de Zurbarán, Vermeer and Velázquez. Exhibitions of his works attracted much attention and a mixture of praise and puzzled debate from critics who noted an apparent inconsistency in his work by the use of both traditional and modern techniques and motifs between works and within individual works.",
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"plaintext": "In the mid-1920s Dalí grew a neatly trimmed mustache. In later decades he cultivated a more flamboyant one in the manner of 17th-century Spanish master painter Diego Velázquez, and this mustache became a well known Dalí icon.",
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"plaintext": "In 1929, Dalí collaborated with Surrealist film director Luis Buñuel on the short film (An Andalusian Dog). His main contribution was to help Buñuel write the script for the film. Dalí later claimed to have also played a significant role in the filming of the project, but this is not substantiated by contemporary accounts. In August 1929, Dalí met his lifelong muse and future wife Gala, born Elena Ivanovna Diakonova. She was a Russian immigrant ten years his senior, who at that time was married to Surrealist poet Paul Éluard.",
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"plaintext": "In works such as The First Days of Spring, The Great Masturbator and The Lugubrious Game Dalí continued his exploration of the themes of sexual anxiety and unconscious desires. Dalí's first Paris exhibition was at the recently opened Goemans Gallery in November 1929 and featured eleven works. In his preface to the catalog, André Breton described Dalí's new work as \"the most hallucinatory that has been produced up to now\". The exhibition was a commercial success but the critical response was divided. In the same year, Dalí officially joined the Surrealist group in the Montparnasse quarter of Paris. The Surrealists hailed what Dalí was later to call his paranoiac-critical method of accessing the subconscious for greater artistic creativity.",
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"plaintext": "Meanwhile, Dalí's relationship with his father was close to rupture. Don Salvador Dalí y Cusi strongly disapproved of his son's romance with Gala and saw his connection to the Surrealists as a bad influence on his morals. The final straw was when Don Salvador read in a Barcelona newspaper that his son had recently exhibited in Paris a drawing of the Sacred Heart of Jesus Christ, with a provocative inscription: \"Sometimes, I spit for fun on my mother's portrait\". Outraged, Don Salvador demanded that his son recant publicly. Dalí refused, perhaps out of fear of expulsion from the Surrealist group, and was violently thrown out of his paternal home on 28 December 1929. His father told him that he would be disinherited and that he should never set foot in Cadaqués again. The following summer, Dalí and Gala rented a small fisherman's cabin in a nearby bay at Port Lligat. He soon bought the cabin, and over the years enlarged it by buying neighboring ones, gradually building his beloved villa by the sea. Dalí's father would eventually relent and come to accept his son's companion.",
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"plaintext": "In 1931, Dalí painted one of his most famous works, The Persistence of Memory, which developed a surrealistic image of soft, melting pocket watches. The general interpretation of the work is that the soft watches are a rejection of the assumption that time is rigid or deterministic. This idea is supported by other images in the work, such as the wide expanding landscape, and other limp watches shown being devoured by ants.",
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"plaintext": "Dalí had two important exhibitions at the Pierre Colle Gallery in Paris in June 1931 and May–June 1932. The earlier exhibition included sixteen paintings of which The Persistence of Memory attracted the most attention. Some of the notable features of the exhibitions were the proliferation of images and references to Dalí's muse Gala and the inclusion of Surrealist Objects such as Hypnagogic Clock and Clock Based on the Decomposition of Bodies. Dalí's last, and largest, the exhibition at the Pierre Colle Gallery was held in June 1933 and included twenty-two paintings, ten drawings, and two objects. One critic noted Dalí's precise draftsmanship and attention to detail, describing him as a \"paranoiac of geometrical temperament\". Dalí's first New York exhibition was held at Julien Levy's gallery in November–December 1933. The exhibition featured twenty-six works and was a commercial and critical success. The New Yorker critic praised the precision and lack of sentimentality in the works, calling them \"frozen nightmares\".",
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"plaintext": "Dalí and Gala, having lived together since 1929, were civilly married on 30 January 1934 in Paris. They later remarried in a Church ceremony on 8 August 1958 at Sant Martí Vell. In addition to inspiring many artworks throughout her life, Gala would act as Dalí's business manager, supporting their extravagant lifestyle while adeptly steering clear of insolvency. Gala, who herself engaged in extra-marital affairs, seemed to tolerate Dalí's dalliances with younger muses, secure in her own position as his primary relationship. Dalí continued to paint her as they both aged, producing sympathetic and adoring images of her. The \"tense, complex and ambiguous relationship\" lasting over 50 years would later become the subject of an opera, Jo, Dalí (I, Dalí) by Catalan composer Xavier Benguerel.",
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"plaintext": "Dalí's first visit to the United States in November 1934 attracted widespread press coverage. His second New York exhibition was held at the Julien Levy Gallery in November–December 1934 and was again a commercial and critical success. Dalí delivered three lectures on Surrealism at the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) and other venues during which he told his audience for the first time that \"[t]he only difference between me and a madman is that I am not mad.\" The heiress Caresse Crosby, the inventor of the brassiere, organized a farewell fancy dress ball for Dalí on 18 January 1935. Dalí wore a glass case on his chest containing a brassiere and Gala dressed as a woman giving birth through her head. A Paris newspaper later claimed that the Dalís had dressed as the Lindbergh baby and his kidnapper, a claim which Dalí denied.",
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"plaintext": "While the majority of the Surrealist group had become increasingly associated with leftist politics, Dalí maintained an ambiguous position on the subject of the proper relationship between politics and art. Leading Surrealist André Breton accused Dalí of defending the \"new\" and \"irrational\" in \"the Hitler phenomenon\", but Dalí quickly rejected this claim, saying, \"I am Hitlerian neither in fact nor intention\". Dalí insisted that Surrealism could exist in an apolitical context and refused to explicitly denounce fascism. Later in 1934, Dalí was subjected to a \"trial\", in which he narrowly avoided being expelled from the Surrealist group. To this, Dalí retorted, \"The difference between the Surrealists and me is that I am a Surrealist.\"",
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"plaintext": "In 1936, Dalí took part in the London International Surrealist Exhibition. His lecture, titled , was delivered while wearing a deep-sea diving suit and helmet. He had arrived carrying a billiard cue and leading a pair of Russian wolfhounds and had to have the helmet unscrewed as he gasped for breath. He commented that \"I just wanted to show that I was 'plunging deeply into the human mind.\"",
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"plaintext": "Dalí's first solo London exhibition was held at the Alex, Reid, and Lefevre Gallery the same year. The show included twenty-nine paintings and eighteen drawings. The critical response was generally favorable, although the Daily Telegraph critic wrote: \"These pictures from the subconscious reveal so skilled a craftsman that the artist's return to full consciousness may be awaited with interest.\"",
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"plaintext": "In December 1936 Dalí participated in the Fantastic Art, Dada, Surrealism exhibition at MoMA and a solo exhibition at the Julien Levy Gallery in New York. Both exhibitions attracted large attendances and widespread press coverage. The painting Soft Construction with Boiled Beans (Premonition of Civil War) (1936) attracted particular attention. Dalí later described it as, \"a vast human body breaking out into monstrous excrescences of arms and legs tearing at one another in a delirium of auto-strangulation\". On 14 December, Dalí, aged 32, was featured on the cover of Time magazine.",
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"plaintext": "From 1933 Dalí was supported by Zodiac, a group of affluent admirers who each contributed to a monthly stipend for the painter in exchange for a painting of their choice. From 1936 Dalí's main patron in London was the wealthy Edward James who would support him financially for two years. One of Dalí's most important paintings from the period of James' patronage was The Metamorphosis of Narcissus (1937). They also collaborated on two of the most enduring icons of the Surrealist movement: the Lobster Telephone and the Mae West Lips Sofa.",
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"plaintext": "Dalí was in London when the Spanish Civil War broke out in July 1936. When he later learned that his friend Lorca had been executed by Nationalist forces, Dalí's claimed response was to shout: \"Olé!\" Dalí was to include frequent references to the poet in his art and writings for the remainder of his life. Nevertheless, Dalí avoided taking a public stand for or against the Republic for the duration of the conflict.",
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"plaintext": "In January 1938, Dalí unveiled Rainy Taxi, a three-dimensional artwork consisting of an automobile and two mannequin occupants being soaked with rain from within the taxi. The piece was first displayed at the Galerie Beaux-Arts in Paris at the Exposition Internationale du Surréalisme, organized by André Breton and Paul Éluard. The Exposition was designed by artist Marcel Duchamp, who also served as host.",
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"plaintext": "In March that year, Dalí met Sigmund Freud thanks to Stefan Zweig. As Dalí sketched Freud's portrait, Freud whispered, \"That boy looks like a fanatic.\" Dalí was delighted upon hearing later about this comment from his hero. The following day Freud wrote to Zweig \"...until now I have been inclined to regard the Surrealists, who have apparently adopted me as their patron saint, as complete fools.....That young Spaniard, with his candid fanatical eyes and his undeniable technical mastery, has changed my estimate. It would indeed be very interesting to investigate analytically how he came to create that picture [i.e. Metamorphosis of Narcissus].\"",
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"plaintext": "In September 1938, Salvador Dalí was invited by Gabrielle Coco Chanel to her house \"La Pausa\" in Roquebrune on the French Riviera. There he painted numerous paintings he later exhibited at Julien Levy Gallery in New York. This exhibition in March–April 1939 included twenty-one paintings and eleven drawings. Life reported that no exhibition in New York had been so popular since Whistler's Mother was shown in 1934.",
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"plaintext": "At the 1939 New York World's Fair, Dalí debuted his Dream of Venus Surrealist pavilion, located in the Amusements Area of the exposition. It featured bizarre sculptures, statues, mermaids, and live nude models in \"costumes\" made of fresh seafood, an event photographed by Horst P. Horst, George Platt Lynes, and Murray Korman. Dalí was angered by changes to his designs, railing against mediocrities who thought that \"a woman with the tail of a fish is possible; a woman with the head of a fish impossible.\"",
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"plaintext": "Soon after Franco's victory in the Spanish Civil War in April 1939, Dalí wrote to Luis Buñuel denouncing socialism and Marxism and praising Catholicism and the Falange. As a result, Buñuel broke off relations with Dalí.",
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"plaintext": "In the May issue of the Surrealist magazine Minotaure, André Breton announced Dalí's expulsion from the Surrealist group, claiming that Dalí had espoused race war and that the over-refinement of his paranoiac-critical method was a repudiation of Surrealist automatism. This led many Surrealists to break off relations with Dalí. In 1949 Breton coined the derogatory nickname \"Avida Dollars\" (avid for dollars), an anagram for \"Salvador Dalí\". This was a derisive reference to the increasing commercialization of Dalí's work, and the perception that Dalí sought self-aggrandizement through fame and fortune.",
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"plaintext": "The outbreak of World War II in September 1939 saw the Dalís in France. Following the German invasion, they were able to escape because on 20 June 1940 they were issued visas by Aristides de Sousa Mendes, Portuguese consul in Bordeaux, France. They crossed into Portugal and subsequently sailed on the Excambion from Lisbon to New York in August 1940. Dalí and Gala were to live in the United States for eight years, splitting their time between New York and the Monterey Peninsula, California. ",
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"plaintext": "Dalí spent the winter of 1940–41 at Hampton Manor, the residence of Caresse Crosby, in Caroline County, Virginia, where he worked on various projects including his autobiography and paintings for his upcoming exhibition.",
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"plaintext": "Dalí announced the death of the Surrealist movement and the return of classicism in his exhibition at the Julien Levy Gallery in New York in April–May 1941. The exhibition included nineteen paintings (among them Slave Market with the Disappearing Bust of Voltaire and The Face of War) and other works. In his catalog essay and media comments, Dalí proclaimed a return to form, control, structure and the Golden Section. Sales however were disappointing and the majority of critics did not believe there had been a major change in Dalí's work.",
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"plaintext": "On September 2, 1941, he hosted A Surrealistic Night in an Enchanted Forest in Monterey, a charity event which attracted national attention but raised little money for charity. ",
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"plaintext": "The Museum of Modern Art held two major, simultaneous retrospectives of Dalí and Joan Miró from November 1941 to February 1942, Dalí being represented by forty-two paintings and sixteen drawings. Dalí's work attracted significant attention of critics and the exhibition later toured eight American cities, enhancing his reputation in America.",
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"plaintext": "In October 1942, Dalí's autobiography, The Secret Life of Salvador Dalí was published simultaneously in New York and London and was reviewed widely by the press. Time magazine's reviewer called it \"one of the most irresistible books of the year\". George Orwell later wrote a scathing review in the Saturday Book. A passage in the autobiography in which Dalí claimed that Buñuel was solely responsible for the anti-clericalism in the film L'Age d'Or may have indirectly led to Buñuel resigning his position at MoMA in 1943 under pressure from the State Department. Dalí also published a novel Hidden Faces in 1944 with less critical and commercial success.",
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"plaintext": "In the catalog essay for his exhibition at the Knoedler Gallery in New York in 1943 Dalí continued his attack on the Surrealist movement, writing: \"Surrealism will at least have served to give experimental proof that total sterility and attempts at automatizations have gone too far and have led to a totalitarian system. ... Today's laziness and the total lack of technique have reached their paroxysm in the psychological signification of the current use of the college [collage]\". The critical response to the society portraits in the exhibition, however, was generally negative.",
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"plaintext": "In November–December 1945 Dalí exhibited new work at the Bignou Gallery in New York. The exhibition included eleven oil paintings, watercolors, drawings, and illustrations. Works included Basket of Bread, Atomic and Uranian Melancholic Ideal, and My Wife Nude Contemplating her own Body Transformed into Steps, the Three Vertebrae of a Column, Sky and Architecture. The exhibition was notable for works in Dalí's new classicism style and those heralding his \"atomic period\".",
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"plaintext": "During the war years, Dalí was also engaged in projects in various other fields. He executed designs for a number of ballets including Labyrinth (1942), Sentimental Colloquy, Mad Tristan, and The Cafe of Chinitas (all 1944). In 1945 he created the dream sequence for Alfred Hitchcock's film Spellbound. He also produced artwork and designs for products such as perfumes, cosmetics, hosiery and ties.",
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"plaintext": "In 1946 Dalí worked with Walt Disney and animator John Hench on an unfinished animated film Destino.",
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"plaintext": "Dalí exhibited new work at the Bignou Gallery from November 1947 to January 1948. The 14 oil paintings and other works in the exhibition reflected Dalí's increasing interest in atomic physics. Notable works included Dematerialization Near the Nose of Nero (The Separation of the Atom), Intra-Atomic Equilibrium of a Swan's Feather, and a study for Leda Atomica. The proportions of the latter work were worked out in collaboration with a mathematician.",
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"plaintext": "In early 1948 Dalí's 50 Secrets of Magic Craftsmanship was published. The book was a mixture of anecdotes, practical advice on painting, and Dalínian polemics.",
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"plaintext": "In 1948 Dalí and Gala moved back into their house in Port Lligat, on the coast near Cadaqués. For the next three decades, they would spend most of their time there, spending winters in Paris and New York. Dalí's decision to live in Spain under Franco and his public support for the regime prompted outrage from many anti-Francoist artists and intellectuals. Pablo Picasso refused to mention Dalí's name or acknowledge his existence for the rest of his life. In 1960, André Breton unsuccessfully fought against the inclusion of Dalí's Sistine Madonna in the Surrealist Intrusion in the Enchanter's Domain exhibition organized by Marcel Duchamp in New York. Breton and other Surrealists issued a tract to coincide with the exhibition denouncing Dalí as \"the ex-apologist of Hitler... and friend of Franco\".",
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"plaintext": "In December 1949 Dalí's sister Anna Maria published her book Salvador Dalí Seen by his Sister. Dalí was angered by passages that he considered derogatory towards his wife Gala and broke off relations with his family. When Dalí's father died in September 1950 Dalí learned that he had been virtually disinherited in his will. A two-year legal dispute followed over paintings and drawings Dalí had left in his family home, during which Dalí was accused of assaulting a public notary.",
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"plaintext": "As Dalí moved further towards embracing Catholicism he introduced more religious iconography and themes in his painting. In 1949 he painted a study for The Madonna of Port Lligat (first version, 1949) and showed it to Pope Pius XII during an audience arranged to discuss Dalí 's marriage to Gala. This work was a precursor to the phase Dalí dubbed \"Nuclear Mysticism,\" a fusion of Einsteinian physics, classicism, and Catholic mysticism. In paintings such as The Madonna of Port Lligat, The Christ of Saint John on the Cross and The Disintegration of the Persistence of Memory, Dalí sought to synthesize Christian iconography with images of material disintegration inspired by nuclear physics. His later Nuclear Mysticism works included La Gare de Perpignan (1965) and The Hallucinogenic Toreador (1968–70).",
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"plaintext": "Dalí's keen interest in natural science and mathematics was further manifested by the proliferation of images of DNA and rhinoceros horn shapes in works from the mid-1950s. According to Dalí, the rhinoceros horn signifies divine geometry because it grows in a logarithmic spiral. Dalí was also fascinated by the Tesseract (a four-dimensional cube), using it, for example, in Crucifixion (Corpus Hypercubus).",
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"plaintext": "Dalí had been extensively using optical illusions such as double images, anamorphosis, negative space, visual puns and trompe-l'œil since his Surrealist period and this continued in his later work. At some point, Dalí had a glass floor installed in a room near his studio in Port Lligat. He made extensive use of it to study foreshortening, both from above and from below, incorporating dramatic perspectives of figures and objects into his paintings. He also experimented with the bulletist technique pointillism, enlarged half-tone dot grids and stereoscopic images. He was among the first artists to employ holography in an artistic manner. In Dalí's later years, young artists such as Andy Warhol proclaimed him an important influence on pop art.",
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"plaintext": "In 1960, Dalí began work on his Theatre-Museum in his home town of Figueres. It was his largest single project and a main focus of his energy through to 1974, when it opened. He continued to make additions through the mid-1980s.",
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"plaintext": "In 1955 Dalí met Nanita Kalaschnikoff, who was to become a close friend, muse, and model. At a French nightclub in 1965 Dalí met Amanda Lear, a fashion model then known as Peki Oslo. Lear became his protégée and one of his muses. According to Lear, she and Dalí were united in a \"spiritual marriage\" on a deserted mountaintop.",
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"plaintext": "In 1968, Dalí bought a castle in Púbol for Gala, and from 1971 she would retreat there for weeks at a time, Dalí having agreed not to visit without her written permission. His fears of abandonment and estrangement from his longtime artistic muse contributed to depression and failing health.",
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"plaintext": "In 1980, at age 76, Dalí's health deteriorated sharply and he was treated for depression, drug addiction, and Parkinson-like symptoms, including a severe tremor in his right arm. There were also allegations that Gala had been supplying Dalí with pharmaceuticals from her own prescriptions.",
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"plaintext": "Gala died on 10 June 1982, at the age of 87. After her death, Dalí moved from Figueres to the castle in Púbol, where she was entombed.",
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"plaintext": "In 1982, King Juan Carlos bestowed on Dalí the title of Marqués de Dalí de Púbol (Marquess of Dalí of Púbol) in the nobility of Spain, Púbol being where Dalí then lived. The title was initially hereditary, but at Dalí's request was changed to life-only in 1983.",
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"plaintext": "In May 1983, what was said to be Dalí's last painting, The Swallow's Tail, was revealed. The work was heavily influenced by the mathematical catastrophe theory of René Thom. However, some critics have questioned how Dalí could have executed a painting with such precision given the severe tremor in his painting arm.",
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"plaintext": "From early 1984 Dalí's depression worsened and he refused food, leading to severe undernourishment. Dalí had previously stated his intention to put himself into a state of suspended animation as he had read that some microorganisms could do. In August 1984 a fire broke out in Dalí's bedroom and he was hospitalized with severe burns. Two judicial inquiries found that the fire was caused by an electrical fault and no findings of negligence were made. After his release from hospital Dalí moved to the Torre Galatea, an annex to the Dalí Theatre-Museum.",
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"plaintext": "There have been allegations that Dalí was forced by his guardians to sign blank canvases that could later be used in forgeries. It is also alleged that he knowingly sold otherwise-blank lithograph paper which he had signed, possibly producing over 50,000 such sheets from 1965 until his death. As a result, art dealers tend to be wary of late graphic works attributed to Dalí.",
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"plaintext": "In July 1986, Dalí had a pacemaker implanted. On his return to his Theatre-Museum he made a brief public appearance, saying:",
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"plaintext": "In November 1988, Dalí entered hospital with heart failure. On 5 December 1988, he was visited by King Juan Carlos, who confessed that he had always been a serious devotee of Dalí. Dalí gave the king a drawing, Head of Europa, which would turn out to be Dalí's final drawing.",
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"plaintext": "On the morning of 23 January 1989, Dalí died of cardiac arrest at the age of 84. He is buried in the crypt below the stage of his Theatre-Museum in Figueres. The location is across the street from the church of Sant Pere, where he had his baptism, first communion, and funeral, and is only from the house where he was born.",
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"plaintext": "The Gala-Salvador Dalí Foundation currently serves as his official estate. The US copyright representative for the Gala-Salvador Dalí Foundation is the Artists Rights Society.",
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"plaintext": "On 26 June 2017 it was announced that a judge in Madrid had ordered the exhumation of Dalí's body in order to obtain samples for a paternity suit. Joan Manuel Sevillano, manager of the Fundación Gala Salvador Dalí (The Gala-Salvador Dalí Foundation), denounced the exhumation as inappropriate. The exhumation took place on the evening of 20 July, and his DNA was extracted. On 6 September 2017 the Foundation stated that the tests carried out proved conclusively that Dalí and the claimant were not related. On 18 May 2020 a Spanish court dismissed an appeal from the claimant and ordered her to pay the costs of the exhumation.",
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"plaintext": "From the late 1920s, Dalí progressively introduced many bizarre or incongruous images into his work which invite symbolic interpretation. While some of these images suggest a straightforward sexual or Freudian interpretation (Dalí read Freud in the 1920s) others (such as locusts, rotting donkeys, and sea urchins) are idiosyncratic and have been variously interpreted. Some commentators have cautioned that Dalí's own comments on these images are not always reliable.",
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"plaintext": "Food and eating have a central place in Dalí's thoughts and work. He associated food with beauty and sex and was obsessed with the image of the female praying mantis eating her mate after copulation. Bread was a recurring image in Dalí's art, from his early work The Basket of Bread to later public performances such as in 1958 when he gave a lecture in Paris using a 12-meter-long baguette an illustrative prop. He saw bread as \"the elementary basis of continuity\" and \"sacred subsistence\".",
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"plaintext": "The egg is another common Dalínian image. He connects the egg to the prenatal and intrauterine, thus using it to symbolize hope and love. It appears in The Great Masturbator, The Metamorphosis of Narcissus and many other works. There are also giant sculptures of eggs in various locations at Dalí's house in Port Lligat as well as at the Dalí Theatre-Museum in Figueres.",
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"plaintext": "Both Dalí and his father enjoyed eating sea urchins, freshly caught in the sea near Cadaqués. The radial symmetry of the sea urchin fascinated Dalí, and he adapted its form to many artworks. Other foods also appear throughout his work.",
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"plaintext": "The famous \"melting watches\" that appear in The Persistence of Memory suggest Einstein's theory that time is relative and not fixed. Dalí later claimed that the idea for clocks functioning symbolically in this way came to him when he was contemplating Camembert cheese.",
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"plaintext": "The rhinoceros and rhinoceros horn shapes began to proliferate in Dalí's work from the mid-1950s. According to Dalí, the rhinoceros horn signifies divine geometry because it grows in a logarithmic spiral. He linked the rhinoceros to themes of chastity and to the Virgin Mary. However, he also used it as an obvious phallic symbol as in Young Virgin Auto-Sodomized by the Horns of Her Own Chastity.",
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"plaintext": "Various other animals appear throughout Dalí's work: rotting donkeys and ants have been interpreted as pointing to death, decay, and sexual desire; the snail as connected to the human head (he saw a snail on a bicycle outside Freud's house when he first met Sigmund Freud); and locusts as a symbol of waste and fear. The elephant is also a recurring image in his work; for example, Dream Caused by the Flight of a Bee Around a Pomegranate a Second Before Awakening. The elephants are inspired by Gian Lorenzo Bernini's sculpture base in Rome of an elephant carrying an ancient obelisk.",
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"plaintext": "Dalí's life-long interest in science and mathematics was often reflected in his work. His soft watches have been interpreted as references to Einstein's theory of the relativity of time and space. Images of atomic particles appeared in his work soon after the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and strands of D.N.A. appeared from the mid-1950s. In 1958 he wrote in his Anti-Matter Manifesto: \"In the Surrealist period, I wanted to create the iconography of the interior world and the world of the marvelous, of my father Freud. Today, the exterior world and that of physics have transcended the one of psychology. My father today is Dr. Heisenberg.\"",
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"plaintext": "The Disintegration of the Persistence of Memory (1954) harks back to The Persistence of Memory (1931) and in portraying that painting in fragmentation and disintegration has been interpreted as a reference to Heisenberg's quantum mechanics.",
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"plaintext": "Dalí was a versatile artist. Some of his more popular works are sculptures and other objects, and he is also noted for his contributions to theater, fashion, and photography, among other areas.",
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"plaintext": "From the early 1930s, Dalí was an enthusiastic proponent of the proliferation of three-dimensional Surrealist Objects to subvert perceptions of conventional reality, writing: \"museums will fast fill with objects whose uselessness, size and crowding will necessitate the construction, in deserts, of special towers to contain them.\" His more notable early objects include Board of Demented Associations (1930–31), Retrospective Bust of a Woman (1933), Venus de Milo with Chest of Drawers (1936) and Aphrodisiac Dinner Jacket (1936). Two of the most popular objects of the Surrealist movement were Lobster Telephone (1936) and Mae West Lips Sofa (1937) which were commissioned by art patron Edward James. Lobsters and telephones had strong sexual connotations for Dalí who drew a close analogy between food and sex. The telephone was functional, and James purchased four of them from Dalí to replace the phones in his home. The Mae West Lips Sofa was shaped after the lips of actress Mae West, who was previously the subject of Dalí's watercolor, The Face of Mae West which may be used as a Surrealist Apartment (1934–35). In December 1936 Dalí sent Harpo Marx a Christmas present of a harp with barbed-wire strings.",
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"plaintext": "After World War II Dalí authorized many sculptures derived from his most famous works and images. In his later years other sculptures also appeared, often in large editions, whose authenticity has sometimes been questioned.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1941 and 1970, Dalí created an ensemble of 39 pieces of jewelry, many of which are intricate, some containing moving parts. The most famous assemblage, The Royal Heart, is made of gold and is encrusted with 46 rubies, 42 diamonds, and four emeralds, created in such a way that the center \"beats\" like a heart.",
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"plaintext": "Dalí ventured into industrial design in the 1970s with a 500-piece run of Suomi tableware by Timo Sarpaneva that Dalí decorated for the German Rosenthal porcelain maker's \"Studio Linie\". In 1969 he designed the Chupa Chups logo. He facilitated the design of the advertising campaign for the 1969 Eurovision Song Contest and created a large on-stage metal sculpture that stood at the Teatro Real in Madrid.",
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"plaintext": "In theater, Dalí designed the scenery for Federico García Lorca's 1927 romantic play Mariana Pineda. For Bacchanale (1939), a ballet based on and set to the music of Richard Wagner's 1845 opera Tannhäuser, Dalí provided both the set design and the libretto. He executed designs for a number of other ballets including Labyrinth (1942), Sentimental Colloquy, Mad Tristan, The Cafe of Chinitas (all 1944) and The Three-Cornered Hat (1949).",
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"plaintext": "Dalí became interested in film when he was young, going to the theater most Sundays. By the late 1920s he was fascinated by the potential of film to reveal \"the unlimited fantasy born of things themselves\" and went on to collaborate with the director Luis Buñuel on two Surrealist films: the 17-minute short Un Chien Andalou (1929) and the feature film L'Age d'Or (1930). Dalí and Buñuel agree that they jointly developed the script and imagery of Un Chien Andalou, but there is controversy over the extent of Dalí's contribution to L'Age d'Or. Un Chien Andalou features a graphic opening scene of a human eyeball being slashed with a razor and develops surreal imagery and irrational discontinuities in time and space to produce a dreamlike quality. L'Age d'Or is more overtly anti-clerical and anti-establishment, and was banned after right-wing groups staged a riot in the Parisian theater where it was being shown. Summarizing the impact of these two films on the Surrealist film movement, one commentator has stated: \"If Un Chien Andalou stands as the supreme record of Surrealism's adventures into the realm of the unconscious, then L'Âge d'Or is perhaps the most trenchant and implacable expression of its revolutionary intent.\"",
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"plaintext": "After he collaborated with Buñuel, Dalí worked on several unrealized film projects including a published script for a film, Babaouo (1932); a scenario for Harpo Marx called Giraffes on Horseback Salad (1937); and an abandoned dream sequence for the film Moontide (1942). In 1945 Dalí created the dream sequence in Hitchcock's Spellbound, but neither Dalí nor the director was satisfied with the result. Dalí also worked with Walt Disney and animator John Hench on the short film Destino in 1946. After initially being abandoned, the animated film was completed in 2003 by Baker Bloodworth and Walt Disney's nephew Roy E. Disney. Between 1954 and 1961 Dalí worked with photographer Robert Descharnes on The Prodigious History of the Lacemaker and the Rhinoceros, but the film was never completed.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1960s Dalí worked with some directors on documentary and performance films including with Philippe Halsman on Chaos and Creation (1960), Jack Bond on Dalí in New York (1966) and Jean-Christophe Averty on Soft Self-Portrait of Salvador Dalí (1966).",
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"plaintext": "Dalí collaborated with director José-Montes Baquer on the pseudo-documentary film Impressions of Upper Mongolia (1975), in which Dalí narrates a story about an expedition in search of giant hallucinogenic mushrooms. In the mid-1970s film director Alejandro Jodorowsky initially cast Dalí in the role of the Padishah Emperor in a production of Dune, based on the novel by Frank Herbert. However, Jodorowsky changed his mind after Dalí publicly supported the execution of alleged ETA terrorists in December 1975. The film was ultimately never made.",
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"plaintext": "In 1972 Dalí began to write the scenario for an opera-poem called Être Dieu (To Be God). The Spanish writer Manuel Vázquez Montalbán wrote the libretto and Igor Wakhévitch the music. The opera poem was recorded in Paris in 1974 with Dalí in the role of the protagonist.",
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"plaintext": "Fashion designer Elsa Schiaparelli worked with Dalí from the 1930s and commissioned him to produce a white dress with a lobster print. Other designs Dalí made for her include a shoe-shaped hat and a pink belt with lips for a buckle. He was also involved in creating textile designs and perfume bottles. In 1950, Dalí created a special \"costume for the year 2045\" with Christian Dior.",
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"plaintext": "Photographers with whom he collaborated include Man Ray, Brassaï, Cecil Beaton, and Philippe Halsman. Halsman produced the Dalí Atomica series (1948)– inspired by Dalí's painting Leda Atomica– which in one photograph depicts \"a painter's easel, three cats, a bucket of water, and Dalí himself floating in the air\".",
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"plaintext": "Dalí's architectural achievements include his Port Lligat house near Cadaqués, as well as his Theatre Museum in Figueres. A major work outside of Spain was the temporary Dream of Venus Surrealist pavilion at the 1939 New York World's Fair, which contained several unusual sculptures and statues, including live performers posing as statues. In 1958, Dalí completed Crisalida, a temporary installation promoting a drug, which was exhibited at the 1958 Convention of the American Medical Association in San Francisco.",
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"plaintext": "In his only novel, Hidden Faces (1944), Dalí describes the intrigues of a group of eccentric aristocrats whose extravagant lifestyle symbolizes the decadence of the 1930s. The Comte de Grandsailles and Solange de Cléda pursue a love affair, but interwar political turmoil and other vicissitudes drive them apart. It is variously set in Paris, rural France, Casablanca in North Africa, and Palm Springs in the United States. Secondary characters include aging widow Barbara Rogers, her bisexual daughter Veronica, Veronica's sometime female lover Betka, and Baba, a disfigured U.S. fighter pilot. The novel was written in New York, and translated by Haakon Chevalier.",
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"plaintext": "His other literary works include The Secret Life of Salvador Dalí (1942), Diary of a Genius (1966), and Oui: The Paranoid-Critical Revolution (1971). Dalí also published poetry, essays, art criticism, and a technical manual on art.",
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"plaintext": "Dalí worked extensively in the graphic arts, producing many drawings, etchings, and lithographs. Among the most notable of these works are forty etchings for an edition of Lautréamont's The Songs of Maldoror (1933) and eighty drypoint reworkings of Goya's Caprichos (1973–77). From the 1960s, however, Dalí would often sell the rights to images but not be involved in the print production itself. In addition, a large number of fakes were produced in the 1980s and 1990s, thus further confusing the Dalí print market.",
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"plaintext": "Book illustrations were an important part of Dalí's work throughout his career. His first book illustration was for the 1924 publication of the Catalan poem (\"The Witches of Liers\") by his friend and schoolmate, poet Carles Fages de Climent. His other notable book illustrations, apart from The Songs of Maldoror, include 101 watercolors and engravings for The Divine Comedy (1960) and 100 drawings and watercolors for The Arabian Nights (1964).",
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"plaintext": "As a youth, Dalí identified as Communist, anti-monarchist and anti-clerical and in 1924 he was briefly imprisoned by the Primo de Rivera dictatorship as a person \"intensely liable to cause public disorder\". When Dalí officially joined the Surrealist group in 1929 his political activism initially intensified. In 1931, he became involved in the Workers' and Peasants' Front, delivering lectures at meetings and contributing to their party journal. However, as political divisions within the Surrealist group grew, Dalí soon developed a more apolitical stance, refusing to publicly denounce fascism. In 1934, Andre Breton accused him of being sympathetic to Hitler and Dalí narrowly avoided being expelled from the group. After the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936, Dalí avoided taking a public stand for or against the Republic. However, immediately after Franco's victory in 1939, Dalí praised Catholicism and the Falange and was expelled from the Surrealist group.",
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"plaintext": "After Dalí's return to his native Catalonia in 1948, he publicly supported Franco's regime and announced his return to the Catholic faith. Dalí was granted an audience with Pope Pius XII in 1949 and with Pope John XXIII in 1959. He had official meetings with General Franco in June 1956, October 1968, and May 1974. In 1968, Dalí stated that on Franco's death there should be no return to democracy and Spain should become an absolute monarchy. In September 1975, Dalí publicly supported Franco's decision to execute three alleged Basque terrorists and repeated his support for an absolute monarchy, adding: \"Personally, I'm against freedom; I'm for the Holy Inquisition.\" In the following days, he fled to New York after his home in Port Lligat was stoned and he had received numerous death threats. When King Juan Carlos visited the ailing Dalí in August 1981, Dalí told him: \"I have always been an anarchist and a monarchist.\"",
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"plaintext": "Dalí espoused a mystical view of Catholicism and in his later years he claimed to be a Catholic and an agnostic. He was interested in the writings of the Jesuit priest and philosopher Teilhard de Chardin and his Omega Point theory. Dalí's painting Tuna Fishing (Homage to Meissonier) (1967) was inspired by his reading of Chardin.",
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"plaintext": "Dalí's sexuality had a profound influence on his work. He stated that as a child he saw a book with graphic illustrations of venereal diseases and this provoked a life-long disgust of female genitalia and a fear of impotence and sexual intimacy. Dalí frequently stated that his main sexual activity involved voyeurism and masturbation and his preferred sexual orifice was the anus. Dalí said that his wife Gala was the only person with whom he had achieved complete coitus. From 1927 Dalí's work featured graphic and symbolic sexual images usually associated with other images evoking shame and disgust. Images of anality and excrement also abound in his work from this time. Some of the most notable works reflecting these themes include The First Days of Spring (1929), The Great Masturbator (1929), and The Lugubrious Game (1929). Several of Dalí's intimates in the 1960s and 1970s have stated that he would arrange for selected guests to perform choreographed sexual activities to aid his voyeurism and masturbation.",
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"plaintext": "Dalí was renowned for his eccentric and ostentatious behavior throughout his career. In 1941, the Director of Exhibitions and Publications at MoMA wrote: \"The fame of Salvador Dalí has been an issue of particular controversy for more than a decade...Dalí's conduct may have been undignified, but the greater part of his art is a matter of dead earnest.\" When Dalí was elected to the French Academy of Fine Arts in 1979, one of his fellow academicians stated that he hoped Dalí would now abandon his \"clowneries\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1936, at the premiere screening of Joseph Cornell's film Rose Hobart at Julien Levy's gallery in New York City, Dalí knocked over the projector in a rage. \"My idea for a film is exactly that,\" he said shortly afterward, \"I never wrote it down or told anyone, but it is as if he had stolen it!\" In 1939, while working on a window display for Bonwit Teller, he became so enraged by unauthorized changes to his work that he pushed a display bathtub through a plate glass window. In 1955, he delivered a lecture at the Sorbonne, arriving in a Rolls Royce full of cauliflowers. To promote Robert Descharnes' 1962 book The World of Salvador Dalí, he appeared in a Manhattan bookstore on a bed, wired up to a machine that traced his brain waves and blood pressure. He would autograph books while thus monitored, and the book buyer would also be given the paper chart recording.",
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"plaintext": "After World War II, Dalí became one of the most recognized artists in the world, and his long cape, walking stick, haughty expression, and upturned waxed mustache became icons of his brand. His boastfulness and public declarations of his genius became essential elements of the public Dalí persona: \"every morning upon awakening, I experience a supreme pleasure: that of being Salvador Dalí\".",
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"plaintext": "Dalí frequently traveled with his pet ocelot Babou, even bringing it aboard the luxury ocean liner SS France. He was also known to avoid paying at restaurants by executing drawings on the checks he wrote. His theory was the restaurant would never want to cash such a valuable piece of art, and he was usually correct.",
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"plaintext": "Dalí's fame meant he was a frequent guest on television in Spain, France and the United States, including appearances on the Tonight Show with Johnny Carson on 7 January 1963 The Mike Wallace Interview and the panel show What's My Line?. Dalí appeared on The Dick Cavett Show on 6 March 1970 carrying an anteater.",
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"plaintext": "He also appeared in numerous advertising campaigns such for chocolates and Braniff International Airlines in 1968.",
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"plaintext": "Two major museums are devoted to Dalí's work: the Dalí Theatre-Museum in Figueres, Catalonia, Spain, and the Salvador Dalí Museum in St. Petersburg, Florida, U.S.",
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"plaintext": "Dalí's life and work have been an important influence on pop art, other Surrealists, and contemporary artists such as Jeff Koons and Damien Hirst. He has been portrayed on film by Robert Pattinson in Little Ashes (2008), and by Adrien Brody in Midnight in Paris (2011). The Salvador Dalí Desert in Bolivia and the Dalí crater on the planet Mercury are named for him.",
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"plaintext": "The Spanish television series Money Heist (2017–2021) includes characters wearing a costume of red jumpsuits and Dalí masks. The creator of the series stated that the Dalí mask was chosen because it was an iconic Spanish image. The Gala-Salvador Dalí Foundation protested against the use of Dalí's image without the authorisation of the Dalí estate. Following the popular success of the series, there were reports of people in various countries wearing the costume while participating in political protests, committing crimes or as fancy dress.",
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"plaintext": " 1964: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic",
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"plaintext": " 1972: Associate member of the Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium",
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"plaintext": "1978: Associate member of the Académie des Beaux-Arts of the Institut de France",
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"plaintext": " 1981: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III",
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"plaintext": " 1982: Created 1st Marquess of Dalí of Púbol, by King Juan Carlos",
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"plaintext": "Dalí produced over 1,600 paintings and numerous graphic works, sculptures, three-dimensional objects, and designs. Below is a sample of important and representative works.",
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"plaintext": " Landscape Near Figueras (1910–14)",
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"plaintext": " Vilabertran (1910–14)",
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"plaintext": " Cabaret Scene (1922)",
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"plaintext": " Night Walking Dreams (1922)",
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"plaintext": " The Basket of Bread (1926)",
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"plaintext": " Premature Ossification of a Railway Station (1931)",
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"plaintext": " The Persistence of Memory (1931)",
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"plaintext": " Soft Construction with Boiled Beans (Premonition of Civil War) (1936)",
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"plaintext": " Slave Market with the Disappearing Bust of Voltaire (1940)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Geopoliticus Child Watching the Birth of the New Man (1943)",
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"plaintext": " Dream Caused by the Flight of a Bee Around a Pomegranate a Second Before Awakening (c.1944)",
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"plaintext": " Basket of Bread – Rather Death than Shame (1945)",
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"plaintext": " The Temptation of St. Anthony (1946)",
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"plaintext": " The Elephants (1948) (also known as Project for \"As You Like It\")",
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"plaintext": " Leda Atomica (1947–1949)",
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"plaintext": " Christ of Saint John of the Cross (also known as The Christ) (1951)",
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"plaintext": " Crucifixion (Corpus Hypercubus) (c.1954) (also known as Hypercubic Christ)",
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"plaintext": " Young Virgin Auto-Sodomized by the Horns of Her Own Chastity (1954)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Still Life Moving Fast (c. 1956) (also known as Fast-Moving Still Life)",
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"plaintext": " The Discovery of America by Christopher Columbus (1958)",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Perpignan Railway Station (c. 1965)",
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{
"plaintext": " Tuna Fishing (1966–67)",
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"plaintext": " The Hallucinogenic Toreador (1970)",
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"plaintext": " Nieuw Amsterdam (1974 object/sculpture)",
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"plaintext": " The Swallow's Tail (c.1983)",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dalí Theatre-Museum – Figueres, Catalonia, Spain, holds the largest collection of Dalí's work",
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"plaintext": " Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofia (Reina Sofia Museum) – Madrid, Spain, holds a significant collection",
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"plaintext": " Salvador Dalí Museum – St Petersburg, Florida, contains the collection of Reynolds and Eleanor Morse, and over 1500 works by Dalí, including seven large \"masterworks\".",
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"plaintext": "Important books by or about Salvador Dalí readily available in English include:",
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"plaintext": " Ades, Dawn, Salvador Dalí, Thames and Hudson, 1995 (2nd ed.)",
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"plaintext": " Dalí, Salvador, Oui: the paranoid-critical revolution: writings 1927–1933, (edited by Robert Descharnes, translated by Yvonne Shafir), Boston: Exact Change, 1998",
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"plaintext": "Dalí, Salvador, The Secret Life of Salvador Dalí, New York, Dover, 1993 (translated by Haakon M. Chevalier, first published 1942)",
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"plaintext": " Dalí, Salvador, The Diary of a Genius, London, Hutchinson, 1990 (translated by Richard Howard, first published 1964)",
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"plaintext": " Dalí, Salvador, The Unspeakable Confessions of Salvador Dalí, London, Quartet Books, 1977 (first published 1973)",
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"plaintext": " Descharnes, Robert, Salvador Dalí (translated by Eleanor R. Morse), New York, Abradale Press, 1993",
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},
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"plaintext": " Gibson, Ian, The Shameful Life of Salvador Dalí, London, Faber and Faber, 1997",
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"plaintext": " Shanes, Eric, Salvador Dalí, Parkstone International, 2014",
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{
"plaintext": "Salvador Dalí on What's My Line?",
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{
"plaintext": " Interview and bank advertisement.",
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"plaintext": " A collection of interviews and footage of Dalí in the French television",
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"plaintext": "Mike Wallace interviews Salvador Dalí Archived 15 December 2015. Harry Ransom Center, the University of Texas at Austin ",
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40,113 | 1,092,482,851 | Ides_of_March | [
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"plaintext": "The Ides of March (; , Late Latin: ) is the 74th day in the Roman calendar, corresponding to 15 March. It was marked by several religious observances and was notable for the Romans as a deadline for settling debts. In 44 BC, it became notorious as the date of the assassination of Julius Caesar, which made the Ides of March a turning point in Roman history.",
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"plaintext": "The Romans did not number each day of a month from the first to the last day. Instead, they counted back from three fixed points of the month: the Nones (the 5th or 7th, nine days inclusive before the Ides), the Ides (the 13th for most months, but the 15th in March, May, July, and October), and the Kalends (1st of the following month). Originally the Ides were supposed to be determined by the full moon, reflecting the lunar origin of the Roman calendar. In the earliest calendar, the Ides of March would have been the first full moon of the new year.",
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"plaintext": "The Ides of each month were sacred to Jupiter, the Romans' supreme deity. The Flamen Dialis, Jupiter's high priest, led the \"Ides sheep\" (ovis Idulis) in procession along the Via Sacra to the arx, where it was sacrificed.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to the monthly sacrifice, the Ides of March was also the occasion of the Feast of Anna Perenna, a goddess of the year (Latin annus) whose festival originally concluded the ceremonies of the new year. The day was enthusiastically celebrated among the common people with picnics, drinking, and revelry. One source from late antiquity also places the Mamuralia on the Ides of March. This observance, which has aspects of scapegoat or ancient Greek pharmakos ritual, involved beating an old man dressed in animal skins and perhaps driving him from the city. The ritual may have been a new year festival representing the expulsion of the old year.",
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"plaintext": "In the later Imperial period, the Ides began a \"holy week\" of festivals celebrating Cybele and Attis, being the day Canna intrat (\"The Reed enters\"), when Attis was born and found among the reeds of a Phrygian river. He was discovered by shepherds or the goddess Cybele, who was also known as the Magna Mater (\"Great Mother\") (narratives differ). A week later, on 22 March, the solemn commemoration of Arbor intrat (\"The Tree enters\") commemorated the death of Attis under a pine tree. A college of priests, the dendrophoroi (\"tree bearers\") annually cut down a tree, hung from it an image of Attis, and carried it to the temple of the Magna Mater with lamentations. The day was formalized as part of the official Roman calendar under Claudius (d. 54 AD). A three-day period of mourning followed, culminating with celebrating the rebirth of Attis on 25 March, the date of the vernal equinox on the Julian calendar.",
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"plaintext": "In modern times, the Ides of March is best known as the date on which Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC. Caesar was stabbed to death at a meeting of the Senate. As many as 60 conspirators, led by Brutus and Cassius, were involved. According to Plutarch, a seer had warned that harm would come to Caesar on the Ides of March. On his way to the Theatre of Pompey, where he would be assassinated, Caesar passed the seer and joked, \"Well, the Ides of March are come\", implying that the prophecy had not been fulfilled, to which the seer replied \"Aye, they are come, but they are not gone.\" This meeting is famously dramatised in William Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar, when Caesar is warned by the soothsayer to \"beware the Ides of March.\" The Roman biographer Suetonius identifies the \"seer\" as a haruspex named Spurinna.",
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"plaintext": " The Ides of March, a novel by Thornton Wilder",
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"plaintext": " The Ides of March, a music album by Myles Kennedy",
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"plaintext": " Plutarch, The Parallel Lives, The Life of Julius Caesar",
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"plaintext": " Nicolaus of Damascus, Life of Augustus (translated by Clayton M. Hall)",
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"plaintext": "Escherichia coli (), also known as E. coli (), is a Gram-negative, facultative anaerobic, rod-shaped, coliform bacterium of the genus Escherichia that is commonly found in the lower intestine of warm-blooded organisms. Most E. coli strains are harmless, but some serotypes (EPEC, ETEC etc.) can cause serious food poisoning in their hosts, and are occasionally responsible for food contamination incidents that prompt product recalls. The harmless strains are part of the normal microbiota of the gut, and can benefit their hosts by producing vitamin K2, and preventing colonisation of the intestine with pathogenic bacteria, having a mutualistic relationship. E. coli is expelled into the environment within faecal matter. The bacterium grows massively in fresh faecal matter under aerobic conditions for three days, but its numbers decline slowly afterwards.",
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"plaintext": "The bacterium can be grown and cultured easily and inexpensively in a laboratory setting, and has been intensively investigated for over 60 years. E. coli is a chemoheterotroph whose chemically defined medium must include a source of carbon and energy. E. coli is the most widely studied prokaryotic model organism, and an important species in the fields of biotechnology and microbiology, where it has served as the host organism for the majority of work with recombinant DNA. Under favourable conditions, it takes as little as 20 minutes to reproduce.",
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"plaintext": "E. coli is a Gram-negative, facultative anaerobe, nonsporulating coliform bacterium. Cells are typically rod-shaped, and are about 2.0 μm long and 0.25–1.0μm in diameter, with a cell volume of 0.6–0.7μm3. Antibiotics can effectively treat E. coli infections outside the digestive tract and most intestinal infections but are not used to treat intestinal infections by one strain of these bacteria. The flagella which allow the bacteria to swim have a peritrichous arrangement. It also attaches and effaces to the microvilli of the intestines via an adhesion molecule known as intimin.",
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"plaintext": "When growing in the presence of a mixture of sugars, bacteria will often consume the sugars sequentially through a process known as catabolite repression. By repressing the expression of the genes involved in metabolizing the less preferred sugars, cells will usually first consume the sugar yielding the highest growth rate, followed by the sugar yielding the next highest growth rate, and so on. In doing so the cells ensure that their limited metabolic resources are being used to maximize the rate of growth. The well-used example of this with E. coli involves the growth of the bacterium on glucose and lactose, where E. coli will consume glucose before lactose. Catabolite repression has also been observed in E. coli in the presence of other non-glucose sugars, such as arabinose and xylose, sorbitol, rhamnose, and ribose. In E. coli, glucose catabolite repression is regulated by the phosphotransferase system, a multi-protein phosphorylation cascade that couples glucose uptake and metabolism.",
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"plaintext": "The number of replication forks in fast growing E. coli typically follows 2n (n = 1, 2 or 3). This only happens if replication is initiated simultaneously from all origins of replications, and is referred to as synchronous replication. However, not all cells in a culture replicate synchronously. In this case cells do not have multiples of two replication forks. Replication initiation is then referred to being asynchronous. However, asynchrony can be caused by mutations to for instance DnaA or DnaA initiator-associating protein DiaA.",
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"plaintext": "E. coli and related bacteria possess the ability to transfer DNA via bacterial conjugation or transduction, which allows genetic material to spread horizontally through an existing population. The process of transduction, which uses the bacterial virus called a bacteriophage, is where the spread of the gene encoding for the Shiga toxin from the Shigella bacteria to E. coli helped produce H7, the Shiga toxin-producing strain of E. coli.",
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"plaintext": "E. coli encompasses an enormous population of bacteria that exhibit a very high degree of both genetic and phenotypic diversity. Genome sequencing of many isolates of E. coli and related bacteria shows that a taxonomic reclassification would be desirable. However, this has not been done, largely due to its medical importance, and E. coli remains one of the most diverse bacterial species: only 20% of the genes in a typical E. coli genome is shared among all strains.",
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"plaintext": "In fact, from the more constructive point of view, the members of genus Shigella (S. dysenteriae, S. flexneri, S. boydii, and S. sonnei) should be classified as E. coli strains, a phenomenon termed taxa in disguise. Similarly, other strains of E. coli (e.g. the K-12 strain commonly used in recombinant DNA work) are sufficiently different that they would merit reclassification.",
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"plaintext": "A strain is a subgroup within the species that has unique characteristics that distinguish it from other strains. These differences are often detectable only at the molecular level; however, they may result in changes to the physiology or lifecycle of the bacterium. For example, a strain may gain pathogenic capacity, the ability to use a unique carbon source, the ability to take upon a particular ecological niche, or the ability to resist antimicrobial agents. Different strains of E. coli are often host-specific, making it possible to determine the source of fecal contamination in environmental samples. For example, knowing which E. coli strains are present in a water sample allows researchers to make assumptions about whether the contamination originated from a human, another mammal, or a bird.",
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"plaintext": "A common subdivision system of E. coli, but not based on evolutionary relatedness, is by serotype, which is based on major surface antigens (O antigen: part of lipopolysaccharide layer; H: flagellin; K antigen: capsule), e.g. O157:H7). It is, however, common to cite only the serogroup, i.e. the O-antigen. At present, about 190 serogroups are known. The common laboratory strain has a mutation that prevents the formation of an O-antigen and is thus not typeable.",
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"plaintext": "Like all lifeforms, new strains of E. coli evolve through the natural biological processes of mutation, gene duplication, and horizontal gene transfer; in particular, 18% of the genome of the laboratory strain MG1655 was horizontally acquired since the divergence from Salmonella. E. coli K-12 and E. coli B strains are the most frequently used varieties for laboratory purposes. Some strains develop traits that can be harmful to a host animal. These virulent strains typically cause a bout of diarrhea that is often self-limiting in healthy adults but is frequently lethal to children in the developing world. More virulent strains, such as H7, cause serious illness or death in the elderly, the very young, or the immunocompromised.",
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"plaintext": "The genera Escherichia and Salmonella diverged around 102million years ago (credibility interval: 57–176mya), an event unrelated to the much earlier (see Synapsid) divergence of their hosts: the former being found in mammals and the latter in birds and reptiles. This was followed by a split of an Escherichia ancestor into five species (E. albertii, E. coli, E. fergusonii, E. hermannii, and E. vulneris). The last E. coli ancestor split between 20 and 30million years ago.",
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"plaintext": "In the microbial world, a relationship of predation can be established similar to that observed in the animal world. Considered, it has been seen that E. coli is the prey of multiple generalist predators, such as Myxococcus xanthus. In this predator-prey relationship, a parallel evolution of both species is observed through genomic and phenotypic modifications, in the case of E. coli the modifications are modified in two aspects involved in their virulence such as mucoid production (excessive production of exoplasmic acid alginate ) and the suppression of the OmpT gene, producing in future generations a better adaptation of one of the species that is counteracted by the evolution of the other, following a co-evolutionary model demonstrated by the Red Queen hypothesis.",
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"plaintext": "E. coli is the type species of the genus (Escherichia) and in turn Escherichia is the type genus of the family Enterobacteriaceae, where the family name does not stem from the genus Enterobacter + \"i\" (sic.) + \"aceae\", but from \"enterobacterium\" + \"aceae\" (enterobacterium being not a genus, but an alternative trivial name to enteric bacterium).",
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"plaintext": "The original strain described by Escherich is believed to be lost, consequently a new type strain (neotype) was chosen as a representative: the neotype strain is U5/41T, also known under the deposit names DSM 30083, ATCC 11775, and NCTC 9001, which is pathogenic to chickens and has an O1:K1:H7 serotype. However, in most studies, either O157:H7, K-12 MG1655, or K-12 W3110 were used as a representative E. coli. The genome of the type strain has only lately been sequenced.",
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"plaintext": "Many strains belonging to this species have been isolated and characterised. In addition to serotype (vide supra), they can be classified according to their phylogeny, i.e. the inferred evolutionary history, as shown below where the species is divided into six groups. Particularly the use of whole genome sequences yields highly supported phylogenies. Based on such data, five subspecies of E. coli were distinguished.",
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"plaintext": "The link between phylogenetic distance (\"relatedness\") and pathology is small, e.g. the O157:H7 serotype strains, which form a clade (\"an exclusive group\")—group E below—are all enterohaemorragic strains (EHEC), but not all EHEC strains are closely related. In fact, four different species of Shigella are nested among E. coli strains (vide supra), while E. albertii and E. fergusonii are outside this group.",
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"plaintext": "Indeed, all Shigella species were placed within a single subspecies of E. coli in a phylogenomic study that included the type strain, and for this reason an according reclassification is difficult.",
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"plaintext": "All commonly used research strains of E. coli belong to group A and are derived mainly from Clifton's K-12 strain (λ+ F+; O16) and to a lesser degree from d'Herelle's Bacillus coli strain (B strain) (O7).",
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"plaintext": "The first complete DNA sequence of an E. coli genome (laboratory strain K-12 derivative MG1655) was published in 1997. It is a circular DNA molecule 4.6million base pairs in length, containing 4288 annotated protein-coding genes (organized into 2584 operons), seven ribosomal RNA (rRNA) operons, and 86 transfer RNA (tRNA) genes. Despite having been the subject of intensive genetic analysis for about 40 years, many of these genes were previously unknown. The coding density was found to be very high, with a mean distance between genes of only 118 base pairs. The genome was observed to contain a significant number of transposable genetic elements, repeat elements, cryptic prophages, and bacteriophage remnants.",
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"plaintext": "More than three hundred complete genomic sequences of Escherichia and Shigella species are known. The genome sequence of the type strain of E. coli was added to this collection before 2014. Comparison of these sequences shows a remarkable amount of diversity; only about 20% of each genome represents sequences present in every one of the isolates, while around 80% of each genome can vary among isolates. Each individual genome contains between 4,000 and 5,500 genes, but the total number of different genes among all of the sequenced E. coli strains (the pangenome) exceeds 16,000. This very large variety of component genes has been interpreted to mean that two-thirds of the E. coli pangenome originated in other species and arrived through the process of horizontal gene transfer.",
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"plaintext": "Genes in E. coli are usually named in accordance with the uniform nomenclature proposed by Demerec et al. Gene names are 3-letter acronyms that derive from their function (when known) or mutant phenotype and are italicized. When multiple genes have the same acronym, the different genes are designated by a capital later that follows the acronym and is also italicized. For instance, recA is named after its role in homologous recombination plus the letter A. Functionally related genes are named recB, recC, recD etc. The proteins are named by uppercase acronyms, e.g. RecA, RecB, etc. When the genome of E. coli strain K-12 substr. MG1655 was sequenced, all known or predicted protein-coding genes were numbered (more or less) in their order on the genome and abbreviated by b numbers, such as b2819 (= recD). The \"b\" names were created after Fred Blattner, who led the genome sequence effort. Another numbering system was introduced with the sequence of another E. coli K-12 substrain, W3110, which was sequenced in Japan and hence uses numbers starting by JW... (Japanese W3110), e.g. JW2787 (= recD). Hence, recD = b2819 = JW2787. Note, however, that most databases have their own numbering system, e.g. the EcoGene database uses EG10826 for recD. Finally, ECK numbers are specifically used for alleles in the MG1655 strain of E. coli K-12. Complete lists of genes and their synonyms can be obtained from databases such as EcoGene or Uniprot.",
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"plaintext": "The genome sequence of E. coli predicts 4288 protein-coding genes, of which 38 percent initially had no attributed function. Comparison with five other sequenced microbes reveals ubiquitous as well as narrowly distributed gene families; many families of similar genes within E. coli are also evident. The largest family of paralogous proteins contains 80 ABC transporters. The genome as a whole is strikingly organized with respect to the local direction of replication; guanines, oligonucleotides possibly related to replication and recombination, and most genes are so oriented. The genome also contains insertion sequence (IS) elements, phage remnants, and many other patches of unusual composition indicating genome plasticity through horizontal transfer.",
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"plaintext": "Several studies have experimentally investigated the proteome of E. coli. By 2006, 1,627 (38%) of the predicted proteins (open reading frames, ORFs) had been identified experimentally. Mateus et al. 2020 detected 2,586 proteins with at least 2 peptides (60% of all proteins).",
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"plaintext": "Although much fewer bacterial proteins seem to have post-translational modifications (PTMs) compared to eukaryotic proteins, a substantial number of proteins are modified in E. coli. For instance, Potel et al. (2018) found 227 phosphoproteins of which 173 were phosphorylated on histidine. Interestingly, the majority of phosphorylated amino acids were serine (1,220 sites) with only 246 sites on histidine and 501 phosphorylated theronines and 162 tyrosines.",
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"plaintext": "The interactome of E. coli has been studied by affinity purification and mass spectrometry (AP/MS) and by analyzing the binary interactions among its proteins.",
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"plaintext": "Protein complexes. A 2006 study purified 4,339 proteins from cultures of strain K-12 and found interacting partners for 2,667 proteins, many of which had unknown functions at the time. A 2009 study found 5,993 interactions between proteins of the same E. coli strain, though these data showed little overlap with those of the 2006 publication.",
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"plaintext": "Binary interactions. Rajagopala et al. (2014) have carried out systematic yeast two-hybrid screens with most E. coli proteins, and found a total of 2,234 protein-protein interactions. This study also integrated genetic interactions and protein structures and mapped 458 interactions within 227 protein complexes.",
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"plaintext": "E. coli belongs to a group of bacteria informally known as coliforms that are found in the gastrointestinal tract of warm-blooded animals. E. coli normally colonizes an infant's gastrointestinal tract within 40 hours of birth, arriving with food or water or from the individuals handling the child. In the bowel, E. coli adheres to the mucus of the large intestine. It is the primary facultative anaerobe of the human gastrointestinal tract. (Facultative anaerobes are organisms that can grow in either the presence or absence of oxygen.) As long as these bacteria do not acquire genetic elements encoding for virulence factors, they remain benign commensals.",
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"plaintext": "Due to the low cost and speed with which it can be grown and modified in laboratory settings, E. coli is a popular expression platform for the production of recombinant proteins used in therapeutics. One advantage to using E. coli over another expression platform is that E. coli naturally does not export many proteins into the periplasm, making it easier to recover a protein of interest without cross-contamination. The E. coli K-12 strains and their derivatives (DH1, DH5α, MG1655, RV308 and W3110) are the strains most widely used by the biotechnology industry. Nonpathogenic E. coli strain Nissle 1917 (EcN), (Mutaflor) and E. coli O83:K24:H31 (Colinfant)) are used as probiotic agents in medicine, mainly for the treatment of various gastrointestinal diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease. It is thought that the EcN strain might impede the growth of opportunistic pathogens, including Salmonella and other coliform enteropathogens, through the production of microcin proteins the production of siderophores.",
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"plaintext": "Most E. coli strains do not cause disease, naturally living in the gut, but virulent strains can cause gastroenteritis, urinary tract infections, neonatal meningitis, hemorrhagic colitis, and Crohn's disease. Common signs and symptoms include severe abdominal cramps, diarrhea, hemorrhagic colitis, vomiting, and sometimes fever. In rarer cases, virulent strains are also responsible for bowel necrosis (tissue death) and perforation without progressing to hemolytic-uremic syndrome, peritonitis, mastitis, sepsis, and Gram-negative pneumonia. Very young children are more susceptible to develop severe illness, such as hemolytic uremic syndrome; however, healthy individuals of all ages are at risk to the severe consequences that may arise as a result of being infected with E. coli.",
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"plaintext": "Some strains of E. coli, for example O157:H7, can produce Shiga toxin (classified as a bioterrorism agent). The Shiga toxin causes inflammatory responses in target cells of the gut, leaving behind lesions which result in the bloody diarrhea that is a symptom of a Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) infection. This toxin further causes premature destruction of the red blood cells, which then clog the body's filtering system, the kidneys, in some rare cases (usually in children and the elderly) causing hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS), which may lead to kidney failure and even death. Signs of hemolytic uremic syndrome include decreased frequency of urination, lethargy, and paleness of cheeks and inside the lower eyelids. In 25% of HUS patients, complications of nervous system occur, which in turn causes strokes. In addition, this strain causes the buildup of fluid (since the kidneys do not work), leading to edema around the lungs, legs, and arms. This increase in fluid buildup especially around the lungs impedes the functioning of the heart, causing an increase in blood pressure.",
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"plaintext": "Uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC) is one of the main causes of urinary tract infections. It is part of the normal microbiota in the gut and can be introduced in many ways. In particular for females, the direction of wiping after defecation (wiping back to front) can lead to fecal contamination of the urogenital orifices. Anal intercourse can also introduce this bacterium into the male urethra, and in switching from anal to vaginal intercourse, the male can also introduce UPEC to the female urogenital system.",
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"plaintext": "Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) is the most common cause of traveler's diarrhea, with as many as 840million cases worldwide in developing countries each year. The bacteria, typically transmitted through contaminated food or drinking water, adheres to the intestinal lining, where it secretes either of two types of enterotoxins, leading to watery diarrhea. The rate and severity of infections are higher among children under the age of five, including as many as 380,000 deaths annually.",
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"plaintext": "In May 2011, one E. coli strain, H4, was the subject of a bacterial outbreak that began in Germany. Certain strains of E. coli are a major cause of foodborne illness. The outbreak started when several people in Germany were infected with enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) bacteria, leading to hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS), a medical emergency that requires urgent treatment. The outbreak did not only concern Germany, but also 15 other countries, including regions in North America. On 30 June 2011, the German Bundesinstitut für Risikobewertung (BfR) (Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, a federal institute within the German Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection) announced that seeds of fenugreek from Egypt were likely the cause of the EHEC outbreak.",
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"plaintext": "Some studies have demonstrated an absence of E. coli in the gut flora of subjects with the metabolic disorder Phenylketonuria. It is hypothesized that the absence of these normal bacterium impairs the production of the key vitamins B2 (riboflavin) and K2 (menaquinone) - vitamins which are implicated in many physiological roles in humans such as cellular and bone metabolism - and so contributes to the disorder.",
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"plaintext": "Carbapenem-resistant E. coli (carbapenemase-producing E. coli) that are resistant to the carbapenem class of antibiotics, considered the drugs of last resort for such infections. They are resistant because they produce an enzyme called a carbapenemase that disables the drug molecule.",
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"plaintext": "The time between ingesting the STEC bacteria and feeling sick is called the \"incubation period\". The incubation period is usually 3–4 days after the exposure, but may be as short as 1 day or as long as 10 days. The symptoms often begin slowly with mild belly pain or non-bloody diarrhea that worsens over several days. HUS, if it occurs, develops an average 7 days after the first symptoms, when the diarrhea is improving.",
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"plaintext": "Diagnosis of infectious diarrhea and identification of antimicrobial resistance is performed using a stool culture with subsequent antibiotic sensitivity testing. It requires a minimum of 2 days and maximum of several weeks to culture gastrointestinal pathogens. The sensitivity (true positive) and specificity (true negative) rates for stool culture vary by pathogen, although a number of human pathogens can not be cultured. For culture-positive samples, antimicrobial resistance testing takes an additional 12–24 hours to perform.",
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"plaintext": "Current point of care molecular diagnostic tests can identify E. coli and antimicrobial resistance in the identified strains much faster than culture and sensitivity testing. Microarray-based platforms can identify specific pathogenic strains of E. coli and E. coli-specific AMR genes in two hours or less with high sensitivity and specificity, but the size of the test panel (i.e., total pathogens and antimicrobial resistance genes) is limited. Newer metagenomics-based infectious disease diagnostic platforms are currently being developed to overcome the various limitations of culture and all currently available molecular diagnostic technologies.",
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"plaintext": "The mainstay of treatment is the assessment of dehydration and replacement of fluid and electrolytes. Administration of antibiotics has been shown to shorten the course of illness and duration of excretion of enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) in adults in endemic areas and in traveller's diarrhea, though the rate of resistance to commonly used antibiotics is increasing and they are generally not recommended. The antibiotic used depends upon susceptibility patterns in the particular geographical region. Currently, the antibiotics of choice are fluoroquinolones or azithromycin, with an emerging role for rifaximin. Oral rifaximin, a semisynthetic rifamycin derivative, is an effective and well-tolerated antibacterial for the management of adults with non-invasive traveller's diarrhea. Rifaximin was significantly more effective than placebo and no less effective than ciprofloxacin in reducing the duration of diarrhea. While rifaximin is effective in patients with E. coli-predominant traveller's diarrhea, it appears ineffective in patients infected with inflammatory or invasive enteropathogens.",
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"plaintext": "ETEC is the type of E. coli that most vaccine development efforts are focused on. Antibodies against the LT and major CFs of ETEC provide protection against LT-producing, ETEC-expressing homologous CFs. Oral inactivated vaccines consisting of toxin antigen and whole cells, i.e. the licensed recombinant cholera B subunit (rCTB)-WC cholera vaccine Dukoral, have been developed. There are currently no licensed vaccines for ETEC, though several are in various stages of development. In different trials, the rCTB-WC cholera vaccine provided high (85–100%) short-term protection. An oral ETEC vaccine candidate consisting of rCTB and formalin inactivated E. coli bacteria expressing major CFs has been shown in clinical trials to be safe, immunogenic, and effective against severe diarrhoea in American travelers but not against ETEC diarrhoea in young children in Egypt. A modified ETEC vaccine consisting of recombinant E. coli strains over-expressing the major CFs and a more LT-like hybrid toxoid called LCTBA, are undergoing clinical testing.",
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"plaintext": "Other proven prevention methods for E. coli transmission include handwashing and improved sanitation and drinking water, as transmission occurs through fecal contamination of food and water supplies. Additionally, thoroughly cooking meat and avoiding consumption of raw, unpasteurized beverages, such as juices and milk are other proven methods for preventing E. coli. Lastly, avoid cross-contamination of utensils and work spaces when preparing food.",
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"plaintext": "Because of its long history of laboratory culture and ease of manipulation, E. coli plays an important role in modern biological engineering and industrial microbiology. The work of Stanley Norman Cohen and Herbert Boyer in E. coli, using plasmids and restriction enzymes to create recombinant DNA, became a foundation of biotechnology.",
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"plaintext": "E. coli is a very versatile host for the production of heterologous proteins, and various protein expression systems have been developed which allow the production of recombinant proteins in E. coli. Researchers can introduce genes into the microbes using plasmids which permit high level expression of protein, and such protein may be mass-produced in industrial fermentation processes. One of the first useful applications of recombinant DNA technology was the manipulation of E. coli to produce human insulin.",
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"plaintext": "Many proteins previously thought difficult or impossible to be expressed in E. coli in folded form have been successfully expressed in E. coli. For example, proteins with multiple disulphide bonds may be produced in the periplasmic space or in the cytoplasm of mutants rendered sufficiently oxidizing to allow disulphide-bonds to form, while proteins requiring post-translational modification such as glycosylation for stability or function have been expressed using the N-linked glycosylation system of Campylobacter jejuni engineered into E. coli.",
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"plaintext": "Modified E. coli cells have been used in vaccine development, bioremediation, production of biofuels, lighting, and production of immobilised enzymes.",
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"plaintext": "Strain K-12 is a mutant form of E. coli that over-expresses the enzyme Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP). The mutation arises due to a defect in the gene that constantly codes for the enzyme. A gene that is producing a product without any inhibition is said to have constitutive activity. This particular mutant form is used to isolate and purify the aforementioned enzyme.",
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"plaintext": "Strain JM109 is a mutant form of E. coli that is recA and endA deficient. The strain can be utilized for blue/white screening when the cells carry the fertility factor episome. Lack of recA decreases the possibility of unwanted restriction of the DNA of interest and lack of endA inhibit plasmid DNA decomposition. Thus, JM109 is useful for cloning and expression systems.",
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"plaintext": "E. coli is frequently used as a model organism in microbiology studies. Cultivated strains (e.g. E. coli K12) are well-adapted to the laboratory environment, and, unlike wild-type strains, have lost their ability to thrive in the intestine. Many laboratory strains lose their ability to form biofilms. These features protect wild-type strains from antibodies and other chemical attacks, but require a large expenditure of energy and material resources. E. coli is often used as a representative microorganism in the research of novel water treatment and sterilisation methods, including photocatalysis. By standard plate count methods, following sequential dilutions, and growth on agar gel plates, the concentration of viable organisms or CFUs (Colony Forming Units), in a known volume of treated water can be evaluated, allowing the comparative assessment of materials performance.",
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"plaintext": "In 1946, Joshua Lederberg and Edward Tatum first described the phenomenon known as bacterial conjugation using E. coli as a model bacterium, and it remains the primary model to study conjugation. E. coli was an integral part of the first experiments to understand phage genetics, and early researchers, such as Seymour Benzer, used E. coli and phage T4 to understand the topography of gene structure. Prior to Benzer's research, it was not known whether the gene was a linear structure, or if it had a branching pattern.",
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"plaintext": "E. coli was one of the first organisms to have its genome sequenced; the complete genome of E. coli K12 was published by Science in 1997",
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"plaintext": "From 2002 to 2010, a team at the Hungarian Academy of Science created a strain of Escherichia coli called MDS42, which is now sold by Scarab Genomics of Madison, WI under the name of \"Clean Genome E. coli\", where 15% of the genome of the parental strain (E. coli K-12 MG1655) were removed to aid in molecular biology efficiency, removing IS elements, pseudogenes and phages, resulting in better maintenance of plasmid-encoded toxic genes, which are often inactivated by transposons. Biochemistry and replication machinery were not altered.",
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"plaintext": "By evaluating the possible combination of nanotechnologies with landscape ecology, complex habitat landscapes can be generated with details at the nanoscale. On such synthetic ecosystems, evolutionary experiments with E. coli have been performed to study the spatial biophysics of adaptation in an island biogeography on-chip.",
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"plaintext": "In other studies, non-pathogenic E. coli has been used as a model microorganism towards understanding the effects of simulated microgravity (on Earth) on the same.",
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"plaintext": "Since 1961, scientists proposed the idea of genetic circuits used for computational tasks. Collaboration between biologists and computing scientists has allowed designing digital logic gates on the metabolism of E. coli. As Lac operon is a two-stage process, genetic regulation in the bacteria is used to realize computing functions. The process is controlled at the transcription stage of DNA into messenger RNA.",
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"plaintext": "Studies are being performed attempting to program E. coli to solve complicated mathematics problems, such as the Hamiltonian path problem.",
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"plaintext": "A computer to control protein production of E. coli within yeast cells has been developed. A method has also been developed to use bacteria to behave as an LCD screen.",
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"plaintext": "In July 2017, separate experiments with E. coli published on Nature showed the potential of using living cells for computing tasks and storing information. A team formed with collaborators of the Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University and Harvard’s Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering developed a biological computer inside E. coli that responded to a dozen inputs. The team called the computer \"ribocomputer\", as it was composed of ribonucleic acid. Meanwhile, Harvard researchers probed that is possible to store information in bacteria after successfully archiving images and movies in the DNA of living E. coli cells. In 2021, a team led by biophysicist Sangram Bagh realized a study with E. coli to solve 2 × 2 maze problems to probe the principle for distributed computing among cells.",
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"plaintext": "In 1885, the German-Austrian pediatrician Theodor Escherich discovered this organism in the feces of healthy individuals. He called it Bacterium coli commune because it is found in the colon. Early classifications of prokaryotes placed these in a handful of genera based on their shape and motility (at that time Ernst Haeckel's classification of bacteria in the kingdom Monera was in place).",
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"plaintext": "Bacterium coli was the type species of the now invalid genus Bacterium when it was revealed that the former type species (\"Bacterium triloculare\") was missing. Following a revision of Bacterium, it was reclassified as Bacillus coli by Migula in 1895 and later reclassified in the newly created genus Escherichia, named after its original discoverer, by Aldo Castellani and Albert John Chalmers.",
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"plaintext": "In 1996, the world's worst to date outbreak of E. coli food poisoning occurred in Wishaw, Scotland, killing 21 people. This death toll was exceeded in 2011, when the H4 outbreak, linked to organic fenugreek sprouts, killed 53 people.",
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"plaintext": "E. coli has several practical uses besides its use as a vector for genetic experiments and processes. For example, E. coli can be used to generate synthetic propane and recombinant human growth hormone.",
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"plaintext": " Contamination control",
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"plaintext": " EcoCyc – literature-based curation of the entire genome, and of transcriptional regulation, transporters, and metabolic pathways",
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"plaintext": " Membranome database provides information about single-pass transmembrane proteins from E. coli and several other organisms",
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"plaintext": " ECODAB The structure of the O-antigens that form the basis of the serological classification of E. coli",
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40,119 | 1,104,201,179 | William_Makepeace_Thackeray | [
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"plaintext": "William Makepeace Thackeray (; 18 July 1811 – 24 December 1863) was a British novelist, author and illustrator. He is known for his satirical works, particularly his 1848 novel Vanity Fair, a panoramic portrait of British society, and the 1844 novel The Luck of Barry Lyndon, which was adapted for a 1975 film by Stanley Kubrick.",
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"plaintext": "Thackeray, an only child, was born in Calcutta, British India, where his father, Richmond Thackeray (1 September 1781 – 13 September 1815), was secretary to the Board of Revenue in the East India Company. His mother, Anne Becher (1792–1864), was the second daughter of Harriet Becher and John Harman Becher, who was also a secretary (writer) for the East India Company. His father was a grandson of Thomas Thackeray (1693–1760), headmaster of Harrow School.",
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"plaintext": "Richmond died in 1815, which caused Anne to send her son to England that same year, while she remained in India. The ship on which he travelled made a short stopover at Saint Helena, where the imprisoned Napoleon was pointed out to him. Once in England, he was educated at schools in Southampton and Chiswick, and then at Charterhouse School, where he became a close friend of John Leech. Thackeray disliked Charterhouse, and parodied it in his fiction as \"Slaughterhouse\". Nevertheless, Thackeray was honoured in the Charterhouse Chapel with a monument after his death. Illness in his last year there, during which he reportedly grew to his full height of six-foot three, postponed his matriculation at Trinity College, Cambridge, until February 1829. Never too keen on academic studies, Thackeray left Cambridge in 1830, but some of his earliest published writing appeared in two university periodicals, The Snob and The Gownsman.",
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"plaintext": "Thackeray then travelled for some time on the continent, visiting Paris and Weimar, where he met Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. He returned to England and began to study law at the Middle Temple, but soon gave that up. On reaching the age of 21, he came into his inheritance from his father, but he squandered much of it on gambling and on funding two unsuccessful newspapers, The National Standard and The Constitutional, for which he had hoped to write. He also lost a good part of his fortune in the collapse of two Indian banks. Forced to consider a profession to support himself, he turned first to art, which he studied in Paris, but did not pursue it, except in later years as the illustrator of some of his own novels and other writings.",
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"plaintext": "Thackeray's years of semi-idleness ended after he married, on 20 August 1836, Isabella Gethin Shawe (1816–1894), second daughter of Isabella Creagh Shawe and Matthew Shawe, a colonel who had died after distinguished service, primarily in India. The Thackerays had three children, all girls: Anne Isabella (1837–1919), Jane (who died at eight months old) and Harriet Marian (1840–1875), who married Sir Leslie Stephen, editor, biographer and philosopher.",
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"plaintext": "Thackeray now began \"writing for his life\", as he put it, turning to journalism in an effort to support his young family. He primarily worked for Fraser's Magazine, a sharp-witted and sharp-tongued conservative publication for which he produced art criticism, short fictional sketches, and two longer fictional works, Catherine and The Luck of Barry Lyndon. Between 1837 and 1840, he also reviewed books for The Times. He was also a regular contributor to The Morning Chronicle and The Foreign Quarterly Review. Later, through his connection to the illustrator John Leech, he began writing for the newly created magazine Punch, in which he published The Snob Papers, later collected as The Book of Snobs. This work popularised the modern meaning of the word \"snob\". Thackeray was a regular contributor to Punch between 1843 and 1854.",
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"plaintext": "Tragedy struck in Thackeray's personal life as his wife, Isabella, succumbed to depression after the birth of their third child, in 1840. Finding that he could get no work done at home, he spent more and more time away, until September 1840, when he realised how grave his wife's condition was. Struck by guilt, he set out with his wife to Ireland. During the crossing, she threw herself from a water-closet into the sea, but she was pulled from the waters. They fled back home after a four-week battle with her mother. From November 1840 to February 1842, Isabella was in and out of professional care, as her condition waxed and waned.",
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"plaintext": "She eventually deteriorated into a permanent state of detachment from reality. Thackeray desperately sought cures for her, but nothing worked, and she ended up in two different asylums in or near Paris until 1845, after which Thackeray took her back to England, where he installed her with a Mrs Bakewell at Camberwell. Isabella outlived her husband by 30 years, in the end being cared for by a family named Thompson in Leigh-on-Sea at Southend, until her death in 1894. After his wife's illness, Thackeray became a de facto widower, never establishing another permanent relationship. He did pursue other women, however, in particular Mrs Jane Brookfield and Sally Baxter. In 1851, Mr Brookfield barred Thackeray from further visits or correspondence with Jane. Baxter, an American twenty years Thackeray's junior whom he met during a lecture tour in New York City in 1852, married another man in 1855.",
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"plaintext": "In July 1857, Thackeray stood unsuccessfully as a Liberal for the city of Oxford in Parliament. Although not the most fiery agitator, Thackeray was always a decided liberal in his politics, and he promised to vote for the ballot in extension of the suffrage and was ready to accept triennial parliaments. He was narrowly beaten by Cardwell, who received 1,070 votes, as against 1,005 for Thackeray.",
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"plaintext": "Thackeray began as a satirist and parodist, writing works that displayed a sneaking fondness for roguish upstarts, such as Becky Sharp in Vanity Fair and the title characters of The Luck of Barry Lyndon and Catherine. In his earliest works, written under such pseudonyms as Charles James Yellowplush, Michael Angelo Titmarsh and George Savage Fitz-Boodle, he tended towards savagery in his attacks on high society, military prowess, the institution of marriage and hypocrisy.",
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"plaintext": "One of his earliest works, \"Timbuctoo\" (1829), contains a burlesque upon the subject set for the Cambridge Chancellor's Medal for English Verse. (The contest was won by Tennyson with a poem of the same title, \"Timbuctoo\"). Thackeray's writing career really began with a series of satirical sketches now usually known as The Yellowplush Papers, which appeared in Fraser's Magazine beginning in 1837. These were adapted for BBC Radio 4 in 2009, with Adam Buxton playing Charles Yellowplush.",
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"plaintext": "Between May 1839 and February 1840 Fraser's published the work sometimes considered Thackeray's first novel, Catherine. Originally intended as a satire of the Newgate school of crime fiction, it ended up being more of a picaresque tale. He also began work, never finished, on the novel later published as A Shabby Genteel Story.",
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"plaintext": "Along with The Luck of Barry Lyndon, Thackeray is probably best known now for Vanity Fair. Literary theorist Kornelije Kvas wrote that \"the meteoric rise of the heroine of Vanity Fair Rebecca Sharp is a satirical presentation of the striving for profit, power and social recognition of the new middle class. Old and new members of the middle class strive to emulate the lifestyle of the higher class (noblemen and landowners), and thereby to increase their material possessions and to own luxury objects. In Vanity Fair, one can observe a greater degree of violation of moral values among members of the new middle class, for the decline of morality is proportionate to the degree of closeness of the individual to the market and its laws.\" In contrast, his large novels from the period after Vanity Fair, which were once described by Henry James as examples of \"loose baggy monsters\", have largely faded from view, perhaps because they reflect a mellowing in Thackeray, who had become so successful with his satires on society that he seemed to lose his zest for attacking it. These later works include Pendennis, a Bildungsroman depicting the coming of age of Arthur Pendennis, an alter ego of Thackeray, who also features as the narrator of two later novels, The Newcomes and The Adventures of Philip. The Newcomes is noteworthy for its critical portrayal of the \"marriage market\", while Philip is known for its semi-autobiographical depiction of Thackeray's early life, in which he partially regains some of his early satirical power.",
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"plaintext": "Also notable among the later novels is The History of Henry Esmond, in which Thackeray tried to write a novel in the style of the eighteenth century, a period that held great appeal for him. About this novel, there have been found evident analogies—in the fundamental structure of the plot; in the psychological outlines of the main characters; in frequent episodes; and in the use of metaphors—to Ippolito Nievo's Confessions of an Italian. Nievo wrote his novel during his stay in Milan where, in the \"Ambrosiana\" library, The History of Henry Esmond was available, just published.",
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"plaintext": "Not only Esmond but also Barry Lyndon and Catherine are set in that period, as is the sequel to Esmond, The Virginians, which is set partially in North America and includes George Washington as a character who nearly kills one of the protagonists in a duel.",
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"plaintext": "Thackeray's father, Richmond Thackeray, was born at South Mimms and went to India in 1798 at age sixteen as a writer (civil servant) with the East India Company. Richmond's father's name was also William Makepeace Thackeray. Richmond fathered a daughter, Sarah Redfield, in 1804 with Charlotte Sophia Rudd, his possibly Eurasian mistress, and both mother and daughter were named in his will. Such liaisons were common among gentlemen of the East India Company, and it formed no bar to his later courting and marrying William's mother.",
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"plaintext": "Thackeray's mother, Anne Becher (born 1792), was \"one of the reigning beauties of the day\" and a daughter of John Harmon Becher, Collector of the South 24 Parganas district (d. Calcutta, 1800), of an old Bengal civilian family \"noted for the tenderness of its women\". Anne Becher, her sister Harriet and their widowed mother, also Harriet, had been sent back to India by her authoritarian guardian grandmother, Ann Becher, in 1809 on the Earl Howe. Anne's grandmother had told her that the man she loved, Henry Carmichael-Smyth, an ensign in the Bengal Engineers whom she met at an Assembly Ball in 1807 in Bath, had died, while he was told that Anne was no longer interested in him. Neither of these assertions was true. Though Carmichael-Smyth was from a distinguished Scottish military family, Anne's grandmother went to extreme lengths to prevent their marriage. Surviving family letters state that she wanted a better match for her granddaughter.",
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"plaintext": "Anne Becher and Richmond Thackeray were married in Calcutta on 13 October 1810. Their only child, William, was born on 18 July 1811. There is a fine miniature portrait of Anne Becher Thackeray and William Makepeace Thackeray, aged about two, done in Madras by George Chinnery c. 1813.",
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"plaintext": "Anne's family's deception was unexpectedly revealed in 1812, when Richmond Thackeray unwittingly invited the supposedly dead Carmichael-Smyth to dinner. Five years later, after Richmond had died of a fever on 13 September 1815, Anne married Henry Carmichael-Smyth, on 13 March 1817. The couple moved to England in 1820, after having sent William off to school there more than three years earlier. The separation from his mother had a traumatic effect on the young Thackeray, which he discussed in his essay \"On Letts's Diary\" in The Roundabout Papers.",
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"plaintext": "Thackeray is an ancestor of the British financier Ryan Williams, and is the great-great-great-grandfather of the British comedian Al Murray and author Joanna Nadin.",
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"plaintext": "During the Victorian era Thackeray was ranked second only to Charles Dickens, but he is now much less widely read and is known almost exclusively for Vanity Fair, which has become a fixture in university courses, and has been repeatedly adapted for the cinema and television.",
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"plaintext": "In Thackeray's own day some commentators, such as Anthony Trollope, ranked his History of Henry Esmond as his greatest work, perhaps because it expressed Victorian values of duty and earnestness, as did some of his other later novels. It is perhaps for this reason that they have not survived as well as Vanity Fair, which satirises those values.",
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"plaintext": "Thackeray saw himself as writing in the realistic tradition, and distinguished his work from the exaggerations and sentimentality of Dickens. Some later commentators have accepted this self-evaluation and seen him as a realist, but others note his inclination to use eighteenth-century narrative techniques, such as digressions and direct addresses to the reader, and argue that through them he frequently disrupts the illusion of reality. The school of Henry James, with its emphasis on maintaining that illusion, marked a break with Thackeray's techniques.",
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"plaintext": "Indian popular Marathi politician Bal Thackeray's father Keshav Sitaram Thackeray was an admirer of William, the India-born British writer; Keshav later changed his surname from Panvelkar to \"Thackeray\".",
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"plaintext": " Thackeray is portrayed by Michael Palin in the 2018 ITV television series Vanity Fair.",
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"plaintext": " Miles Jupp plays Thackeray in the 2017 film The Man Who Invented Christmas.",
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"plaintext": " A quote from Thackeray appears in episode 7 of JoJo's Bizarre Adventure.",
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"plaintext": " Thackeray's quote \"Mother is the name for God\" appears in the 1994 movie The Crow.",
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"plaintext": " Thackeray's \"The Colonel\" was mentioned by Anne Frank in The Diary of a Young Girl.",
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"plaintext": "Thackeray wrote and illustrated five Christmas books as \"by Mr M. A. Titmarsh\". They were collected under the pseudonymous title and his real name no later than 1868 by Smith, Elder & Co.",
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"plaintext": "The Rose and the Ring was dated 1855 in its first edition, published for Christmas 1854. ",
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"plaintext": " Mrs. Perkins's Ball (1846), as by M. A. Titmarsh",
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"plaintext": " The Kickleburys on the Rhine (Christmas 1850) – \"a new picture book, drawn and written by Mr M. A. Titmarsh\"<ref>\"Smith, Elder & Co.'s New Publications.\" (two-line heading), The Examiner #2235, 30 November 1850, p. 778.</i>",
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"plaintext": " Mr Thackeray's New Christmas Book.",
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"plaintext": " The Kicklebury's on the Rhine. ",
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"plaintext": "Rodríguez Espinosa, Marcos (1998) Traducción y recepción como procesos de mediación cultural: 'Vanity Fair' en España. Málaga: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Málaga.",
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"plaintext": "London, 1814. Rebecca Sharp (\"Becky\"), daughter of an art teacher and a French dancer, is a strong-willed, cunning, moneyless young woman determined to make her way in society. After leaving school, Becky stays with her friend Amelia Sedley (\"Emmy\"), who is a good-natured, simple-minded young girl, of a wealthy London family. There, Becky meets the dashing and self-obsessed Captain George Osborne (Amelia's betrothed) and Amelia's brother Joseph (\"Jos\") Sedley, a clumsy and vainglorious but rich civil servant home from the East India Company. Hoping to marry Sedley, the richest young man she has met, Becky entices him, but she fails. George Osborne's friend Captain William Dobbin loves Amelia, but only wishes her happiness, which is centred on George.",
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"plaintext": "Becky Sharp says farewell to the Sedley family and enters the service of the crude and profligate baronet Sir Pitt Crawley, who has engaged her as a governess to his daughters. Her behaviour at Sir Pitt's house gains his favour, and after the premature death of his second wife, he proposes marriage to her. However, he finds that Becky has secretly married his second son, Captain Rawdon Crawley, but Becky very much regrets having done this; she had no idea that his father's wife would die so soon after. Sir Pitt's elder half sister, the spinster Miss Crawley, is very rich, having inherited her mother's fortune, and the whole Crawley family compete for her favour so she will bequeath them her wealth. Initially her favourite is Rawdon Crawley, but his marriage with Becky enrages her. First she favours the family of Sir Pitt's brother, but when she dies, she has left her money to Sir Pitt's eldest son, also called Pitt.",
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"plaintext": "News arrives that Napoleon has escaped from Elba, and as a result the stockmarket becomes jittery, causing Amelia's stockbroker father, John Sedley, to become bankrupt. George's rich father forbids George to marry Amelia, who is now poor. Dobbin persuades George to marry Amelia, and George is consequently disinherited. George Osborne, William Dobbin and Rawdon Crawley are deployed to Brussels, accompanied by Amelia and Becky, and Amelia's brother, Jos.",
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"plaintext": "George is embarrassed by the vulgarity of Mrs. Major O'Dowd, the wife of the head of the regiment. The newly wedded Osborne is already growing tired of Amelia, and he becomes increasingly attracted to Becky, which makes Amelia jealous and unhappy. He is also losing money to Rawdon at cards and billiards. At a ball in Brussels, George gives Becky a note inviting her to run away with him. But then the army have marching orders to the Battle of Waterloo, and George spends a tender night with Amelia and leaves.",
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"plaintext": "The noise of battle horrifies Amelia, and she is comforted by the brisk but kind Mrs. O'Dowd. Becky is indifferent and makes plans for whatever the outcome (for example, if Napoleon wins, she would aim to become the mistress of one of his Marshals). She also makes a profit selling her carriage and horses at inflated prices to Jos, who is seeking to flee Brussels.",
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"plaintext": "George Osborne is killed at the Battle of Waterloo, while Dobbin and Rawdon survive the battle. Amelia bears him a posthumous son, who carries on the name George. She returns to live in genteel poverty with her parents, spending her life in memory of her husband and care of her son. Dobbin pays for a small annuity for Amelia and expresses his love for her by small kindnesses toward her and her son. She is too much in love with her husband's memory to return Dobbin's love. Saddened, he goes with his regiment to India for many years.",
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"plaintext": "Becky also gives birth to a son, named Rawdon after his father. Becky is a cold, distant mother, although Rawdon loves his son. Becky continues her ascent first in post-war Paris and then in London where she is patronised by the rich and powerful Marquis of Steyne. She is eventually presented at court to the Prince Regent and charms him further at a game of \"acting charades\" where she plays the roles of Clytemnestra and Philomela. The elderly Sir Pitt Crawley dies and is succeeded by his son Pitt, who had married Lady Jane Sheepshanks, Lord Southdown's third daughter. Becky is on good terms with Pitt and Jane originally, but Jane is disgusted by Becky's attitude to her son and jealous of Becky's relationship with Pitt.",
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"plaintext": "At the summit of their social success, Rawdon is arrested for debt, possibly at Becky's connivance. The financial success of the Crawleys had been a topic of gossip; in fact they were living on credit even when it ruined those who trusted them, such as their landlord, an old servant of the Crawley family. The Marquis of Steyne had given Becky money, jewels, and other gifts but Becky does not use them for expenses or to free her husband. Instead, Rawdon's letter to his brother is received by Lady Jane, who pays the £170 that prompted his imprisonment.",
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"plaintext": "He returns home to find Becky singing to Steyne and strikes him down on the assumption—despite her protestations of innocence—that they are having an affair. Steyne is indignant, having assumed the £1000 he had just given Becky was part of an arrangement with her husband. Rawdon finds Becky's hidden bank records and leaves her, expecting Steyne to challenge him to a duel. Instead Steyne arranges for Rawdon to be made Governor of Coventry Island, a pest-ridden location. Becky, having lost both husband and credibility, leaves England and wanders the continent, leaving her son in the care of Pitt and Lady Jane.",
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"plaintext": "As Amelia's adored son George grows up, his grandfather Mr Osborne relents towards him (though not towards Amelia) and takes him from his impoverished mother, who knows the rich old man will give him a better start in life than she could manage. After twelve years abroad, both Joseph Sedley and Dobbin return. Dobbin professes his unchanged love to Amelia. Amelia is affectionate, but she cannot forget the memory of her dead husband. Dobbin mediates a reconciliation between Amelia and her father-in-law, who dies soon after. He had amended his will, bequeathing young George half his large fortune and Amelia a generous annuity.",
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"plaintext": "After the death of Mr Osborne, Amelia, Jos, George and Dobbin go to Pumpernickel (Weimar in Germany), where they encounter the destitute Becky. Becky has fallen in life. She lives among card sharps and con artists, drinking heavily and gambling. Becky enchants Jos Sedley all over again, and Amelia is persuaded to let Becky join them. Dobbin forbids this, and reminds Amelia of her jealousy of Becky with her husband. Amelia feels that this dishonours the memory of her dead and revered husband, and this leads to a complete breach between her and Dobbin. Dobbin leaves the group and rejoins his regiment, while Becky remains with the group.",
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"plaintext": "However, Becky has decided that Amelia should marry Dobbin, even though Becky knows Dobbin is her enemy. Becky shows Amelia George's note, kept all this time from the eve of the Battle of Waterloo, and Amelia finally realises that George was not the perfect man she always thought, and that she has rejected a better man, Dobbin. Amelia and Dobbin are reconciled and return to England. Becky and Jos stay in Europe. Jos dies, possibly suspiciously, after signing a portion of his money to Becky as life insurance, thereby setting her up with an income. She returns to England, and manages a respectable life, although all her previous friends refuse to acknowledge her.",
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"plaintext": "Amelia, called Emmy, is good-natured but passive and naïve. Not very beautiful, she is frequently ignored by men and women but is well-liked by most men who get to know her because of her personality. This popularity is then resented by other women. She begins the work as its heroine (\"selected for the very reason that she was the best-natured of all\") and marries the dashing George Osborne against his father's wishes, but the narrator is soon forced to admit \"she wasn't a heroine\" after all as she remains soppily devoted to him despite his neglect of her and his flirtation with Becky.",
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"plaintext": "After George dies in the Battle of Waterloo, she brings up little George alone while living with her parents. She is completely dominated by her increasingly peevish mother and her spendthrift father, who, to finance one of his failing investment schemes, sells the annuity Jos had provided. Amelia becomes obsessed with her son and the memory of her husband. She ignores William Dobbin, who courts her for years and treats him shabbily until he leaves. Only when Becky shows her George's letter to her, indicating his unfaithfulness, can Amelia move on. She then marries Dobbin.",
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"plaintext": "In a letter to his close friend Jane Octavia Brookfield while the book was being written, Thackeray confided that \"You know you are only a piece of Amelia, my mother is another half, my poor little wife y est pour beaucoup\". Within the work, her character is compared and connected to Iphigenia, although two of the references extend the allusion to all daughters in all drawing rooms as potential Iphigenias waiting to be sacrificed by their families.",
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"plaintext": "Rebecca Sharp, called Becky, is Amelia's opposite: an intelligent young woman with a gift for satire. She is described as a short sandy haired girl who has green eyes and a great deal of wit. Becky is born to a French opera dancer mother and an art teacher and artist father Francis. Fluent in both French and English, Becky has a beautiful singing voice, plays the piano, and shows great talent as an actress. Without a mother to guide her into marriage, Becky resolves that \"I must be my own Mamma\".",
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"plaintext": "She thereafter appears to be completely amoral and without conscience and has been called the work's \"anti-heroine\". She does not seem to have the ability to get attached to other people, and lies easily and intelligently to get her way. She is extremely manipulative and, after the first few chapters and her failure to attract Jos Sedley, is not shown as being particularly sincere.",
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"plaintext": "Never having known financial or social security even as a child, Becky desires it above all things. Nearly everything she does is with the intention of securing a stable position for herself, or herself and her husband after she and Rawdon are married. She advances Rawdon's interests tirelessly, flirting with men such as General Tufto and the Marquis of Steyne to get him promoted. She also uses her feminine wiles to distract men at card parties while Rawdon cheats them blind.",
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"plaintext": "Marrying Rawdon Crawley in secret was a mistake, as was running off instead of begging Miss Crawley's forgiveness. She also fails to manipulate Miss Crawley through Rawdon so as to obtain an inheritance. Although Becky manipulates men very easily, she is less successful with women. She is utterly hostile to Lady Bareacres, dismissive of Mrs. O'Dowd, and Lady Jane, although initially friendly, eventually distrusts and dislikes her.",
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"plaintext": "The exceptions to this trend are (at least initially) Miss Crawley, her companion Miss Briggs, and her school friend Amelia; the latter is the recipient of more-or-less the only kindnesses Becky expresses in the work, persuading her to marry Dobbin in light of what Becky comes to appreciate to be his good qualities and protecting Amelia from two ruffians vying for her attentions. This comparative loyalty to Amelia stems from Becky having no other friends at school, and Amelia having \"by a thousand kind words and offices, overcome... (Becky's) hostility\"; 'The gentle tender-hearted Amelia Sedley was the only person to whom she could attach herself in the least; and who could help attaching herself to Amelia?'",
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"plaintext": "Beginning with her determination to be her \"own Mamma\", Becky begins to assume the role of Clytemnestra. Becky and her necklace from Steyne also allude to the fallen Eriphyle in Racine's retelling of Iphigenia at Aulis, where she doubles and rescues Iphigenia. In lesser contexts, Becky also appears as Arachne to Miss Pinkerton's Minerva and as a variety of classical figures in the works' illustrations.",
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"plaintext": "Rawdon, the younger of the two Crawley sons, is an empty-headed cavalry officer who is his wealthy aunt's favourite until he marries Becky Sharp, who is of a far lower class. He permanently alienates his aunt, who leaves her estate to Rawdon's elder brother Sir Pitt instead. Sir Pitt has by this time inherited their father's estate, leaving Rawdon destitute.",
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"plaintext": "The well-meaning Rawdon does have a few talents in life, most of them having to do with gambling and duelling. He is very good at cards and billiards, and although he does not always win he is able to earn cash by betting against less talented gamblers. He is heavily indebted throughout most of the book, not so much for his own expenses as for Becky's. Not particularly talented as a military officer, he is content to let Becky manage his career.",
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"plaintext": "Although Rawdon knows Becky is attractive to men, he believes her reputation is spotless even though she is widely suspected of romantic intrigue with General Tufto and other powerful men. Nobody dares to suggest otherwise to Rawdon because of his temper and his reputation for duelling. Yet other people, particularly the Marquis of Steyne, find it impossible to believe that Crawley is unaware of Becky's tricks. Steyne in particular believes Rawdon is fully aware Becky is prostituting herself, and believes Rawdon is going along with the charade in the hope of financial gain.",
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"plaintext": "After Rawdon finds out the truth and leaves Becky for an assignment overseas, he leaves his son to be brought up by his brother Sir Pitt and his wife Lady Jane. While overseas, Rawdon dies of yellow fever.",
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"plaintext": "Rawdon Crawley's elder brother inherits the Crawley estate from his father, the boorish and vulgar Sir Pitt, and also inherits the estate of his wealthy aunt, Miss Crawley, after she disinherits Rawdon. Pitt is very religious and has political aspirations, although not many people appreciate his intelligence or wisdom because there's not much there to appreciate.",
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"plaintext": "Somewhat pedantic and conservative, Pitt does nothing to help Rawdon or Becky even when they fall on hard times. This is chiefly due to the influence of his wife, Lady Jane, who dislikes Becky because of her callous treatment of her son, and also because Becky repaid Lady Jane's earlier kindness by patronising her and flirting with Sir Pitt.",
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"plaintext": "The elderly Miss Crawley is everyone's favourite wealthy aunt. Sir Pitt and Rawdon both dote on her, although Rawdon is her favourite nephew and sole heir until he marries Becky. While Miss Crawley likes Becky and keeps her around to entertain her with sarcasm and wit, and while she loves scandal and particularly stories of unwise marriage, she does not want scandal or unwise marriage in her family. A substantial part of the early section of the book deals with the efforts the Crawleys make to kowtow to Miss Crawley in the hope of receiving a big inheritance.",
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"plaintext": "Her portrayal is informed by Thackeray's time in Paris with his maternal grandmother Harriet Becher.",
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"plaintext": "George Osborne, his father (a merchant, of considerably superior social status to Dobbin's grocer father, albeit self made, and ironically a mere corporal in the City Light Horse regiment of which Dobbin senior, by this time an alderman and a knight, is colonel), and his two sisters are close to the Sedley family until Mr. Sedley (the father of Jos and Amelia, and George Osborne's godfather, from whom the latter takes his middle name of 'Sedley') goes bankrupt following some ill-advised speculation. Since George and Amelia were raised in close company and were childhood sweethearts, George defies his father to marry Amelia. Before father and son can be reconciled, George is killed at the battle of Waterloo, leaving the pregnant Amelia to carry on as well as she can.",
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"plaintext": "Raised to be a selfish, vain, profligate spender, handsome and self-obsessed, George squanders the last of the money he receives from his father and sets nothing aside to help support Amelia. After marrying Amelia, he finds after a couple of weeks that he is bored. He flirts with Becky quite seriously and is reconciled to Amelia only a short time before he is killed in battle.",
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"plaintext": "The best friend of George Osborne, Captain William Dobbin is tall, ungainly, and not particularly handsome. He is a few years older than George but has been friends with him since his schooldays, even though Dobbin's father is a fig-merchant (Dobbin & Rudge, grocers and oilmen, Thames Street, London - he is later an alderman and colonel of the City Light Horse regiment, and knighted) and the Osbornes belong to the genteel class and have become independently wealthy. He defends George and is blind to his faults in many ways, although he tries to force George to do the right thing. He pushes George to keep his promise to marry Amelia even though Dobbin is in love with Amelia himself. After George is killed, Dobbin puts together an annuity to help support Amelia, ostensibly with the help of George's fellow officers.",
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"plaintext": "Later, Major and Lieutenant Colonel Dobbin discreetly does what he can to help support Amelia and her son George. He allows Amelia to continue with her obsession over George and does not correct her erroneous beliefs about him. He hangs about for years, either pining away over her while serving in India or waiting on her in person, allowing her to take advantage of his good nature. After Amelia finally chooses Becky's friendship over his during their stay in Germany, Dobbin leaves in disgust. He returns when Amelia writes to him and admits her feelings for him, marries her (despite having lost much of his passion for her), and has a daughter whom he loves deeply.",
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"plaintext": "Amelia's older brother, Joseph \"Jos\" Sedley, is a \"nabob\", who made a respectable fortune as a collector in India. Obese and self-important but very shy and insecure, he is attracted to Becky Sharp but circumstances prevent him from proposing. He never marries, but when he meets Becky again he is easily manipulated into falling in love with her. Jos is not a courageous or intelligent man, displaying his cowardice at the Battle of Waterloo by trying to flee and purchasing both of Becky's overpriced horses. Becky ensnares him again near the end of the book and, it is hinted, murders him for his life insurance.",
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"plaintext": "Thackeray may have begun working out some of the details of Vanity Fair as early as 1841 but probably began writing it in late 1844. Like many novels of the time, Vanity Fair was published as a serial before being sold in book form. It was printed in 20 monthly parts between January 1847 and July 1848 for Punch by Bradbury & Evans in London. The first three had already been completed before publication, while the others were written after it had begun to sell.",
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"plaintext": "As was standard practice, the last part was a \"double number\" containing parts 19 and 20. Surviving texts, his notes, and letters show that adjustments were made – e.g., the Battle of Waterloo was delayed twice – but that the broad outline of the story and its principal themes were well established from the beginning of publication. ",
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"plaintext": "No. 1 (January 1847) Ch. 1–4",
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"plaintext": "No. 2 (February 1847) Ch. 5–7",
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"plaintext": "No. 3 (March 1847) Ch. 8–11",
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"plaintext": "No. 4 (April 1847) Ch. 12–14",
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"plaintext": "No. 5 (May 1847) Ch. 15–18",
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"plaintext": "No. 6 (June 1847) Ch. 19–22",
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"plaintext": "No. 7 (July 1847) Ch. 23–25",
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"plaintext": "No. 8 (August 1847) Ch. 26–29",
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{
"plaintext": "No. 9 (September 1847) Ch. 30–32",
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{
"plaintext": "No. 10 (October 1847) Ch. 33–35",
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{
"plaintext": "No. 11 (November 1847) Ch. 36–38",
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{
"plaintext": "No. 12 (December 1847) Ch. 39–42",
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{
"plaintext": "No. 13 (January 1848) Ch. 43–46",
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{
"plaintext": "No. 14 (February 1848) Ch. 47–50",
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{
"plaintext": "No. 15 (March 1848) Ch. 51–53",
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{
"plaintext": "No. 16 (April 1848) Ch. 54–56",
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{
"plaintext": "No. 17 (May 1848) Ch. 57–60",
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{
"plaintext": "No. 18 (June 1848) Ch. 61–63",
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{
"plaintext": "No. 19/20 (July 1848) Ch. 64–67",
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"plaintext": "The parts resembled pamphlets and contained the text of several chapters between outer pages of steel-plate engravings and advertising. Woodcut engravings, which could be set along with normal moveable type, appeared within the text. The same engraved illustration appeared on the canary-yellow cover of each monthly part; this colour became Thackeray's signature, as a light blue-green was Dickens's, allowing passers-by to notice a new Thackeray number in a bookstall from a distance.",
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"plaintext": "From his first draft and following publication, Thackeray occasionally revised his allusions to make them more accessible for his readers. In Chapter 5, an original \"Prince Whadyecallem\" became \"Prince Ahmed\" by the 1853 edition. In Chapter 13, a passage about the filicidal Biblical figure Jephthah was removed, although references to Iphigenia remained important. In Chapter 56, Thackeray originally confused Samuel – the boy whose mother Hannah had given him up when called to by God – with Eli, the old priest to whose care he was entrusted; this mistake was not corrected until the 1889 edition, after Thackeray's death.",
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"plaintext": "The serials had been subtitled Pen and Pencil Sketches of English Society and both they and the early bound versions featured Thackeray's own illustrations. These sometimes provided symbolically-freighted images, such as one of the female characters being portrayed as a man-eating mermaid. In at least one case, a major plot point is provided through an image and its caption. Although the text makes it clear that other characters suspect Becky Sharp to have murdered her second husband, there is nothing definitive in the text itself. However, an image reveals her overhearing Jos pleading with Dobbin while clutching a small white object in her hand. The caption that this is Becky's second appearance in the character of Clytemnestra clarifies that she did indeed murder him for the insurance money, likely through laudanum or another poison.",
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"plaintext": "The style is highly indebted to Henry Fielding. Thackeray meant the book to be not only entertaining but also instructive, an intention demonstrated through the book's narration and through Thackeray's private correspondence. A letter to his editor at Punch expressed his belief that \"our profession... is as serious as the parson's own\". He considered it his own coming-of-age as a writer and greatest work.",
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"plaintext": "Critics hailed the work as a literary treasure before the last part of the serial was published. In her correspondence, Charlotte Brontë was effusive regarding his illustrations as well: \"You will not easily find a second Thackeray. How he can render, with a few black lines and dots, shades of expression, so fine, so real; traits of character so minute, so subtle, so difficult to seize and fix, I cannot tell—I can only wonder and admire... If Truth were again a goddess, Thackeray should be her high priest.\"",
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"plaintext": "The early reviewers took the debt to Bunyan as self-evident and compared Becky with Pilgrim and Thackeray with Faithful. Although they were superlative in their praise, some expressed disappointment at the unremittingly dark portrayal of human nature, fearing Thackeray had taken his dismal metaphor too far. In response to these critics, Thackeray explained that he saw people for the most part as \"abominably foolish and selfish\".",
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"plaintext": "The unhappy ending was intended to inspire readers to look inward at their own shortcomings. Other critics took notice of or exception to the social subversion in the work; in his correspondence, Thackeray stated his criticism was not reserved to the upper class: \"My object is to make every body engaged, engaged in the pursuit of Vanity Fair and I must carry my story through in this dreary minor key, with only occasional hints here and there of better things—of better things which it does not become me to preach\".",
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"plaintext": "The novel is considered a classic of English literature, though some critics claim that it has structural problems; Thackeray sometimes lost track of the huge scope of his work, mixing up characters' names and minor plot details. The number of allusions and references it contains can make it difficult for modern readers to follow.",
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"plaintext": "The subtitle, A Novel without a Hero, is apt because the characters are all flawed to a greater or lesser degree; even the most sympathetic have weaknesses, for example Captain Dobbin, who is prone to vanity and melancholy. The human weaknesses Thackeray illustrates are mostly to do with greed, idleness, and snobbery, and the scheming, deceit and hypocrisy which mask them. None of the characters are wholly evil, although Becky's manipulative, amoral tendencies make her come pretty close. However, even Becky, who is amoral and cunning, is thrown on her own resources by poverty and its stigma. (She is the orphaned daughter of a poor artist and an opera dancer.) Thackeray's tendency to highlight faults in all of his characters displays his desire for a greater level of realism in his fiction compared to the rather unlikely or idealised people in many contemporary novels.",
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"plaintext": "The novel is a satire of society as a whole, characterised by hypocrisy and opportunism, but it is not a reforming novel; there is no suggestion that social or political changes or greater piety and moral reformism could improve the nature of society. It thus paints a fairly bleak view of the human condition. This bleak portrait is continued with Thackeray's own role as an omniscient narrator, one of the writers best known for using the technique. He continually offers asides about his characters and compares them to actors and puppets, but his cheek goes even as far as his readers, accusing all who may be interested in such \"Vanity Fairs\" as being either \"of a lazy, or a benevolent, or a sarcastic mood\". As Lord David Cecil remarked, \"Thackeray liked people, and for the most part he thought them well-intentioned. But he also saw very clearly that they were all in some degree weak and vain, self-absorbed and self-deceived.\" Amelia begins as a warm-hearted and friendly girl, though sentimental and naive, but by the story's end she is portrayed as vacuous and shallow. Dobbin appears first as loyal and magnanimous, if unaware of his own worth; by the end of the story he is presented as a tragic fool, a prisoner of his own sense of duty who knows he is wasting his gifts on Amelia but is unable to live without her. The novel's increasingly grim outlook can take readers aback, as characters whom the reader at first holds in sympathy are shown to be unworthy of such regard.",
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"plaintext": "The work is often compared to the other great historical novel of the Napoleonic Wars, Tolstoy's War and Peace. While Tolstoy's work has a greater emphasis on the historical detail and the effect the war has upon his protagonists, Thackeray instead uses the conflict as a backdrop to the lives of his characters. The momentous events on the continent do not always have an equally important influence on the behaviours of Thackeray's characters. Rather their faults tend to compound over time. This is in contrast to the redemptive power the conflict has on the characters in War and Peace. For Thackeray, the Napoleonic Wars as a whole can be thought of as one more of the vanities expressed in the title.",
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"plaintext": "A common critical topic is to address various objects in the book and the characters' relationships with them, such as Rebecca's diamonds or the piano Amelia values when she thinks it came from George and dismisses upon learning that Dobbin provided it. Marxist and similar schools of criticism that go further and see Thackeray condemning consumerism and capitalism, however, largely overstate their case. Thackeray is pointed in his criticism of the commodification of women in the marriage market, but his variations on Ecclesiastes's \"all is vanity\" are more personal than institutional. He also has broad sympathy with a measure of comfort and financial and physical \"snugness\". At one point, the narrator even makes a \"robust defense of his lunch\": \"It is all vanity to be sure: but who will not own to liking a little of it? I should like to know what well-constituted mind, merely because it is transitory, dislikes roast-beef?\"",
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"plaintext": "Despite the clear implications of Thackeray's illustration on the topic, John Sutherland has argued against Becky having murdered Jos on the basis of Thackeray's criticism of the \"Newgate novels\" of Edward Bulwer-Lytton and other authors of Victorian crime fiction. Although what Thackeray principally objected to was glorification of a criminal's deeds, his intent may have been to entrap the Victorian reader with their own prejudices and make them think the worst of Becky Sharp even when they have no proof of her actions.",
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"plaintext": "The book has inspired a number of adaptations:",
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"plaintext": "Vanity Fair (7 January 1940), the CBS Radio series Campbell Playhouse, hosted by Orson Welles, broadcast a one-hour adaptation featuring Helen Hayes and Agnes Moorehead.",
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"plaintext": "Vanity Fair (6 December 1947), the NBC Radio series Favorite Story, hosted by Ronald Colman, broadcast a half-hour adaptation with Joan Lorring as \"Becky Sharp\"",
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"plaintext": "Vanity Fair (2004), BBC Radio 4 broadcast an adaptation of the novel by Stephen Wyatt, starring Emma Fielding as Becky, Stephen Fry as the Narrator, Katy Cavanagh as Amelia, David Calder, Philip Fox, Jon Glover, Geoffrey Whitehead as Mr. Osborne, Ian Masters as Mr. Sedley, Alice Hart as Maria Osborne, and Margaret Tyzack as Miss Crawley; this was subsequently re-broadcast on BBC Radio 4 Extra in 20 fifteen-minute episodes.",
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"plaintext": "Vanity Fair (2019), BBC Radio 4 broadcast a three-part adaptation of the novel by Jim Poyser with additional material by Al Murray (Thackeray's actual descendant, who also stars as Thackeray), with Ellie White as Becky Sharp, Helen O'Hara as Amelia Sedley, Blake Ritson as Rawdon Crawley, Rupert Hill as George Osborne and Graeme Hawley as Dobbin.",
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"plaintext": " – Glossary of foreign words and phrases in Vanity Fair",
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40,124 | 1,107,216,803 | Acetic_acid_bacteria | [
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"plaintext": "Acetic acid bacteria (AAB) are a group of Gram-negative bacteria which oxidize sugars or ethanol and produce acetic acid during fermentation. The acetic acid bacteria consist of 10 genera in the family Acetobacteraceae. Several species of acetic acid bacteria are used in industry for production of certain foods and chemicals.",
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"plaintext": "All acetic acid bacteria are rod-shaped and obligate aerobes. Acetic acid bacteria are airborne and are ubiquitous in nature. They are actively present in environments where ethanol is being formed as a product of the fermentation of sugars. They can be isolated from the nectar of flowers and from damaged fruit. Other good sources are fresh apple cider and unpasteurized beer that has not been filter sterilized. In these liquids, they grow as a surface film due to their aerobic nature and active motility. Fruit flies or vinegar eels are considered common vectors in the propagation of acetic acid bacteria.",
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"plaintext": "The growth of Acetobacter in wine can be suppressed through effective sanitation, by complete exclusion of air from wine in storage, and by the use of moderate amounts of sulfur dioxide in the wine as a preservative.",
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"plaintext": "Vinegar is produced when acetic acid bacteria act on alcoholic beverages such as wine. Specific oxidation reactions occur through oxidative fermentation, which creates vinegar as a byproduct. In the biotechnological industry, these bacteria's oxidation mechanism is exploited to produce a number of compounds such as l-ascorbic acid, dihydroxyacetone, gluconic acid, and cellulose. Besides food industry, some acetic acid bacteria are used as biocatalysts for the industrial production of compounds. They are used as the important biocatalysts for the development of eco-friendly fermentation processes as an alternative to the chemical synthesis. Some genera, such as Acetobacter, can oxidize ethanol to carbon dioxide and water using Krebs cycle enzymes. Other genera, such as Gluconobacter, do not oxidize ethanol, as they do not have a full set of Krebs cycle enzymes. As these bacteria produce acid, they are usually acid-tolerant, growing well below pH 5.0, although the pH optimum for growth is 5.4-6.3. Acetobacter xylinum is able to synthesize cellulose, something normally done only by plants.",
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"plaintext": "Ecological occurrence of Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus and nitrogen-fixing Acetobacteraceae members: their possible role in plant growth promotion 2008. Microb Ecol. 55(1):130-40.",
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"plaintext": "Genera and species in acetic acid bacteria, 2008 Int. J. Food Microbiol. Volume 125, Issue 1, Pages 15–24.",
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"plaintext": "Polyphasic taxonomy of acetic acid bacteria: An overview of the currently applied methodology, 2008 Int. J. Food Microbiol. Volume 125, Issue 1, Pages 2–14",
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"plaintext": "Biotechnological applications of acetic acid bacteria, 2008, Critical Reviews in Biotechnology, Volume 28, Issue 2, 101-124",
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"plaintext": "Evaluation of viability and growth of Acetobacter senegalensis under different stress conditions, 2013 Int. J. Food Microbiol.Volume 163, issue 2-3, 204-213",
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40,127 | 1,104,922,847 | Arthrobacter | [
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"plaintext": "Arthrobacter (from the Greek, \"jointed small stick”) is a genus of bacteria that is commonly found in soil. All species in this genus are Gram-positive obligate aerobes that are rods during exponential growth and cocci in their stationary phase. Arthrobacter have a distinctive method of cell division called \"snapping division\" or reversion in which the outer bacterial cell wall ruptures at a joint.",
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"plaintext": "Arthrobacter can be grown on mineral salts pyridone broth, where colonies have a greenish metallic center on incubated at . Under the microscope, Arthrobacter appear as rods when rapidly dividing, and cocci when in stationary phase. Dividing cells may also appear as chevrons (\"V\" shapes). Other notable characteristics are that it can use pyridone as its sole carbon source, and that its cocci are resistant to desiccation and starvation.",
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"plaintext": "Arthrobacter, like other bacterial genera including Brevibacterium, Microbacterium, and Corynebacterium are used for industrial production of L-glutamate. In industrial applications, Arthrobacter is often grown with low-cost sugar sources such as cane or beet molasses, starch hydrolysates from corn or cassava tubers, or tapioca. Along with sugar, ammonia and ammonium salts are added as a nitrogen source. The vitamins, minerals, and some other types of nutrients can be provided by adding corn steep liquour.",
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"plaintext": "The enzyme Alu obtained from Arthrobacter luteus is able to cleave Alu sequences which is frequently repeated in human DNA.",
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"plaintext": "Arthrobacter comprises the following species:",
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"plaintext": " A. agilis ",
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"plaintext": " A. castelli ",
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"plaintext": " \"A. crygenae\" ",
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"plaintext": " A. cryoconiti ",
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"plaintext": " A. cupressi ",
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"plaintext": " \"A. dextranlyticum\" ",
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"plaintext": " \"A. dokdonellae\" ",
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"plaintext": " A. echini ",
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"plaintext": " A. flavus ",
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"plaintext": " A. gandavensis ",
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"plaintext": " A. ginkgonis ",
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"plaintext": " \"A. ginsengisoli\" ",
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"plaintext": " A. glacialis ",
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"plaintext": " A. globiformis ",
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"plaintext": " A. gyeryongensis ",
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"plaintext": " A. halodurans ",
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"plaintext": " A. humicola ",
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"plaintext": " A. jiangjiafuii ",
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"plaintext": " \"A. keyseri\" ",
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"plaintext": " A. koreensis ",
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"plaintext": " A. liuii ",
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"plaintext": " A. livingstonensis ",
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"plaintext": " A. luteolus ",
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"plaintext": " A. methylotrophus ",
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"plaintext": " A. mobilis ",
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"plaintext": " A. monumenti ",
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"plaintext": " A. nanjingensis ",
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"plaintext": " \"A. nitrophenolicus\" ",
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"plaintext": " A. oryzae ",
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"plaintext": " A. paludis ",
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"plaintext": " A. parietis ",
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"plaintext": " A. pigmenti ",
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"plaintext": "The Muppet Show is a sketch comedy television series created by Jim Henson and featuring the Muppets. The series originated as two pilot episodes produced by Henson for ABC in 1974 and 1975. While neither episode was moved forward as a series and other networks in the United States rejected Henson's proposals, British producer Lew Grade expressed enthusiasm for the project and agreed to co-produce The Muppet Show for the British channel ATV. Five seasons, totalling 120 episodes, were broadcast on ATV and other ITV franchises in the United Kingdom and in later first-run syndication in the US from 1976 to 1981. The programme was produced and recorded at ATV Elstree Studios, England.",
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"plaintext": "The Muppet Show is presented as a variety show, featuring recurring sketches and musical numbers interspersed with plotlines taking place backstage and in other areas of the venue. Within its context, Kermit the Frog (performed by Henson) acts as showrunner and host, who tries to maintain control of the overwhelming antics of the other Muppet characters, as well as appease the rotating slate of guest stars. The Muppet Show is also known for its uniquely designed characters, burlesque nature, physical slapstick, sometimes absurdist and surreal humour, and parodies. As The Muppet Show became popular, many celebrities were eager to perform with the Muppets on television and in subsequent films.",
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"plaintext": "Lew Grade, proprietor of the British commercial station ATV, was familiar with puppet television programmes, having underwritten the various works of Gerry Anderson, while also producing two specials with Henson: Julie on Sesame Street and a special on Herb Alpert & the Tijuana Brass. Grade offered a deal to Henson that would result in the latter's programme being produced at the ATV Elstree Studios, England. ATV, as part of the ITV network, would broadcast the programme to other ITV stations in the United Kingdom, and its distribution arm, ITC Entertainment, would handle international broadcasts. Henson set aside his misgivings about syndication and accepted.",
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"plaintext": "Meanwhile, Henson's Muppets were featured in The Land of Gorch skits during the first (1975-76) season of the American comedy television programme Saturday Night Live. Although they lasted for only that one season on Saturday Night Live due to conflicts with that show's writers and producers, Henson and his team learned a great deal from being involved with the production. They gained institutional knowledge about adapting and quickly creating a television programme within a seven-day period. Henson also gained valuable friendships with multiple celebrities through his work on Saturday Night Live. Henson and his team were later able to use these skills and relationships on The Muppet Show.",
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"plaintext": "The Muppet Show first aired in September 1976. By Christmas 1976, the series in the UK saw around 14 million viewers tuning in on Sunday evenings. In January 1977, over 100 countries had either acquired the series or were making offers, which had resulted in over £6 million in overseas sales.",
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"plaintext": "\"The Muppet Show Theme\" (written by Henson and Sam Pottle in 1976) is the show's theme song.",
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"plaintext": "During the first season, the theme song contained a joke from Fozzie Bear and featured Kermit introducing the guest star (\"To introduce our guest star, that's what I'm here to do, so it really makes me happy to introduce to you...\"). At the song's end, Gonzo the Great appeared in front of the \"Muppet Show\" banner, attempting to play the \"O\" in \"Show\" like a gong, with various comical results.",
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"plaintext": "From the second to fourth seasons, the joke and Kermit's introduction were replaced by a short quip from Statler and Waldorf, then a shot of the audience singing \"Why don't they get things started?\" The fifth season version featured an extra verse from the hecklers (\"Why do we always come here? I guess we'll never know. It's kind of like a torture to have to watch the show!\"). At the end of the song, Gonzo appeared inside the \"O\" in \"Show\" to play the final note on a trumpet; again, with various comical results.",
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"plaintext": "Each episode ended with an extended instrumental performance of \"The Muppet Show Theme\" by the Muppet orchestra before Statler and Waldorf gave the last laugh of the night, followed by Zoot playing an off-key final note on his saxophone. Some last-laugh sequences featured other Muppets on the balcony. For example, in one episode, the Muppets of Sesame Street appeared behind Statler and Waldorf, who told them, \"How should we know how to get to Sesame Street? We don't even know how to get out of this stupid theater box!\"",
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"plaintext": "Every season, the TV version of the song was presented with re-worked lyrics. While the opening sequence evolved visually over the course of the show's five seasons, the musical composition remained essentially the same. Throughout the years, the song has become a staple of the Muppets franchise as a whole.",
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"plaintext": "The Muppet Theater is the setting for The Muppet Show, a grand old vaudeville house that has seen better days. In episode 106, Kermit identifies the name of the theatre as The Benny Vandergast Memorial Theater, although other episodes merely identify it as \"the Muppet Theater\". It is also identified as simply \"Muppet Theater\" in It's a Very Merry Muppet Christmas Movie. It is then that the theatre becomes registered as a historical landmark, and it cannot be shut down. In the film, the theatre is shown to be in New York City.",
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"plaintext": "Locations seen in the Muppet Theater include backstage right (which includes Kermit's desk), the dressing rooms, the attic (featured in four compilation videos released in 1985), the canteen, the prop room, the stage, Statler and Waldorf's box, the auditorium, reception, the recording studio, the stage door lobby, and the back alley. Some of these sets were later re-used as the Happiness Hotel in The Great Muppet Caper. A replica of the theatre serves as the setting for the Muppet*Vision 3D attraction at Disney's Hollywood Studios.",
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"plaintext": "No guest star ever appeared twice on The Muppet Show, although John Denver appeared both on the show and in two specials ( A Christmas Together and Rocky Mountain Holiday), while Dudley Moore reappeared in the special, The Muppets Go to the Movies. Additionally, several guest stars from the series had cameos in the first three Muppet theatrical films, and season four guest Alan Arkin cameoed in The Muppets. Originally, the producers had to call on their personal contacts to appeal to them to appear, especially considering that doing so required an overseas trip to Britain. However, the situation changed when the renowned ballet dancer Rudolf Nureyev offered to appear; his performance on this unusual TV programme produced so much favourable publicity that the series became one of the most sought after for various celebrities to appear in.",
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"plaintext": "\"At the Dance\" – The sketch was a regular during the first season but was used less frequently from the second season onward. Muppet characters (some of them being Whatnots) circulated on a semi-formal dance floor offering rapid fire one-liner jokes and come-backs as the couples passed in front of the camera. Debuted in Sex and Violence, and played a large role in the plot for a season five episode.",
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"plaintext": "\"Bear on Patrol\" – Fozzie Bear is a luckless police officer named Patrol Bear and Link Hogthrob is the incompetent chief of police who always get into the silliest situations with the criminals brought in. The voice of the announcer was performed by Jerry Nelson. Debuted in the third season.",
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"plaintext": "\"Blackouts\" – A bunch of short, comic sketches traditional to vaudeville that end with the lights turning off or a quick closing of the curtain. Only appeared in the first season.",
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"plaintext": "\"Cold Openings\" – The Cold Openings would appear at the beginning of each episode, and would officially introduce the guest star. During the first season, Kermit would introduce the guest star during the opening theme. His introduction would be followed by a clip of the guest star, usually surrounded by a group of Muppets. Beginning the second season, the Cold Openings would appear before the opening theme song. Scooter would visit the guest star in his/her dressing room, usually saying \"Fifteen seconds to curtain\". This would then be followed by a brief joke. In the fifth season, the guest star would enter the Muppet Theatre and would be greeted by Pops the Doorman. Pops would always say \"Who are you?\" as soon as he saw the guest star. After the guest star introduced himself/herself to Pops, a joke would follow.",
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"plaintext": "\"An Editorial by Sam the Eagle\" – Sam the Eagle gives an editorial on a specific topic which ends up occurring during the editorial. Only appeared in the second season.",
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"plaintext": "\"The Electric Mayhem\" – A bunch of musical sketches featuring Dr. Teeth and The Electric Mayhem.",
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"plaintext": "\"Fozzie Bear's Act\" – Fozzie Bear gets on stage and performs his famously bad jokes. Statler and Waldorf heckle him in a perpetual rivalry. The sketches became less frequent as Fozzie's off-stage presence became more prevalent. In one first-season episode, however, Fozzie turned the tables on Statler and Waldorf with help from Bruce Forsyth and they waved a white flag in surrender. Mainly appeared during the first season, but made occasional appearances in later seasons.",
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"plaintext": "\"Gonzo's Stunts\" – These sketches detail the stunts of The Great Gonzo where something would usually go wrong.",
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"plaintext": "\"Muppet Labs\" – Muppet Labs is \"Where the future is being made today!\" These segments featured the latest invention from Dr. Bunsen Honeydew with his assistant Beaker getting the worst of its inevitable malfunction. During the first season, Dr. Bunsen Honeydew hosted Muppet Labs by himself. The writers soon realised that another character was necessary to show Bunsen's failings, which resulted in Beaker being introduced in season two.",
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"plaintext": "\"Muppet Melodrama\" – A sketch where Uncle Deadly would capture Miss Piggy and put her in perilous plights to force her to marry him. Wayne would often have to be the one save her. Only appeared in the third season.",
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"plaintext": "\"Muppet News Flash\" – The Muppet Newsman delivers a news brief about a bizarre incident or human-interest story. During the first season, these segments frequently featured an interview with the episode's guest star, who portrayed a person connected to the story. Beginning with the second season, the Muppet Newsman would almost invariably suffer some calamity associated with the story, such as being knocked out by a falling light fixture after he reported that the company manufacturing it had dropped production.",
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"plaintext": "\"Muppet Sports\" – A sports sketch that features different sporting activities that are covered by Louis Kazagger. Debuted in the third season.",
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"plaintext": "\"Musical Chickens\" – A bunch of Muppet chickens would peck the keys of a piano and play a classic song to show off their musical talents.",
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"plaintext": "\"Panel Discussions\" – A sketch where Kermit the Frog, the featured guest star, and other Muppets discuss various topics. Only appeared in the first season.",
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"plaintext": "\"Pigs in Space\" – Parody of science fiction programmes like Star Trek, but also 1930s sci-fi serials. The spacecraft is called USS Swinetrek and the title voice-over is a parody of Lost in Space. It features Captain Link Hogthrob, Dr. Julius Strangepork (the name a take-off on \"Dr. Strangelove\"), and Miss Piggy as First Mate. Usually, the sketches would involve the long-suffering Piggy putting up with the wacko Strangepork and the brain dead Link treating her as an inferior because she is a woman (even though she arguably dwarfs them in brainpower). The early sketches also usually featured odd introductions for all the characters, such as calling Link the flappable captain, Miss Piggy the flirtatious first mate, and referring to Dr. Strangepork as \"describable\". Dr. Strangepork usually got the most unusual description out of the three during these introductions as he was the oddest member of the group. This portion of the introduction was dropped during season three, and the announcer would simply claim it was \"time for...Piiiiiigs...iiiin...spaaaaaaace!\" Debuted in the second season.",
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"plaintext": "\"Planet Koozebane\" – A sketch about a planet containing strange alien lifeforms like the Koozebanian creatures, the Koozebanian Phoob, the Fazoobs, the Koozebanian Spooble, the Four Fazoobs, and the Merdlidops. This was a common stop for the Swinetrek crew. The planet would also be featured later on Muppet Babies, the \"Space Cowboys\" episode of Jim Henson's Little Muppet Monsters, and CityKids (which featured different Koozebanian aliens). Kermit the Frog would later report from Koozebane on a 1992 Good Morning America appearance. Planet Koozebane was also referenced in the \"Science Fiction\" episode of The Jim Henson Hour and in the video game Muppets Party Cruise.",
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"plaintext": "\"A Poem by Rowlf\" – Rowlf the Dog would recite a classic poem while other Muppets end up interrupting him. Only appeared in the first season.",
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"plaintext": "\"Rowlf at the Piano\" – Rowlf the Dog would sing classical songs and would be occasionally accompanied by the other Muppet characters.",
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"plaintext": "\"The Swedish Chef\" – A cooking show parody. It consists of the Swedish Chef, who speaks mock Swedish, semi-comprehensible gibberish which parodies the characteristic vowel sounds and intonation of Swedish. He attempts to cook a dish with great enthusiasm until the punchline hits. A hallmark of these sketches was the improvisation between Jim Henson (who performed the Chef's head and voice) and Frank Oz (who was his hands). One would often make something up on the spot, making the other puppeteer comply with the action. Famous gags include \"chickie in du baskie\" (\"two points!\"), Swedish meatballs that bounce, and smashing a cake with a baseball bat after it begins insulting the Chef in mock Japanese. Debuted in the pilot Sex and Violence.",
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"plaintext": "\"Talk Spots\" – While sitting on a wall, Kermit the Frog would talk to the guest star and would occasionally be joined by the other Muppets. Mostly appeared during the first season, but made occasional appearances during the second season, and made two rare appearances in the third season (one of which featured Sam the Eagle and the Swedish Chef in place of Kermit).",
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"plaintext": "\"Talking Houses\" – A bunch of houses that tell jokes to each other. Only appeared during the first season.",
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"plaintext": "\"UK Spots\" – Due to shorter commercial breaks in the United Kingdom, every episode of The Muppet Show lasted two minutes longer in the UK than in the United States. The extra segments that were filmed to cover this time differential have been referred to as \"UK Spots\". Most of these UK Spots consisted of a short song and never featured the guest star.",
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"plaintext": "\"Vendaface\" – The Vendaface (voiced by Jerry Nelson) is a vending machine that can give any Muppet a facelift. The Vendaface was apparently only meant to be used once, but David Lazer said that they should not build such an expensive puppet only to use him once. The writers then decided to have him on the show a few more times in the first season. The Vendaface later appeared in episode 318 as the Vendawish (voiced by Jerry Nelson) which was a wish-granting machine.",
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"plaintext": "\"Veterinarian's Hospital\" – Parody of the soap opera General Hospital and other medical dramas, this segment consists of Dr. Bob (played by Rowlf the Dog) cracking corny jokes in the operating room with Nurses Piggy and Janice, much to the bemusement of the frazzled patient. Each instalment ends with Dr. Bob and his nurses looking around in puzzlement as a disembodied narrator tells viewers to \"tune in next time, when you'll hear Nurse Piggy / Dr. Bob / Nurse Janice say....\", whereupon one of the three 'medics' will prompt a corny response from one of the others. On a number of occasions, the \"Veterinarian's Hospital\" sketch would cross over with the cast or set of another, such as \"At the Dance\" or \"Pigs in Space\". On one occasion, Dr. Bob was the patient while the guest star (Christopher Reeve) played a doctor going to operate on Dr. Bob, and once Nurse Piggy was replaced (much to her chagrin) by guest star Loretta Swit, parodying her Nurse Houlihan character from M*A*S*H. In the first series, the narrator was usually performed by John Lovelady, but Jerry Nelson performed the role in both the Harvey Korman and Rita Moreno episodes, before taking over the role permanently from the Phyllis Diller episode. In the introduction, Dr. Bob went from \"a former orthopedic surgeon\" to \"a quack\" who's \"gone to the dogs\".",
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"plaintext": "\"Wayne and Wanda\" – Each sketch would feature Wayne and Wanda singing a song, only to be interrupted by some sort of pun relating to a lyric. Sam the Eagle introduced these sketches, as he felt that they were among the few cultured aspects of the show. Only appeared during the first season, however, a few new sketches appeared in later seasons (with just Wayne).",
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"plaintext": "The Muppet Show ran for five seasons, with minor alterations taking place each season.",
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"plaintext": "The Muppet Show",
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"plaintext": "The Muppet Show - Volume 2",
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"plaintext": "Singles",
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"plaintext": "The Muppet Show was nominated for nine BAFTA Awards during its run, winning three. It was nominated for twenty-one Primetime Emmy Awards, winning four, including the 1978 award for Outstanding Comedy-Variety or Music Series. It was presented with a Peabody Award in 1978. Also in 1978, the show received the Television Award of Merit by the Mary Washington Colonial Chapter of the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution.",
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"plaintext": "The series also won the top Variety Prize in Golden Rose of Montreux international Contest in May 1977.",
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"plaintext": "In 1985, Playhouse Video released a collection of video compilations under the Jim Henson's Muppet Video banner. Ten videos were released, featuring original linking material in addition to clips from the show.",
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"plaintext": "Videos included:",
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"plaintext": " The Muppet Revue (titled Kermit and Fozzie's Favourite Moments in the UK) – Hosted by Kermit and Fozzie as they clean up the attic, with guest stars Linda Ronstadt, Paul Williams, Harry Belafonte, and Rita Moreno",
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"plaintext": " Children's Songs and Stories with the Muppets – Hosted by Scooter as he looks through a scrapbook of children's songs from the show, with interruptions by others as he constantly tries to introduce his favourite song, \"Six String Orchestra\", with guest stars Julie Andrews, John Denver, Twiggy, Brooke Shields, Judy Collins, and Charles Aznavour",
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"plaintext": " Fozzie's Muppet Scrapbook – Hosted by Fozzie in the attic as he looks through a scrapbook of his material from the show, with guest stars Raquel Welch, Beverly Sills, and Milton Berle",
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"plaintext": "In 1993, Jim Henson Video released two compilations under the It's the Muppets banner, Meet the Muppets and More Muppets, Please! Later, three volumes of The Very Best of The Muppet Show were released on VHS and DVD in the UK (volume 3 was a release of full episodes as opposed to compilations). Unlike the Playhouse Video releases, It's the Muppets and The Very Best of The Muppet Show did not include any original footage or guest star clips, but all compilation collections did include material cut from the original US broadcasts.",
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"plaintext": "In 1994, Buena Vista Home Video under the Jim Henson Video imprint released The Muppet Show: Monster Laughs with Vincent Price, featuring the episodes with Vincent Price and Alice Cooper. Both episodes were edited. In addition to replacing the first series opening and the ending logos with Zoot, the Vincent Price episode was edited to remove the songs \"I'm Looking Through You\" and \"You've Got a Friend\" (the latter of which would be cut again when released on the first series DVD) as well as a sketch with the talking houses, while the Alice Cooper episode removed Robin's performance of \"Somewhere Over the Rainbow\".",
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"plaintext": "Time-Life and Jim Henson Home Entertainment began marketing \"best of\" volumes of The Muppet Show for mail-order in 2001, with six initial volumes with three episodes on each VHS and DVD. Unique to each episode was an introduction by Jim Henson's son, Brian. Nine more volumes were added for 2002, the Muppets' 25th anniversary. The collection was available for retail in 2002 via Columbia TriStar Home Entertainment and Jim Henson Home Entertainment by which time Time-Life had released its tenth volume.",
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"plaintext": "The only uncut release of Season 1 on DVD so far is the German DVD release by Buena Vista Home Entertainment Germany in 2010 (which also contains English audio). However, the intro and end credit sequences on this release are in German. In addition, the Paul Williams episode is missing a scene following \"All of Me\" wherein Fozzie and Scooter first discuss the \"Old Telephone Pole bit\". This scene does appear (albeit slightly abridged) in the international release. The German version also lacks the song \"In My Life\" performed by Twiggy, instead substituting it with a performance of \"Lean on Me\" by German singer Mary Roos.",
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"plaintext": "Like most Bacilli, the most common ecosystem of Bacillus cereus is land. In concert with Arbuscular mycorrhiza (and Rhizobium leguminosarum in clover), they can regenerate heavy metal soil by increasing phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium content in certain plants.",
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"plaintext": "B.cereus competes with other microorganisms such as Salmonella and Campylobacter in the gut; its presence reduces the numbers of those microorganisms. In food animals such as chickens, rabbits and pigs, some harmless strains of B.cereus are used as a probiotic feed additive to reduce Salmonella in the animals' intestines and cecum. This improves the animals' growth, as well as food safety for humans who eat them. B.cereus can parasitize codling moth larvae.",
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"plaintext": "B.cereus and other members of Bacillus are not easily killed by alcohol; they have been known to colonize distilled liquors and alcohol-soaked swabs and pads in numbers sufficient to cause infection.",
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"plaintext": "Some strains of B.cereus produce cereins, bacteriocins active against different B.cereus strains or other Gram-positive bacteria.",
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"plaintext": "At , a population of B.cereus can double in as little as 20 minutes or as long as 3 hours, depending on the food product.",
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"plaintext": "B.cereus is responsible for a minority of foodborne illnesses (2–5%), causing severe nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Bacillus foodborne illnesses occur due to survival of the bacterial endospores when infected food is not, or is inadequately, cooked. Cooking temperatures less than or equal to allow some B.cereus spores to survive. This problem is compounded when food is then improperly refrigerated, allowing the endospores to germinate. Cooked foods not meant for either immediate consumption or rapid cooling and refrigeration should be kept at temperatures below or above . Germination and growth generally occur between 10°C and 50°C, though some strains can grow at low temperatures, and Bacillus cytotoxicus strains have been shown to grow at temperatures up to 52℃. Bacterial growth results in production of enterotoxins, one of which is highly resistant to heat and acids (pH levels between 2 and 11); ingestion leads to two types of illness: diarrheal and emetic (vomiting) syndrome.",
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"plaintext": " The diarrheal type is associated with a wide range of foods, has an 8-to-16-hour incubation time, and is associated with diarrhea and gastrointestinal pain. Also known as the 'long-incubation' form of B.cereus food poisoning, it might be difficult to differentiate from poisoning caused by Clostridium perfringens. Enterotoxin can be inactivated after heating at for 5 minutes, but whether its presence in food causes the symptom is unclear, since it degrades in stomach enzymes; its subsequent production by surviving B.cereus spores within the small intestine may be the cause of illness.",
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"plaintext": " The 'emetic' form is commonly caused by rice cooked for a time and temperature insufficient to kill any spores present, then improperly refrigerated. It can produce a toxin, cereulide, which is not inactivated by later reheating. This form leads to nausea and vomiting 1–5 hours after consumption. Distinguishing from other short-term bacterial foodborne intoxications such as by Staphylococcus aureus can be difficult. Emetic toxin can withstand for 90 minutes.",
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"plaintext": "The diarrhetic syndromes observed in patients are thought to stem from the three toxins: hemolysin BL (Hbl), nonhemolytic enterotoxin (Nhe), and cytotoxin K (CytK). The nhe/hbl/cytK genes are located on the chromosome of the bacteria. Transcription of these genes is controlled by PlcR. These genes occur in the taxonomically related B. thuringiensis and B. anthracis, as well. These enterotoxins are all produced in the small intestine of the host, thus thwarting digestion by host endogenous enzymes. The Hbl and Nhe toxins are pore-forming toxins closely related to ClyA of E. coli. The proteins exhibit a conformation known as a \"beta-barrel\" that can insert into cellular membranes due to a hydrophobic exterior, thus creating pores with hydrophilic interiors. The effect is loss of cellular membrane potential and eventually cell death. CytK is a pore-forming protein more related to other hemolysins.",
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"plaintext": "The timing of the toxin production was previously thought to be possibly responsible for the two different courses of disease, but in fact the emetic syndrome is caused by a toxin, cereulide, found only in emetic strains and is not part of the \"standard toolbox\" of B.cereus. Cereulide is a cyclic polypeptide containing three repeats of four amino acids: -oxy-—-—-oxy-—- (similar to valinomycin produced by Streptomyces griseus) produced by nonribosomal peptide synthesis. Cereulide is believed to bind to 5-hydroxytryptamine3 (5-HT3) serotonin receptors, activating them and leading to increased afferent vagus nerve stimulation. It was shown independently by two research groups to be encoded on multiple plasmids: pCERE01 or pBCE4810. Plasmid pBCE4810 shares homology with the B.anthracis virulence plasmid pXO1, which encodes the anthrax toxin. Periodontal isolates of B.cereus also possess distinct pXO1-like plasmids. Like most of cyclic peptides containing nonproteogenic amino acids, cereulide is resistant to heat, proteolysis, and acid conditions.",
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"plaintext": "B.cereus is also known to cause difficult-to-eradicate chronic skin infections, though less aggressive than necrotizing fasciitis. B.cereus can also cause keratitis.",
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"plaintext": "A case study was published in 2019 of a catheter-related bloodstream infection of B.cereus in a 91-year-old male previously being treated with hemodialysis via PermCath for end-stage renal disease. He presented with chills, tachypnea, and high-grade fever, his white blood cell count and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (CRP) were significantly elevated, and CT imaging revealed a thoracic aortic aneurysm. He was successfully treated for the aneurysm with intravenous vancomycin, oral fluoroquinolones, and PermCath removal.",
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"plaintext": "Bacillus cereus group are also pathogenic to multiple aquatic organisms including Chinese softshell turtle ( Pelodiscus sinensis ) where B. cereus (Bc) and B. thuringiensis (Bt) are prominent ones infection characterized by gross lesions such as hepatic congestion and enlarged spleen causes high mortality.",
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"plaintext": "While B.cereus vegetative cells are killed during normal cooking, spores are more resistant. Viable spores in food can become vegetative cells in the intestines and produce a range of diarrheal enterotoxins, so elimination of spores is desirable. In wet heat (poaching, simmering, boiling, braising, stewing, pot roasting, steaming), spores require more than 5 minutes at at the coldest spot to be destroyed. In dry heat (grilling, broiling, baking, roasting, searing, sautéing), for 1 hour kills all spores on the exposed surface.",
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"plaintext": "In case of foodborne illness, the diagnosis of B.cereus can be confirmed by the isolation of more than 100,000 B.cereus organisms per gram from epidemiologically-implicated food, but such testing is often not done because the illness is relatively harmless and usually self-limiting.",
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"plaintext": "For the isolation and enumeration of B.cereus, there are two standardized methods by International Organization for Standardization (ISO): ISO 7932 and ISO 21871. Because of B.cereus ability to produce lecithinase and its inability to ferment mannitol, there are some proper selective media for its isolation and identification such as mannitol-egg yolk-polymyxin (MYP) and polymyxin-pyruvate-egg yolk-mannitol-bromothymol blue agar (PEMBA). B.cereus colonies on MYP have a violet-red background and are surrounded by a zone of egg-yolk precipitate.",
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"plaintext": "Below is a list of differential techniques and results that can help to identify B.cereus from other bacteria and Bacillus species.",
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"plaintext": " Anaerobic growth: Positive",
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"plaintext": " Voges Proskauer test: Positive",
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"plaintext": " Acid produced from",
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"plaintext": " -glucose: Positive",
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"plaintext": " -arabinose: Negative",
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"plaintext": " -xylose: Negative",
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"plaintext": " -mannitol: Negative",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Diagnosis",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Starchhydrolysis: Positive",
"section_idx": 6,
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"plaintext": " Nitrate reduction: Positive",
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"section_name": "Diagnosis",
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{
"plaintext": " Degradation oftyrosine: Positive",
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"plaintext": " Growth at",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Diagnosis",
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},
{
"plaintext": " above 50°C: Negative",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Diagnosis",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Use ofcitrate: Positive",
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"plaintext": "The Central Public Health Laboratory in the United Kingdom tests for motility, hemolysis, rhizoid growth, susceptibility to γ-phage, and fermentation of ammonium salt-based glucose but no mannitol, arabinose, or xylose.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Diagnosis",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Colony, morphological, physiological, and biochemical characteristics of marine B. cereus are shown in the Table below.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Characteristics of B. cereus",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Note: + = Positive, – =Negative, V= Variable (+/–)",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Characteristics of B. cereus",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Most emetic patients recover within 6 to 24 hours, but in some cases, the toxin can be fatal via fulminant hepatic failure. In 2014, 23 newborns in the UK receiving total parenteral nutrition contaminated with B.cereus developed septicaemia, with three of the infants later dying as a result of infection.",
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"section_name": "Prognosis",
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"plaintext": "Bacteria of the B.cereus group are infected by bacteriophages belonging to the family Tectiviridae. This family includes tailless phages that have a lipid membrane or vesicle beneath the icosahedral protein shell and that are formed of approximately equal amounts of virus-encoded proteins and lipids derived from the host cell's plasma membrane. Upon infection, the lipid membrane becomes a tail-like structure used in genome delivery. The genome is composed of about 15-kilobase, linear, double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) with long, inverted terminal-repeat sequences (100 base pairs). GIL01, Bam35, GIL16, AP50, and Wip1 are examples of temperate tectiviruses infecting the B.cereus group.",
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"section_name": "Bacteriophage",
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"plaintext": "Colonies of B.cereus were originally isolated from an agar plate left exposed to the air in a cow shed. In the 2010s, examination of warning letters issued by the US Food and Drug Administration issued to pharmaceutical manufacturing facilities addressing facility microbial contamination revealed that the most common contaminant was B.cereus.",
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"section_name": "History",
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"plaintext": "Several new enzymes have been discovered in B.cereus, such as AlkC and AlkD, both of which are involved in DNA repair.",
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"section_name": "History",
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},
{
"plaintext": " is a biofungicide. Figueroa-López et al. 2016 reduce Fusarium verticillioides growth using this strain. B25 shows promise for reduction of mycotoxin concentrations in grains.",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "In agriculture",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Bacillus cereus biovar anthracis",
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"section_name": "See also",
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1,
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},
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"plaintext": " Bacillus cereus genomes and related information at PATRIC, a Bioinformatics Resource Center funded by NIAID",
"section_idx": 14,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Type strain of Bacillus cereus at BacDive – the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase",
"section_idx": 14,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
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}
] | [
"Bacillus",
"Foodborne_illnesses",
"Bacteria_described_in_1887"
] | 131,307 | 11,925 | 137 | 121 | 0 | 0 | Bacillus cereus | species of bacterium | [
"B. cereus",
"be serious"
] |
40,135 | 1,072,283,178 | Lumen_gentium | [
{
"plaintext": "Lumen gentium, the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, is one of the principal documents of the Second Vatican Council. This dogmatic constitution was promulgated by Pope Paul VI on 21 November 1964, following approval by the assembled bishops by a vote of 2,151 to 5. As is customary with significant Roman Catholic Church documents, it is known by its incipit, \"Lumen gentium\", Latin for \"Light of the Nations\".",
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"plaintext": "The eight chapters of the document can be paired thematically: chapters one and two treat the church's nature and historical existence, chapters three and four treat different roles in the church, chapters five and six treat holiness and religious life, while chapters seven and eight discuss the saints and Mary.",
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"plaintext": "In its first chapter on ecclesiology, the constitution states that \"all the just, from Adam and 'from Abel, the just one, to the last of the elect,' will be gathered together with the Father in the universal Church,... a people made one with the unity of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit.\"(2) \"Christ made His brothers, called together from all nations, mystically the components of His own Body.\"(7)",
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"plaintext": "It goes on to describe \"the sole Church of Christ which in the Creed is professed as one, holy, catholic and apostolic, which our Saviour, after His Resurrection, commissioned Peter to shepherd, and him and the other apostles to extend and direct with authority, which He erected for all ages as 'the pillar and mainstay of the truth.' This Church, constituted and organized as a society in the present world, subsists in the Catholic Church, which is governed by the successor of Peter and by the bishops in communion with him, although many elements of sanctification and of truth are found outside its visible confines.\" (8)",
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"plaintext": "Pope Francis has taken a central theme of his pontificate from Lumen Gentium § 8 on the Church following Christ in his poverty and humility in order to bring the Good News to the poor.",
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"plaintext": "One of the key portions of Lumen gentium is its second chapter, with its declaration that the Church is \"the People of God\":",
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"plaintext": "The three-fold ministry of Christ is also exercised by every baptized. Thus in a sense all the baptized share in the priesthood of Christ. Though they differ from one another in essence and not only in degree, the common priesthood of the faithful and the ministerial or hierarchical priesthood are nonetheless interrelated: each of them in its own special way is a participation in the one priesthood of Christ. The ministerial priest, by the sacred power he enjoys, teaches and rules the priestly people; acting in the person of Christ, he makes present the eucharistic sacrifice, and offers it to God in the name of all the people. But the faithful, in virtue of their royal priesthood, join in the offering of the Eucharist. They likewise exercise that priesthood in receiving the sacraments, in prayer and thanksgiving, in the witness of a holy life, and by self-denial and active charity.(10)",
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"plaintext": "In the second chapter, the Council teaches that God wills to save people not just as individuals but as a people. For this reason God chose the Israelite people to be his own people and established a covenant with it, as a preparation and figure of the covenant ratified in Christ that constitutes the new People of God, which would be one, not according to the flesh, but in the Spirit and which is called the Church of Christ.(9)",
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"plaintext": "Only those who \"knowing that the Catholic Church was made necessary by Christ, would refuse to enter or to remain in it, could not be saved.\"(14)",
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"plaintext": "All human beings are called to belong to the Church. Not all are fully incorporated into the Church, but \"the Church recognizes that in many ways she is linked with those who, being baptized, are honored with the name of Christian, though they do not profess the faith in its entirety or do not preserve unity of communion with the successor of Peter.\"(15) In addition, the Church declares the possibility of Salvation for non-Christians and even non-theists:",
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"plaintext": "The New Evangelization message in the Catholic Church is rooted in LG 17 and is one of the signs that the Church is seeking to fulfill Lumen Gentium. As the Father sent the Son, so He too sent the Apostles .",
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"plaintext": "The third chapter of the document, which spoke of the bishops as a \"college\"(22) that, within the Church, succeeds to the place of the \"college\" or \"stable group\" of the apostles(19) and is \"the subject of supreme and full power over the universal Church, provided we understand this body together with its head, the Roman Pontiff.\"(22)",
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"plaintext": "Conservative bishops in the council were fearful that the idea of the College of Bishops would be interpreted as a new conciliarism, a fifteenth-century idea that an ecumenical council was the supreme authority under Christ in the Catholic Church. Of the members of the council, 322, a substantial minority, voted against any mention whatever in the document of a \"college\" of bishops), and were now proposing 47 amendments to chapter III. Accordingly, a \"Preliminary Note of Explanation\" (in Latin, Nota explicativa praevia\", often referred to as \"the Nota praevia\") intended to reconcile them with the text was added on 16 November 1964. The Note reaffirmed that the college of bishops exercises its authority only with the assent of the pope, thus safeguarding the primacy and pastoral independence of the pope.",
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"plaintext": "The Note achieved its purpose: on the following day, 17 November, the No votes against chapter III dropped to 46, a number that may have included some who opposed it because they felt the Preliminary Note of Explanation had weakened the concept of collegiality. In the final vote on 18 November only five of the 2200+ participants voted against the dogmatic constitution as a whole.",
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"plaintext": "The Note is introduced by the following words: \"A preliminary note of explanation is being given to the Council Fathers from higher authority, regarding the Modi bearing on Chapter III of the Schema de Ecclesia; the doctrine set forth in Chapter III ought to be explained and understood in accordance with the meaning and intent of this explanatory note.\" \"Higher authority\" refers to the Pope, Paul VI, and \"the Schema de Ecclesia\" to the draft text for the dogmatic constitution Lumen gentium. By \"the Modi\" is meant the proposals for amendments of that draft text which some of the Council participants had presented.",
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"plaintext": "The Note was thus added by papal authority, consistently with the idea that the consent of the Pope, as head of the College of Bishops was necessary, and that he had the \"right to make his consent dependent on an interpretation determined in advance\".",
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"plaintext": "The Preliminary Note of Explanation did not in fact alter the value of the statement on collegiality in the text of Lumen gentium: it \"strengthened the adherence to the doctrine of the First Vatican Council on the primacy, but it did not subsequently strike out anything from the direct divine origin of the episcopal office and its function, and the responsibility of the College of Bishops for the Universal Church.\"",
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"plaintext": "Part 4 of the Note reads:",
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"plaintext": "Bishop Christopher Butler, a major contributor to the council and strong proponent of its teachings, finds that the document gives a \"reaffirmation\" to \"a genuine sacramental episcopal collegiality\" which was thrown into the background by the premature ending of Vatican I. He goes on to say: This seems to afford the basis for a recovery of the principle that the papacy—and now we must add the episcopate—is not the source of the actual life of the Church, but the coordinator of that life's various and peripheral spontaneities. This principle of subsidiarity is carried through to the point at which the lay Catholic is seen as a genuine creative force in the life of the People of God; and to the further point where it is realised that the whole human family, insofar as good will prevails, is a theatre of the operations of the grace-gifts of the Holy Spirit, and is cooperating in the building up of Christ's kingdom. He concludes that the Church which makes contemporary the saving truth of the gospel \"is the sign and the instrument of the unity of the whole human race.\"",
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"plaintext": "This part of the document also endorsed the revival of the office of deacon as found in the early church, as a permanent vocation rather than a stage through which candidates for the priesthood pass, as had been the case since about the fifth century, and that it should open to married men. It said that:",
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"plaintext": "The laity are gathered together in the People of God and make up the Body of Christ under one Head. Whoever they are they are called upon, as living members, to expend all their energy for the growth of the Church and its continuous sanctification... Through their baptism and confirmation all are commissioned to that apostolate by the Lord Himself. Moreover, by the sacraments, especially holy Eucharist, that charity toward God and man which is the soul of the apostolate is communicated and nourished. Now the laity are called in a special way to make the Church present and operative in those places and circumstances where only through them can it become the salt of the earth. (33)",
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"plaintext": "But the Lord wishes to spread His kingdom also by means of the laity, namely, a kingdom of truth and life, a kingdom of holiness and grace, a kingdom of justice, love and peace. (36)",
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"plaintext": "This theme was built on in the fifth chapter, which is on \"the universal call to holiness\":",
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"plaintext": "\"The religious state clearly manifests that the Kingdom of God and its needs, in a very special way, are raised above all earthly considerations. Finally it clearly shows all men both the unsurpassed breadth of the strength of Christ the King and the infinite power of the Holy Spirit marvelously working in the Church.\" It is considered a \"deepening of the baptismal character\". The religious life is conducive to the building up of other persons and of the world in Christ.",
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"plaintext": "This chapter affirms the oneness of the Church on earth with the Church in heaven. It makes an indirect allusion to the future fulfillment of Bible prophecy in history. It continues themes of sanctification and holiness from earlier sections. It affirms the ancient Church practices of remembering the saints and imploring their intercession. It affirms \"the sacred Liturgy, wherein the power of the Holy Spirit acts upon us through sacramental signs\" and anticipates worship in heaven.",
"section_idx": 1,
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"plaintext": "The chapter on Mary was the subject of debate. Original plans had called for a separate document about the role of Mary, keeping the document on the Church \"ecumenical,\" in the sense of \"non-offensive\" to Protestant Christians, who viewed special veneration of Mary with suspicion. However, the Council Fathers insisted, with the support of the Pope, that, as Mary's place is within the Church, treatment of her should appear within the Constitution on the Church.",
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"plaintext": "Vatican Council II was sensitive to the views of other Christians, as the council, at the request of Pope John XXIII, hoped to promote Christian unity, but knew there are different concepts about Mary among other Christians, especially Protestants. The council in its one mention of Mary as \"Mediatrix\", spoke of her as strengthening — not lessening — confidence in Christ as the one essential Mediator. The council, in speaking of Mary, used a biblical approach, with strong emphasis on her pilgrimage of faith. They also drew heavily from the Fathers of the Church, which Christians of all denominations respect.",
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"plaintext": "Pope Paul VI, in a speech to the council fathers, called the document \"a vast synthesis of the Catholic doctrine regarding the place which the Blessed Mary occupies in the mystery of Christ and of the Church.\"",
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"plaintext": "Bishop Christopher Butler mentions that prior to Vatican II the one area where Catholic theology was allowed to develop uncritically, apart from the total life of theology, was in devotion to Mary, so that \"it began to seem that the Catholicism of the future would approximate more and more to the condition of an Italian tribal cult.\" This century-long drift was brought to an end by the Council on October 29, 1963, \"a fixed point of the Marian paradigm shift,\" the date on which the Council decided, in a very close vote, to not give Mary a separate document but to situate her properly within the larger Church.",
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"plaintext": "...in the most holy Virgin the Church has already reached that perfection whereby she is without spot or wrinkle. (Ephesians 5:27) (65) ",
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"plaintext": "Marie Rosaire Gagnebet O.P. (1904-1983) professor of theology at the Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum from 1938 to 1976 and peritus during Vatican II, was influential in the redaction of the Lumen gentium.",
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"plaintext": "Certain Traditionalist Catholic groups, particularly Sedevacantists, consider Lumen gentium to be the demarcation of when the Roman Church fell into heresy, pointing to the use of \"subsistit in\" rather than \"est\" as an abdication of the Church's historic (and to them compulsory) identification of itself alone as God's church. In an interview with Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger responded to this criticism:",
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"plaintext": "One point of confusion was the document's treatment of the possibility of salvation outside of the Catholic Church. In 2000, the Vatican issued Dominus Iesus with the theme of \"the unicity and salvific universality of Jesus Christ and the Church\". which affirmed the Church's unique role in salvation, sanctification and mission.",
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"plaintext": "The main controversial affirmation was the Latin expression subsistit in, while defining the living relation between Jesus Christ God and His Church.",
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"plaintext": "English translation of Lumen gentium on the website of the Holy See",
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40,137 | 1,084,131,246 | Dei_verbum | [
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"plaintext": "Dei verbum, the Second Vatican Council's Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation, was promulgated by Pope Paul VI on 18 November 1965, following approval by the assembled bishops by a vote of 2,344 to 6. It is one of the principal documents of the Second Vatican Council, indeed their very foundation in the view of one of the leading Council Fathers, Bishop Christopher Butler. The phrase \"Dei verbum\" is Latin for \"Word of God\" and is taken from the first line of the document, as is customary for titles of major Catholic documents.",
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"plaintext": "In Chapter II under the heading \"Handing On Divine Revelation\" the Constitution states among other points:",
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"plaintext": "Hence there exists a close connection and communication between sacred Tradition and sacred Scripture. For both of them, flowing from the same divine wellspring, in a certain way merge into a unity and tend toward the same end. For Sacred Scripture is the word of God inasmuch as it is consigned to writing under the inspiration of the divine Spirit, while sacred tradition takes the word of God entrusted by Christ the Lord and the Holy Spirit to the Apostles, and hands it on to their successors in its full purity, so that led by the light of the Spirit of truth, they may in proclaiming it preserve this word of God faithfully, explain it, and make it more widely known. Consequently it is not from Sacred Scripture alone that the Church draws her certainty about everything which has been revealed. Therefore both sacred tradition and Sacred Scripture are to be accepted and venerated with the same sense of loyalty and reverence. ",
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"plaintext": "The Word of God is transmitted both through the canonical texts of Sacred Scripture, and through Sacred Tradition, which includes various forms such as liturgy, prayers, and the teachings of the Apostles and their successors. The Church looks to Tradition as a protection against errors that could arise from private interpretation. ",
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"plaintext": "The teaching of the Magisterium on the interpretation of Scripture was summarized in DV 12, expressly devoted to biblical interpretation. Dei Verbum distinguished between two levels of meaning, the literal sense intended by the biblical writers and the further understanding that may be attained due to context within the whole of Scripture.",
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"plaintext": "In Chapter IV, Dei Verbum affirms the saying of Augustine that \"the New Testament is hidden in the Old, and that the Old Testament is manifest in the New\" (DV 16).",
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"plaintext": "\"Easy access to Sacred Scripture should be provided for all the Christian faithful.\" To this end the Church sees to it that suitable and correct translations are made into different languages, especially from the original texts of the sacred books. Frequent reading of the divine Scriptures is encouraged for all the Christian faithful, and prayer should accompany the reading of Sacred Scripture, \"so that God and man may talk together\". Some are ordained to preach the Word, while others reveal Christ in the way they live and interact in the world.",
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"plaintext": "The schema, or draft document, prepared for the first council session (October–December 1962) reflected the conservative theology of the Holy Office under Cardinal Ottaviani. Pope John intervened directly to promote instead the preparation of a new draft which was assigned to a mixed commission of conservatives and progressives, and it was this on which the final document was based. The final draft was significantly influenced by the work of Dominican theologian Yves Congar, who had been appointed a peritus (expert advisor) at the council.",
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"plaintext": "Joseph Ratzinger, later Pope Benedict XVI, identified three overall themes in Dei verbum: (1) the new view of the phenomenon of tradition; (2) the theological problem of the application of critical historical methods to the interpretation of Scripture; and (3) the biblical movement that had been growing from the turn of the twentieth century.",
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"plaintext": "Regarding article 1 of the preface of Dei verbum, Ratzinger wrote: \"The brief form of the Preface and the barely concealed illogicalities that it contains betray clearly the confusion from which it has emerged.\"",
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"plaintext": "The Catechism states that \"the books of Scripture firmly, faithfully, and without error teach that truth which God, for the sake of our salvation, wished to see confided to the Sacred Scriptures.\"",
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"plaintext": "Nevertheless, the Catechism clearly states that \"the Christian faith is not a 'religion of the book.' Christianity is the religion of the 'Word' of God, a word which is 'not a written and mute word, but the Word is incarnate and living'. If the Scriptures are not to remain a dead letter, Christ, the eternal Word of the living God, must, through the Holy Spirit, 'open [our] minds to understand the Scriptures.'\"",
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"plaintext": "The Catechism goes on to state that \"In Sacred Scripture, God speaks to man in a human way. To interpret Scripture correctly, the reader must be attentive to what the human authors truly wanted to affirm, and to what God wanted to reveal to us by their words.\"",
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"plaintext": "\"But since Sacred Scripture is inspired, there is another and no less important principle of correct interpretation, without which Scripture would remain a dead letter. 'Sacred Scripture must be read and interpreted in the light of the same Spirit by whom it was written.'\"",
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"plaintext": "There was a controversy during the Council on whether the Roman Catholic Church taught biblical infallibility or biblical inerrancy. Some have interpreted Dei verbum as teaching the infallibility position, while others note that the conciliar document often quotes previous documents such as Providentissimus Deus and Divino afflante Spiritu that suggest inerrancy.",
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"plaintext": " Divino afflante Spiritu",
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"plaintext": " Verbum Domini",
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"plaintext": "Commentary on the Documents of Vatican II, volume III, edited by Herbert Vorgrimler, chapter on the Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation, written by Joseph Ratzinger, Aloys Grillmeier, and Béda Rigaux, Herder and Herder, New York, 1969.",
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"plaintext": "The Gift of Scripture, \"Published as a teaching document of the Bishops' Conferences of England, Wales and Scotland\" (2005), The Catholic Truth Society, Ref. SC 80, .",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": "Scripture: Dei Verbum (Rediscovering Vatican II), by Ronald D. Witherup, .",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": " Witherup, Ronald D., The Word of God at Vatican II: Exploring Dei Verbum, Collegeville, Minnesota: Liturgical Press, 2014.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": "Arthur Wells, Bishop Christopher Butler OSB – His Rôle in Dei Verbum, Part 1 – Part 2",
"section_idx": 7,
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"plaintext": "Bernard Orchard OSB, Dei Verbum and the Synoptic Gospels (1990)",
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},
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"plaintext": "Brian W. Harrison, O.S., On Rewriting the Bible (2002)",
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"plaintext": "Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation – Dei verbum (English translation on the Vatican website)",
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"plaintext": "Bacterial growth is proliferation of bacterium into two daughter cells, in a process called binary fission. Providing no event occurs, the resulting daughter cells are genetically identical to the original cell. Hence, bacterial growth occurs. Both daughter cells from the division do not necessarily survive. However, if the surviving number exceeds unity on average, the bacterial population undergoes exponential growth. The measurement of an exponential bacterial growth curve in batch culture was traditionally a part of the training of all microbiologists; the basic means requires bacterial enumeration (cell counting) by direct and individual (microscopic, flow cytometry), direct and bulk (biomass), indirect and individual (colony counting), or indirect and bulk (most probable number, turbidity, nutrient uptake) methods. Models reconcile theory with the measurements.",
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"plaintext": "In autecological studies, the growth of bacteria (or other microorganisms, as protozoa, microalgae or yeasts) in batch culture can be modeled with four different phases: lag phase (A), log phase or exponential phase (B), stationary phase (C), and death phase (D).",
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"plaintext": " During lag phase, bacteria adapt themselves to growth conditions. It is the period where the individual bacteria are maturing and not yet able to divide. During the lag phase of the bacterial growth cycle, synthesis of RNA, enzymes and other molecules occurs. During the lag phase cells change very little because the cells do not immediately reproduce in a new medium. This period of little to no cell division is called the lag phase and can last for 1 hour to several days. During this phase cells are not dormant.",
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"plaintext": " The log phase (sometimes called the logarithmic phase or the exponential phase) is a period characterized by cell doubling. The number of new bacteria appearing per unit time is proportional to the present population. If growth is not limited, doubling will continue at a constant rate so both the number of cells and the rate of population increase doubles with each consecutive time period. For this type of exponential growth, plotting the natural logarithm of cell number against time produces a straight line. The slope of this line is the specific growth rate of the organism, which is a measure of the number of divisions per cell per unit time. The actual rate of this growth (i.e. the slope of the line in the figure) depends upon the growth conditions, which affect the frequency of cell division events and the probability of both daughter cells surviving. Under controlled conditions, cyanobacteria can double their population four times a day and then they can triple their population. Exponential growth cannot continue indefinitely, however, because the medium is soon depleted of nutrients and enriched with wastes.",
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"plaintext": " The stationary phase is often due to a growth-limiting factor such as the depletion of an essential nutrient, and/or the formation of an inhibitory product such as an organic acid. Stationary phase results from a situation in which growth rate and death rate are equal. The number of new cells created is limited by the growth factor and as a result the rate of cell growth matches the rate of cell death. The result is a “smooth,” horizontal linear part of the curve during the stationary phase. Mutations can occur during stationary phase. Bridges et al. (2001) presented evidence that DNA damage is responsible for many of the mutations arising in the genomes of stationary phase or starving bacteria. Endogenously generated reactive oxygen species appear to be a major source of such damages.",
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"plaintext": "At death phase (decline phase), bacteria die. This could be caused by lack of nutrients, environmental temperature above or below the tolerance band for the species, or other injurious conditions.",
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"plaintext": "This basic batch culture growth model draws out and emphasizes aspects of bacterial growth which may differ from the growth of macrofauna. It emphasizes clonality, asexual binary division, the short development time relative to replication itself, the seemingly low death rate, the need to move from a dormant state to a reproductive state or to condition the media, and finally, the tendency of lab adapted strains to exhaust their nutrients. In reality, even in batch culture, the four phases are not well defined. The cells do not reproduce in synchrony without explicit and continual prompting (as in experiments with stalked bacteria ) and their exponential phase growth is often not ever a constant rate, but instead a slowly decaying rate, a constant stochastic response to pressures both to reproduce and to go dormant in the face of declining nutrient concentrations and increasing waste concentrations.",
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"plaintext": "The decrease in number of bacteria may even become logarithmic. Hence, this phase of growth may also be called as negative logarithmic or negative exponential growth phase.",
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"plaintext": "Near the end of the logarithmic phase of a batch culture, competence for natural genetic transformation may be induced, as in Bacillus subtilis and in other bacteria. Natural genetic transformation is a form of DNA transfer that appears to be an adaptation for repairing DNA damages.",
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"plaintext": "Batch culture is the most common laboratory growth method in which bacterial growth is studied, but it is only one of many. It is ideally spatially unstructured and temporally structured. The bacterial culture is incubated in a closed vessel with a single batch of medium. In some experimental regimes, some of the bacterial culture is periodically removed and added to fresh sterile medium. In the extreme case, this leads to the continual renewal of the nutrients. This is a chemostat, also known as continuous culture. It is ideally spatially unstructured and temporally unstructured, in a steady state defined by the rates of nutrient supply and bacterial growth. In comparison to batch culture, bacteria are maintained in exponential growth phase, and the growth rate of the bacteria is known. Related devices include turbidostats and auxostats. When Escherichia coli is growing very slowly with a doubling time of 16 hours in a chemostat most cells have a single chromosome.",
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"plaintext": "Bacterial growth can be suppressed with bacteriostats, without necessarily killing the bacteria. Certain toxins can be used to suppress bacterial growth or kill bacteria. Antibiotics (or, more properly, antibacterial drugs) are drugs used to kill bacteria; they can have side effects or even cause adverse reactions in people, however they are not classified as toxins. In a synecological, true-to-nature situation in which more than one bacterial species is present, the growth of microbes is more dynamic and continual.",
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"plaintext": "Liquid is not the only laboratory environment for bacterial growth. Spatially structured environments such as biofilms or agar surfaces present additional complex growth models.",
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"plaintext": "Environmental factors influence rate of bacterial growth such as acidity (pH), temperature, water activity, macro and micro nutrients, oxygen levels, and toxins. Conditions tend to be relatively consistent between bacteria with the exception of extremophiles. Bacterium have optimal growth conditions under which they thrive, but once outside of those conditions the stress can result in either reduced or stalled growth, dormancy (such as formation spores), or death. Maintaining sub-optimal growth conditions is a key principle to food preservation.",
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"plaintext": "Low temperatures tend to reduce growth rates which has led to refrigeration being instrumental in food preservation. Depending on temperature, bacteria can be classified as:",
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"plaintext": " Psychrophiles",
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"plaintext": "Psychrophiles are extremophilic cold-loving bacteria or archaea with an optimal temperature for growth at about 15°C or lower (maximal temperature for growth at 20°C, minimal temperature for growth at 0°C or lower). Psychrophiles are typically found in Earth's extremely cold ecosystems, such as polar ice-cap regions, permafrost, polar surface, and deep oceans.",
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"plaintext": " Mesophiles",
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"plaintext": "Mesophiles are bacteria that thrive at moderate temperatures, growing best between 20° and 45°C. These temperatures align with the natural body temperatures of humans, which is why many human pathogens are mesophiles.",
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"plaintext": " Thermophiles",
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"plaintext": "Survive under temperatures of 45–80°C. ",
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"plaintext": "Optimal acidity for bacteria tends to be around pH 6.5 to 7.0 with the exception of acidophiles. Some bacteria can change the pH such as by excreting acid resulting in sub-optimal conditions.",
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"plaintext": "Bacteria can be aerobes or anaerobes. Depending on the degree of oxygen required bacteria can fall into the following classes:",
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"plaintext": " facultative-anaerobes-ie aerotolerant absence or minimal oxygen required for their growth",
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"plaintext": " obligate-anaerobes grow only in complete absence of oxygen",
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"plaintext": " facultative aerobes-can grow either in presence or minimal oxygen",
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"plaintext": " obligate aerobes-grow only in the presence of oxygen",
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"plaintext": "Ample nutrients",
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"plaintext": "Toxic compounds such as ethanol can hinder growth or kill bacteria. This is used beneficially for disinfection and in food preservation.",
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"plaintext": " Monod equation",
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"plaintext": " Michaelis–Menten kinetics",
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"plaintext": "Cell proliferation",
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"plaintext": "An examination of the exponential growth of bacterial populations",
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"plaintext": "Science aid: Bacterial Growth High school (GCSE, Alevel) resource.",
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"plaintext": "Microbial Growth, BioMineWiki",
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"plaintext": "From the Wolfram Demonstrations Project — requires CDF player (free):",
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"plaintext": "Simulating Microbial Count Records with an Expanded Fermi Solution Model",
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"plaintext": "Incipient Growth Processes with Competing Mechanisms",
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"plaintext": "Modified Logistic Isothermal Microbial Growth Ratio",
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"plaintext": "Generalized Logistic (Verhulst) Isothermal Microbial Growth",
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"plaintext": "Microbial Population Growth, Mortality, and Transitions between Them",
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"plaintext": "Diauxic Growth of Bacteria on Two Substrates",
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"plaintext": "This article includes material from an article posted on 26 April 2003 on Nupedia; written by Nagina Parmar; reviewed and approved by the Biology group; editor, Gaytha Langlois; lead reviewer, Gaytha Langlois ; lead copyeditors, Ruth Ifcher. and Jan Hogle.",
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40,139 | 1,107,439,971 | Bdellovibrio | [
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"plaintext": "Bdellovibrio is a genus of Gram-negative, obligate aerobic bacteria. One of the more notable characteristics of this genus is that members can prey upon other Gram-negative bacteria and feed on the biopolymers, e.g. proteins and nucleic acids, of their hosts. They have two lifestyles: a host-dependent, highly mobile phase, the \"attack phase\", in which they form \"bdelloplasts\" in their host bacteria; and a slow-growing, irregularly shaped, host-independent form.",
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"plaintext": "The most well studied of these is Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus, which is found almost exclusively in host dependent growth in nature. In this free swimming attack form after searching for prey using its pili, it burrows through the host outer membrane/ peptidoglycan cell wall and enters the periplasmic space. The Bdellovibrio bacterium then forms a structure called a bdelloplast. This bdelloplast is created as the host cell is modified to become spherical in shape. Inside the bdelloplast, the singular large flagellum of the predatory Bdellovibrio is lost. The host cell is then rapidly killed allowing the passage of molecules from the interior of the host cytoplasm through to the periplasm freely, and the periplasm dwelling Bdellovibrio to feed. Using some of these molecules the Bdellovibrio creates a protective environment by reinforcing the peptidoglycan cell wall of the host in which it now dwells using amidases and transpeptidases. After around 4hrs, depending on ambient temperature, the Bdellovibrio has increased in size dramatically through this nourishment. It divides to replicate and then leaves via a final lysis of the host's cell wall and membranes. The newly emerging Bdellovibrio use their newly grown powerful flagella to swim away and find the next suitable host. Because of this intermittent bdelloplast stage, and momentary parasitic phase (15-20mins), Bdellovibrio could be considered bacterial predators or parasites.",
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"plaintext": "Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus was first described by Stolp and Petzold in 1962. In 2012 another member of the Bdellovibrio species was identified \"Bdellovibrio tiberius\" of the River tiber. This species is more capable of host-independent growth.",
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"plaintext": "Little is known of Bdellovibrio exovorus, an extra-parasitic bdellovibrio, which cannot enter its prey, and does not form Bdelloplasts.",
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"plaintext": "Under a light microscope, host-dependent Bdellovibrio appears to be a comma-shaped motile rod that is about 0.3–0.5 by 0.5–1.4µm in size with a barely discernible flagellum. Bdellovibrio show up as a growing clear plaque in an E.coli “lawn”. Notably, Bdellovibrio has a sheath that covers its flagellum – a rare feature for bacteria. Flagellar motion stops once Bdellovibrio has penetrated its prey, and the flagella is then shed.",
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"plaintext": "Host-independent Bdellovibrio appear amorphous, and larger than the predatory phase.",
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"plaintext": "B. bacteriovorus appears to be ubiquitous in nature and manmade habitats. They have been found in soil samples, rhizosphere of plant roots, rivers, oceans, sewage, intestines and feces of birds and mammals, and even in oyster shells and the gills of crabs. B. bacteriovorus are able to thrive in almost any habitat, the general requirements are that there needs to be oxygen and some other Gram-negative bacteria present in its environment. Its optimal temperature is between 28-30°C, making B.bacteriovorus a mesophile. Bdellovibrio is grown in the laboratory in its stationary HI (host-independent) phase at 29°C on yeast peptone broth agar. Host-dependent (predatory) cultures are grown with a population of E. coli S-17 at 29°C for 16hrs. They may also be cultured using YPSC (yeast extract, peptone, sodium acetate, calcium chloride) overlays or prey lysates.",
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"plaintext": "Bdellovibrio cells can swim as fast as 160µm/s, or over 100times their body-length per second. It swims using a single sheathed polar flagellum with a characteristic dampened filament waveform. Bdellovibrio attacks other Gram-negative bacteria by attaching itself to the prey cell's outer membrane and peptidoglycan layer, after which it creates a small hole in the outer membrane. The Bdellovibrio cell then enters the host periplasmic space. It remains reversibly attached to it for a short \"recognition\" period.",
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"plaintext": "After the recognition period, it becomes irreversibly attached via the pole opposite the flagellum. Once inside the periplasm, the Bdellovibrio cell seals the membrane hole and converts the host cell to a spherical morphology, this is due to secretion of L,D transpeptidases which breaks the peptidoglycan apart, and therefore causes the cell to become amorphous. The two-cell complex formed is called a bdelloplast. The Bdellovibrio cell uses hydrolytic enzymes to break down the host cell molecules, which it uses to grow filamentously. When the host cell nutrients are exhausted, the filament septates to form progeny Bdellovibrios. The progeny become motile before they lyse the host cell and are released into the environment. The entire life cycle takes three to four hours, and produces an average of 3–6progeny cells from a single E.coli, or up to 90 from larger prey such as filamentous E.coli.",
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"plaintext": "Targets of Bdellovibrio species, including Vibrio vulnificus, may undergo co-infection by Bdellovibrio and bacteriophage. Although the Bdellovibrio rounding of prey is thought to be evolved to reduce co-infection of multiple Bdellovibrio, larger prey that do not round may be infected by multiple Bdello's.",
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"plaintext": "The genome of Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus HD100 was sequenced in 2004. The HD100 genome is nucleotides long, larger than expected given its small size.",
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40,142 | 1,104,591,071 | Botulism | [
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"plaintext": "Botulism is a rare and potentially fatal illness caused by a toxin produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum. The disease begins with weakness, blurred vision, feeling tired, and trouble speaking. This may then be followed by weakness of the arms, chest muscles, and legs. Vomiting, swelling of the abdomen, and diarrhea may also occur. The disease does not usually affect consciousness or cause a fever.",
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"plaintext": "Botulism can be spread in several ways. The bacterial spores which cause it are common in both soil and water. They produce the botulinum toxin when exposed to low oxygen levels and certain temperatures. Foodborne botulism happens when food containing the toxin is eaten. Infant botulism happens when the bacteria develops in the intestines and releases the toxin. This typically only occurs in children less than six months old, as protective mechanisms develop after that time. Wound botulism is found most often among those who inject street drugs. In this situation, spores enter a wound, and in the absence of oxygen, release the toxin. It is not passed directly between people. The diagnosis is confirmed by finding the toxin or bacteria in the person in question.",
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"plaintext": "Prevention is primarily by proper food preparation. The bacteria, though not the spores, are destroyed by heating it to more than for longer than 5minutes. Honey can contain the organism, and for this reason, honey should not be fed to children under 12 months. Treatment is with an antitoxin. In those who lose their ability to breathe on their own, mechanical ventilation may be necessary for months. Antibiotics may be used for wound botulism. Death occurs in 5 to 10% of people. Botulism also affects many other animals. The word is from Latin , meaning sausage.",
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"plaintext": "The muscle weakness of botulism characteristically starts in the muscles supplied by the cranial nerves—a group of twelve nerves that control eye movements, the facial muscles and the muscles controlling chewing and swallowing. Double vision, drooping of both eyelids, loss of facial expression and swallowing problems may therefore occur. In addition to affecting the voluntary muscles, it can also cause disruptions in the autonomic nervous system. This is experienced as a dry mouth and throat (due to decreased production of saliva), postural hypotension (decreased blood pressure on standing, with resultant lightheadedness and risk of blackouts), and eventually constipation (due to decreased forward movement of intestinal contents). Some of the toxins (B and E) also precipitate nausea, vomiting, and difficulty with talking. The weakness then spreads to the arms (starting in the shoulders and proceeding to the forearms) and legs (again from the thighs down to the feet).",
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"plaintext": "Severe botulism leads to reduced movement of the muscles of respiration, and hence problems with gas exchange. This may be experienced as dyspnea (difficulty breathing), but when severe can lead to respiratory failure, due to the buildup of unexhaled carbon dioxide and its resultant depressant effect on the brain. This may lead to respiratory compromise and death if untreated.",
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"plaintext": "Clinicians frequently think of the symptoms of botulism in terms of a classic triad: bulbar palsy and descending paralysis, lack of fever, and clear senses and mental status (\"clear sensorium\").",
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"plaintext": "Infant botulism (also referred to as floppy baby syndrome) was first recognized in 1976, and is the most common form of botulism in the United States. Infants are susceptible to infant botulism in the first year of life, with more than 90% of cases occurring in infants younger than six months. Infant botulism results from the ingestion of the C. botulinum spores, and subsequent colonization of the small intestine. The infant gut may be colonized when the composition of the intestinal microflora (normal flora) is insufficient to competitively inhibit the growth of C. botulinum and levels of bile acids (which normally inhibit clostridial growth) are lower than later in life.",
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"plaintext": "The growth of the spores releases botulinum toxin, which is then absorbed into the bloodstream and taken throughout the body, causing paralysis by blocking the release of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction. Typical symptoms of infant botulism include constipation, lethargy, weakness, difficulty feeding, and an altered cry, often progressing to a complete descending flaccid paralysis. Although constipation is usually the first symptom of infant botulism, it is commonly overlooked.",
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"plaintext": "Honey is a known dietary reservoir of C. botulinum spores and has been linked to infant botulism. For this reason, honey is not recommended for infants less than one year of age. Most cases of infant botulism, however, are thought to be caused by acquiring the spores from the natural environment. Clostridium botulinum is a ubiquitous soil-dwelling bacterium. Many infant botulism patients have been demonstrated to live near a construction site or an area of soil disturbance.",
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"plaintext": "Infant botulism has been reported in 49 of 50 US states (all save for Rhode Island), and cases have been recognized in 26 countries on five continents.",
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"plaintext": "Infant botulism has no long-term side effects.",
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"plaintext": "Botulism can result in death due to respiratory failure. However, in the past 50 years, the proportion of patients with botulism who die has fallen from about 50% to 7% due to improved supportive care. A patient with severe botulism may require mechanical ventilation (breathing support through a ventilator) as well as intensive medical and nursing care, sometimes for several months. The person may require rehabilitation therapy after leaving the hospital.<ref>{{cite web |url=Clostridium Perfringens Food Poisoning |access-date=14 June 2016 |publisher=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |title=Clostridium perfringens |url-status=live |archive-url= |archive-date=16 June 2016 }}</ref>",
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"plaintext": "Clostridium botulinum is an anaerobic, Gram positive, spore-forming rod. Botulinum toxin is one of the most powerful known toxins: about one microgram is lethal to humans when inhaled. It acts by blocking nerve function (neuromuscular blockade) through inhibition of the excitatory neurotransmitter acetylcholine's release from the presynaptic membrane of neuromuscular junctions in the somatic nervous system. This causes paralysis. Advanced botulism can cause respiratory failure by paralysing the muscles of the chest; this can progress to respiratory arrest. Furthermore, acetylcholine release from the presynaptic membranes of muscarinic nerve synapses is blocked. This can lead to a variety of autonomic signs and symptoms described above.",
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"plaintext": "In all cases, illness is caused by the botulinum toxin produced by the bacterium C. botulinum in anaerobic conditions and not by the bacterium itself. The pattern of damage occurs because the toxin affects nerves that fire (depolarize) at a higher frequency first.",
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"plaintext": "Mechanisms of entry into the human body for botulinum toxin are described below.",
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"plaintext": "The most common form in Western countries is infant botulism. This occurs in infants who are colonized with the bacterium in the small intestine during the early stages of their lives. The bacterium then produces the toxin, which is absorbed into the bloodstream. The consumption of honey during the first year of life has been identified as a risk factor for infant botulism; it is a factor in a fifth of all cases. The adult form of infant botulism is termed adult intestinal toxemia, and is exceedingly rare.",
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"plaintext": "Toxin that is produced by the bacterium in containers of food that have been improperly preserved is the most common cause of food-borne botulism. Fish that has been pickled without the salinity or acidity of brine that contains acetic acid and high sodium levels, as well as smoked fish stored at too high a temperature, presents a risk, as does improperly canned food.",
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"plaintext": "Food-borne botulism results from contaminated food in which C. botulinum spores have been allowed to germinate in low-oxygen conditions. This typically occurs in improperly prepared home-canned food substances and fermented dishes without adequate salt or acidity. Given that multiple people often consume food from the same source, it is common for more than a single person to be affected simultaneously. Symptoms usually appear 12–36 hours after eating, but can also appear within 6 hours to 10 days.",
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"plaintext": "Wound botulism results from the contamination of a wound with the bacteria, which then secrete the toxin into the bloodstream. This has become more common in intravenous drug users since the 1990s, especially people using black tar heroin and those injecting heroin into the skin rather than the veins. Wound botulism accounts for 29% of cases.",
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"plaintext": "Isolated cases of botulism have been described after inhalation by laboratory workers.",
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"plaintext": "Symptoms of botulism may occur away from the injection site of botulinum toxin. This may include loss of strength, blurred vision, change of voice, or trouble breathing which can result in death. Onset can be hours to weeks after an injection. This generally only occurs with inappropriate strengths of botulinum toxin for cosmetic use or due to the larger doses used to treat movement disorders. Following a 2008 review the FDA added these concerns as a boxed warning.",
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"plaintext": "The toxin is the protein botulinum toxin produced under anaerobic conditions (where there is no oxygen) by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum.",
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"plaintext": "Clostridium botulinum is a large anaerobic Gram-positive bacillus that forms subterminal endospores.",
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"plaintext": "There are eight serological varieties of the bacterium denoted by the letters A to H. The toxin from all of these acts in the same way and produces similar symptoms: the motor nerve endings are prevented from releasing acetylcholine, causing flaccid paralysis and symptoms of blurred vision, ptosis, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea or constipation, cramps, and respiratory difficulty.",
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"plaintext": "Botulinum toxin is broken into eight neurotoxins (labeled as types A, B, C [C1, C2], D, E, F, and G), which are antigenically and serologically distinct but structurally similar. Human botulism is caused mainly by types A, B, E, and (rarely) F. Types C and D cause toxicity only in other animals.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2013, scientists released news of the discovery of type H, the first new botulism neurotoxin found in forty years. However, further studies showed type H to be a chimeric toxin composed of parts of types F and A (FA).",
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"plaintext": "Some types produce a characteristic putrefactive smell and digest meat (types A and some of B and F); these are said to be proteolytic; type E and some types of B, C, D and F are nonproteolytic and can go undetected because there is no strong odor associated with them.",
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"plaintext": "When the bacteria are under stress, they develop spores, which are inert. Their natural habitats are in the soil, in the silt that comprises the bottom sediment of streams, lakes, and coastal waters and ocean, while some types are natural inhabitants of the intestinal tracts of mammals (e.g., horses, cattle, humans), and are present in their excreta. The spores can survive in their inert form for many years.",
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"plaintext": "Toxin is produced by the bacteria when environmental conditions are favourable for the spores to replicate and grow, but the gene that encodes for the toxin protein is actually carried by a virus or phage that infects the bacteria. Unfortunately, little is known about the natural factors that control phage infection and replication within the bacteria.",
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"plaintext": "The spores require warm temperatures, a protein source, an anaerobic environment, and moisture in order to become active and produce toxin. In the wild, decomposing vegetation and invertebrates combined with warm temperatures can provide ideal conditions for the botulism bacteria to activate and produce toxin that may affect feeding birds and other animals. Spores are not killed by boiling, but botulism is uncommon because special, rarely obtained conditions are necessary for botulinum toxin production from C. botulinum spores, including an anaerobic, low-salt, low-acid, low-sugar environment at ambient temperatures.",
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"plaintext": "Botulinum inhibits the release within the nervous system of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter, responsible for communication between motor neurons and muscle cells. All forms of botulism lead to paralysis that typically starts with the muscles of the face and then spreads towards the limbs. In severe forms, botulism leads to paralysis of the breathing muscles and causes respiratory failure. In light of this life-threatening complication, all suspected cases of botulism are treated as medical emergencies, and public health officials are usually involved to identify the source and take steps to prevent further cases from occurring.",
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"plaintext": "Botulinum toxin A, C, and E cleave the SNAP-25, ultimately leading to paralysis.",
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"plaintext": "For botulism in babies, diagnosis should be made on signs and symptoms. Confirmation of the diagnosis is made by testing of a stool or enema specimen with the mouse bioassay.",
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"plaintext": "In people whose history and physical examination suggest botulism, these clues are often not enough to allow a diagnosis. Other diseases such as Guillain–Barré syndrome, stroke, and myasthenia gravis can appear similar to botulism, and special tests may be needed to exclude these other conditions. These tests may include a brain scan, cerebrospinal fluid examination, nerve conduction test (electromyography, or EMG), and an edrophonium chloride (Tensilon) test for myasthenia gravis. A definite diagnosis can be made if botulinum toxin is identified in the food, stomach or intestinal contents, vomit or feces. The toxin is occasionally found in the blood in peracute cases. Botulinum toxin can be detected by a variety of techniques, including enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs), electrochemiluminescent (ECL) tests and mouse inoculation or feeding trials. The toxins can be typed with neutralization tests in mice. In toxicoinfectious botulism, the organism can be cultured from tissues. On egg yolk medium, toxin-producing colonies usually display surface iridescence that extends beyond the colony.",
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"plaintext": "Although the vegetative form of the bacteria is destroyed by boiling, the spore itself is not killed by the temperatures reached with normal sea-level-pressure boiling, leaving it free to grow and again produce the toxin when conditions are right.",
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"plaintext": "A recommended prevention measure for infant botulism is to avoid giving honey to infants less than 12 months of age, as botulinum spores are often present. In older children and adults the normal intestinal bacteria suppress development of C. botulinum.",
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"plaintext": "While commercially canned goods are required to undergo a \"botulinum cook\" in a pressure cooker at for 3 minutes, and thus rarely cause botulism, there have been notable exceptions. Two were the 1978 Alaskan salmon outbreak and the 2007 Castleberry's Food Company outbreak. Foodborne botulism is the rarest form though, accounting for only around 15% of cases (US) and has more frequently been from home-canned foods with low acid content, such as carrot juice, asparagus, green beans, beets, and corn. However, outbreaks of botulism have resulted from more unusual sources. In July 2002, fourteen Alaskans ate muktuk (whale meat) from a beached whale, and eight of them developed symptoms of botulism, two of them requiring mechanical ventilation.",
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"plaintext": "Other, much rarer sources of infection (about every decade in the US) include garlic or herbs stored covered in oil without acidification, chili peppers, improperly handled baked potatoes wrapped in aluminum foil, tomatoes, and home-canned or fermented fish.",
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"plaintext": "When canning or preserving food at home, attention should be paid to hygiene, pressure, temperature, refrigeration and storage. When making home preserves, only acidic fruit such as apples, pears, stone fruits and berries should be used. Tropical fruit and tomatoes are low in acidity and must have some acidity added before they are canned.",
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"plaintext": "Low-acid foods have pH values higher than 4.6. They include red meats, seafood, poultry, milk, and all fresh vegetables except for most tomatoes. Most mixtures of low-acid and acid foods also have pH values above 4.6 unless their recipes include enough lemon juice, citric acid, or vinegar to make them acidic. Acid foods have a pH of 4.6 or lower. They include fruits, pickles, sauerkraut, jams, jellies, marmalades, and fruit butters.",
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"plaintext": "Although tomatoes usually are considered an acid food, some are now known to have pH values slightly above 4.6. Figs also have pH values slightly above 4.6. Therefore, if they are to be canned as acid foods, these products must be acidified to a pH of 4.6 or lower with lemon juice or citric acid. Properly acidified tomatoes and figs are acid foods and can be safely processed in a boiling-water canner.",
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"plaintext": "Oils infused with fresh garlic or herbs should be acidified and refrigerated. Potatoes which have been baked while wrapped in aluminum foil should be kept hot until served or refrigerated. Because the botulism toxin is destroyed by high temperatures, home-canned foods are best boiled for 10 minutes before eating. Metal cans containing food in which bacteria are growing may bulge outwards due to gas production from bacterial growth or the food inside may be foamy or have a bad odor; such cans with any of these signs should be discarded.",
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"plaintext": "Any container of food which has been heat-treated and then assumed to be airtight which shows signs of not being so, e.g., metal cans with pinprick holes from rust or mechanical damage, should be discarded. Contamination of a canned food solely with C. botulinum may not cause any visual defects to the container, such as bulging. Only assurance of sufficient thermal processing during production, and absence of a route for subsequent contamination, should be used as indicators of food safety.",
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"plaintext": "The addition of nitrites and nitrates to processed meats such as ham, bacon, and sausages reduces growth and toxin production of C. botulinum.",
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"plaintext": "Vaccines are under development, but they have disadvantages, and in some cases there are concerns that they may revert to dangerous native activity. As of 2017 work to develop a better vaccine was being carried out, but the US FDA had not approved any vaccine against botulism.",
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"plaintext": "Botulism is generally treated with botulism antitoxin and supportive care.",
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"plaintext": "Supportive care for botulism includes monitoring of respiratory function. Respiratory failure due to paralysis may require mechanical ventilation for 2 to 8 weeks, plus intensive medical and nursing care. After this time, paralysis generally improves as new neuromuscular connections are formed.",
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"plaintext": "In some abdominal cases, physicians may try to remove contaminated food still in the digestive tract by inducing vomiting or using enemas. Wounds should be treated, usually surgically, to remove the source of the toxin-producing bacteria.",
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"plaintext": "Botulinum antitoxin consists of antibodies that neutralize botulinum toxin in the circulatory system by passive immunization. This prevents additional toxin from binding to the neuromuscular junction, but does not reverse any already inflicted paralysis.",
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"plaintext": "In adults, a trivalent antitoxin containing antibodies raised against botulinum toxin types A, B, and E is used most commonly; however, a heptavalent botulism antitoxin has also been developed and was approved by the U.S. FDA in 2013. In infants, horse-derived antitoxin is sometimes avoided for fear of infants developing serum sickness or lasting hypersensitivity to horse-derived proteins. To avoid this, a human-derived antitoxin has been developed and approved by the U.S. FDA in 2003 for the treatment of infant botulism. This human-derived antitoxin has been shown to be both safe and effective for the treatment of infant botulism. However, the danger of equine-derived antitoxin to infants has not been clearly established, and one study showed the equine-derived antitoxin to be both safe and effective for the treatment of infant botulism.",
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"plaintext": "Trivalent (A,B,E) botulinum antitoxin is derived from equine sources utilizing whole antibodies (Fab and Fc portions). In the United States, this antitoxin is available from the local health department via the CDC. The second antitoxin, heptavalent (A,B,C,D,E,F,G) botulinum antitoxin, is derived from \"despeciated\" equine IgG antibodies which have had the Fc portion cleaved off leaving the F(ab')2 portions. This less immunogenic antitoxin is effective against all known strains of botulism where not contraindicated.",
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"plaintext": "The paralysis caused by botulism can persist for 2 to 8 weeks, during which supportive care and ventilation may be necessary to keep the person alive. Botulism can be fatal in 5% to 10% of people who are affected. However, if left untreated, botulism is fatal in 40% to 50% of cases.",
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"plaintext": "Infant botulism typically has no long-term side effects but can be complicated by treatment-associated adverse events. The case fatality rate is less than 2% for hospitalized babies.",
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"plaintext": "Globally, botulism is fairly rare, with approximately 1,000 identified cases yearly.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States an average of 145 cases are reported each year. Of these, roughly 65% are infant botulism, 20% are wound botulism, and 15% are foodborne. Infant botulism is predominantly sporadic and not associated with epidemics, but great geographic variability exists. From 1974 to 1996, for example, 47% of all infant botulism cases reported in the U.S. occurred in California.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1990 and 2000, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported 263 individual foodborne cases from 160 botulism events in the United States with a case-fatality rate of 4%. Thirty-nine percent (103 cases and 58 events) occurred in Alaska, all of which were attributable to traditional Alaska aboriginal foods. In the lower 49 states, home-canned food was implicated in 70 events (~69%) with canned asparagus being the most frequent cause. Two restaurant-associated outbreaks affected 25 people. The median number of cases per year was 23 (range 17–43), the median number of events per year was 14 (range 9–24). The highest incidence rates occurred in Alaska, Idaho, Washington, and Oregon. All other states had an incidence rate of 1 case per ten million people or less.",
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"plaintext": "The number of cases of food borne and infant botulism has changed little in recent years, but wound botulism has increased because of the use of black tar heroin, especially in California.",
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"plaintext": "All data regarding botulism antitoxin releases and laboratory confirmation of cases in the US are recorded annually by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and published on their website.",
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"plaintext": " On 2 July 1971, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) released a public warning after learning that a New York man had died and his wife had become seriously ill due to botulism after eating a can of Bon Vivant vichyssoise soup.",
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"plaintext": " Between 31 March and 6 April 1977, 59 individuals developed type B botulism. All who fell ill had eaten at the same Mexican restaurant in Pontiac, Michigan, and had consumed a hot sauce made with improperly home-canned jalapeño peppers, either by adding it to their food, or by eating nachos that had been prepared with the hot sauce. The full clinical spectrum (mild symptomatology with neurologic findings through life-threatening ventilatory paralysis) of type B botulism was documented.",
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"plaintext": " In April 1994, the largest outbreak of botulism in the United States since 1978 occurred in El Paso, Texas. Thirty people were affected; 4 required mechanical ventilation. All ate food from a Greek restaurant. The attack rate among people who ate a potato-based dip was 86% (19/22) compared with 6% (11/176) among people who did not eat the dip (relative risk [RR] = 13.8; 95% confidence interval [CI], 7.6–25.1). The attack rate among people who ate an eggplant-based dip was 67% (6/9) compared with 13% (24/189) among people who did not (RR = 5.2; 95% CI, 2.9–9.5). Botulism toxin type A was detected in patients and in both dips. Toxin formation resulted from holding aluminum foil-wrapped baked potatoes at room temperature, apparently for several days, before they were used in the dips. Food handlers should be informed of the potential hazards caused by holding foil-wrapped potatoes at ambient temperatures after cooking.",
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"plaintext": " In 2002, fourteen Alaskans ate muktuk (whale blubber) from a beached whale, resulting in eight of them developing botulism, with two of the affected requiring mechanical ventilation.",
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"plaintext": " Beginning in late June 2007, 8 people contracted botulism poisoning by eating canned food products produced by Castleberry's Food Company in its Augusta, Georgia plant. It was later identified that the Castleberry's plant had serious production problems on a specific line of retorts that had under-processed the cans of food. These issues included broken cooking alarms, leaking water valves and inaccurate temperature devices, all the result of poor management of the company. All of the victims were hospitalized and placed on mechanical ventilation. The Castleberry's Food Company outbreak was the first instance of botulism in commercial canned foods in the United States in over 30 years.",
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"plaintext": " One person died, 21 cases were confirmed, and 10 more were suspected in Lancaster, Ohio when a botulism outbreak occurred after a church potluck in April 2015. The suspected source was a salad made from home-canned potatoes.",
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"plaintext": " A botulism outbreak occurred in Northern California in May 2017 after 10 people consumed nacho cheese dip served at a gas station in Sacramento County. One man died as a result of the outbreak.",
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"plaintext": "The largest recorded outbreak of foodborne botulism in the United Kingdom occurred in June 1989. A total of 27 patients were affected; one patient died. Twenty-five of the patients had eaten one brand of hazelnut yogurt in the week before the onset of symptoms. Control measures included the cessation of all yogurt production by the implicated producer, the withdrawal of the firm's yogurts from sale, the recall of cans of the hazelnut conserve, and advice to the general public to avoid the consumption of all hazelnut yogurts.",
"section_idx": 8,
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"plaintext": "From 1958 to 1983 there were 986 outbreaks of botulism in China involving 4,377 people with 548 deaths.",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "After the Chinese Communist Revolution in 1949, a mysterious plague (named Qapqal disease) was noticed to be affecting several Sibe villages in Qapqal Xibe Autonomous County. It was endemic with distinctive epidemic patterns, yet the underlying cause remained unknown for a long period of time. It caused a number of deaths and forced some people to leave the place.",
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"plaintext": "In 1958, a team of experts were sent to the area by the Ministry of Health to investigate the cases. The epidemic survey conducted proved that the disease was primarily type A botulism, with several cases of type B. The team also discovered that, the source of the botulinum was local fermented grain and beans, as well as a raw meat food called mi song hu hu. They promoted the improvement of fermentation techniques among local residents, and thus eliminated the disease.",
"section_idx": 8,
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"plaintext": "From 1985 to 2015 there were outbreaks causing 91 confirmed cases of foodborne botulism in Canada, 85% of which were in Inuit communities, especially Nunavik, as well as First Nations of the coast of British Columbia, following consumption of traditionally prepared marine mammal and fish products.",
"section_idx": 8,
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"plaintext": "In 2017, there were 70 cases of botulism with 8 deaths in Ukraine. The previous year there were 115 cases with 12 deaths. Most cases were the result of dried fish, a common local drinking snack.",
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"plaintext": "In 2020, several cases of botulism were reported in Vietnam. All of them were related to a product containing contaminated vegetarian pâté. Some patients were put on life support.",
"section_idx": 8,
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"plaintext": "Botulism can occur in many vertebrates and invertebrates. Botulism has been reported in such species as rats, mice, chicken, frogs, toads, goldfish, aplysia, squid, crayfish, drosophila and leeches.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Other susceptible species",
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"plaintext": "Death from botulism is common in waterfowl; an estimated 10,000 to 100,000 birds die of botulism annually. The disease is commonly called \"limberneck\". In some large outbreaks, a million or more birds may die. Ducks appear to be affected most often. An enzootic form of duck botulism in the Western USA and Canada is known as \"western duck sickness\". Botulism also affects commercially raised poultry. In chickens, the mortality rate varies from a few birds to 40% of the flock.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Other susceptible species",
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"plaintext": "Botulism seems to be relatively uncommon in domestic mammals; however, in some parts of the world, epidemics with up to 65% mortality are seen in cattle. The prognosis is poor in large animals that are recumbent.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Other susceptible species",
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"plaintext": "In cattle, the symptoms may include drooling, restlessness, uncoordination, urine retention, dysphagia, and sternal recumbency. Laterally recumbent animals are usually very close to death. In sheep, the symptoms may include drooling, a serous nasal discharge, stiffness, and incoordination. Abdominal respiration may be observed and the tail may switch on the side. As the disease progresses, the limbs may become paralyzed and death may occur.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Other susceptible species",
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"plaintext": "Phosphorus-deficient cattle, especially in southern Africa, are inclined to ingest bones and carrion containing clostridial toxins and consequently develop lame sickness or lamsiekte.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Other susceptible species",
"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": "The clinical signs in horses are similar to cattle. The muscle paralysis is progressive; it usually begins at the hindquarters and gradually moves to the front limbs, neck, and head. Death generally occurs 24 to 72 hours after initial symptoms and results from respiratory paralysis. Some foals are found dead without other clinical signs.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Other susceptible species",
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{
"plaintext": "Clostridium botulinum'' type C toxin has been incriminated as the cause of grass sickness, a condition in horses which occurs in rainy and hot summers in Northern Europe. The main symptom is pharynx paralysis.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Other susceptible species",
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"plaintext": "Domestic dogs may develop systemic toxemia after consuming C. botulinum type C exotoxin or spores within bird carcasses or other infected meat but are generally resistant to the more severe effects of Clostridium botulinum type C. Symptoms include flaccid muscle paralysis, which can lead to death due to cardiac and respiratory arrest.",
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"plaintext": "Pigs are relatively resistant to botulism. Reported symptoms include anorexia, refusal to drink, vomiting, pupillary dilation, and muscle paralysis.",
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},
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"plaintext": "In poultry and wild birds, flaccid paralysis is usually seen in the legs, wings, neck and eyelids. Broiler chickens with the toxicoinfectious form may also have diarrhea with excess urates.",
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"plaintext": " Botulism in the United States, 1889–1996. Handbook for Epidemiologists, Clinicians and Laboratory Technicians. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Infectious Diseases, Division of Bacterial and Mycotic Diseases 1998.",
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"plaintext": " NHS choices",
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"plaintext": " CDC Botulism: Control Measures Overview for Clinicians",
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"plaintext": " CDC Botulism FAQ",
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"plaintext": " FDA Clostridium botulinum Bad Bug Book",
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"plaintext": " USGS Avian Botulism ",
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"Biological_weapons",
"Conditions_diagnosed_by_stool_test",
"Foodborne_illnesses",
"Myoneural_junction_and_neuromuscular_diseases",
"Poultry_diseases",
"Wikipedia_infectious_disease_articles_ready_to_translate",
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"Food poisoning due to Clostridium botulinum",
"Foodborne botulism",
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"Intoxication with Clostridium botulinum toxin",
"Wound botulism (subtype)",
"Infant botulism (subtype)",
"Botulism",
"Foodborne botulism (subtype)"
] |
40,145 | 1,106,092,746 | Witan | [
{
"plaintext": "The Witan, literally \"wise men\", was the king's council in Anglo-Saxon England from before the seventh century until the 11th century. It was composed of the leading magnates, both ecclesiastic and secular, and meetings of the council were sometimes called the Witenagemot. Its primary function was to advise the king on subjects such as promulgation of laws, judicial judgments, approval of charters transferring land, settlement of disputes, election of archbishops and bishops and other matters of major national importance. The witan also had to elect and approve the appointment of a new king. Its membership was composed of the most important noblemen, including ealdormen, thegns, and senior clergy.",
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"plaintext": "The terms and are increasingly avoided by modern historians, although few would go as far as Geoffrey Hindley, who described as an \"essentially Victorian\" coinage. The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England prefers 'King's Council', but adds that it was known in Old English as the . John Maddicott regarded the word with suspicion, even though it is used in sources such as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle:",
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"plaintext": "For these reasons, in his study of the origins of the English parliament, he generally preferred the more neutral word 'assembly'. He described as a rare 11th century usage, with only nine pre-Conquest examples, mainly in the crisis of 1051–52. Patrick Wormald was also sceptical, describing as \"a word always rare and unattested before 1035\".",
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"plaintext": "Henrietta Leyser commented in 2017 that for decades historians avoided using the word 'witan' for assemblies in case they were interpreted as proto-parliaments, and she went on: \"Recent historiography, however, has reintroduced the term since it is clear that it was generally accepted that certain kinds of business could only be transacted with a substantial number of the king's wise men, in other words, in the company of his 'witan'\" She does not mention the term witanagemot.",
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"plaintext": "It is generally accepted that the English witenagemot had its origins in ancient Germanic assemblies summoned to witness royal grants of land. Yet whatever their status in the fourth and fifth centuries, the nature of these assemblies in England was irrevocably changed when Christianity was introduced, circa A.D.600. Hereafter, church and state were \"inseparably intertwined,\" and this was reflected in the strong ecclesiastical element in the witan's membership and concerns; records of decisions made by witan encompass ecclesiastical and secular jurisdictions alike.",
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"section_name": "Origin",
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"plaintext": "Anglo-Saxon society was based on reciprocal arrangements between the king and all those lower in the societal order. The principal conflicts of this period, such as the Norse invasions and the Norman Conquest, all relied on troops raised by kings from ealdormen and thegns from whom they had received sworn fealty. As in later medieval times, kings offered land in this era in exchange for military support in times of war, and thus holding regular royal councils was means of ensuring nobles held input and viewpoints into defence needs, and legislative planning and feasibility when demanded. The Chronicles state that various kings of the period, during the Heptarchy and the later united England, consulted their nobles and senior clergy to witness charters and collectively form laws for the common good. This is most noted, perhaps, by the Chronicles concerning Offa of Mercia and Alfred the Great of Wessex respectively, and Æthelstan, Eadred, Edgar the Peaceful, Æthelred the Unready, and Cnut the Great, of the eventual sole Kingdom of the English. The Chronicles in many instances cite numerous Witans that were held for the aforementioned purposes, and by the aforecited monarchs of the period. The purpose of the Witan, therefore, was to ensure that those who were responsible for fighting wars, and implementing laws (more so in the case of ealdormen who held administrative control over counties and major towns/cities), could not only offer input but also forestall any potential rebellion from a lack of inclusion in this process.",
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"plaintext": "The exact nature of the witenagemot, however, remains \"essentially vague, fluctuating, and incoherent.\" Nevertheless, there is much direct evidence of the witan's various activities. Knowledge about who made up the witan and who was present at their meetings is provided mainly by lists of witnesses to charters, or grants of land, which were concocted at the witenagemots. Reference to the witan's acta or official decisions are also preserved in law codes.",
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"plaintext": "The first recorded act of a witenagemot was the law code issued by King Æthelberht of Kent ca. A.D. 600, the earliest document which survives in sustained Old English prose; however, the witan was certainly in existence long before this time. Altogether, about 2,000 charters and 40 law codes survive which attest to the workings of the various meetings of the witan, of which there are around 300 recorded.",
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"plaintext": "These documents clearly indicate that the witan was composed of the nation's highest echelon of both ecclesiastical and secular officers. Present on the ecclesiastical side were archbishops, bishops, and abbots, and occasionally also abbesses and priests; on the secular side ealdormen (or eorls in the latter centuries) and thegns. Members of the royal family were also present, and the king presided over the entire body.",
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"plaintext": "In his investigation into Anglo-Saxon institutions, H. M. Chadwick wrote: I have not thought it necessary to discuss at length the nature of the powers possessed by the council [i.e., the witenagemot], for… there can be little hope of arriving at any definite conclusions on this subject. Indeed it seems at least doubtful whether the functions of the council were ever properly defined.",
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"plaintext": "Similarly, in his study of the witenagemots, Felix Liebermann stated that \"its functions and power differ… considerably at various times.\" Still, he was able to give a relatively detailed description of its constitution:From the time of Ine the Witan was composed of the aristocratic élite created by monarchy. The king, generally indeed advised by the existing nobility, conferred prelatures and ealdormanries, with both of which a seat in the national assembly [i.e., the witenagemot] was legally or practically connected. Members of the royal family, ladies not excepted, were present at many gemots. The king alone raised a man to the position of a gesith, a thane, a provincial or local reeve, a court officer or a royal chaplain, one of which titles seems to have been the indispensable qualification for a vote… as no periodicity of the assembly was fixed, the king determined when and where it was to meet, for the most part choosing places under his immediate control; he presided, spoke first, put his questions, proposed his bills of proposed laws, and finally dismissed the witan.",
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"plaintext": "The witan was noted by contemporary sources as having the singular power to ceosan to cyninge, 'to choose the king' from amongst the (extended) royal family. Nevertheless, at least until the 11th century, royal succession generally followed the \"ordinary system of primogeniture.\" The historian Chadwick interpreted these facts as proof that the so-called election of the king by the witan merely amounted to formal recognition of the deceased king's natural successor. But Liebermann was generally less willing than Chadwick to see the witan's significance as buried under the weight of the royal prerogative:The influence of the king, or at least of kingship, on the constitution of the assembly seems, therefore, to have been immense. But on the other hand he (the king) was elected by the witan… He could not depose the prelates or ealdormen, who held their office for life, nor indeed the hereditary thanes… At any rate, the king had to get on with the highest statesmen appointed by his predecessor, though possibly disliked by him, until death made a post vacant that he could fill with a relation or a favourite, not, however, without having a certain regard to the wishes of the aristocracy.",
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"plaintext": "Liebermann's more subtle position seems to be vindicated by testimony from abbot Ælfric of Eynsham, the leading homilist of the late tenth century, who wrote:No man can make himself king, but the people has the choice to choose as king whom they please; but after he is consecrated as king, he then has dominion over the people, and they cannot shake his yoke off their necks.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to having a role in the 'election' of English Kings, it is often held that the witenagemots had the power to depose an unpopular king. However, there are only two occasions when this probably happened, in 757 and 774 with the depositions of kings Sigeberht of Wessex and Alhred of Northumbria respectively.",
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"plaintext": "The witan's powers are illustrated by the following event. In the year 1013 King Æthelred II ( Æthelred the Unready) fled the country from Sweyn Forkbeard, who then had the witan proclaim him king. Within a few weeks, however, Sweyn died and Æthelred was called back to England by the witan. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the witan would only receive him back under the condition that he promise to rule better than he had. Æthelred did so, and was reinstated as King of England. His nickname of the 'Unræd' or 'Unready' means ill-advised, indicating that contemporaries regarded those who sat in the witan as part responsible for the failure of his reign.",
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"plaintext": "Though in general the witan were recognized as the king's closest advisors and policy-makers, various witan also operated in other capacities; there are mentions of þeodwitan, 'people's witan', Angolcynnes witan, 'England's witan', and an Anglo-Saxon and Archbishop of York, Wulfstan II, wrote that \"it is incumbent on bishops, that venerable witan always travel with them, and dwell with them, at least of the priesthood; and that they may consult with them… and who may be their counsellors at every time.\"",
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"plaintext": "Even when summoned explicitly by kings, the witenagemots did not represent the political will of all England: before the unification of England in the tenth century, separate witenagemots were convened by the Kings of Essex, Kent, Mercia, Northumbria, Sussex and Wessex. Indeed, even after Wessex became the dominant power in England, supplanting the other kingdoms, local witan continued to meet until as late as 1067. In his work on Alfred the Great, historian David Sturdy argues that the witan did not embody modern notions of a 'national institution' or a 'democratic' body: \"Victorian notions of a national 'witan' are crazy dreams without foundation, myths of a 'democratic parliament' that never was\".",
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"plaintext": "Witan would advise on the administration and organization of the kingdom, dealing with issues such as taxation, jurisprudence and both internal and external security. The witenagemot was in many ways different from the future institution of the Parliament of England; it had substantially different powers and some major limitations, such as a lack of a fixed procedure, schedule, or meeting place. The witan could seek to prevent autocracy and carry on government during interregnums, but ultimately the witenagemot answered to the king. It only assembled when he summoned it, and its assembling without his approval could be considered treason. The witenagemot was more an advisory council. In some cases, weak kings (such as Ethelred the Unready) were dependent on the witenagemot, while others used it as simply a group of advisers.",
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"plaintext": "Though no set date was ever in use, witenagemots met at least once a year, and commonly more often. There was no single seat of a witenagemot, it being held where the king was, who typically had no single fixed court either. Witenagemots are known to have met in at least 116 locations, including Amesbury, Calne, Cheddar, Gloucester, London and Winchester. The meeting places were often on royal estates, but some witenagemots were convened in the open at prominent rocks, hills, meadows and famous trees.",
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},
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"plaintext": "This arrangement ended after the Norman invasion of England in 1066 when William I of England replaced the witenagemot with the curia regis, or king's court. However, in a sign of the witenagemot's enduring legacy, the curia regis continued to be dubbed a \"witan\" by chroniclers until as late as the 12th century.",
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"plaintext": "The \"Saxon myth\" claimed that the old Saxon Witan originated in a representative assembly of English landholders. The claim was that the original assembly was then subsequently disbanded by the Norman invaders and later reappeared as the Parliament of England. This idea was held across the Thirteen Colonies in North America in the years prior to the American Revolution (1776–1783). Among the believers were Americans including Thomas Jefferson and Jonathan Mayhew.",
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"plaintext": "The Wizengamot, a fictional organisation in the Harry Potter series of books written by J.K. Rowling, is a combination of the words 'Witenagemot' and 'wizard'. In the books the Wizengamot is a wizard council and court, of which Albus Dumbledore is a senior warlock. He is temporarily thrown out when he speaks of Voldemort's return.",
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"plaintext": "The television series The Last Kingdom regularly features Witan gatherings in ninth century England.",
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"plaintext": "The television series Vikings features the Witan.",
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},
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"plaintext": "Councils of Clovesho",
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"plaintext": "Elective monarchy",
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"plaintext": "Kurultai",
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"plaintext": "Loya Jirga, a similar concept from Afghanistan",
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"plaintext": "Majlis",
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"plaintext": "Panchayati Raj",
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"plaintext": "Thing (assembly)",
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"plaintext": " Hodgkin, Thomas, The History of England from the Earliest Times to the Norman Conquest (New York, 1906; repr. New York 1969)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Hollister, C. Warren. The Making of England, 55 B.C. to 1399 (7th ed. 1995) ch 3",
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},
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"plaintext": " Whitelock, Dorothy, Review of The Witenagemot in the Reign of Edward the Confessor by Tryggvi J. Oleson, The English Historical Review 71 (1956): 640–42.",
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] | [
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"Anglo-Saxon_society",
"Historical_legislatures",
"Succession_to_the_British_crown"
] | 497,578 | 4,058 | 148 | 94 | 0 | 0 | Witenagemot | historical legislature | [
"Witan"
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40,147 | 1,107,435,208 | Divorce | [
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"plaintext": "Divorce (also known as dissolution of marriage) is the process of terminating a marriage or marital union. Divorce usually entails the canceling or reorganizing of the legal duties and responsibilities of marriage, thus dissolving the bonds of matrimony between a married couple under the rule of law of the particular country or state. Divorce laws vary considerably around the world, but in most countries, divorce requires the sanction of a court or other authority in a legal process, which may involve issues of distribution of property, child custody, alimony (spousal support), child visitation / access, parenting time, child support, and division of debt. In most countries, monogamy is required by law, so divorce allows each former partner to marry another person.",
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"plaintext": "Divorce is different from annulment, which declares the marriage null and void, with legal separation or de jure separation (a legal process by which a married couple may formalize a de facto separation while remaining legally married) or with de facto separation (a process where the spouses informally stop cohabiting). Reasons for divorce vary, from sexual incompatibility or lack of independence for one or both spouses to a personality clash to infidelity.",
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"plaintext": "The only countries that do not allow divorce are the Philippines and the Vatican City. In the Philippines, divorce for non-Muslim Filipinos is not legal unless the husband or wife is an undocumented immigrant and satisfies certain conditions. The Vatican City is a state ruled by the head of the Catholic Church, a religion that does not allow for divorce. Countries that have relatively recently legalized divorce are Italy (1970), Portugal (1975, although from 1910 to 1940 it was possible both for the civil and religious marriage), Brazil (1977), Spain (1981), Argentina (1987), Paraguay (1991), Colombia (1991; from 1976 was allowed only for non-Catholics), Andorra (1995), Ireland (1996), Chile (2004) and Malta (2011).",
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"plaintext": "Grounds for divorce vary widely from country to country. Marriage may be seen as a contract, a status, or a combination of these. Where it is seen as a contract, the refusal or inability of one spouse to perform the obligations stipulated in the contract may constitute a ground for divorce for the other spouse. In contrast, in some countries (such as Sweden, Finland, Australia, New Zealand), divorce is purely no fault. This means it does not matter what the reasons are that a party or parties want to separate. They can separate of their own free will without having to prove someone is at fault for the divorce. Many jurisdictions offer both the option of a no fault divorce as well as an at fault divorce. This is the case, for example, in many US states (see Grounds for divorce (United States)) or the Czech Republic.",
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"plaintext": "Though divorce laws vary between jurisdictions, there are two basic approaches to divorce: fault based and no-fault based. However, even in some jurisdictions that do not require a party to claim fault of their partner, a court may still take into account the behavior of the parties when dividing property, debts, evaluating custody, shared care arrangements and support. In some jurisdictions, one spouse may be forced to pay the attorney's fees of another spouse.",
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"plaintext": "Laws vary as to the waiting period before a divorce is effective. Also, residency requirements vary. However, issues of division of property are typically determined by the law of the jurisdiction in which the property is located.",
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"plaintext": "In Europe, divorce laws differ from country to country, reflecting differing legal and cultural traditions. In some countries, particularly (but not only) in some former communist countries, divorce can be obtained only on one single general ground of \"irretrievable breakdown of the marriage\" (or a similar formulation). Yet, what constitutes such a \"breakdown\" of the marriage is interpreted very differently from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, ranging from very liberal interpretations (e.g. Netherlands) to quite restrictive ones (e.g., in Poland, there must be an \"irretrievable and complete disintegration of matrimonial life\", but there are many restrictions to granting a divorce). Separation constitutes a ground of divorce in some European countries (in Germany, e.g., a divorce is granted on the basis of a 1-year separation if both spouses consent, or 3-year separation if only one spouse consents). Note that \"separation\" does not necessarily mean separate residences – in some jurisdictions, living in the same household but leading a separate life (e.g., eating, sleeping, socializing, etc. separately) is sufficient to constitute de facto separation; this is explicitly stated, e.g., in the family laws of Latvia or the Czech Republic.",
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"plaintext": "Divorce laws are not static; they often change reflecting evolving social norms of societies. In the 21st century, many European countries have made changes to their divorce laws, in particular by reducing the length of the necessary periods of separation, e.g., Scotland in 2006 (1 or 2 years from the previous 2 or 5 years); France in 2005 (2 years from the previous 6 years), Switzerland in 2005 (2 years from the previous 4 years), Greece in 2008 (2 years from the previous 4 years). Some countries have completely overhauled their divorce laws, such as Spain in 2005, and Portugal in 2008. A new divorce law also came into force in September 2007 in Belgium, creating a new system that is primarily no-fault. Bulgaria also modified its divorce regulations in 2009. Also in Italy, new laws came into force in 2014 and 2015 with significant changes in Italian law in matter of divorce: apart from shortening of the period of obligatory separation (6 months for consensual separations and 1 year for contested ones from the previous 3 years), are allowed other forms of getting a divorce – as an alternative to court proceedings, i.e. the negotiations with the participation of an advocate or agreement made before the registrar of Public Registry Office. Austria by contrast is a European country where the divorce law still remains conservative.",
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"plaintext": "The liberalization of divorce laws is not without opposition, particularly in the United States. Indeed, in the US, certain conservative and religious organizations are lobbying for laws which restrict divorce. In 2011, in the US, the Coalition for Divorce Reform was established, describing itself as an organization \"dedicated to supporting efforts to reduce unnecessary divorce and promote healthy marriages\".",
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"plaintext": "The magisterium of the Roman Catholic Church founds the concept of marriage on natural moral law, elaborated by St. Thomas Aquinas, supplemented by the revealed Divine law. The doctrine of the Doctor Angelicus has been partially shared by the Eastern Orthodox Church in the course of history.",
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"plaintext": "In some jurisdictions, the courts will seldom apply principles of fault, but might willingly hold a party liable for a breach of a fiduciary duty to his or her spouse (for example, see Family Code Sections 720 and 1100 of the California Family Code). Grounds for divorce differs from state to state in the U.S. Some states have no-fault divorce; some states require a declaration of fault on the part of one partner or both; some states allow either method.",
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"plaintext": "In most jurisdictions, a divorce must be certified (or ordered by a Judge) by a court of law to come into effect. The terms of the divorce are usually determined by the courts, though they may take into account prenuptial agreements or post-nuptial agreements, or ratify terms that the spouses may have agreed to privately (this is not true in the United States, where agreements related to the marriage typically have to be rendered in writing to be enforceable). In the absence of agreement, a contested divorce may be stressful to the spouses.",
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"plaintext": "In some other countries, when the spouses agree to divorce and to the terms of the divorce, it can be certified by a non-judiciary administrative entity. The effect of a divorce is that both parties are free to marry again if a filing in an appellate court does not overturn the decision.",
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"plaintext": "Contested divorces mean that one of several issues are required to be heard by a judge at trial level—this is more expensive, and the parties will have to pay for a lawyer's time and preparation. In such a divorce the spouses are not able to agree on issues for instance child custody and division of marital assets. In such situations, the litigation process takes longer to conclude. The judge controls the outcome of the case. Less adversarial approaches to divorce settlements have recently emerged, such as mediation and collaborative divorce settlement, which negotiate mutually acceptable resolution to conflicts. This principle in the United States is called 'Alternative Dispute Resolution' and has gained popularity.",
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"plaintext": "Before the late 1960s, nearly all countries that permitted divorce required proof by one party that the other party had committed an act incompatible with the marriage. This was termed \"grounds\" for divorce (popularly called \"fault\") and was the only way to terminate a marriage. In the United States, no-fault divorce is available in all 50 states, as is the case with Australia, New Zealand, Canada and other Western countries.",
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"plaintext": "Fault-based divorces can be contested; evaluation of offenses may involve allegations of collusion of the parties (working together to get the divorce), or condonation (approving the offense), connivance (tricking someone into committing an offense), or provocation by the other party. Contested fault divorces can be expensive, and not usually practical as eventually most divorces are granted. Comparative rectitude is a doctrine used to determine which spouse is more at fault when both spouses are guilty of breaches.",
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"plaintext": "The grounds for a divorce which a party could raise and need to prove included 'desertion,' 'abandonment,' 'cruelty,' or 'adultery.' The requirement of proving a ground was revised (and withdrawn) by the terms of 'no-fault' statutes, which became popular in many Western countries in the late 1960s and early 1970s. In 'no-fault' jurisdictions divorce can be obtained either on a simple allegation of 'irreconcilable differences,' 'irretrievable break-down', or 'incompatibility' with respect to the marriage relationship, or on the ground of separation.",
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"plaintext": "A summary (or simple) divorce, available in some jurisdictions, is used when spouses meet certain eligibility requirements or can agree on key issues beforehand.",
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"plaintext": "Key factors:",
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"plaintext": " Short duration of marriage (less than five years)",
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"plaintext": " Absence of children (or, in some jurisdictions, prior allocation of child custody and of child-support direction and amount)",
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"plaintext": " Absence or minimal value of real property at issue and any associated encumbrances such as mortgages",
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"plaintext": " Absence of agreed-as-marital property above a given value threshold (around $35,000 not including vehicles)",
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"plaintext": " Absence, with respect to each spouse, of claims to personal property above a given value threshold, typically the same as that for total marital property, with such claims including claims to exclusive previous ownership of property described by the other spouse as marital",
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"plaintext": "Most Western jurisdictions have a no-fault divorce system, which requires no allegation or proof of fault of either party. The barest of assertions suffice. For example, in countries that require \"irretrievable breakdown\", the mere assertion that the marriage has broken down will satisfy the judicial officer. In other jurisdictions requiring irreconcilable differences, the mere allegation that the marriage has been irreparable by these differences is enough for granting a divorce. Courts will not inquire into facts. A \"yes\" is enough, even if the other party vehemently says \"no\".",
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"plaintext": "The application can be made by either party or by both parties jointly.",
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"plaintext": "In jurisdictions adopting the 'no-fault' principle regarding whether to grant a divorce, some courts may still take into account the fault of the parties when determining some aspects of the content of the divorce decree, e.g., its terms for the division of property and debts and the absence, or amount, of spousal support. Provisions related to child custody are determined using a different fundamental standard: the child's or children's best interests; At the same time, some behaviors that may constitute marital fault (e.g., violence, cruelty, endangerment, neglect, or substance abuse) may also qualify as factors to be considered when determining child custody, they do so for the independent reason that they provide evidence as to what arrangement is in the child's or children's best interests in the future.",
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"plaintext": "It is estimated that upwards of 95% of divorces in the U.S. are \"uncontested\", because the two parties are able to come to an agreement (either with or without lawyers/mediators/collaborative counsel) about the property, children, and support issues. When the parties can agree and present the court with a fair and equitable agreement, approval of the divorce is almost guaranteed. If the two parties cannot come to an agreement, they may ask the court to decide how to split property and deal with the custody of their children. Though this may be necessary, the courts would prefer parties to come to an agreement prior to entering court.",
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"plaintext": "Where the issues are not complex and the parties are cooperative, a settlement often can be directly negotiated between them. In the majority of cases, forms are acquired from their respective state websites and a filing fee is paid to the state. Most U.S. states charge between $175 and $350 for a simple divorce filing. Collaborative divorce and mediated divorce are considered uncontested divorces.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, many state court systems are experiencing an increasing proportion of pro se (i.e., litigants represent themselves without a lawyer) in divorce cases. In San Diego, for example, the number of divorce filings involving at least one self-representing litigant rose from 46% in 1992 to 77% in 2000, and in Florida from 66% in 1999 to 73% in 2001. Urban courts in California report that approximately 80% of the new divorce filings are filed pro se.",
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"plaintext": "Collaborative divorce is a method for divorcing couples to come to an agreement on divorce issues. In a collaborative divorce, the parties negotiate an agreed resolution with the assistance of attorneys who are trained in the collaborative divorce process and in mediation and often with the assistance of a neutral financial specialist or divorce coaches. The parties are empowered to make their own decisions based on their own needs and interests, but with complete information and full professional support.",
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"plaintext": "Once the collaborative divorce starts, the lawyers are disqualified from representing the parties in a contested legal proceeding, should the collaborative law process end prematurely. Most attorneys who practise collaborative divorce claim that it can be more cost-effective than other divorce methods, e.g., going to court.",
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"plaintext": "Portugal, for example, allows two persons to file an electronic request for no-fault collaborative divorce in a non judiciary administrative entity. In specific cases, with no children, real property, alimony, or common address, can be completed within one hour.",
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"plaintext": "Divorce mediation is an alternative to traditional divorce litigation. In a divorce mediation session, a mediator facilitates the discussion between the two parties by assisting with communication and providing information and suggestions to help resolve differences. At the end of the mediation process, the separating parties have typically developed a tailored divorce agreement that can be submitted to the court. Mediation sessions can include either party's attorneys, a neutral attorney, or an attorney-mediator who can inform both parties of their legal rights, but does not provide advice to either, or can be conducted with the assistance of a facilitative or transformative mediator without attorneys present at all. Some mediation companies, such as Wevorce, also pair clients with counselors, financial planners and other professionals to work through common mediation sticking points. Divorce mediators may be attorneys who have experience in divorce cases, or they may be professional mediators who are not attorneys, but who have training specifically in the area of family court matters. Divorce mediation can be significantly less costly, both financially and emotionally, than litigation. The adherence rate to mediated agreements is much higher than that of adherence to court orders.",
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"plaintext": "Polygamy is a significant structural factor governing divorce in countries where this is permitted. Little-to-no analysis has been completed to explicitly explain the link between marital instability and polygamy which leads to divorce. The frequency of divorce rises in polygamous marriages compared to monogamous relationships. Within polygamous unions, differences in conjugal stability are found to occur by wife order. There are 3 main mechanisms through which polygamy affects divorce: economic restraint, sexual satisfaction, and childlessness. Many women escape economic restraint through divorcing their spouses when they are allowed to initiate a divorce.",
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"plaintext": "An annual study in the UK by management consultants Grant Thornton, estimates the main proximal causes of divorce based on surveys of matrimonial lawyers.",
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"plaintext": "The main causes in 2004 were:",
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"plaintext": "Adultery; Extramarital sex; Infidelity – 27%",
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"plaintext": "Domestic violence – 17%",
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"plaintext": "Midlife crisis – 13%",
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"plaintext": "Addictions, e.g. alcoholism and gambling – 6%",
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"plaintext": "Workaholism – 6%",
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"plaintext": "Other factors – 31%",
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"plaintext": "According to this survey, husbands engaged in extramarital affairs in 75% of cases, wives in 25%. In cases of family strain, wives' families were the primary source of strain in 78%, compared to 22% of husbands' families. Emotional and physical abuse were more evenly split, with wives affected in 60% and husbands in 40% of cases. In 70% of workaholism-related divorces it was husbands who were the cause, and in 30%, wives. The 2004 survey found that 93% of divorce cases were petitioned by wives, very few of which were contested. 53% of divorces were of marriages that had lasted 10 to 15 years, with 40% ending after 5 to 10 years. The first 5 years are relatively divorce-free, and if a marriage survives more than 20 years it is unlikely to end in divorce.",
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"plaintext": "Social scientists study the causes of divorce in terms of underlying factors that may possibly motivate divorce. One of these factors is the age at which a person gets married; delaying marriage may provide more opportunity or experience in choosing a compatible partner. Wage, income, and sex ratios are other such underlying factors that have been included in analyses by sociologists and economists.",
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"plaintext": "The elevation of divorce rates among couples who cohabited prior to marriage is called the \"cohabitation effect\". Evidence suggests that although this correlation is partly due to two forms of selection (a) that persons whose moral or religious codes permit cohabitation are also more likely to consider divorce permitted by morality or religion and (b) that marriage based on low levels of commitment is more common among couples who cohabit than among couples who do not, such that the mean and median levels of commitment at the start of marriage are lower among cohabiting than among non-cohabiting couples), the cohabitation experience itself exerts at least some independent effect on the subsequent marital union.",
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"plaintext": "In 2010, a study by Jay Teachman published in Journal of Marriage and Family found that women who have cohabited or had premarital sex with men other than their husbands have an increased risk of divorce, and that this effect is strongest for women who have cohabited with multiple men prior to marriage. To Teachman, the fact that the elevated risk of divorce is only experienced when the premarital partner(s) is someone other than the husband indicates that premarital sex and cohabitation are now a normal part of the courtship process in the United States. This study only considers data on women in the 1995 National Survey of Family Growth in the United States. Divorce is sometimes caused by one of the partners finding the other unattractive.",
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"plaintext": "Recent studies show that the cohabitation effect on divorce varies across different cultures and periods. Another article published in Journal of Marriage and Family found that when cohabitation was uncommon in pre-reform China, premarital cohabitation increased the likelihood of subsequent divorce, but this association disappeared when cohabitation became prevalent.",
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"plaintext": "Some of the effects associated with divorce include academic, behavioral, and psychological problems. Although this may not always be true, studies suggest that children from divorced families are more likely to exhibit such behavioral issues than non-divorced families.",
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"plaintext": "Research done at Northern Illinois University on Family and Child Studies suggests that divorce of couples experiencing high conflict can positively affect families by reducing conflict in the home. There are, however, many instances when the parent-child relationship may suffer due to divorce. Financial support is many times lost when an adult goes through a divorce. The adult may be obligated to obtain additional work to maintain financial stability. This can lead to a negative relationship between the parent and child; the relationship may suffer due to a lack of attention towards the child and minimal parental supervision",
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"plaintext": "Studies have also shown that parental skills decrease after a divorce occurs; however, this effect is only a temporary change. \"Many researchers have shown that a disequilibrium, including diminished parenting skills, occurs in the year following the divorce but that by two years after the divorce re-stabilization has occurred and parenting skills have improved.\"",
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"plaintext": "Some couples choose divorce even when one spouse's desire to remain married is greater than the other spouse's desire to obtain a divorce. In economics, this is known as the Zelder Paradox and is more familiar with marriages that have produced children and less common with childless couples.",
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"plaintext": "Research has also found that recent divorcees report significantly higher hostility levels after the divorce than before, and that this effect applies equally to both male and female divorcees.",
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"plaintext": "In an American Psychological Association study of parents' relocation after a divorce, researchers found that a move has a long-term effect on children. In the first study conducted amongst 2,000 college students on the effects of parental relocation relating to their children's well-being after divorce, researchers found major differences. In divorced families in which one parent moved, the students received less financial support from their parents compared with divorced families in which neither parent moved. These findings also imply other negative outcomes for these students, such as more distress related to the divorce and did not feel a sense of emotional support from their parents. Although the data suggests negative outcomes for these students whose parents relocate after divorce, there is insufficient research that can alone prove the overall well-being of the child A newer study in the Journal of Family Psychology found that parents who move more than an hour away from their children after a divorce are much less well off than those parents who stayed in the same location",
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"plaintext": "Divorce is associated with diminished psychological well-being in children and adult offspring of divorced parents, including greater unhappiness, less satisfaction with life, weaker sense of personal control, anxiety, depression, and greater use of mental health services. A preponderance of evidence indicates that there is a causal effect between divorce and these outcomes.",
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"plaintext": "A study in Sweden led by the Centre for Health Equity Studies (Chess) at Stockholm University/Karolinska Institutet, is published in the Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health found that children living with just one parent after divorce suffer from more problems such as headaches, stomach aches, feelings of tension and sadness than those whose parents share custody.",
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"plaintext": "Children of divorced parents are also more likely to experience conflict in their own marriages, and are more likely to experience divorce themselves. They are also more likely to be involved in short-term cohabiting relationships, which often dissolve before marriage. There are many studies that show proof of an intergenerational transmission of divorce, but this does not mean that having divorced parents will absolutely lead a child to divorce. There are two key factors that make this transmission of divorce more likely. First, inherited biological tendencies or genetic conditions may predispose a child to divorce as well as the \"model of marriage\" presented by the child's parents.",
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"plaintext": "According to Nicholas Wall, former President of the Family Division of the English High Court, \"People think that post-separation parenting is easy– in fact, it is exceedingly difficult, and as a rule of thumb my experience is that the more intelligent the parent, the more intractable the dispute. There is nothing worse, for most children, than for their parents to denigrate each other. Parents simply do not realize the damage they do to their children by the battles they wage over them. Separating parents rarely behave reasonably, although they always believe that they are doing so, and that the other party is behaving unreasonably.\"",
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"plaintext": "Children involved in high-conflict divorce or custody cases can experience varying forms of psychological distress due to conflict between their parents. Legal professionals recognize that alienating behaviors are common in child custody cases, but are cautious about accepting the concept of parental alienation.",
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"plaintext": "Research shows that children can be affected 2–4 years before the separation or divorce even occurs. This can be due to parental conflict and anticipation of a divorce, and decreased parental contact. Many couples believe that by separating, or becoming legally divorced that they are helping their children, and in situations of extreme parental conflict or abuse it most likely will be beneficial.",
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"plaintext": "Exposure to marital conflict and instability, most often has negative consequences for children. Several mechanisms are likely to be responsible. First, observing overt conflict between parents is a direct stressor for children. Observational studies reveal that children react to inter-parental conflict with fear, anger, or the inhibition of normal behavior. Preschool children– who tend to be egocentric– may blame themselves for marital conflict, resulting in feelings of guilt and lowered self-esteem. Conflict between parents also tends to spill over and negatively affect the quality of parents' interactions with their children. Researchers found that the associations between marital conflict and children's externalizing and internalizing problems were largely mediated by parents' use of harsh punishment and parent–child conflict. Furthermore, modeling verbal or physical aggression, parents \"teach\" their children that disagreements are resolved through conflict rather than calm discussion. As a result, children may not learn the social skills (such as the ability to negotiate and reach compromises) that are necessary to form mutually rewarding relationships with peers.",
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"plaintext": "Girls and boys deal with divorce differently. For instance, girls who initially show signs of adapting well, later suffer from anxiety in romantic relationships with men. Studies also showed that girls who were separated from their fathers at a younger age tended to be angrier toward the situation as they aged. Anger and sadness were also observed as common feelings in adolescents who had experienced parental divorce.",
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"plaintext": "Frequently, children who have experienced a divorce have lower academic achievement than children from non-divorced families",
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"plaintext": "In a review of family and school factors related to adolescents' academic performance, it noted that a child from a divorced family is two times more likely to drop out of high school than a child from a non-divorced family. These children from divorced families may also be less likely to attend college, resulting in the discontinuation of their academic career.",
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"plaintext": "Many times academic problems are associated with those children from single-parent families. Studies have shown that this issue may be directly related to the economical influence of divorce. A divorce may result in the parent and children moving to an area with a higher poverty rate and a poor education system all due to the financial struggles of a single parent.",
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"plaintext": "Children of divorced parents also achieve lower levels of socioeconomic status, income, and wealth accumulation than children of continuously married parents. These outcomes are associated with lower educational achievement.",
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"plaintext": "Young men or women between the ages of 7 and 16 who had experienced the divorce of their parents were more likely than youths who had not experienced the divorce of their parents to leave home because of friction, to cohabit before marriage, and to parent a child before marriage.",
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"plaintext": "Divorce often leads to worsened academic achievement in children ages 7–12, the most heightened negative effect being reading test scores. These negative effects tend to persist, and even escalate after the divorce or separation occurs.",
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"plaintext": "Children of divorced or separated parents exhibit increased behavioral problems and the marital conflict that accompanies parents' divorce places the child's social competence at risk.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States of America, since the mid-1990s, the divorce rate has increased to over 50% among baby boomers. More and more seniors are staying single; an analysis of census data conducted at Bowling Green State University predicted that divorce numbers would continue to rise. Baby boomers who remain unmarried are five times more likely to live in poverty than those who are married. They are also three times as likely to receive food stamps, public assistance or disability payments.",
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"plaintext": "Sociologists believe that the rise in the number of older Americans who are not married is a result of factors such as longevity and economics. Women, especially, are becoming more and more financially independent which allows them to feel more secure with being alone, in addition to changing perceptions of being divorced or single. This has resulted in less pressure for baby boomers to marry or stay married.",
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"plaintext": "In Japan, divorces were on an upward trend from the 1960s until 2002 when they hit a peak of 290,000 divorces. While divorce rates have increased since the 1900s, they have also slightly declined since 2002. In fact, in 2020 there were approximately 193,300 divorces. This is a significant decrease from the prior year, 2019, which recorded 208,489 divorces.",
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"plaintext": "There are several types of divorces in Japan; Divorce by Agreement, Divorce by Conciliation, and Divorce by Judgement. Divorce by Agreement (rikon), occurs when both parties mutually agree to separate and do not need to go to court. This is the most common type of divorce in Japan. Divorce by Conciliation (chotei rikon) is sought out when individuals are unable to agree on terms or separate. Thus, these cases go to court in hope to come to a mutual agreement for both parties. Lastly, Divorce by Judgement (saiban rikon) occurs when individuals are unable to reach an agreement in court during conciliation. Divorce by judgement is uncommon in Japan.",
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"plaintext": "India has one of the lowest divorce rates in the world with around 1% of marriages ending in divorces. That being said, a lot of individuals split without choosing to go through the process of divorce. In fact, a large number of marriages are not registered and thus, a dissolution in such partnership would not be shown in the divorce statistics. Additionally, divorce is still stigmatized and seen as taboo amongst many families in India.",
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"plaintext": "The Hindu Marriage Act is an Act of the Parliament of India enacted in 1955. Three other important acts were also enacted as part of the Hindu Code Bills during this time: the Hindu Succession Act (1956), the Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act (1956), the Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act (1956). Divorce under various acts in India: The Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act, 1936 The dissolution of Muslim Marriage Act, 1939 The Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act, 1936 The Special Marriage Act, 1956 The Foreign Marriage Act, 1969 Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act, 1939 The Dissolution of Marriage and Judicial separation (under the Indian Divorce Act, 1869).",
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"plaintext": "Due to the existence of diverse religious faiths in India, the Indian Judiciary has implemented laws separately for couples belonging to different religious beliefs. Mutual consent divorce procedure is relatively easier and fast while contested divorce procedure takes longer and depends on the religions of the couples.",
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"plaintext": "Taiwan's divorce rate in 2020 stood at 2.19 divorces per 1,000 residents. This is the lowest recorded divorce rate in the past 10 years. Many divorces in Taiwan are not done in court if there is a mutual agreement. If one of the parties does not consent to the divorce, then the other spouse may file for divorce under a valid reason of bigamy, infidelity, ill treatment or desertion. Before 2020, adultery in Taiwan was considered a crime and punishable by law.",
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"plaintext": "China currently holds one of the highest divorce rates in the Asia Pacific region. Compared to 2000, China's divorce rates have gone up substantially from a 0.96 crude divorce rate to 3.09 rate in 2020. While China's divorce rate has been increasing since 2000, the highest recorded crude divorce rate in the past 20 years was in 2019 with 3.36 divorces. However, since 2019, China's recorded divorce rate has gone down.",
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"plaintext": "China has no-fault divorce which was implemented through the New Marriage Law in 1950. This allows individuals to divorce without showing any evidence of wrongdoing. China is one of the only Asian countries which permits no-fault divorce. ",
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"plaintext": "As of January of 2021, China introduced a new policy called the \"cooling-off rule\". China, seeing the rise in divorce rates increasing on a yearly basis, the Marriage and Family Edition of Civil Code of the People's Republic of China secured an article 1077 establishing a mandatory cooling-off period, which has two requirements. First, on the day in which authorities have received the divorce applications, both parties can withdraw the registration within 30 days, and additionally to that, after 30 days are up, couples are required to physically apply for divorce certificate, and if they do not show up, the initial divorce application will be automatically perceived as withdrawn. This novel policy has been extremely controversial, where couples are required to wait for at least 30-days before they can commence a divorce. The 30-day cooling off period is created with the aim of generating more social stability, which avoids couples from making rushed or in-the-heat-of-the-moment emotionally-charged decisions. Family stability has always been culturally rooted in China, influenced by Confucian beliefs where the harmony of family brings the success of everything. A divorce can only be granted when couples have gone through a one-month long delay in order to make a decision.",
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"plaintext": "Since the implementation of the cooling-off rule, China's Ministry of Civil Affairs discovered as sharp 72 percent drop in divorce rates since the last quarter. Given the 30-days of cooling-off time, many couples have changed their minds, supporting the argument that most divorce decisions are made irrationally and emotionally. Although there has been a positive effect to reduce divorce in the country, Chinese citizens are not responding well to the cooling-off policy, which concerns women in marriages experiencing domestic abuse. In fact, from China Digital Times, a woman by the name of Kan Xiaofang died of domestic abuse because when she filed for divorce in 2021, she had to wait 30-days for the divorce to be finalized – she was \"hacked to death\" by her husband. The 30-day rule has angered Chinese feminists, who believes that the policy undermines the concept of freedom, and does not take into consideration of domestic violence, which runs common within Chinese households. The cooling-off policy is still relatively new today, only being less than 2-years old. Therefore, this policy is still one that needs to be examined more deeply to analyze the effect and consequences of delaying the divorce process.",
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"plaintext": "The crude divorce rate in South Korea in 2020 was 2.1. Compared to prior years, the number of divorces recorded depicts that there are less filed divorces each year. Both the number of marriages and divorces decreased from 2019 by 10.7% and 3.9% respectively.",
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"plaintext": "The highest proportion of divorces in 2020 was amongst those who have been married for 20 years or more followed by those who have been married for four years or less. Such findings may suggest that divorce has become more socially accepted in South Korea and the stigma behind separating has lessened.",
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"plaintext": "Singapore has a crude divorce rate of 1.7 divorce per 1,000 residents. Singapore has seen a decrease in divorce rates compared to previous years. In fact, 2020 marks the lowest number of divorces recorded. In 2020, there were 6,700 divorces compared to 2015–2019, which recorded an average number of 7,536 marital dissolutions. Additionally, most divorces were initiated by women.",
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"plaintext": "Singapore requires you to be married for three years before filing for divorce. That being said, if one has suffered exceptional hardship, they are eligible to file for divorce before the three years. Additionally, to get a divorce, there must be proof of an \"irretrievable breakdown\" of one of the four factors which include adultery, unreasonable behaviour, desertion and separation.",
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"plaintext": "In 2020 there were around 291,000 divorces recorded in Indonesia. These numbers are lower than the previous year – reportedly due to the pandemic and a longer process of the dissolution process. Divorces are settled in religious courts, if they are Muslim, or through 'talaq' where a married man can pronounce divorce to his wife. There are six grounds of divorce, with an additional two for Moslem marriages, which include:",
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"plaintext": " One of the spouse has committed adultery, is an alcoholic, is addicted to drugs, is a gambler or other vices which are difficult to cure;",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " One of the spouse has deserted the other spouse for two consecutive years – without consent and without legitimate reasons;",
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"plaintext": " One of the spouse has been sentenced to imprisonment for five years or more;",
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"plaintext": " One of the spouses has resorted to cruelty or severe ill-treatment, endangering the life of the other spouse;",
"section_idx": 6,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " One of the spouse has developed a disability or disease, preventing from him or her from fulfilling the duties of husband or wife;",
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"plaintext": " The spouses have irreconcilable differences as evidenced by frequent disagreements.",
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"plaintext": " The husband has violated taklik talak (a promise that the husband expressly made and written onto the marriage certificate).",
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"anchor_spans": []
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"plaintext": " One party convert from Islam into another faith.",
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"plaintext": "Divorce has increased across Europe in the past decade – the rate varies between European countries. One study estimated that legal reforms accounted for about 20% increase of the divorce rates in Europe between 1960 and 2002. In 2019, Luxembourg had the highest divorce rate per 100 marriages followed by Portugal, Finland, and Spain. Countries in Europe with some of the lowest number of divorces per 100 marriages are Ireland and Malta.",
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"plaintext": "On average, for every three new marriages in Serbia, one divorce occurs. In 2019, 35,570 marriages were concluded in Serbia, 10,899 marriages were divorced, and the number of divorces per 1,000 inhabitants was 1.6%.",
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"plaintext": "In 2015, the highest divorces rates in the UK were recorded all beside the sea, with Blackpool in the top position. The UK divorce rate is estimated at 42% and in 2019, around 107,599 divorces were reported. The highest number of divorce applications are reportedly made on Divorce Day, which is always the first Monday of the new year.",
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"plaintext": "The crude divorce rate in 2022 in the United States is 2.3 divorces. This is significantly lower than prior years, such as those in 2001 where 4.1 divorces were recorded. These recent findings suggest a downward trend of the number of people dissolving their marriage. However, divorce rates range from state to state. It's important to look back on why prior years had such a high divorce rate amongst Americans.",
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"plaintext": "The National Center for Health Statistics reports that wives, with children present, filed for divorce in approximately two-thirds of cases from 1975 to 1988 in the U.S. For example, 71.4% of the cases were filed by women in 1975 and 65% were filed by women in 1988. It is estimated that upwards of 95% of divorces in the U.S. are \"uncontested\", because the two parties are able to come to an agreement without a hearing (either with or without lawyers/mediators/collaborative counsel) about the property, children, and support issues.",
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"plaintext": "In 2000, the divorce rate reached its peak at 40% but has since slowly declined. In 2001, marriages between people of different faiths were three times more likely to get divorced than those of the same faith. In fact, in a 1993 study, members of two mainline Protestant religions had a 20% chance of being divorced in 5 years; a 33% for a Catholic and Evangelical, and a 40% chance for a Jew and a Christian.",
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"plaintext": "Couples with different ethnicities and races also had distinctive divorce statistics. In 2008, a study by Jenifer L. Bratter and Rosalind B. King on the Education Resources Information Center, found that unions between White males and non-White females as well as between Hispanics and non-Hispanic individuals, have similar or lower risks of divorce than White marriages. Unions between a White male and Black female last longer than White-White pairings or White-Asian pairings. Conversely, a White female with a Black male and White female with an Asian male are more prone to divorce than White-White pairings.",
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"plaintext": "Additionally, as found in 2010, success in marriage has been associated with a higher education and older age. For example, 81% of college graduates who were over 26 years old, who wed in the 1980s, were still married 20 years later. Additionally, 65% of college graduates under 26, who married in the 1980s, were still married 20 years later. Furthermore, 49% of high school graduates under 26 years old, who married in the 1980s, were still married 20 years later. Conversely, 2.9% of adults aged 35–39 and without a college degree got divorced in the year 2009 – compared with 1.6% with a college education.",
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"plaintext": "Another study looking at population differences found that a 1% increase in the unemployment rate correlated with a 1% decrease in the divorce rate. This was found to be presumably true for individuals who were financially challenged when trying to afford the legal proceedings. Nevertheless, another study from 1900 to 2008 found that there was a significant increase in the risk of divorce following a layoff and being unemployed.",
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"plaintext": "The crude divorce rate in Australia in 2020 was 1.9 divorces. This rate has remained somewhat consistent throughout the past few years and is the same as the previous year. However, as divorces are granted after 12 months of separation, splits during COVID may not be reflected in the current divorce rate. The divorce rate has decreased substantially over the past 20 years with 2.6 divorces recorded in 2000. In order to apply for divorce, one must be separated for at least 12 months.",
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"plaintext": "New Zealand's divorce rate in 2020 was 7.6 divorces per 1,000 residents. This rate marks a decrease from previous years – such as those in 1983 with a crude divorce rate of 13.3. In fact, this rate has decreased significantly from the previous year, 2019, with a divorce rate of 8.4. Before filing for divorced, one must be separated for at least two years. After this time, one is eligible to submit an application. If it is a joint application, divorce will take effect after one month. If one applies as a sole application, then the other spouse has the opportunity to defend it within a certain time period. Additionally, if individuals appear in court together and the judge files the divorce order, then the divorce will effective immediately.",
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"plaintext": "According to Statistics South Africa, the number of divorces increased by 0.3% from 25,260 divorces granted in 2015 to 25,326 granted in 2016. About 44.4% of the 2016 divorces came from marriages that did not reach their tenth wedding anniversary. About 51.1% of divorces in 2016 were filed by women while men filed 34.2% divorce cases.",
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"plaintext": "Attitudes toward divorce vary substantially across the world. Divorce is considered socially unacceptable by most of the population in certain Sub-Saharan African countries such as Ghana, Uganda, Nigeria and Kenya, South Asian countries including India and Pakistan and South-East Asian countries such as the Philippines and Indonesia. The majority of the population considers divorce acceptable in Eastern Europe, East Asia, Latin America and the United States. In developed regions such as Western Europe and Japan, more than 80% of the population consider divorce socially acceptable. Divorce is also widely accepted in certain Muslim majority countries such as Jordan, Egypt and Lebanon, at least when men initiate it.",
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"plaintext": "All U.S. states permit same-sex marriage. For same-sex couples in the United States, divorce law is in its infancy.",
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"plaintext": "Upon dissolution of a same-sex marriage, legal questions remain as to the rights of spouses to custody of the biological children of their spouses. Unresolved legal questions abound in this area.",
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"plaintext": "Child custody policies include several guidelines that determine with whom the child lives following divorce, how time is divided in joint custody situations, and visitation rights. The most frequently applied custody guideline is the best interests of the child standard, which takes into account the parents' preferences, the child's preferences, the interactions between parents and children, children's adjustment, and all family members' mental and physical health.",
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"plaintext": "In some countries (commonly in Europe and North America), the government defines and administers marriages and divorces. While ceremonies may be performed by religious officials on behalf of the state, a civil marriage and thus, civil divorce (without the involvement of a religion) is also possible. Due to differing standards and procedures, a couple can be legally unmarried, married, or divorced by the state's definition, but have a different status as defined by a religious order. Other countries use religious law to administer marriages and divorces, eliminating this distinction. In these cases, religious officials are generally responsible for interpretation and implementation.",
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"plaintext": "Islam allows, yet generally advises against divorce, and it can be initiated by either the husband or the wife.",
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"plaintext": "Dharmic religions allow divorce under some circumstances.",
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"plaintext": "Christian views on divorce vary: Catholic teaching allows only annulment, while most other denominations discourage it except in the event of adultery. For example, the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection, in its 2014 Discipline, teaches:",
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"plaintext": "Jewish views of divorce differ, with Reform Judaism considering civil divorces adequate; Conservative and Orthodox Judaism, on the other hand, require that the husband grant his wife a divorce in the form of a get.",
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"plaintext": "The Millet System, where each religious group regulates its own marriages and divorces, is still present in varying degrees in some post−Ottoman countries including Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Israel, the Palestinian Authority and Egypt. Several countries use sharia (Islamic law) to administrate marriages and divorces for Muslims. Thus, Marriage in Israel is administered separately by each religious community (Jews, Christians, Muslims, and Druze), and there is no provision for interfaith marriages other than marrying in another country. For Jews, marriage and divorce are administered by Orthodox rabbis. Partners can file for divorce either in rabbinical court or Israeli civil court.",
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"plaintext": "According to a study published in the American Law and Economics Review, women have filed slightly more than two-thirds of divorce cases in the United States. This trend is mirrored in the UK where a recent study into web search behavior found that 70% of divorce inquiries were from women. These findings also correlate with the Office for National Statistics publication \"Divorces in England and Wales 2012 which reported that divorce petitions from women outnumber those from men by 2 to 1.",
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"plaintext": "Regarding divorce settlements, according to the 2004 Grant Thornton survey in the UK, women obtained a better or considerably better settlement than men in 60% of cases. In 30% of cases the assets were split 50–50, and in only 10% of cases did men achieve better settlements (down from 24% the previous year). The report concluded that the percentage of shared residence orders would need to increase in order for more equitable financial divisions to become the norm.",
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"plaintext": "Some jurisdictions give unequal rights to men and women when filing for divorce.",
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"plaintext": "For couples to Conservative or Orthodox Jewish law (which by Israeli civil law includes all Jews in Israel), the husband must grant his wife a divorce through a document called a get. Granting the 'get' obligates him to pay the woman a significant sum of money(10,000-$20,000) as stated on the religious prenuptial contract, which can be in addition to whatever prior settlement he had reached as far as continuous child support and funds he had to pay by court order in the civil divorce. If the man refuses, (and agreeing on condition he will not have to pay the money is still called refusing), the woman can appeal to a court or the community to pressure the husband. A woman whose husband refuses to grant the get or a woman whose husband is missing without sufficient knowledge that he died, is called an agunah, is still married, and therefore cannot remarry. Under Orthodox law, children of an extramarital affair involving a married Jewish woman are considered mamzerim and cannot marry non-mamzerim.",
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"plaintext": "The ancient Athenians liberally allowed divorce, but the person requesting divorce had to submit the request to a magistrate, and the magistrate could determine whether the reasons given were sufficient.",
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"plaintext": "Divorce was rare in early Roman culture but as their empire grew in power and authority Roman civil law embraced the maxim, \"\" (\"marriages ought to be free\"), and either husband or wife could renounce the marriage at will. The Christian emperors Constantine and Theodosius restricted the grounds for divorce to grave cause, but this was relaxed by Justinian in the 6th century.",
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"plaintext": "In post-classical Mali, laws relating to divorced women were documented in the Timbuktu manuscripts.",
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"plaintext": "After the fall of the Roman Empire, familial life was regulated more by ecclesiastical authority than civil authority. The Catholic and Orthodox Church had, among others, a differing view of divorce.",
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"plaintext": "The Orthodox Church recognized that there are rare occasions when it is better that couples do separate. For the Orthodox, to say that marriage is indissoluble means that it should not be broken, the violation of such a union, perceived as holy, being an offense resulting from either adultery or the prolonged absence of one of the partners. Thus, permitting remarriage is an act of compassion of the Church towards sinful man.",
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"plaintext": "Under the influence of the Catholic Church, the divorce rate had been greatly reduced by the 9th or 10th century, which considered marriage a sacrament instituted by Jesus Christ and indissoluble by mere human action.",
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"plaintext": "Although divorce, as known today, was generally prohibited in Catholic lands after the 10th century, separation of husband and wife and the annulment of marriage were well-known. What is today referred to as \"separate maintenance\" (or \"legal separation\") was termed \"divorce a mensa et thoro\" (\"divorce from bed-and-board\"). The husband and wife physically separated and were forbidden to live or cohabit together, but their marital relationship did not fully terminate. Civil courts had no power over marriage or divorce. The grounds for annulment were determined by a Catholic church authority and applied in ecclesiastical courts. Annulment was for canonical causes of impediment existing at the time of the marriage. \"For in cases of total divorce, the marriage is declared null, as having been absolutely unlawful ab initio.\" The Catholic Church held that the sacrament of marriage produced one person from two, inseparable from each other: \"By marriage, the husband and wife are one person in law: that is, the very being of legal existence of the woman is suspended during the marriage or at least incorporated and consolidated into that of the husband: under whose wing, protection and cover, she performs everything.\" Since husband and wife became one person upon marriage, recognition of that oneness could be rescinded only on the grounds that the unity never existed to begin with, i.e., that the proclamation of marriage was erroneous and void from the start.",
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"plaintext": "After the Reformation, marriage came to be considered a contract in the newly Protestant regions of Europe, and on that basis, civil authorities gradually asserted their power to decree a \"divortium a vinculo matrimonii\", or \"divorce from all the bonds of marriage\".",
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"plaintext": "Since no precedents existed defining the circumstances under which marriage could be dissolved, civil courts heavily relied on the previous determinations of the ecclesiastic courts and freely adopted the requirements set down by those courts. As the civil courts assumed the power to dissolve marriages, courts still strictly construed the circumstances under which they would grant a divorce, and considered divorce to be contrary to public policy. Because divorce was considered to be against the public interest, civil courts refused to grant a divorce if evidence revealed any hint of complicity between the husband and wife to divorce, or if they attempted to manufacture grounds for a divorce. Divorce was granted only because one party to the marriage had violated a sacred vow to the \"innocent spouse\". If both husband and wife were guilty, \"neither would be allowed to escape the bonds of marriage\".",
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"plaintext": "Eventually, the idea that a marriage could be dissolved in cases in which one of the parties violated the sacred vow gradually allowed expansion of the grounds upon which divorce could be granted from those grounds which existed at the time of the marriage to grounds which occurred after the marriage, but which exemplified violation of that vow, such as abandonment, adultery, or \"extreme cruelty\". An exception to this trend was the Anglican Church, which maintained the doctrine of marital indissolubility.",
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"plaintext": "During the English Civil War, the Puritans briefly passed a law that divested marriage of all sacrament, leaving it as a secular contract that could be broken. John Milton wrote four divorce tracts in 1643–1645 that argued for the legitimacy of divorce on grounds of spousal incompatibility. His ideas were ahead of their time; arguing for divorce at all, let alone a version of no-fault divorce, was extremely controversial and religious figures sought to ban his tracts. In 1670 a precedent was first set with an Act of Parliament allowing Lord John Manners to divorce his wife, Lady Anne Pierrepont, and until the passage of the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857, divorce could only be obtained through a specific Act of Parliament.",
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"plaintext": "The move towards secularisation and liberalisation was reinforced by the individualistic and secular ideals of the Enlightenment. The Enlightened absolutist, King Frederick II (\"the Great\") of Prussia decreed a new divorce law in 1752, in which marriage was declared to be a purely private concern, allowing divorce to be granted on the basis of mutual consent. This new attitude heavily influenced the law in neighbouring Austria under Emperor Joseph II, where it was applied to all non-Catholic Imperial subjects. Divorce was legalised in France after the French revolution on a similar basis, although the legal order of the ancien regime was reinstated at the Bourbon restoration of 1816. The trend in Europe throughout the 19th century, was one of increased liberalisation; by the mid-19th century, divorce was generally granted by civil courts in the case of adultery.",
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"plaintext": "In Britain, before 1857 wives were regarded as under the economic and legal protection of their husbands, and divorce was almost impossible. It required a very expensive private Act of Parliament costing perhaps £200, of the sort only the richest could possibly afford. It was very difficult to secure divorce on the grounds of adultery, desertion, or cruelty. The first key legislative victory came with the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857, which passed over the strenuous opposition of the highly traditional Church of England. The new law made divorce a civil affair of the courts, rather than a Church matter, with a new civil court in London handling all cases. The process was still quite expensive, at about £40, but now became feasible for the middle class. A woman who obtained a judicial separation took the status of a feme sole, with full control of her own civil rights. Additional amendments came in 1878, which allowed for separations handled by local justices of the peace. The Church of England blocked further reforms until the final breakthrough came with the Matrimonial Causes Act 1973.",
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"plaintext": "In Spain, the 1931 Constitution of the Second Spanish Republic for the first time recognised a right to divorce. The first law to regulate divorce was the Divorce Act of 1932, which passed the Republican Parliament despite the opposition of the Catholic Church and a coalition of the Agrarian Minority and Minority Basque-Navarre Catholic parties. The dictatorship of General Franco abolished the law. After the restoration of democracy, a new divorce law was passed in 1981, again over the opposition of the Catholic Church and part of the Christian Democrat party, then a part of the ruling Union of Democratic Center. During the first socialist government of Felipe González Márquez, the 1981 law was amended to expedite the process of separation and divorce of marriages, which was again opposed by the Church, which called it \"express divorce\".",
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"plaintext": "In Italy, the first divorce law was introduced on 1 December 1970, despite the opposition of the Christian Democrats, and entered into force on 18 December 1970. In the following years, the Christian Democrats, supported also by parties opposed to the law, promoted a recall referendum. In 1974, in a referendum, the majority of the population voted against a repeal of the divorce law. A feature of the 1970 divorce law was the long period of marital separation of five years required. This period was reduced to three in 1987 and to a year in 2015, in the case of judicial separation, and six months in the case of separation by mutual agreement.",
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"plaintext": "Ireland and Malta approved divorce at referenda in 1995 and 2011 respectively.",
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"plaintext": "Divorce rates increased markedly during the 20th century in developed countries, as social attitudes towards family and sex changed dramatically. Divorce has become commonplace in some countries, including the United States, Canada, Australia, Germany, New Zealand, Scandinavia, and the United Kingdom.",
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"plaintext": "In the Edo Period (1603–1868), husbands could divorce their wives by writing letters of divorce. Frequently, their relatives or marriage arrangers kept these letters and tried to restore the marriages. Wives could not divorce their husbands. Some wives were able to gain sanctuary in certain Shinto \"divorce temples\". After a wife had spent three years in a temple, her husband was required to divorce her. In 19th century Japan, at least one in eight marriages ended in divorce.",
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"plaintext": "There are four types of divorce in Japan: divorce by agreement in which the divorce is mutual; divorce by mediation, which happens in family court; divorce by decision of family court that takes place when a couple cannot complete a divorce through mediation; and divorce by judgment of a district court.",
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"plaintext": "On a national level, the Special Marriage Act, passed in 1954, is an inter-religious marriage law permitting Indian nationals to marry and divorce irrespective of their religion or faith. The Hindu Marriage Act, in 1955 which legally permitted divorce to Hindus and other communities who chose to marry under these acts. The Indian Divorce Act 1869 is the law relating to the divorce of person professing the Christian religion. Divorce can be sought by a husband or wife on grounds including adultery, cruelty, desertion for two years, religious conversion, mental abnormality, venereal disease, and leprosy. Divorce is also available based on mutual consent of both the spouses, which can be filed after at least one year of separated living. Mutual consent divorce can not be appealed, and the law mandates a minimum period of six months (from the time divorce is applied for) for divorce to be granted. Contested divorce is when one of the spouse is not willing to divorce the other spouse, under such condition the divorce is granted only on certain grounds according to the Hindu marriage act of 1955. While a Muslim husband can unilaterally bring an end to the marriage by pronouncing talaq, Muslim women must go to court, claiming any of the grounds provided under the Dissolution of Muslim Marriage Act.",
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"plaintext": "In the first major family law reform in the last decade, the Supreme Court of India banned the Islamic practice of \"Triple Talaq\" (divorce by uttering of the \"Talaq\" word thrice by the husband). The landmark Supreme Court of India judgment was welcomed by women activists across India.",
"section_idx": 11,
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"plaintext": "Official figures of divorce rates are not available, but it has been estimated that 1 in 100 or another figure of 11 in 1,000 marriages in India end up in divorce.",
"section_idx": 11,
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"plaintext": "Various communities are governed by specific marital legislation, distinct to Hindu Marriage Act, and consequently have their own divorce laws:",
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},
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"plaintext": " The Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act, 1936",
"section_idx": 11,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " The Dissolution of Muslim Marriage act, 1939",
"section_idx": 11,
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},
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"plaintext": " The Foreign Marriage Act, 1969",
"section_idx": 11,
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},
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"plaintext": " The Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986",
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"plaintext": "An amendment to the marriage laws to allow divorce based on \"irretrievable breakdown of marriage\" (as alleged by one of the spouses) is under consideration in India. In June 2010, the Union Cabinet of India approved the Marriage Laws (Amendment) Bill 2010, which, if cleared by Parliament, would establish \"irretrievable breakdown\" as a new ground for divorce. Under the proposed amendment, the court before proceeding to the merits of the case must be satisfied by the evidences produced that parties have been living apart for a continuous period of not less than three years immediately preceding the presentation of the petition.",
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"plaintext": "Divorce in Islam can take a variety of forms, some initiated by the husband and some initiated by the wife. The main traditional legal categories are talaq (repudiation), khulʿ (mutual divorce/annulment), judicial divorce and oaths. The theory and practice of divorce in the Islamic world have varied according to time and place. Historically, the rules of divorce were governed by sharia, as interpreted by traditional Islamic jurisprudence, and they differed depending on the legal school. Historical practice sometimes diverged from legal theory. In modern times, as personal status (family) laws were codified, they generally remained \"within the orbit of Islamic law\", but control over the norms of divorce shifted from traditional jurists to the state.",
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"plaintext": "Divorce as a means of terminating marriage is illegal for all Filipinos except Filipino Muslims. There is only civil annulment after a lengthy legal separation. The process is costly and long, and there are many legally married couples in extramarital relations, even without a divorce law.",
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"plaintext": "Code of Muslim Personal Laws of the Philippines, known as Presidential Decree (PD) No. 1083, Title II- Marriage and Divorce, Chapter 3-Divorce allows for divorce recognized by the state. There are two sharia courts in the Philippine judicial system that hear these cases.",
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"plaintext": "On 27 July 2010, Gabriela Women's Party filed in Congress House Bill No 1799, or the Divorce Bill of the Philippines, as one of many attempts to introduce pro-divorce legislation. Senator Pia Cayetano has filed a separate divorce bill in the Senate. During that time, the Philippines, along with Malta and the Vatican, are the three most conservative countries on the issue of divorce. The bill did not pass any level of legislation because of this.",
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"plaintext": "In 2013, the divorce bill was refiled, however, did not pass any level of legislation as well.",
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"plaintext": "In a latest attempt, the divorce bill was refiled again in 2017. On 22 February 2018, the House of Representatives committee on population and family relations approved a bill seeking to legalize divorce, the first time in Philippine history for such a measure to pass the committee level of legislation. The majority of the members of the House of Representatives (lower house of Congress), both majority and minority blocs, are in favor of divorce, however, divorce continues to be a divisive issue in the Senate (upper house of Congress), as stark opposition is present among male senators.",
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"plaintext": "Divorce rates increase during times of hardship, war, and major events. Divorce rates increased after World War II because people were quick to marry each other before they went to war. When soldiers returned, they found out that they did not have much in common with their spouses, so they divorced.",
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"plaintext": " Breakup",
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"plaintext": " Community property",
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"plaintext": " Divorce law around the world",
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"plaintext": " Divorce of same-sex couples—legal aspects, divorce rates",
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"plaintext": " Divorce party",
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"plaintext": " Dysfunctional family",
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"plaintext": " Fear of commitment",
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8094825
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1,
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"plaintext": " Grey divorce",
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"plaintext": " Husband selling",
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"plaintext": " Implications of divorce",
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8917437
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1,
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"plaintext": " List of most expensive divorces",
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12301026
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"plaintext": " List of people who remarried the same spouse",
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47009681
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"plaintext": " Januário Lourenço, inventor of Electronic divorce",
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1,
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"plaintext": " New York divorce coercion gang",
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40763167
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1,
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Primary physical custody",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
5583925
],
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Relationship counseling",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1410817
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1,
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"plaintext": " Relationship education",
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"plaintext": " Wife selling",
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"plaintext": " Wife selling (English custom)",
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"plaintext": "Alford, William P., \"Have You Eaten, Have You Divorced? Debating the Meaning of Freedom in Marriage in China\", in Realms of Freedom in Modern China (William C. Kirby ed., Stanford University Press, 2004).",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Suggested reading",
"target_page_ids": [
5041527
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"anchor_spans": [
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0,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Berlin, G. (2004). \"The Effects of Marriage and Divorce on Families and Children\".",
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"section_name": "Suggested reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Davies, P. T. & Cummings E. M. (1994). \"Marital Conflict and Child Adjustment: An Emotional Security Hypothesis\". American Psychological Association Psychological Bulletin, 116, 387–411.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Suggested reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Foulkes-Jamison, L. (2001). \"The Effects of Divorce on Children\".",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Suggested reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Hughes R. (2009). The Effects of Divorce on Children ",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Suggested reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Strong, B., DeVault C., & Cohen T. F. (2011). The Marriage and Family Experience: Intimate Relationships in a Changing Society. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Suggested reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Thomas, S. G. (28 October 2011). The Good Divorce. The New York Times",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Suggested reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Zartler U., Heinz-Martin, V., Arránz Becker, O. (Edts.) (2015): Family Dynamics after Separation. A Life Course Perspective on Post-Divorce Families. Special Issue ZfF, Volume 10, Opladen/Toronto: Barbara Budrich. .",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Suggested reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Marriage and divorce statistics, Eurostat – Statistics Explained",
"section_idx": 16,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
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}
] | [
"Divorce",
"Family_law",
"Interpersonal_conflict"
] | 93,190 | 22,055 | 2,370 | 236 | 0 | 0 | divorce | termination of a marital union | [
"dissolution of marriage"
] |
40,148 | 1,106,406,296 | Harold_Godwinson | [
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"plaintext": "Harold Godwinson (– 14 October 1066), also called Harold II, was the last crowned Anglo-Saxon English king. Harold reigned from 6 January 1066 until his death at the Battle of Hastings, fighting the Norman invaders led by William the Conqueror during the Norman conquest of England. His death marked the end of Anglo-Saxon rule over England.",
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"plaintext": "Harold Godwinson was a member of a prominent Anglo-Saxon family with ties to Cnut the Great. He became a powerful earl after the death of his father, Godwin, Earl of Wessex. After his brother-in-law, King Edward the Confessor, died without an heir on 5 January 1066, the Witenagemot convened and chose Harold to succeed him; he was probably the first English monarch to be crowned in Westminster Abbey. In late September, he successfully repelled an invasion by rival claimant Harald Hardrada of Norway in York before marching his army back south to meet William the Conqueror at Hastings two weeks later.",
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"plaintext": "Harold was a son of Godwin (–1053), the powerful earl of Wessex, and of Gytha Thorkelsdóttir, whose brother Ulf the Earl was married to Estrid Svendsdatter (c.1015/1016), the daughter of King Sweyn Forkbeard (died 1014) and sister of King Cnut the Great of England and Denmark. Ulf and Estrid's son would become King Sweyn II of Denmark in 1047. Godwin was the son of Wulfnoth, probably a thegn and a native of Sussex. Godwin began his political career by supporting King Edmund Ironside (reigned April to November 1016), but switched to supporting King Cnut by 1018, when Cnut named him Earl of Wessex. Godwin remained an earl throughout the remainder of Cnut's reign, one of only two earls to survive to the end of that reign. On Cnut's death in 1035, Godwin originally supported Harthacnut instead of Cnut's initial successor Harold Harefoot, but managed to switch sides in 1037—although not without becoming involved in the 1036 murder of Alfred Aetheling, half-brother of Harthacnut and younger brother of the later King Edward the Confessor. When Harold Harefoot died in 1040, Harthacnut ascended the English throne and Godwin's power was imperiled by his earlier involvement in Alfred's murder, but an oath and large gift secured the new king's favour for Godwin. Harthacnut's death in 1042 probably involved Godwin in a role as kingmaker, helping to secure the English throne for Edward the Confessor. In 1045 Godwin reached the height of his power when the new king married Godwin's daughter Edith.",
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"plaintext": "Godwin and Gytha had several children—six sons: Sweyn, Harold, Tostig, Gyrth, Leofwine and Wulfnoth (in that order); and three daughters: Edith of Wessex (originally named Gytha but renamed Ealdgyth (or Edith) when she married King Edward the Confessor), Gunhild and Ælfgifu. The birthdates of the children are unknown. Harold was aged about 25 in 1045, which makes his birth year around 1020.",
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"plaintext": "Edith married Edward on 23 January 1045 and, around that time, Harold became Earl of East Anglia. Harold is called \"earl\" when he appears as a witness in a will that may date to 1044; but, by 1045, Harold regularly appears as an earl in documents. One reason for his appointment to East Anglia may have been a need to defend against the threat from King Magnus the Good of Norway. It is possible that Harold led some of the ships from his earldom that were sent to Sandwich in 1045 against Magnus. Sweyn, Harold's elder brother, had been named an earl in 1043. It was also around the time that Harold was named an earl that he began a relationship with Edith the Fair, who appears to have been the heiress to lands in Cambridgeshire, Suffolk and Essex, lands in Harold's new earldom. The relationship was a form of marriage that was not blessed or sanctioned by the Church, known as More danico, or \"in the Danish manner\", and was accepted by most laypeople in England at the time. Any children of such a union were considered legitimate. Harold probably entered the relationship in part to secure support in his new earldom.",
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"plaintext": "Harold's elder brother Sweyn was exiled in 1047 after abducting the abbess of Leominster. Sweyn's lands were divided between Harold and a cousin, Beorn. In 1049, Harold was in command of a ship or ships that were sent with a fleet to aid Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor against Baldwin V, Count of Flanders, who was in revolt against Henry. During this campaign, Sweyn returned to England and attempted to secure a pardon from the king, but Harold and Beorn refused to return any of their lands, and Sweyn, after leaving the royal court, took Beorn hostage and later killed him.",
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"plaintext": "In 1051 Edward appointed an enemy of the Godwins as Archbishop of Canterbury and soon afterwards drove them into exile, but they raised an army which forced the king to restore them to their positions a year later. Earl Godwin died in 1053, and Harold succeeded him as Earl of Wessex, which made him the most powerful lay figure in England after the king.",
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"plaintext": "In 1055 Harold drove back the Welsh, who had burned Hereford. Harold also became Earl of Hereford in 1058, and replaced his late father as the focus of opposition to growing Norman influence in England under the restored monarchy (1042–66) of Edward the Confessor, who had spent more than 25 years in exile in Normandy. He led a series of successful campaigns (1062–63) against Gruffydd ap Llywelyn of Gwynedd, king of Wales. This conflict ended with Gruffydd's defeat and death in 1063.",
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"plaintext": "In 1064, Harold was apparently shipwrecked at Ponthieu. There is much speculation about this voyage. The earliest post-conquest Norman chroniclers report that King Edward had previously sent Robert of Jumièges, the archbishop of Canterbury, to appoint as his heir Edward's maternal kinsman, Duke William II of Normandy, and that at this later date Harold was sent to swear fealty. Scholars disagree as to the reliability of this story. William, at least, seems to have believed he had been offered the succession, but there must have been some confusion either on William's part or perhaps by both men, since the English succession was neither inherited nor determined by the reigning monarch. Instead the Witenagemot, the assembly of the kingdom's leading notables, would convene after a king's death to select a successor. Other acts of Edward are inconsistent with his having made such a promise, such as his efforts to return his nephew Edward the Exile, son of King Edmund Ironside, from Hungary in 1057. Later Norman chroniclers suggest alternative explanations for Harold's journey: that he was seeking the release of members of his family who had been held hostage since Godwin's exile in 1051, or even that he had simply been travelling along the English coast on a hunting and fishing expedition and had been driven across the Channel by an unexpected storm. There is general agreement that he left from Bosham, and was blown off course, landing at Ponthieu. He was captured by Count Guy I of Ponthieu, and was then taken as a hostage to the count's castle at Beaurain, up the River Canche from its mouth at what is now Le Touquet. Duke William arrived soon afterward and ordered Guy to turn Harold over to him. Harold then apparently accompanied William to battle against William's enemy Duke Conan II, Duke of Brittany. While crossing into Brittany past the fortified abbey of Mont Saint-Michel, Harold is recorded as rescuing two of William's soldiers from quicksand. They pursued Conan from Dol-de-Bretagne to Rennes, and finally to Dinan, where he surrendered the fortress's keys at the point of a lance. William presented Harold with weapons and arms, knighting him. The Bayeux Tapestry, and other Norman sources, then record that Harold swore an oath on sacred relics to William to support his claim to the English throne. After Edward's death, the Normans were quick to point out that in accepting the crown of England, Harold had broken this alleged oath.",
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"plaintext": "The chronicler Orderic Vitalis wrote of Harold that he \"was distinguished by his great size and strength of body, his polished manners, his firmness of mind and command of words, by a ready wit and a variety of excellent qualities. But what availed so many valuable gifts, when good faith, the foundation of all virtues, was wanting?\"",
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"plaintext": "Due to a doubling of taxation by Tostig in 1065 that threatened to plunge England into civil war, Harold supported Northumbrian rebels against his brother Tostig, and replaced him with Morcar. This led to Harold's marriage alliance with the northern earls but fatally split his own family, driving Tostig into alliance with King Harald Hardrada (\"Hard Ruler\") of Norway.",
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"plaintext": "At the end of 1065, King Edward the Confessor fell into a coma without clarifying his preference for the succession. He died on 5 January 1066, according to the Vita Ædwardi Regis, but not before briefly regaining consciousness and commending his widow and the kingdom to Harold's \"protection\". The intent of this charge remains ambiguous, as is the Bayeux Tapestry, which simply depicts Edward pointing at a man thought to represent Harold. When the Witan convened the next day they selected Harold to succeed, and his coronation followed on 6 January, most likely held in Westminster Abbey, though no evidence from the time survives to confirm this. Although later Norman sources point to the suddenness of this coronation, the reason may have been that all the nobles of the land were present at Westminster for the feast of Epiphany, and not because of any usurpation of the throne on Harold's part.",
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"plaintext": "In early January 1066, hearing of Harold's coronation, Duke William II of Normandy began plans to invade England, building 700 warships and transports at Dives-sur-Mer on the Normandy coast. Initially, William could not get support for the invasion but, claiming that Harold had sworn on sacred relics to support his claim to the throne after having been shipwrecked at Ponthieu, William received the Church's blessing and nobles flocked to his cause. In anticipation of the invasion, Harold assembled his troops on the Isle of Wight, but the invasion fleet remained in port for almost seven months, perhaps due to unfavourable winds. On 8 September, with provisions running out, Harold disbanded his army and returned to London. On the same day Harald Hardrada of Norway, who also claimed the English crown, joined Tostig and invaded, landing his fleet at the mouth of the Tyne.",
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"plaintext": "The invading forces of Hardrada and Tostig defeated the English earls Edwin of Mercia and Morcar of Northumbria at the Battle of Fulford near York on 20 September 1066. Harold led his army north on a forced march from London, reached Yorkshire in four days, and caught Hardrada by surprise. On 25 September, in the Battle of Stamford Bridge, Harold defeated Hardrada and Tostig, who were both killed.",
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"plaintext": "According to Snorri Sturluson, in a story described by Edward Freeman as \"plainly mythical\", before the battle a single man rode up alone to Harald Hardrada and Tostig. He gave no name, but spoke to Tostig, offering the return of his earldom if he would turn against Hardrada. Tostig asked what his brother Harold would be willing to give Hardrada for his trouble. The rider replied \"Seven feet of English ground, as he is taller than other men.\" Then he rode back to the Saxon host. Hardrada was impressed by the rider's boldness, and asked Tostig who he was. Tostig replied that the rider was Harold Godwinson himself.",
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"plaintext": "On 12 September 1066 William's fleet sailed from Normandy. Several ships sank in storms, which forced the fleet to take shelter at Saint-Valery-sur-Somme and to wait for the wind to change. On 27 September the Norman fleet set sail for England, arriving the following day at Pevensey on the coast of East Sussex. Harold's army marched 241 miles (386 kilometres) to intercept William, who had landed perhaps 7,000 men in Sussex, southern England. Harold established his army in hastily built earthworks near Hastings. The two armies clashed at the Battle of Hastings, at Senlac Hill (near the present town of Battle) close by Hastings on 14 October, where after nine hours of hard fighting, Harold was killed and his forces defeated. His brothers Gyrth and Leofwine were also killed in the battle, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.",
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"plaintext": "The notion that Harold died by an arrow to the eye is a popular belief today, but this historical legend is subject to much scholarly debate. A Norman account of the battle, Carmen de Hastingae Proelio (\"Song of the Battle of Hastings\"), said to have been written shortly after the battle by Guy, Bishop of Amiens, says that Harold was killed by four knights, probably including Duke William, and his body dismembered. Twelfth-century Anglo-Norman histories, such as William of Malmesbury's Gesta Regum Anglorum and Henry of Huntingdon's Historia Anglorum recount that Harold died by an arrow wound to his head. An earlier source, Amatus of Montecassino's L'Ystoire de li Normant (\"History of the Normans\"), written only twenty years after the battle of Hastings, contains a report of Harold being shot in the eye with an arrow, but this may be an early fourteenth-century addition. Later accounts reflect one or both of these two versions.",
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"plaintext": "A figure in the panel of the Bayeux Tapestry with the inscription \"Hic Harold Rex Interfectus Est\" (\"Here King Harold is killed\") is depicted gripping an arrow that has struck his eye, but some historians have questioned whether this man is intended to be Harold or if Harold is intended as the next figure lying to the right almost supine, being mutilated beneath a horse's hooves. Etchings made of the Tapestry in the 1730s show the standing figure with differing objects. Benoît's 1729 sketch shows only a dotted line indicating stitch marks without any indication of fletching, whereas all other arrows in the Tapestry are fletched. Bernard de Montfaucon's 1730 engraving has a solid line resembling a spear being held overhand matching the manner of the figure to the left. Stothard's 1819 water-colour drawing has, for the first time, a fletched arrow in the figure's eye. Although not apparent in the earlier depictions, the Tapestry today has stitch marks indicating the fallen figure once had an arrow in its eye. It has been proposed that the second figure once had an arrow added by over-enthusiastic nineteenth-century restorers that was later unstitched. Many believe this, as the name \"Harold\" is above the figure with an arrow in his eye. This has been disputed by examining other examples from the Tapestry where the visual centre of a scene, not the location of the inscription, identifies named figures. Further evidence is that an arrow volley would be loosed before the Norman cavalry charge. A further suggestion is that both accounts are accurate, and that Harold suffered first the eye wound, then the mutilation, and the Tapestry is depicting both in sequence.",
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"plaintext": "The account of the contemporary chronicler William of Poitiers states that the body of Harold was given to William Malet for burial:",
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"plaintext": "Another source states that Harold's widow, Edith Swannesha, was called to identify the body, which she did by some private mark known only to her. Harold's strong association with Bosham, his birthplace, and the discovery in 1954 of an Anglo-Saxon coffin in the church there, has led some to suggest it as the place of King Harold's burial. A request to exhume a grave in Bosham Church was refused by the Diocese of Chichester in December 2003, the Chancellor having ruled that the chances of establishing the identity of the body as Harold's were too slim to justify disturbing a burial place. A prior exhumation had revealed the remains of a man, estimated at up to 60 years of age from photographs of the remains, lacking a head, one leg and the lower part of his other leg, a description consistent with the fate of the king as recorded in the Carmen. The poem also claims Harold was buried by the sea, which is consistent with William of Poitiers' account and with the identification of the grave at Bosham Church that is only yards from Chichester Harbour and in sight of the English Channel.",
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"plaintext": "There were legends of Harold's body being given a proper funeral years later in his church at Waltham Holy Cross in Essex, which he had refounded in 1060. Legends also grew up that Harold had not died at Hastings but instead fled England or that he later ended his life as a hermit at Chester or Canterbury.",
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"plaintext": "Harold's son Ulf, along with Morcar and two others, were released from prison by King William as he lay dying in 1087. Ulf threw his lot in with Robert Curthose, who knighted him, and then disappeared from history. Two of Harold's other sons, Godwine and Edmund, invaded England in 1068 and 1069 with the aid of Diarmait mac Máel na mBó (High King of Ireland) but were defeated at the Battle of Northam. In 1068, Diarmait presented another Irish king with Harold's battle standard.",
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"plaintext": "For some twenty years Harold was married more danico (Latin: \"in the Danish manner\") to Edith the Fair and had at least six children with her. She was considered Harold's mistress by the clergy.",
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"plaintext": "According to Orderic Vitalis, Harold was at some time betrothed to Adeliza, a daughter of William the Conqueror; if so, the betrothal never led to marriage.",
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"plaintext": "About January 1066, Harold married Edith (or Ealdgyth), daughter of Ælfgar, Earl of Mercia, and widow of the Welsh prince Gruffydd ap Llywelyn. Edith had one son, named Harold, probably born posthumously. Another of Harold's sons, Ulf, may have been a twin of the younger Harold, though most historians consider him a son of Edyth Swannesha. Both these sons survived into adulthood and probably lived out their lives in exile.",
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"plaintext": "After her husband's death, Edith fled for refuge to her brothers, Edwin, Earl of Mercia and Morcar of Northumbria, but both men made their peace with King William initially before rebelling and losing their lands and lives. Edith may have fled abroad (possibly with Harold's mother, Gytha, or with Harold's daughter, Gytha). Harold's sons, Godwin and Edmund, fled to Ireland and then invaded Devon, but were defeated by Brian of Brittany.",
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"plaintext": " William of Poitiers, Gesta Guillelmi II Ducis Normannorum, or \"The Deeds of William II, Duke of the Normans\". Quoted by David C. Douglas & George W. Greenaway (eds.), in: English Historical Documents 1042–1189, London, 1959.",
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"plaintext": " BBC Historic Figures: Harold II (Godwineson) (c. 1020–1066)",
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"plaintext": "|-",
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"Harold Godwineson"
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40,149 | 1,104,672,270 | Godwin,_Earl_of_Wessex | [
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"plaintext": "Godwin of Wessex (; – 15 April 1053) became one of the most powerful earls in England under the Danish king Cnut the Great (King of England from 1016 to 1035) and his successors. Cnut made Godwin the first Earl of Wessex (). Godwin was the father of King Harold II () and of Edith of Wessex, who in 1045 married King Edward the Confessor ().",
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"plaintext": "Godwin was born , likely in Sussex. Godwin's father was probably Wulfnoth Cild, who was a thegn of Sussex. His origin is unknown but 'Child' (also written Cild) is cognate with 'the Younger' or 'Junior' and as today associated with some form of inheritance. In 1009 Wulfnoth was accused of unknown crimes at a muster of Æthelred the Unready's fleet and fled with twenty ships; the ships sent to pursue him were destroyed in a storm. Godwin was probably an adherent of Æthelred's eldest son, Æthelstan, who left him an estate when he died in 1014. This estate in Compton, Sussex, had once belonged to Godwin's father. Although he is now always thought of as connected with Wessex, Godwin had probably been raised in Sussex, not Wessex and was probably a native of Sussex.",
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"plaintext": "After Cnut seized the throne in 1016, Godwin's rise was rapid. By 1018 he was an earl, probably of eastern Wessex, and then by around 1020 of all Wessex. Between 1019 and 1023 he accompanied Cnut on an expedition to Denmark, where he distinguished himself, and shortly afterwards married Gytha, the sister of the Danish earl, Ulf, who was married to Cnut's sister, Estrid.",
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"plaintext": "Cnut died in 1035 and England was disputed between Harold Harefoot, Cnut's son with Ælfgifu of Northampton, and Harthacnut, his son by Emma of Normandy. Godwin supported Harthacnut, crowned king of Denmark, and as the latter was beset with a Norwegian invasion of Denmark, it was agreed that Harold should act as English regent for these two half-brothers. In 1036 Alfred Ætheling, younger son of Emma of Normandy and Æthelred the Unready, attempted an invasion of England, but he was intercepted by Godwin, who handed him to Harold Harefoot. Alfred was blinded and died soon afterwards. Godwin's responsibility for the crime was disputed, but whatever the truth it left a stain which affected his future. In 1037, with Harthacnut still in war-stricken Denmark, Harold was recognised as king, almost certainly with Godwin's support.",
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"plaintext": "In 1040, Harold Harefoot died and Godwin backed the successful accession of Harthacnut to the throne of England. When Harthacnut died in 1042 Godwin supported the claim of Æthelred's last surviving son Edward the Confessor to the throne. Edward had spent most of the previous thirty years in Normandy. His reign restored to the throne of England the \"native\" royal house of Wessex, a branch now in blood intertwined with the Danish-Norman dynasty of Emma of Normandy.",
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"plaintext": "Godwin secured the marriage of his daughter Edith (Eadgyth) to Edward in 1045.",
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"plaintext": "As Edward drew advisors, nobles and priests from his and his mother's Normano-French circle to develop his own power base, Godwin led opposition to the influx of the nascent European Norman dominion. After a violent clash between people of Dover and the visiting Eustace II, Count of Boulogne, Godwin was ordered to punish the people of Dover (as he and Leofric, Earl of Mercia had done in Worcester, in that earldom). This time, however, Godwin refused, choosing to champion his own countrymen against a visiting foreign power and defying his own king. Edward saw this as a test of power, negotiating the backing of Siward, Earl of Northumbria and Leofric, to attaint and exile Godwin. Godwin and his sons were exiled from England in September 1051. He along with his wife Gytha and sons Sweyn, Tostig and Gyrth sought refuge in Flanders; sons Leofwine and Harold fled to Dublin, where they gained the shelter and help of Diarmait mac Máel na mBó, King of Leinster. They all returned to England the next year with armed forces, gaining the support of the navy, burghers, and peasants, so compelling Edward to restore the earldom. This set a precedent: followed by a rival earl before 1066; then by Godwin's own son, Tostig, in 1066.",
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"plaintext": "The year after his restoration to earldom, on 15 April, Godwin died suddenly, days after collapsing at a royal banquet at Winchester. According to one colourful account by the 12th-century writer Aelred of Rievaulx, Godwin tried to disclaim responsibility for Alfred Ætheling's death with the words \"May this crust which I hold in my hand pass through my throat and leave me unharmed to show that I was guiltless of treason towards you, and that I was innocent of your brother's death!\". The work says he then swallowed the crust, but it stuck in his throat and killed him. However, this appears to be no more than Norman propaganda, contemporary accounts indicating that he just had a sudden illness, possibly a stroke. According to the Abingdon version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, under the year 1053: \"On Easter Monday, as he was sitting with the king at a meal he suddenly sank towards the footstool bereft of speech, and deprived of all his strength. Then he was carried to the king's private room and they thought it was about to pass off. But it was not so. On the contrary, he continued like this without speech or strength right on to the Thursday, and then departed this life.\"",
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"plaintext": "His son Harold (Godwinson) succeeded him as Earl of Wessex, that is, overlord of roughly the southernmost third of England. On the deaths of Earl Siward of Northumbria (1055) and later Ælfgar, Earl of Mercia (1062), the children of Godwin were poised to take near-total overlordship of England, under the king. Tostig was helped into the earldom of Northumbria, approximating to England's northern third. The Mercian earl for the central third of England was then sidelined, especially after Harold and Tostig broke the Welsh-Mercian alliance in 1063. Harold later succeeded Edward the Confessor and became King of England in his own right in 1066. At this point, both Harold's remaining brothers in England were among his nominally loyal earls, Wessex vested in the King directly, and he had married the sister of Earl E(a)dwin(e) of Mercia and of Morcar, Earl of Northumbria (who had replaced Tostig). Thus this \"House of Godwin\" looked set to found a multi-generational royal dynasty, but instead Harold was overthrown and killed in the Norman Conquest.",
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"plaintext": " Sweyn Godwinson, Earl of Herefordshire (c. 1020 – 29 September 1052)",
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"plaintext": " Harold II of England (c. 1022 – 14 October 1066)",
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"plaintext": " Edith of Wessex, (c. 1025 – 18 December 1075), queen consort of Edward the Confessor",
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"plaintext": " Tostig Godwinson, Earl of Northumbria (c. 1026 – 25 September 1066)",
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"plaintext": " Gyrth Godwinson, Earl of East Anglia (c. 1032 – 14 October 1066)",
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"plaintext": " Leofwine Godwinson, Earl of Kent (c. 1035 – 14 October 1066)",
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"plaintext": " Wulfnoth Godwinson (c. 1040 – died after 1087)",
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"plaintext": " Alfgar, possibly a monk in Rheims",
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"plaintext": " Edgiva",
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"plaintext": " Elgiva (died c. 1066)",
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"plaintext": " Gunhilda, a nun (died 24 August 1087)",
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40,151 | 1,106,661,913 | Alappuzha_district | [
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"plaintext": "Alappuzha district (), is one of the 14 districts in the Indian state of Kerala. It was formed as Alleppey district on 17 August 1957, the name of the district being changed to Alappuzha in 1990, and is the smallest district of Kerala. Alleppey town, the district headquarters, was renamed Alappuzha in 2012, even though the anglicised name is still commonly used to describe the town as well as the district.",
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"plaintext": "A town with canals, backwaters, beaches, and lagoons, Alappuzha was described by George Curzon, the British Governor-General of India in the beginning of the 20th century CE, as the \"Venice of the Eastern world.\" The district is best known for its picturesque Kerala Backwaters, by which it is well connected to other parts of Kerala, including the tourist destination of Kumarakom, the district being a well known tourist destination in India. It is also known for its coir factories, as most of Kerala's coir industries are situated in and around the Alappuzha town.",
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"plaintext": "The Vembanad lake, which lies below the sea level, is the longest lake in the Indian peninsula, and the district of Alappuzha lies between this lake and the Arabian Sea. Kuttanad region of the Alappuzha district, which lies below the sea level, is the point of least elevation in the entire India. Kuttanad, also known as The Rice Bowl of Kerala, has the lowest altitude in India, and is also one of the few places in the world where cultivation takes place below the sea level. ",
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"plaintext": "The district was home to the Communist-led Punnapra-Vayalar uprising against the Divan of the British Princely state of Travancore in the 1940s.",
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"plaintext": "The present-day town of Alappuzha owes its existence to Raja Kesavadas during the second half of the 18th century CE. However the district of Alappuzha had an important position in the classical Malayalam literature. Kuttanad, the rice bowl of Kerala, was well known from the early Sangam period itself. ",
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"plaintext": "History records that the region which now constitutes the modern-day district of Alappuzha had trade relations with the ancient Greece, the ancient Rome, the ancient Levant, the ancient Arabian peninsula, and the Ancient Egypt during the Sangam period in the early centuries of the Common Era. ",
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"plaintext": "The ancient port town of Barace which is recorded as an important centre of the Indian Ocean trade in the ancient Greco-Roman travelogues such as the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (written around 50 CE) is often identified with the modern-day coastal town of Purakkad on the mouth of the Pamba River in the Alappuzha district. This river is also the third-longest river in Kerala only after to the Periyar river and the Bharathappuzha river.",
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"plaintext": "Early members of the Chera dynasty had their home in Kuttanad and were sometimes known as the Kuttuvans. However the regions south of the Pamba River was ruled by the Ay kingdom during the ancient period. Pamba is mentioned as Baris in the ancient Greco-Roman travelogues. There are archaeological evidences of the early period of this district, including ancient fossils, stone inscriptions and monuments, in the archeological sites like the excavation sites, the caves, the temples, etc. The literary works of the Sangam period also help to take a look into the ancient period of the district.",
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"plaintext": "Alappuzha district was once a prominent centre of Buddhism in South India prior to the arrival of Nambudiri Brahmins into the region. Sri Mulavasam was then a prominent Buddhist pilgrimage centre in the Indian peninsula. Numerous remnants of once flourished Buddhism have been found from the taluks of Ambalappuzha and Mavelikara.",
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"plaintext": "The regions included in the district had a prominent position in the medieval Malayalam literary works such as Unnuneeli Sandesam. One among the famous literary works of this period was the Ascharya Choodamani, a Sanskrit drama written by Sakthibhadra who was a scholar from Chengannur. ",
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"plaintext": "The feudal monarch of Chempakasseri was at its zenith during the reign of Pooradam Thirunal Devanarayanan, a great scholar and a poet who was also the author of the literary work Vedantha Ratnamala. It is said that Ambalappuzha Sri Krishna Temple, at Ambalappuzha, was constructed and the idol of Lord Krishna installed during that time. Chempakassery was ruled by Brahmin monarchs during the medieval period. ",
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"plaintext": "It is believed that Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri, Kumaran Namboothiri, and Neelakanta Deekshithar were eminent scholars who patronized his court.",
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"plaintext": "The southern regions of the modern-day Alappuzha district once formed part of the erstwhile \"kingdom of Odanad\" (also known as the \"kingdom of Kayamkulam\" or known by the name \"Onattukara\"), which was later invaded by the Travancorean forces in the year 1746. It was a branch of the ancient Ay kingdom. It was also known as the Chirava Swaroopam, where the word Chirava derives from the combination of two Malayalam words, Cheru and Aayi, which means \"a smaller branch of the Ay kingdom\". It included some parts of the modern-day Taluks of Chengannur, Mavelikara, Karthikappally, and Karunagappally. ",
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"plaintext": "The northernmost region of the district, which curresponds to the present-day Taluk of Cherthala, was ruled by the \"Kingdom of Karappuram\" prior to the 1762 treaty that was signed between the kingdom of Travancore and the Kingdom of Cochin. Karappuram was a tributary of the Kingdom of Cochin until 1762 when it was handed over to the kingdom of Travancore. The headquarters of the \"Madathingal branch\" of the Cochin Royal family was situated at Madathinkara in Karappuram. ",
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"plaintext": "South of Karappuram lied the \"Chempakassery kingdom\" which was also known by the name the \"Kingdom of Purakkad\" prior to the Travancorean conquest of 1746. The kingdom of Chempakassery included the modern-day Taluks of Ambalappuzha and Kuttanad. The monarch of Chempakassery was known by the title \"Chempakassery Deva Narayanan\". Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri and Kunchan Nambiar, who originally hailed from the South Malabar region, were court poets of the Chempakassery kingdom at times. ",
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"plaintext": "Karthikappally was a small feudal kingdom that lied between the feudal kingdoms of Odanad and Chempakassery until the Travancorean invasion of the mid-18th century CE, which curresponds to the modern-day Taluk of Karthikappally. The southernmost portion of the district had been once part of the erstwhile feudal kingdom of Karunagappally, which had been subordinate to the Chirava Swaroopam (Kayamkulam) at times.",
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"plaintext": "In the 17th century the Portuguese power declined on the Malabar Coast and the Dutch Malabar gained a predominant position in the principalities of this district. The church located at Kokkamangalam or Kokkothamangalam is believed to be one of the seven churches founded by St. Thomas the Apostle, one of the twelve disciples of Jesus Christ according to the oral traditions. The picturesque CSI Christ Church in Alappuzha town was built in 1816 by the first CMS (Church Missionary Society) missionary to India, Rev. Thomas Norton. It was the first Anglican Church to be established in the erstwhile state of Travancore.",
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"plaintext": "It was during the mid-18th century CE that the Maharaja Marthanda Varma, popularly known as the ‘Architect of the Modern Travancore’, interfered in the political affairs of the smaller feudal principalities who ruled parts of the district. Marthandavarma Maharaja had a remarkable role in the internal progress of the district. The Krishnapuram Palace, which is now a protected monument of the State Archaeology Department, was constructed during his administrative period. He was known as the \"Architect of the Modern Alleppey\" and played a key role in making Alappuzha a premier port town of Travancore.",
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"plaintext": "During the reign of Balaramavarma Maharaja, Velu Thampi Dalava took keen interest in the development of the town and the port. He brought whole area of the Pathiramanal island into coconut cultivation and it's larger tracts into paddy cultivation. The role of Velu Thampi Dalava in the development of Alappuzha is worth mentioning. In the 19th century the district attained progress in all spheres. ",
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"plaintext": "Kayamkulam Kochunni was a heroic outlaw from Kayamkulam who lived during the 19th century CE. The 19th century social reformer Arattupuzha Velayudha Panicker hails from the modern-day district of Alappuzha.",
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"plaintext": "The first modern factory for the manufacture of Coir mats and mattings was also established in 1859 at Alappuzha. The Alappuzha Town Improvement Committee was set up in 1894. During the Travancorean administration, Cherthala taluk was included in the Northern division (Kottayam division) while rest of the Taluks which together constitute the modern-day district of Alappuzha was placed under the Central division (Kollam division) of the British Princely state of Travancore.",
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"plaintext": "This district played a prominent role in the freedom struggle of Travancore. The campaign for the eradication of Untouchability was organized much earlier in this district by T.K. Madhavan, a journalist and in 1925 the approach roads to the temples, especially to the Ambalappuzha Sree Krishna Swamy Temple, were thrown open to the Hindus of all castes. The district also witnessed the ‘Nivarthana’ movement which was started as a protest against the constitutional repression in 1932. The first political strike in Kerala was held at Alappuzha in 1938. The district was home to the Communist-led Punnapra-Vayalar uprising against the Divan of the British Princely state of Travancore in the 1940s.",
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"plaintext": "Alappuzha is on a peninsular landmass between the Arabian Sea and the Vembanad lake. Major rivers are the Manimala, the Pamba, and the Achankovil; their branches and tributaries flow through Alappuzha and empty into the Vembanad lake. The most important lake is Vembanad.",
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"plaintext": "Alappuzha was the only district in Kerala without public forest land. But that changed in 2013, when of land at Veeyapuram was declared as reserved forest by the Forest and Wildlife Department.",
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"plaintext": "Pathiramanal island on the Vembanad lake of Alappuzha district is famous for rare migrating birds.",
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"plaintext": "Alappuzha city is the administrative headquarters of the Alappuzha district. The district is divided into two revenue divisions-Alappuzha and Chengannur.",
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"plaintext": "There are 6 municipal towns in the district. They are:",
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"plaintext": "There are two Lok Sabha constituencies in Alappuzha: Alappuzha and Mavelikara.",
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15248328
],
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[
82,
88
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Taluks in the Alappuzha Revenue Division are:",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Taluks in the Chengannur Revenue Division are:",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Alappuzha district is divided into 93 revenue villages for the ease and decentralisation of its revenue administration. They are further incorporated into 6 taluks as eludicated below.",
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"section_name": "Administration",
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
157,
163
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Arookutty",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
5706619
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Aroor",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
5706626
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Arthunkal",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
1504737
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cherthala North",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
2280740
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cherthala South",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
2280740
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ezhupunna",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623667
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kadakkarappally",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623669
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kanjikuzhy",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
68765975
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kodamthuruth",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623697
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kokkothamangalam",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
5797905
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kuthiyathode",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623709
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mararikulam North",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
22127800
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pallippuram",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Panavally",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
8530912
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pattanakkad",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623731
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Perumbalam",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623737
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Thanneermukkom North",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
15532894
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Thanneermukkom South",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
15532894
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Thuravoor South",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
30792219
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Thaikkattussery",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
36597734
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Vayalar East",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
8903631
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alappuzha West",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
3793923
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ambalappuzha",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
1748648
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ambalappuzha North",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
1748648
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Aryad South",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
6214985
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kalavoor",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623677
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Karumady",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623689
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Komalapuram",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
5798045
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mannancherry",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623710
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mullakkal",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20693521
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Paravur-Alappuzha",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
26048581,
3793923
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
9,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pathirappally",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
10121166
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pazhaveedu",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
26048739
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Punnapra",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
26048603
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Purakkad",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623743
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Champakulam",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
14243114
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Edathua",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
3794911
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kainakary North",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
3794801
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kainakary South",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
3794801
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kavalam",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
2306089
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kunnumma",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623704
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Muttar",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623719
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nedumudi",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623720
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Neelamperoor",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
11941303
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pulinkunnoo",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623741
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ramankary",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
7365014
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Thakazhy",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623749
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Thalavady",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
18340125
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Veliyanad",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Arattupuzha",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
6415056
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cheppad",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
7223867
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cheruthana",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623651
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chingoli",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
19857995
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Haripad",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
6210212
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kandalloor",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623681
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Karthikappally",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623684
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Karuvatta",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
11371786
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kayamkulam",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
3606031
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Keerikkad",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623695
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Krishnapuram",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623699
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kumarapuram",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
69578655
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Muthukulam",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623716
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pallippad",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623726
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pathiyoor",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623730
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Puthuppally",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623745
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Thrikkunnapuzha",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623789
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Veeyapuram",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623802
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bharanikkavu",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623598
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chennithala",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
11743468
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chunakkara",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623654
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kannamangalam",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623682
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kattanam",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623691
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mavelikara",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
2099938
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nooranad",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623722
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Palamel",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623724
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[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Perungala",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623738
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Thamarakkulam",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623752
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[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Thazhakkara",
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"section_name": "Administration",
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33642121
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Thekkekara",
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"section_name": "Administration",
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20623755
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Thriperumthura",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623790
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Vallikunnam",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623795
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Vettiyar",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
19918642
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ala",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623580
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
4
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chengannur",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
4024002
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[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cheriyanad",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
11287724
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[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ennakkad",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623660
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kurattissery",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623707
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mannar",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
6228726
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mulakuzha",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623712
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pandanad",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
10907787
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Puliyoor",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623742
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Thiruvanvandoor",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623785
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Venmony",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
20623804
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "List of Collectors of Alappuzha District according to length of tenure in descending order. The longest serving District Collector of Alappuzha was K. Balakrishna Kurup and the shortest serving District Collector was Sriram Venkitaraman.",
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"target_page_ids": [
61453622
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
217,
236
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "K. Balakrishna Kurup served for 1146 days from 2 June 1980 to 23 July 1983, but from July 26, 2022 to August 2, 2022, Sriram Venkitaraman served for only 7 days from 26 July 2022 to 2 August 2022.",
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"section_name": "Administration",
"target_page_ids": [
61453622
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
118,
137
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "According to the 2011 census, Alappuzha district has a population of 2,127,789, roughly equal to the nation of Namibia or the US state of New Mexico. This gives it a ranking of 216th in India (out of a total of 640). The district has a population density of . Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was 0.88%. Alappuzha has a sex ratio of 1100 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 95.72%. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes make up 9.46% and 0.31% of the population respectively.",
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"plaintext": "Malayalam is the predominant language, spoken by 99.00% of the population. There is a small minority of Konkani speakers in urban areas.",
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"plaintext": "It has the highest population density among all districts of the state. It is 29.46% urbanized, and is the smallest district in Kerala.",
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"plaintext": "In the 2011 Indian Census, the Hindu population is 68.64%, Christian (Orthodox, Marthoma, Pentecostal and Latin Catholic are majority) 20.45, and Muslim 10.55.",
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"plaintext": "National Highway 66 (India) is one of the longest national highways in India. It connects Panvel to Kanyakumari passes through the city and allow to connect other major cities like Mumbai, Udupi, Mangalore, Kannur, Kozhikode, Ernakulam, Kollam, and Trivandrum. The construction of the Alappuzha Bypass, to route the national highway around city centers between Kommady and Kalarkode, is completed; and the highway was opened on 28 January 2021. Alappuzha is also well connected by road. There is a plan to upgrade State Highway 11 (Kerala) to national highway status which helps to connect Alappuzha to Kodaikanal as part of promoting coastal-hill tourism project.",
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"plaintext": "There are eight state highways in Alappuzha district and three of them originates from Alappuzha town. State Highway 11 (Kerala) is a state Highway that starts in Kalarcode, Alappuzha and ends in Perunna, Changanassery. The road is popularly known as AC road (Alappuzha Changanassery) road and it has 24.2km length. It's an important busy road which connects Alappuzha city with Kottayam district.",
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"plaintext": "State Highway 40 (Kerala) is an interstate state highway in Alappuzha district which connects with Alappuzha town to Madurai, Tamil Nadu. It's the only interstate state highway in Alappuzha district. State Highway 66 (Kerala) is a state highway which originates from Alappuzha town and terminates at Thoppumpady, Ernakulam. ",
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"plaintext": "Main Central Road is the arterial State Highway in the Travancore region of Kerala state. It is designated as SH 1 by the Kerala Public Works Department. It passes through Chengannur town of Alappuzha district and helps it to connect with other parts of Kerala. State Highway 5 (Kerala) is another State Highway that starts in Kayamkulam and ends at Pulimukku junction. The highway is 42.5km long. State Highway 6 (Kerala) starts in Kayamkulam and ends in Thiruvalla. This highway has 30.8km length. State Highway 10 (Kerala) is a State Highway that starts in Mavelikkara and ends in Kozhencherry. The highway is 28.7km long. State Highway 12 (Kerala) that starts in Ambalappuzha and ends in Thiruvalla and has 27.2km length.",
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{
"plaintext": "Following are the vehicle registrations in Alappuzha District:",
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{
"plaintext": " KL-04: Alappuzha RTO (Ambalappuzha Taluk)",
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{
"plaintext": " KL-29: Kayamkulam SRTO (Karthikappally Taluk)",
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{
"plaintext": " KL-30: Chengannur SRTO (Chengannur Taluk)",
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"section_name": "Transport",
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{
"plaintext": " KL-31: Mavelikkara SRTO (Mavelikkara Taluk) ",
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"section_name": "Transport",
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{
"plaintext": " KL-32: Cherthala SRTO (Cherthala Taluk)",
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{
"plaintext": " KL-66: Kuttanad SRTO (Kuttanad Taluk)",
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{
"plaintext": "SRTO (HARIPPAD)KL 88",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Old structure:-",
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"plaintext": "Following are the old registration numbers in Alappuzha District:-",
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},
{
"plaintext": " KLA",
"section_idx": 6,
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " KLY",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Transport",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " KRA",
"section_idx": 6,
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " KRY",
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},
{
"plaintext": "The presence of a lot of backwaters and canals makes water transport a common means of transport. National Waterway 3 passes through Alappuzha. There is an SWTD boat jetty in the city that lies opposite to the KSRTC bus stand. It is served by boat services to towns like Kottayam, Kollam and Changanassery besides to other small towns and jetties.",
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"plaintext": "Alappuzha district has two railway lines. Ernakulam–Kayamkulam coastal railway line primarily links with Haripad railway station, Alappuzha railway station, Cherthala railway station and Kayamkulam Junction railway station, Whereas Ernakulam-Kottayam-Kayamkulam line connects the eastern region of district and that is Chengannur railway station and Mavelikara railway station.",
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"plaintext": "The city is accessible by air, rail, road and water. Cochin International Airport, which is to the North, is the closest airport. Thiruvananthapuram International Airport, to the South, is the other airport that links the district with other countries. International tourists use this facility to reach Alappuzha. The other nearest airports are at Kozhikode () and Coimbatore (). A helipad in the city is reserved for government uses.",
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"plaintext": "Snake boat races are the most significant traditional event in Alleppey. These regattas are usually held between August and October, and involve long thin boats powered by up to 120 oarsmen. One such snake boat race is the Nehru Trophy Boat Race.",
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"plaintext": "Chemmeen was filmed in two villages in Alappuzha. In the opening credits, a written statement in Malayalam thanks the people of both villages.",
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"plaintext": "The name Alappuzha is derived from Aal (Sea)+ puzha (River-mouth) (\"The joining place of a river and the sea\") (Malayalam). Alappuzha is one of the most important tourist centres in the state, with a large network of inland canals, earning it the sobriquet \"Venice of the East\". These large networks of canals are Alleppey's lifeline. Alappuzha was one of the busiest centers of trade in the past, with one of the best-known ports along the Malabar coast. Even today it retains its charm as the center for the Coir carpet industry and prawn farming. Alappuzha, the ideal headquarters for backwater tourism, as well as for visits to the church-filled town of Kottayam and the town of Aranmula, which are known for their historic annual Aranmula Snake Boat Race. Chengannur, in Alappuzha, is the nearest railway station to Sabarimala. The Krishnapuram Palace is in Kayamkulam. The Buddha idol and Saradha Mandiram are the main attractions of Mavelikkara. The Buddha statue is in a seated posture, resembling Padmasana. A feature common to the idols is that hair has not been engraved on the head. Studies by the archaeology department have not been able to explain the absence of hair, which is common to Buddha statues of the Gandhara and Mathura traditions. The head has markings resembling headgear. Though the department has made a pagoda-like structure for the statue, no information on the idol is available to tourists who visit the area. Local people in the area light lamps before the idol. The idol at Mavelikara is high and is perhaps the biggest. The engravings on the head resemble a helmet of Greek statues. The mark of a sacred thread is visible on the body. Another feature is the marking of a shawl on one shoulder. Here the archaeological department has put up a sign specifying the age of the statue. Saradha Mandiram was the residence of Kerala Panini.",
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"plaintext": "Alappuzha is also known for its snake-boat races held on the second Saturday of August, every year. This competition; the Nehru boat race takes its name from India's first prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru, which was inaugurated in 1952. It is excitement all around as snake-boats, each manned by over a hundred oarsmen, cut through the waters like wind. The event is a tremendous success with tourists and the local population alike.",
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"plaintext": "The boat cruise along the backwaters of Alappuzha gives one a first hand experience of the lifestyle; toddy tapping, fishing for small fry, Coir-making, prawn farming etc., which remains more or less unchanged over the years.",
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"plaintext": "The Revi Karunakaran Memorial Museum features displays of art and artifacts. Revi Karunakaran was the architect of a modernized Coir industry that still employs more than 500,000 people in the state of Kerala. The objects displayed at the Museum were collected by his family over three generations and feature unique artistic pieces from all parts of the world.",
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{
"plaintext": "Alappuzha, the district headquarters, is a town with picturesque canals, backwaters and lagoons, was described as the \"Venice of the East\" by Lord Curzon.",
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"plaintext": "Kuttanad or Kuttanadu is an area of Alappuzha District, densely covered with waterways. Kuttanad is famous because of its paddy fields and farmers dedicated to the growth of paddy. It was once called the \"Keralathinte Nellara\", which means \"rice bowl of Kerala\". Factors such as expense and labor shortages affected the agriculture in this region. Many former rice fields are now used for other crops which require much lesser investment. Kuttanadu is the birthplace of the novelist Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai.",
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"plaintext": "Chettikulangara Bharani is the most important festival in Alappuzha district. The festival is one among the important temple festivals of Kerala. A Chettikulagara Bhagavathi Temple, a temple dedicated to the Goddess Bhagavathi is about four kilometers from Mavelikkara. The festival occurs on the Bharani asterism in February/March. The main rituals of the festival are the 'Kuthiyottam' and 'Kettukazcha'. The 'Kuthiyottam' features a procession of young boys who have observed rigorous ritual penance. Traditional drums, music and glittering ornamental parasols accompany this procession of boys who dance in a trance.",
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"plaintext": "'Chirappu Mahotsavam' is a big occasion at Mullackal Temple in December. Christmas comes in between the festival and Alappuzha town is a really happening place at the time. The streets are full of wandering markets and entertainment ventures like circuses and exhibitions. The streets are crowded throughout the month and there is a 'Shiveli' or the magnificent display of nine Tuskers accompanied by the 'Chenda' and the 'Panchavadyam' music.",
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"plaintext": "Padanilam Sivarathri is another important religious event in Alappuzha district. This festival is held every year in the Padanilam Parabrahma Temple. The temple is situated in the small town of Padanilam. Padanilam is situated 'about 16km from Mavelikkara town. This place can also be called the festival Village of Alappuzha because Padanilam witnesses a large number of festivals every year including vrischika mahotsavam and irupathiyetttamonam.",
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"plaintext": "A grand annual festival is celebrated at the unique Nagaraja Temple in October/November. Another festival celebrated by the temple is a one-day Thaipooyan Kavadi. The Chandanakudam is celebrated at the Kidangam-Parampu Temple during December every year. Kottamkulangara Temple in Alappuzha has two festive seasons in February and March, because of the two deities with separate flag masts in the same compound wall.",
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"plaintext": "The Kandamangalam Rajarajeshwari Temple is located in Kadakkarappally, Cherthala 1km west of Thankey junction on NH 47. The annual festival comes in March–April. Chikkara, offering of children to the mother goddess during the festival, is the major attraction. The Chamanju Valathu of children starts on the 2nd day of the festival and lasts till the 8th day. Procession named Thalappoli start on the flag-hoisting day itself. The holy bath (Aarattu) of the goddess is held in a pool within the temple compound on the 10th day of festival. Elephant processions, fireworks, stage shows, etc. are major events that attract thousands of devotees and others.",
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"plaintext": "The churches here celebrate grand annual feasts. The 'Arthunkal Perunnal' feast is celebrated at the Arthunkal Church. and Also, the big major Christian festivals are the festivals at Edathwa Church and Thumpoli Church. The regatta forms part of many festivals here in many places. The annual Vallam Kali (Nehru Trophy Boat Race) is held in the backwaters in the month of September associated with the Onam festival. The main attraction is the Chundan Vallam (Snake Boat) race, in which a number of contestants are in the running for the Prime Minister's trophy. Another celebration in Alappuzha is the \"Beach Festival\", held from 30 December to 2 January. The annual festival conducted in Champakulam \"Valiya Palli\" is another big festival.",
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{
"plaintext": " Government T D Medical College, Alappuzha",
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"plaintext": " Administration of Alappuzha district",
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"plaintext": " Kottayam district",
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"section_name": "See also",
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"plaintext": " Chengannur",
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"plaintext": " Cherthala North",
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{
"plaintext": " Kurattikkadu",
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{
"plaintext": " Mazhukeer",
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{
"plaintext": " Padanilam",
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"plaintext": " Shappil House - Ancient Family in Mavelikara",
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40,156 | 1,105,051,860 | Khlysts | [
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"plaintext": "The Khlysts or Khlysty (, \"whips\") were an underground Spiritual Christian sect, which split from the Russian Orthodox Church and existed from the 1600s until the late 20th century.",
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"plaintext": "The New Israel sect that descended from the Khlysts still exists today in Uruguay.",
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"plaintext": "The members of the sect referred to themselves by various names, including \"God's People\" (liudi bozh'i), \"followers of Christ's faith\" (Khristovovery), or simply \"Christs\" (Khristy). The appellation \"Khlysty\" is a derogatory term applied by critics of the sect. The origin of the term is disputed. It is probably a corruption of the group's aforementioned self-designation of Khristy, but may also allude to the sect's practice of ritual self-flagellation; the Russian word khlyst means a \"whip\" or \"thin rod\".",
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"plaintext": "It is also possible that the word is related to the Greek word Khiliaste (meaning \"chiliast\" or \"millennialist\"), or klyster (\"one that purges\").",
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"plaintext": "According to its own oral tradition, the sect was founded in 1645 by Danilo Filippov (or Daniil Filippovich), a peasant of Kostroma and a runaway soldier. He was said to have become a \"living god\" after the Lord of Hosts descended upon him on Gorodino Hill, Vladimir Oblast. He delivered twelve commandments to his disciples, which forbade (among other things) sexual intercourse, drinking and swearing. He later named as his successor Ivan Suslov, a peasant of Murom. Suslov, transformed by Filippov into a \"new Christ\", acquired a following of twelve apostles, along with a woman who was given the title of \"Mother of God\". The tradition relates that Suslov was crucified twice by the Russian authorities, but rose from the dead each time.",
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"plaintext": "There is no written evidence to support this story, or to confirm the existence of Filippov. The first historical references to the Khlysty are found in the writings of the Old Believers, a Christian community which resisted the 17th-century reforms of the Russian State Church. The Old Believers condemned the Khlysty as heretics, and warnings about them can be found in letters dating from around the 1670s. The Orthodox Church also attacked the Khlysty; Dimitry of Rostov wrote against them in An Investigation of the Schismatic Faith (c. 1709).",
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"plaintext": "Suslov died around 1716, at which time Prokofii Lupkin became the new \"Christ\". The oral tradition claims that Lupkin was the son of Filippov, but this is unlikely to be true.",
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"plaintext": "Lupkin was a trader, and made use of his frequent journeys to places such as Uglich and Venev to organise secret assemblies for his followers. He encouraged his followers to worship in the manner of the Old Believers, such as by making the sign of the cross with two fingers instead of three, but he also instructed them to attend the State Church and take communion. Many Khlysty, including Lupkin's wife and son, even took monastic vows. Lupkin also made large donations to the Church, which helped to protect the sect from persecution.",
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"plaintext": "The Khlysty renounced priesthood, holy books and veneration of the saints (excluding the Theotokos). They believed in a possibility of direct communication with the Holy Spirit and of its embodiment in living people. Each of their leaders was a \"living god\", and each congregation (or \"ark\") had its own \"Christ\" and \"Mother of God\", appointed by the overall leader of the sect. Furthermore, they believed that the Holy Spirit could descend upon any one of them during the state of ecstasy which they attained during the ritual of radenie (\"rejoicing\").",
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"plaintext": "This ritual, which formed the focus of their worship, took place on holy feast days. The congregation would gather during the evening at a prearranged location, such as a member's house. They would remove their outer clothing, and enter the sacred space dressed only in an undershirt. After a period of singing or chanting the Jesus Prayer (\"Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy on me, a sinner\"), some of the worshippers would feel the Holy Spirit come upon them, and would begin dancing wildly, prophesying in unintelligible language. This would continue for half an hour or more, until the dancers collapsed with exhaustion. Finally, they would share a sacramental meal of nuts, bread, pastry and kvass.",
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"plaintext": "The Khlysty practiced an extreme asceticism, in order to prepare themselves for the reception of the Holy Spirit into their bodies. They abstained from alcohol, and often fasted for days or weeks at a time. Although marriage was permitted for practical purposes, \"because the help of a wife was indispensable for a peasant\", it was a sin to engage in sexual intercourse, even with one's own wife. Connected with this mortification of the flesh was the practice of self-flagellation which often accompanied the radenie rite.",
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"plaintext": "Russian author Edvard Radzinsky has described a radenie ritual which he witnessed on the island of Chechen in 1964:",
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"plaintext": "Radzinsky says that they referred to the whirling dance as \"spiritual beer\", on account of its intoxicating effect. He reports that after the dance had continued for some time, the worshippers fell to the floor: \"And that was the end of it. But apparently only because I was present.\" Radzinsky claims that in some arks, the Khlysts would at this point engage in \"group sinning\" – a frenzied sexual orgy, which they believed would purify them from the lusts of the flesh. Similarly, C. L. Sulzberger, in his book The Fall of Eagles, writes that the Khlysty's \"foremost idea was that salvation could be attained only by total repentance and that this became far more achievable for one who had truly transgressed. 'Sin in order that you may obtain forgiveness,' was the practical side of the Khlysty.\"",
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"plaintext": "Other scholars have dismissed these rumours. Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare, referencing a study by Karl Konrad Grass, writes:",
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"plaintext": "Historian Joseph T. Fuhrmann claims that \"splinter groups practiced 'holy intercourse,' but most khlysty were devout pentecostalists who condemned such behaviour.\"",
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"plaintext": "Accusations of sexual immorality pursued the sect from its earliest days, and provoked numerous government investigations. ",
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"plaintext": "In 1717, Lupkin and twenty other Khlysty were arrested in Uglich. They were held for five months, during which time they were interrogated and beaten. While some of his followers remained in custody, Lupkin managed to negotiate his own release, with the help of a 300-ruble bribe. Despite officially repenting, he continued to lead the movement until his death in 1732.",
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"plaintext": "From 1733 to 1739, a specially-formed government commission arrested hundreds of suspected Khlyst members, charging them with participation in sexual orgies and ritual infanticide. These accusations were repeatedly denied, but the commission nevertheless convicted over three hundred people. They handed out sentences of hard labour, beatings, and mutilation of the nostrils and the tongue, and sent many of the prisoners into exile in Siberia or Orenburg.",
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"plaintext": "However, the Khlysty were undeterred, and continued practising. Some of those who had been sent into exile began to spread the movement through Siberia. In 1745, therefore, a new commission was formed, this time using \"far crueler methods of interrogation\". This commission, although eliciting false confessions of sexual deviation and cannibalistic communion, and sending another 200 people into exile, likewise failed to stamp out the movement.",
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"plaintext": "Around 1750, some doctrinal changes took place within the sect, and they became known as the Postniki (\"Fasters\"). The leaders of the sect were now seen as \"personifications of Christ\", rather than only playing host to his spirit. It was no longer considered possible for ordinary members to receive the Holy Spirit during radenie, although the ritual still held a central position in their worship.",
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"plaintext": "In 1840, a new splinter sect broke away from the Postniki. Calling themselves Israelites, they shortly afterwards split again into Old Israel and New Israel. The beliefs of the latter group departed considerably from the traditional teachings of the Khlysts. ",
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"plaintext": "These schisms weakened the movement, and their numbers began to decline. By the start of the twentieth century, estimates of the Khlysty's numbers ranged at around one hundred thousand. Prior to the outbreak of World War I, there were reported to be around 20,000 New Israelites, 15,000 Old Israelites and 3,000 Postniki in Russia. By the 1970s, there were only \"a few isolated groups\" remaining.",
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"plaintext": "The Khlysty are said to have been \"the root of all Russian sectarianism\", having spawned sects such as the Skoptsy, the Dukhobors and the Molokans.",
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"plaintext": "Grigori Rasputin was twice investigated (in 1903 and 1907) by the Tobolsk Theological Consistory, under charges of spreading Khlyst doctrine. Both investigations were closed without any evidence being found against him, but popular rumour continued to link Rasputin to the sect. ",
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"plaintext": "C. L. Sulzberger, in 1977, claimed that Rasputin \"adopted the philosophy (if not proven membership)\" of the Khlysts.",
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"plaintext": "In The Man Behind the Myth, co-authored by Rasputin's daughter Maria, it is claimed that Rasputin attended several Khlyst gatherings in the years before his arrival in St. Petersberg, but ultimately became disillusioned with the sect. The factual accuracy of this book has been called into question, and according to Brian Moynahan, Maria's story is the only evidence that Rasputin had any Khlyst connections. The consensus of modern historians is that Rasputin was never a member of the sect.",
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"plaintext": " Kartanolaisuus, Finnish cult with influences from Khlysts and Skoptsys",
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"plaintext": " The Silver Dove, Andrei Bely's first novel (1909), is based on the Khlysts",
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"plaintext": " Emeliantseva, E. \"Situational Religiosity: Everyday Strategies of the Moscow Christ-Faith Believers and of the St Petersburg Mystics Attracted by This Faith in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century,\" in Thomas Bremer (ed), Religion and the Conceptual Boundary in Central and Eastern Europe: Encounters of Faiths (Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2008) (Studies in Central and Eastern Europe), 98-120.",
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"plaintext": " Panchenko, Aleksandr. \"Strange faith\" and the blood libel",
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"plaintext": "Several years after the Council of Pereyaslav (1654) that heralded the subsequent incorporation of eastern regions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth into the Tsardom of Russia, the see of the Metropolitan of Kiev and all Rus' was transferred to the Moscow Patriarchate (1686).",
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"plaintext": "Peter the Great (1682–1725) had an agenda of radical modernization of Russian government, army, dress and manners. He made Russia a formidable political power. Peter was not religious and had a low regard for the Church, so he put it under tight governmental control. He replaced the Patriarch with a Holy Synod, which he controlled. The Tsar appointed all bishops. A clerical career was not a route chosen by upper-class society. Most parish priests were sons of priests, were very poorly educated, and very poorly paid. The monks in the monasteries had a slightly higher status; they were not allowed to marry. Politically, the church was impotent. Catherine the Great later in the 18th century seized most of the church lands, and put the priests on a small salary supplemented by fees for services such as baptism and marriage.",
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"plaintext": "In the aftermath of the Treaty of Pereyaslav, the Ottomans (supposedly acting on behalf of the Russian regent Sophia Alekseyevna) pressured the Patriarch of Constantinople into transferring the Metropolitan of Kiev and all Rus' from the jurisdiction of Constantinople to that of Moscow. The handover brought millions of faithful and half a dozen dioceses under the ultimate administrative care of the Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus' (and later of the Holy Synod of Russia), leading to the significant Ukrainian presence in the Russian Church, which continued well into the 18th century, with Theophan Prokopovich, Epiphanius Slavinetsky, Stephen Yavorsky and Demetrius of Rostov being among the most notable representatives of this trend. The exact terms and conditions of the handover of the Kiev Metropolis are a contested issue.",
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"plaintext": "In 1700, after Patriarch Adrian's death, Peter the Great prevented a successor from being named, and in 1721, following the advice of Theophan Prokopovich, Archbishop of Pskov, the Holy and Supreme Synod was established under Archbishop Stephen Yavorsky to govern the church instead of a single primate. This was the situation until shortly after the Russian Revolution of 1917, at which time the Local Council (more than half of its members being lay persons) adopted the decision to restore the Patriarchate. On 5 November (according to the Julian calendar) a new patriarch, Tikhon, was named through casting lots.",
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"plaintext": "The late 18th century saw the rise of starchestvo under Paisiy Velichkovsky and his disciples at the Optina Monastery. This marked a beginning of a significant spiritual revival in the Russian Church after a lengthy period of modernization, personified by such figures as Demetrius of Rostov and Platon of Moscow. Aleksey Khomyakov, Ivan Kireevsky and other lay theologians with Slavophile leanings elaborated some key concepts of the renovated Orthodox doctrine, including that of sobornost. The resurgence of Eastern Orthodoxy was reflected in Russian literature, an example is the figure of Starets Zosima in Fyodor Dostoyevsky's Brothers Karamazov.",
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"plaintext": "In the Russian Orthodox Church, the clergy, over time, formed a hereditary caste of priests. Marrying outside of these priestly families was strictly forbidden; indeed, some bishops did not even tolerate their clergy marrying outside of the priestly families of their diocese.",
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"plaintext": "In 1909, a volume of essays appeared under the title Vekhi (\"Milestones\" or \"Landmarks\"), authored by a group of leading left-wing intellectuals, including Sergei Bulgakov, Peter Struve and former Marxists.",
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"plaintext": "It is possible to see a similarly renewed vigor and variety in religious life and spirituality among the lower classes, especially after the upheavals of 1905. Among the peasantry, there was widespread interest in spiritual-ethical literature and non-conformist moral-spiritual movements, an upsurge in pilgrimage and other devotions to sacred spaces and objects (especially icons), persistent beliefs in the presence and power of the supernatural (apparitions, possession, walking-dead, demons, spirits, miracles and magic), the renewed vitality of local \"ecclesial communities\" actively shaping their own ritual and spiritual lives, sometimes in the absence of clergy, and defining their own sacred places and forms of piety. Also apparent was the proliferation of what the Orthodox establishment branded as \"sectarianism\", including both non-Eastern Orthodox Christian denominations, notably Baptists, and various forms of popular Orthodoxy and mysticism.",
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"plaintext": "In 1914, there were 55,173 Russian Orthodox churches and 29,593 chapels, 112,629 priests and deacons, 550 monasteries and 475 convents with a total of 95,259 monks and nuns in Russia.",
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"plaintext": "The year 1917 was a major turning point in Russian history, and also the Russian Orthodox Church. In early March 1917 (O.S.), the Tsar was forced to abdicate, the Russian empire began to implode, and the government's direct control of the Church was all but over by August 1917. On 15 August (O.S.), in the Moscow Dormition Cathedral in the Kremlin, the Local (Pomestniy) Council of the ROC, the first such convention since the late 17th century, opened. The council continued its sessions until September 1918 and adopted a number of important reforms, including the restoration of Patriarchate, a decision taken 3 days after the Bolsheviks overthrew the Provisional Government in Petrograd on 25 October (O.S.). On 5 November, Metropolitan Tikhon of Moscow was selected as the first Russian Patriarch after about 200 years of Synodal rule.",
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"plaintext": "In early February 1918, the Bolshevik-controlled government of Soviet Russia enacted the Decree on separation of church from state and school from church that proclaimed separation of church and state in Russia, freedom to \"profess any religion or profess none\", deprived religious organisations of the right to own any property and legal status. Legal religious activity in the territories controlled by Bolsheviks was effectively reduced to services and sermons inside church buildings. The Decree and attempts by Bolshevik officials to requisition church property caused sharp resentment on the part of the ROC clergy and provoked violent clashes on some occasions: on 1 February (19 January O.S.), hours after the bloody confrontation in Petrograd's Alexander Nevsky Lavra between the Bolsheviks trying to take control of the monastery's premises and the believers, Patriarch Tikhon issued a proclamation that anathematised the perpetrators of such acts.",
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"plaintext": "The church was caught in the crossfire of the Russian Civil War that began later in 1918, and church leadership, despite their attempts to be politically neutral (from the autumn of 1918), as well as the clergy generally were perceived by the Soviet authorities as a \"counter-revolutionary\" force and thus subject to suppression and eventual liquidation.",
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"plaintext": "In the first five years after the Bolshevik revolution, 28 bishops and 1,200 priests were executed.",
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"plaintext": "The Soviet Union, formally created in December 1922, was the first state to have elimination of religion as an ideological objective espoused by the country's ruling political party. Toward that end, the Communist regime confiscated church property, ridiculed religion, harassed believers, and propagated materialism and atheism in schools. Actions toward particular religions, however, were determined by State interests, and most organized religions were never outlawed.",
"section_idx": 1,
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"plaintext": "Orthodox clergy and active believers were treated by the Soviet law-enforcement apparatus as anti-revolutionary elements and were habitually subjected to formal prosecutions on political charges, arrests, exiles, imprisonment in camps, and later could also be incarcerated in mental hospitals.",
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"plaintext": "However, the Soviet policy vis-a-vis organised religion vacillated over time between, on the one hand, a utopian determination to substitute secular rationalism for what they considered to be an outmoded \"superstitious\" worldview and, on the other, pragmatic acceptance of the tenaciousness of religious faith and institutions. In any case, religious beliefs and practices did persist, not only in the domestic and private spheres but also in the scattered public spaces allowed by a state that recognized its failure to eradicate religion and the political dangers of an unrelenting culture war.",
"section_idx": 1,
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"plaintext": "The Russian Orthodox church was drastically weakened in May 1922, when the Renovated (Living) Church, a reformist movement backed by the Soviet secret police, broke away from Patriarch Tikhon (also see the Josephites and the Russian True Orthodox Church), a move that caused division among clergy and faithful that persisted until 1946.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1917 and 1935, 130,000 Eastern Orthodox priests were arrested. Of these, 95,000 were put to death. Many thousands of victims of persecution became recognized in a special canon of saints known as the \"new martyrs and confessors of Russia\".",
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"plaintext": "When Patriarch Tikhon died in 1925, the Soviet authorities forbade patriarchal election. Patriarchal locum tenens (acting Patriarch) Metropolitan Sergius (Stragorodsky, 1887–1944), going against the opinion of a major part of the church's parishes, in 1927 issued a declaration accepting the Soviet authority over the church as legitimate, pledging the church's cooperation with the government and condemning political dissent within the church. By this declaration, Sergius granted himself authority that he, being a deputy of imprisoned Metropolitan Peter and acting against his will, had no right to assume according to the XXXIV Apostolic canon, which led to a split with the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia abroad and the Russian True Orthodox Church (Russian Catacomb Church) within the Soviet Union, as they allegedly remained faithful to the Canons of the Apostles, declaring the part of the church led by Metropolitan Sergius schism, sometimes coined Sergianism. Due to this canonical disagreement it is disputed which church has been the legitimate successor to the Russian Orthodox Church that had existed before 1925.",
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"plaintext": "In 1927, Metropolitan Eulogius (Georgiyevsky) of Paris broke with the ROCOR (along with Metropolitan Platon (Rozhdestvensky) of New York, leader of the Russian Metropolia in America). In 1930, after taking part in a prayer service in London in supplication for Christians suffering under the Soviets, Evlogy was removed from office by Sergius and replaced. Most of Evlogy's parishes in Western Europe remained loyal to him; Evlogy then petitioned Ecumenical Patriarch Photius II to be received under his canonical care and was received in 1931, making a number of parishes of Russian Orthodox Christians outside Russia, especially in Western Europe an Exarchate of the Ecumenical Patriarchate as the Archdiocese of Russian Orthodox churches in Western Europe.",
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"plaintext": "Moreover, in the 1929 elections, the Orthodox Church attempted to formulate itself as a full-scale opposition group to the Communist Party, and attempted to run candidates of its own against the Communist candidates. Article 124 of the 1936 Soviet Constitution officially allowed for freedom of religion within the Soviet Union, and along with initial statements of it being a multi-candidate election, the Church again attempted to run its own religious candidates in the 1937 elections. However the support of multicandidate elections was retracted several months before the elections were held and in neither 1929 nor 1937 were any candidates of the Orthodox Church elected.",
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"plaintext": "After Nazi Germany's attack on the Soviet Union in 1941, Joseph Stalin revived the Russian Orthodox Church to intensify patriotic support for the war effort. In the early hours of 5 September 1943, Metropolitans Sergius (Stragorodsky), Alexius (Simansky) and Nicholas (Yarushevich) had a meeting with Stalin and received permission to convene a council on 8 September 1943, which elected Sergius Patriarch of Moscow and all the Rus'. This is considered by some as violation of the XXX Apostolic canon, as no church hierarch could be consecrated by secular authorities. A new patriarch was elected, theological schools were opened, and thousands of churches began to function. The Moscow Theological Academy Seminary, which had been closed since 1918, was re-opened.",
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"plaintext": "In December 2017, the Security Service of Ukraine lifted classified top secret status of documents revealing that the NKVD of the USSR and its units were engaged in the selection of candidates for participation in the 1945 Local Council from the representatives of the clergy and the laity. NKVD demanded \"to outline persons who have religious authority among the clergy and believers, and at the same time checked for civic or patriotic work\". In the letter sent in September 1944, it was emphasized: \"It is important to ensure that the number of nominated candidates is dominated by the agents of the NKBD, capable of holding the line that we need at the Council\".",
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"plaintext": "A new and widespread persecution of the church was subsequently instituted under the leadership of Nikita Khrushchev and Leonid Brezhnev. A second round of repression, harassment and church closures took place between 1959 and 1964 when Nikita Khrushchev was in office. The number of Orthodox churches fell from around 22,000 in 1959 to around 8,000 in 1965; priests, monks and faithful were killed or imprisoned and the number of functioning monasteries was reduced to less than twenty.",
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"plaintext": "Subsequent to Khrushchev's overthrow, the Church and the government remained on unfriendly terms until 1988. In practice, the most important aspect of this conflict was that openly religious people could not join the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, which meant that they could not hold any political office. However, among the general population, large numbers remained religious.",
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"plaintext": "Some Orthodox believers and even priests took part in the dissident movement and became prisoners of conscience. The Orthodox priests Gleb Yakunin, Sergiy Zheludkov and others spent years in Soviet prisons and exile for their efforts in defending freedom of worship. Among the prominent figures of that time were Dmitri Dudko and Aleksandr Men. Although he tried to keep away from practical work of the dissident movement intending to better fulfil his calling as a priest, there was a spiritual link between Men and many of the dissidents. For some of them he was a friend; for others, a godfather; for many (including Yakunin), a spiritual father.",
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"plaintext": "By 1987 the number of functioning churches in the Soviet Union had fallen to 6,893 and the number of functioning monasteries to just 18. In 1987 in the Russian SFSR, between 40% and 50% of newborn babies (depending on the region) were baptized. Over 60% of all deceased received Christian funeral services.",
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"plaintext": "Beginning in the late 1980s, under Mikhail Gorbachev, the new political and social freedoms resulted in the return of many church buildings to the church, so they could be restored by local parishioners. A pivotal point in the history of the Russian Orthodox Church came in 1988, the millennial anniversary of the Christianization of Kievan Rus'. Throughout the summer of that year, major government-supported celebrations took place in Moscow and other cities; many older churches and some monasteries were reopened. An implicit ban on religious propaganda on state TV was finally lifted. For the first time in the history of the Soviet Union, people could watch live transmissions of church services on television.",
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"plaintext": "Gleb Yakunin, a critic of the Moscow Patriarchate who was one of those who briefly gained access to the KGB's archives in the early 1990s, argued that the Moscow Patriarchate was \"practically a subsidiary, a sister company of the KGB\". Critics charge that the archives showed the extent of active participation of the top ROC hierarchs in the KGB efforts overseas. George Trofimoff, the highest-ranking US military officer ever indicted for, and convicted of, espionage by the United States and sentenced to life imprisonment on 27 September 2001, had been \"recruited into the service of the KGB\" by Igor Susemihl (a.k.a. Zuzemihl), a bishop in the Russian Orthodox Church (subsequently, a high-ranking hierarch—the ROC Metropolitan Iriney of Vienna, who died in July 1999).",
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"plaintext": "Konstanin Kharchev, former chairman of the Soviet Council on Religious Affairs, explained: \"Not a single candidate for the office of bishop or any other high-ranking office, much less a member of the Holy Synod, went through without confirmation by the Central Committee of the CPSU and the KGB\". Professor Nathaniel Davis points out: \"If the bishops wished to defend their people and survive in office, they had to collaborate to some degree with the KGB, with the commissioners of the Council for Religious Affairs, and with other party and governmental authorities\". Patriarch Alexy II, acknowledged that compromises were made with the Soviet government by bishops of the Moscow Patriarchate, himself included, and he publicly repented for these compromises.",
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"plaintext": "Metropolitan Alexy (Ridiger) of Leningrad, ascended the patriarchal throne in 1990 and presided over the partial return of Orthodox Christianity to Russian society after 70 years of repression, transforming the ROC to something resembling its pre-communist appearance; some 15,000 churches had been re-opened or built by the end of his tenure, and the process of recovery and rebuilding has continued under his successor Patriarch Kirill. According to official figures, in 2016 the Church had 174 dioceses, 361 bishops, and 34,764 parishes served by 39,800 clergy. There were 926 monasteries and 30 theological schools.",
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"plaintext": "The Russian Church also sought to fill the ideological vacuum left by the collapse of Communism and even, in the opinion of some analysts, became \"a separate branch of power\".",
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"plaintext": "In August 2000, the ROC adopted its Basis of the Social Concept and in July 2008, its Basic Teaching on Human Dignity, Freedom and Rights.",
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"plaintext": "Under Patriarch Aleksey, there were difficulties in the relationship between the Russian Orthodox Church and the Vatican, especially since 2002, when Pope John Paul II created a Catholic diocesan structure for Russian territory. The leaders of the Russian Church saw this action as a throwback to prior attempts by the Vatican to proselytize the Russian Orthodox faithful to become Roman Catholic. This point of view was based upon the stance of the Russian Orthodox Church (and the Eastern Orthodox Church) that the Church of Rome is in schism, after breaking off from the Orthodox Church. The Roman Catholic Church, on the other hand, while acknowledging the primacy of the Russian Orthodox Church in Russia, believed that the small Roman Catholic minority in Russia, in continuous existence since at least the 18th century, should be served by a fully developed church hierarchy with a presence and status in Russia, just as the Russian Orthodox Church is present in other countries (including constructing a cathedral in Rome, near the Vatican).",
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"plaintext": "There occurred strident conflicts with the Ecumenical Patriarchate, most notably over the Orthodox Church in Estonia in the mid-1990s, which resulted in unilateral suspension of eucharistic relationship between the churches by the ROC. The tension lingered on and could be observed at the meeting in Ravenna in early October 2007 of participants in the Orthodox–Catholic Dialogue: the representative of the Moscow Patriarchate, Bishop Hilarion Alfeyev, walked out of the meeting due to the presence of representatives from the Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church which is in the jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate. At the meeting, prior to the departure of the Russian delegation, there were also substantive disagreements about the wording of a proposed joint statement among the Orthodox representatives. After the departure of the Russian delegation, the remaining Orthodox delegates approved the form which had been advocated by the representatives of the Ecumenical Patriarchate. The Ecumenical See's representative in Ravenna said that Hilarion's position \"should be seen as an expression of authoritarianism whose goal is to exhibit the influence of the Moscow Church. But like last year in Belgrade, all Moscow achieved was to isolate itself once more since no other Orthodox Church followed its lead, remaining instead faithful to Constantinople.\"",
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"plaintext": "Canon Michael Bourdeaux, former president of the Keston Institute, said in January 2008 that \"the Moscow Patriarchate acts as though it heads a state church, while the few Orthodox clergy who oppose the church-state symbiosis face severe criticism, even loss of livelihood.\" Such a view is backed up by other observers of Russian political life. Clifford J. Levy of The New York Times wrote in April 2008: \"Just as the government has tightened control over political life, so, too, has it intruded in matters of faith. The Kremlin's surrogates in many areas have turned the Russian Orthodox Church into a de facto official religion, warding off other Christian denominations that seem to offer the most significant competition for worshipers. [...] This close alliance between the government and the Russian Orthodox Church has become a defining characteristic of Mr. Putin's tenure, a mutually reinforcing choreography that is usually described here as working 'in symphony'.\"",
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"plaintext": "Throughout Patriarch Alexy's reign, the massive program of costly restoration and reopening of devastated churches and monasteries (as well as the construction of new ones) was criticized for having eclipsed the church's principal mission of evangelizing.",
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"plaintext": "On 5 December 2008, the day of Patriarch Alexy's death, the Financial Times said: \"While the church had been a force for liberal reform under the Soviet Union, it soon became a center of strength for conservatives and nationalists in the post-communist era. Alexei's death could well result in an even more conservative church.\"",
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"plaintext": "On 27 January 2009, the ROC Local Council elected Metropolitan Kirill of Smolensk Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus′ by 508 votes out of a total of 700. He was enthroned on 1 February 2009.",
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"plaintext": "Patriarch Kirill implemented reforms in the administrative structure of the Moscow Patriarchate: on 27 July 2011 the Holy Synod established the Central Asian Metropolitan District, reorganizing the structure of the Church in Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Turkmenistan. In addition, on 6 October 2011, at the request of the Patriarch, the Holy Synod introduced the metropoly (Russian: митрополия, mitropoliya), administrative structure bringing together neighboring eparchies.",
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"plaintext": "Under Patriarch Kirill, the ROC continued to maintain close ties with the Kremlin enjoying the patronage of president Vladimir Putin, who has sought to mobilize Russian Orthodoxy both inside and outside Russia. Patriarch Kirill endorsed Putin's election in 2012, referring in February to Putin's tenure in the 2000s as \"God's miracle.\" Nevertheless, Russian inside sources were quoted in the autumn 2017 as saying that Putin's relationship with Patriarch Kirill had been deteriorating since 2014 due to the fact that the presidential administration had been misled by the Moscow Patriarchate as to the extent of support for pro-Russian uprising in eastern Ukraine; also, due to Kirill's personal unpopularity he had come to be viewed as a political liability.",
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"plaintext": "In 2018, the Moscow Patriarchate's traditional rivalry with the Patriarchate of Constantinople—and Moscow's anger over the Constantiople patriarch's moves to grant autocephaly (independence) to the Ukrainian church—led to the ROC's non-attendance of the Holy Great Council that had been prepared by all the Orthodox Churches for decades.",
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"plaintext": "The Holy Synod of the ROC, at its session on 15 October 2018, severed full communion with the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. The decision was taken in response to the move made by the Patriarchate of Constantinople a few days prior that effectively ended the Moscow Patriarchate's jurisdiction over Ukraine and promised autocephaly to Ukraine, the ROC's and the Kremlin's fierce opposition notwithstanding.",
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"plaintext": "While the Ecumenical Patriarchate finalised the establishment of an autocephalous church in Ukraine on 5 January 2019, the ROC continued to claim that the only legitimate Orthodox jurisdiction in the country was its branch, namely the \"Ukrainian Orthodox Church\". Under a law of Ukraine adopted at the end of 2018, the latter was required to change its official designation (name) so as to disclose its affiliation with the Russian Orthodox Church based in an \"aggressor state\". On 11 December 2019 the Supreme Court of Ukraine allowed the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate (UOC-MP) to retain its name.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2019, the ROC unilaterally severed communion with the Church of Greece following the latter's recognition of the Ukrainian autocephaly. On 3 November, Patriarch Kirill failed to commemorate the Primate of the Church of Greece, Archbishop Ieronymos II of Athens, during a liturgy in Moscow. Additionally, the ROC leadership imposed pilgrimage bans for its faithful in respect of a number of dioceses in Greece, including that of Athens.",
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"plaintext": "On 8 November 2019, the Russian Orthodox Church announced that Patriarch Kirill would stop commemorating the Patriarch of Alexandria and all Africa after the latter and his Church recognized the OCU that same day.",
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"plaintext": "On 27 September 2021, the ROC established a religious day of remembrance for all Eastern Orthodox Christians which were persecuted by the Soviet regime. This day is the 30 October. ",
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"plaintext": "Metropolitan Onufriy of Kyiv, primate of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate) (UOC-MP) called the war \"a disaster\" stating that \"The Ukrainian and Russian peoples came out of the Dnieper Baptismal font, and the war between these peoples is a repetition of the sin of Cain, who killed his own brother out of envy. Such a war has no justification either from God or from people.\" He also appealed directly to Putin, asking for an immediate end to the \"fratricidal war\". In April 2022, after the Russian invasion, many UOC-MP parishes signaled their intention to switch allegiance to the Orthodox Church of Ukraine. The attitude and stance of Patriarch Kirill of Moscow to the war is one of the oft quoted reasons. The head of the Russian Orthodox Church in Lithuania, Metropolitan Innocent (Vasilyev), called Patriarch Kirill's \"political statements about the war\" his \"personal opinion.\" On 7 March 2022, condemned the Russian invasion of Ukraine.",
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"plaintext": "On 27 February 2022, a group of Russian Orthodox priests published an open letter calling for an end to the war and criticized the suppression of non-violent anti-war protests in Russia. On 6 March 2022, Russian Orthodox priest of Moscow Patriarchate's Kostroma Diocese was fined by Russian authorities for anti-war sermon and stressing the importance of the commandment “Thou shalt not kill.” ",
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"plaintext": "The ROC constituent parts in other than the Russian Federation countries of its exclusive jurisdiction such as Ukraine, Belarus et al., are legally registered as separate legal entities in accordance with the relevant legislation of those independent states.",
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"plaintext": "Ecclesiastiacally, the ROC is organized in a hierarchical structure. The lowest level of organization, which normally would be a single ROC building and its attendees, headed by a priest who acts as Father superior (, nastoyatel), constitute a parish (, prihod). All parishes in a geographical region belong to an eparchy (—equivalent to a Western diocese). Eparchies are governed by bishops (, episcop or архиерей, archiereus). There are 261 Russian Orthodox eparchies worldwide (June 2012).",
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"plaintext": "Further, some eparchies may be organized into exarchates (currently the Belarusian exarchate), and since 2003 into metropolitan districts (митрополичий округ), such as the ROC eparchies in Kazakhstan and the Central Asia (Среднеазиатский митрополичий округ).",
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"plaintext": "Since the early 1990s, the ROC eparchies in some newly independent states of the former USSR enjoy the status of self-governing Churches within the Moscow Patriarchate (which status, according to the ROC legal terminology, is distinct from the ″autonomous″ one): the Estonian Orthodox Church of Moscow Patriarchate, Latvian Orthodox Church, Moldovan Orthodox Church, Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate) (UOC-MP), the last one being virtually fully independent in administrative matters. (Following Russia's 2014 Invasion of Ukraine, the UOC-MP—which held nearly a third of the ROC(MP)'s churches—began to fragment, particularly since 2019, with some separatist congregations leaving the ROC(MP) to join the newly independent Orthodox Church of Ukraine (OCU) despite strident objections from the Moscow Patriarchate and the Russian government.)",
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"plaintext": "Similar status, since 2007, is enjoyed by the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (previously fully independent and deemed schismatic by the ROC). The Chinese Orthodox Church and the Japanese Orthodox Churches were granted full autonomy by the Moscow Patriarchate, but this autonomy is not universally recognized.",
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"plaintext": "Smaller eparchies are usually governed by a single bishop. Larger eparchies, exarchates, and self-governing Churches are governed by a Metropolitan archbishop and sometimes also have one or more bishops assigned to them.",
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"plaintext": "The highest level of authority in the ROC is vested in the Local Council (Pomestny Sobor), which comprises all the bishops as well as representatives from the clergy and laypersons. Another organ of power is the Bishops' Council (Архиерейский Собор). In the periods between the Councils the highest administrative powers are exercised by the Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church, which includes seven permanent members and is chaired by the Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia, Primate of the Moscow Patriarchate.",
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{
"plaintext": "Although the Patriarch of Moscow enjoys extensive administrative powers, unlike the Pope, he has no direct canonical jurisdiction outside the Urban Diocese of Moscow, nor does he have single-handed authority over matters pertaining to faith as well as issues concerning the entire Orthodox Christian community such as the Catholic-Orthodox split.",
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"plaintext": "After World War II, the Patriarchate of Moscow unsuccessfully attempted to regain control of the groups which were located abroad. After it resumed its communication with Moscow in the early 1960s, and after it was granted autocephaly in 1970, the Metropolia became known as the Orthodox Church in America. But its autocephalous status is not universally recognized. The Ecumenical Patriarch (who has jurisdiction over the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America) and some other jurisdictions have not officially accepted it. The Ecumenical Patriarch and the other jurisdictions remain in communion with the OCA. The Patriarchate of Moscow thereby renounced its former canonical claims in the United States and Canada; it also acknowledged the establishment of an autonomous church in Japan in 1970.",
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"plaintext": "Russia's Church was devastated by the repercussions of the Bolshevik Revolution. One of its effects was a flood of refugees from Russia to the United States, Canada, and Europe. The Revolution of 1918 severed large sections of the Russian church—dioceses in America, Japan, and Manchuria, as well as refugees in Europe—from regular contacts with the main church.",
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{
"plaintext": "On 28 December 2006, it was officially announced that the Act of Canonical Communion would finally be signed between the ROC and ROCOR. The signing took place on 17 May 2007, followed immediately by a full restoration of communion with the Moscow Patriarchate, celebrated by a Divine Liturgy at the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow, at which the Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia Alexius II and the First Hierarch of ROCOR concelebrated for the first time.",
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{
"plaintext": "Under the Act, the ROCOR remains a self-governing entity within the Church of Russia. It is independent in its administrative, pastoral, and property matters. It continues to be governed by its Council of Bishops and its Synod, the Council's permanent executive body. The First-Hierarch and bishops of the ROCOR are elected by its Council and confirmed by the Patriarch of Moscow. ROCOR bishops participate in the Council of Bishops of the entire Russian Church.",
"section_idx": 2,
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},
{
"plaintext": "In response to the signing of the act of canonical communion, Bishop Agathangel (Pashkovsky) of Odessa and parishes and clergy in opposition to the Act broke communion with ROCOR, and established ROCA(A). Some others opposed to the Act have joined themselves to other Greek Old Calendarist groups.",
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"plaintext": "Currently both the OCA and ROCOR, since 2007, are in communion with the ROC.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Structure and organization",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "The Russian Orthodox Church has four levels of self-government.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Structure and organization",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "The autonomous churches which are part of the ROC are:",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Structure and organization",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate), a special status autonomy close to autocephaly",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Structure and organization",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Self-governed churches (Estonia, Latvia, Moldova)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Structure and organization",
"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Belarusian Orthodox Church",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Structure and organization",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Pakistan Orthodox Church",
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"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Metropolitan District of Kazakhstan",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Structure and organization",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Japanese Orthodox Church",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Structure and organization",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chinese Orthodox Church",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Structure and organization",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Archdiocese of Russian Orthodox churches in Western Europe",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Structure and organization",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "In accordance with the practice of the Orthodox Church, a particular hero of faith can initially be canonized only at a local level within local churches and eparchies. Such rights belong to the ruling hierarch and it can only happen when the blessing of the patriarch is received. The task of believers of the local eparchy is to record descriptions of miracles, to create the hagiography of a saint, to paint an icon, as well as to compose a liturgical text of a service where the saint is canonized. All of this is sent to the Synodal Commission for canonization which decides whether to canonize the local hero of faith or not. Then the patriarch gives his blessing and the local hierarch performs the act of canonization at the local level. However, the liturgical texts in honor of a saint are not published in all Church books but only in local publications. In the same way, these saints are not yet canonized and venerated by the whole Church, only locally. When the glorification of a saint exceeds the limits of an eparchy, then the patriarch and Holy Synod decides about their canonization on the Church level. After receiving the Synod's support and the patriarch's blessing, the question of glorification of a particular saint on the scale of the entire Church is given for consideration to the Local Council of the Russian Orthodox Church.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Worship and practices",
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"plaintext": "In the period following the revolution, and during the communist persecutions up to 1970, no canonizations took place. Only in 1970 did the Holy Synod made a decision to canonize a missionary to Japan, Nicholas Kasatkin (1836–1912). In 1977, St. Innocent of Moscow (1797–1879), the Metropolitan of Siberia, the Far East, the Aleutian Islands, Alaska, and Moscow was also canonized. In 1978 it was proclaimed that the Russian Orthodox Church had created a prayer order for Meletius of Kharkov, which practically signified his canonization because that was the only possible way to do it at that time. Similarly, the saints of other Orthodox Churches were added to the Church calendar: in 1962 St. John the Russian, in 1970 St. Herman of Alaska, in 1993 Silouan the Athonite, the elder of Mount Athos, already canonized in 1987 by the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. In the 1980s the Russian Orthodox Church re-established the process for canonization; a practice that had ceased for half a century.",
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"plaintext": "In 1989, the Holy Synod established the Synodal Commission for canonization. The 1990 Local Council of the Russian Orthodox Church gave an order for the Synodal Commission for Canonisation to prepare documents for canonization of new martyrs who had suffered from the 20th century Communist repressions. In 1991 it was decided that a local commission for canonization would be established in every eparchy which would gather the local documents and would send them to the Synodal Commission. Its task was to study the local archives, collect memories of believers, record all the miracles that are connected with addressing the martyrs. In 1992 the Church established 25 January as a day when it venerates the new 20th century martyrs of faith. The day was specifically chosen because on this day in 1918 the Metropolitan of Kiev Vladimir (Bogoyavlensky) was killed, thus becoming the first victim of communist terror among the hierarchs of the Church.",
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"plaintext": "During the 2000 Council of the Russian Orthodox Church, the greatest general canonization in the history of the Orthodox Church took place: not only regarding the number of saints but also as in this canonization, all unknown saints were mentioned. There were 1,765 canonized saints known by name and others unknown by name but \"known to God\".",
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"plaintext": "The use and making of icons entered Kievan Rus' following its conversion to Orthodox Christianity in AD 988. As a general rule, these icons strictly followed models and formulas hallowed by Byzantine art, led from the capital in Constantinople. As time passed, the Russians widened the vocabulary of types and styles far beyond anything found elsewhere in the Orthodox world. Russian icons are typically paintings on wood, often small, though some in churches and monasteries may be much larger. Some Russian icons were made of copper. Many religious homes in Russia have icons hanging on the wall in the krasny ugol, the \"red\" or \"beautiful\" corner. There is a rich history and elaborate religious symbolism associated with icons. In Russian churches, the nave is typically separated from the sanctuary by an iconostasis (Russian ikonostas, иконостас), or icon-screen, a wall of icons with double doors in the centre. Russians sometimes speak of an icon as having been \"written\", because in the Russian language (like Greek, but unlike English) the same word (pisat, писать in Russian) means both to paint and to write. Icons are considered to be the Gospel in paint, and therefore careful attention is paid to ensure that the Gospel is faithfully and accurately conveyed. Icons considered miraculous were said to \"appear.\" The \"appearance\" (Russian: yavlenie, явление) of an icon is its supposedly miraculous discovery. \"A true icon is one that has 'appeared', a gift from above, one opening the way to the Prototype and able to perform miracles\".",
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"plaintext": "Bell ringing, which has a history in the Russian Orthodox tradition dating back to the baptism of Rus', plays an important part in the traditions of the Russian Orthodox Church.",
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"plaintext": "In May 2011, Hilarion Alfeyev, the Metropolitan of Volokolamsk and head of external relations for the Moscow Patriarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church, stated that Orthodox and Evangelical Christians share the same positions on \"such issues as abortion, the family, and marriage\" and desire \"vigorous grassroots engagement\" between the two Christian communions on such issues.",
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"plaintext": "The Metropolitan also believes in the possibility of peaceful coexistence between Islam and Christianity because the two religions have never fought religious wars in Russia. Alfeyev stated that the Russian Orthodox Church \"disagrees with atheist secularism in some areas very strongly\" and \"believes that it destroys something very essential about human life.\"",
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"plaintext": "Today, the Russian Orthodox Church has ecclesiastical missions in Jerusalem and some other countries around the world.",
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"plaintext": "The ROC is often said to be the largest of all of the Eastern Orthodox churches in the world. Including all the autocephalous churches under its supervision, its adherents number more than 112 million worldwide—about half of the 200 to 220 million estimated adherents of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Among Christian churches, the Russian Orthodox Church is only second to the Roman Catholic Church in terms of numbers of followers. Within Russia the results of a 2007 VTsIOM poll indicated that about 75% of the population considered itself Orthodox Christian. Up to 65% of ethnic Russians as well as Russian-speakers from Russia who are members of other ethnic groups (Ossetians, Caucasus Greeks etc.) and a similar percentage of Belarusians and Ukrainians identify themselves as \"Orthodox\". However, according to a poll published by the church related website in December 2012, only 41% of the Russian population identified itself with the Russian Orthodox Church. Pravmir.com also published a 2012 poll by the respected Levada organization VTsIOM indicating that 74% of Russians considered themselves Orthodox. The 2017 Survey Religious Belief and National Belonging in Central and Eastern Europe made by the Pew Research Center showed that 71% of Russians declared themselves as Orthodox Christian, and in 2021, the Russian Public Opinion Research Center (VCIOM) estimated that 66% of Russians were Orthodox Christians.",
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"plaintext": " Eparchies of the Russian Orthodox Church",
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"plaintext": " Tomos for Ukraine: rocking the Moscow foundation",
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"plaintext": " Russian Orthodox Church severs ties with Ecumenical Patriarchate",
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"plaintext": "Since 1991",
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"plaintext": " Daniel, Wallace L. The Orthodox Church and Civil Society in Russia (2006) online.",
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"plaintext": " Evans, Geoffrey, and Ksenia Northmore‐Ball. \"The Limits of Secularization? The Resurgence of Orthodoxy in Post‐Soviet Russia.\" Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 51#4 (2012): 795–808. online",
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"plaintext": " Garrard, John and Carol Garrard. Russian Orthodoxy Resurgent: Faith and Power in the New Russia (2008). online",
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"plaintext": " Kahla, Elina. \"Civil Religion in Russia.\" Baltic worlds: scholarly journal: news magazine (2014). online",
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"plaintext": " McGann, Leslie L. \"The Russian Orthodox Church under Patriarch Aleksii II and the Russian State: An Unholy Alliance?.\" Demokratizatsiya 7#1 (1999): 12+ online",
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"plaintext": " Papkova, Irina. \"The Russian Orthodox Church and political party platforms.\" Journal of Church and State (2007) 49#1: 117–34. online",
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"plaintext": " Papkova, Irina, and Dmitry P. Gorenburg. \"The Russian Orthodox Church and Russian Politics: Editors' Introduction.\" Russian Politics & Law 49#1 (2011): 3–7. introduction to special issue",
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"plaintext": " Pankhurst, Jerry G., and Alar Kilp. \"Religion, the Russian Nation and the State: Domestic and International Dimensions: An Introduction.\" Religion, State and Society 41.3 (2013): 226–43.",
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"plaintext": " Payne, Daniel P. \"Spiritual security, the Russian Orthodox Church, and the Russian Foreign Ministry: collaboration or cooptation?.\" Journal of Church and State (2010): summary online",
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"plaintext": " Richters, Katja. The Post-Soviet Russian Orthodox Church: Politics, Culture and Greater Russia (2014)",
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"plaintext": "Historical",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
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"plaintext": " Billington, James H. The Icon and the Axe: An Interpretative History of Russian Culture (1970)",
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"plaintext": " Bremer, Thomas. Cross and Kremlin: A Brief History of the Orthodox Church in Russia (2013)",
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"plaintext": " Cracraft, James. The Church Reform of Peter the Great (1971)",
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"plaintext": " Ellis, Jane. The Russian Orthodox Church: A Contemporary History (1988)",
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{
"plaintext": " Freeze, Gregory L. \"Handmaiden of the state? The church in Imperial Russia reconsidered.\" Journal of Ecclesiastical History 36#1 (1985): 82–102.",
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"plaintext": " Freeze, Gregory L. \"Subversive piety: Religion and the political crisis in late Imperial Russia.\" Journal of Modern History (1996): 308–50. in JSTOR",
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"plaintext": " Freeze, Gregory L. \"The Orthodox Church and Serfdom in Prereform Russia.\" Slavic Review (1989): 361–87. in JSTOR",
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"plaintext": " Freeze, Gregory L. \"Social Mobility and the Russian Parish Clergy in the Eighteenth Century.\" Slavic Review (1974): 641–62. in JSTOR",
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"plaintext": " Freeze, Gregory L. The Parish Clergy in Nineteenth-Century Russia: Crisis, Reform, Counter-Reform (1983)",
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"plaintext": " Freeze, Gregory L. \"A case of stunted Anticlericalism: Clergy and Society in Imperial Russia.\" European History Quarterly 13#.2 (1983): 177–200.",
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"plaintext": " Freeze, Gregory L. Russian Levites: Parish Clergy in the Eighteenth Century (1977)",
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"plaintext": " Gruber, Isaiah. Orthodox Russia in Crisis: Church and Nation in the Time of Troubles (2012); 17th century",
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"plaintext": " Hughes, Lindsey. Russia in the Age of Peter the Great (1998) pp.332–56",
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"plaintext": " Kizenko, Nadieszda. A Prodigal Saint: Father John of Kronstadt and the Russian People (2000) This highly influential holy man lived 1829–1908.",
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"plaintext": " Kozelsky, Mara. Christianizing Crimea: Shaping Sacred Space in the Russian Empire and Beyond (2010).",
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"plaintext": " de Madariaga, Isabel. Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great (1981) pp.111–22",
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"plaintext": " Mrowczynski-Van Allen, Artur, ed. Apology of Culture: Religion and Culture in Russian Thought (2015)",
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"plaintext": " Pipes, Richard. Russia under the Old Regime (2nd ed. 1976) ch 9",
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"plaintext": " Strickland, John. The Making of Holy Russia: The Orthodox Church and Russian Nationalism Before the Revolution (2013)",
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"plaintext": "Historiography'''",
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"plaintext": " Freeze, Gregory L. \"Recent Scholarship on Russian Orthodoxy: A Critique.\" Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History'' 2#2 (2008): 269–78. online",
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"plaintext": " Church of Russia at OrthodoxWiki ",
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40,158 | 1,106,175,103 | Berchtesgaden | [
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"plaintext": "Berchtesgaden () is a municipality in the district Berchtesgadener Land, Bavaria, in southeastern Germany, near the border with Austria, south of Salzburg and southeast of Munich. It lies in the Berchtesgaden Alps, south of Berchtesgaden; the Berchtesgaden National Park stretches along three parallel valleys.",
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"plaintext": "The Kehlstein mountain (), with its Kehlsteinhaus (Eagle's Nest) is located in the area.",
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"plaintext": "Berchtesgaden, Upper Bavaria (Achental), earlier Perchterscadmen, Perhtersgadem, Berchirchsgadem, Berchtoldesgadem; the word underwent a Latin distortion of Old High German parach, Romance bareca 'hay shed'. After the basic meaning was forgotten, they added a variant word of Old High German gadem 'room, one-room hut', implying the same meaning: 'hay shed'. Cf. Old High German muosgadem 'spice room'. ",
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"plaintext": "There was a folk etymology that supported a derivation based on the legendary figure of Frau Perchta (Berchta), a woman (Holle < Holda 'well disposed, dear') with good and bad changing features, who was venerated on Perchtertag (Shrovetide) and was sworn to during the Perchta procession.",
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"plaintext": "The first ever historical note dates back to 1102 and mentions the area because of its rich salt deposits. Much of Berchtesgaden's wealth has been derived from its salt mines, the first of which started operations in 1517. The town served as independent Fürstpropstei until the Reichsdeputationshauptschluss in 1803. During the Napoleonic wars, Berchtesgaden changed hands a few times, such as in 1805 under the Treaty of Pressburg, when the area was ceded to Austria.",
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"plaintext": "Berchtesgaden came under Bavarian rule in 1810 and became instantly popular with the Bavarian royal family, the House of Wittelsbach, who often visited Königssee and maintained a royal hunting residence in the former Augustine monastery (still used today by Franz, Duke of Bavaria). Nascent tourism started to evolve and a number of artists came to the area, which reportedly gave rise to Malereck (\"painters' corner\") on the shore of the Königssee in nearby Schönau am Königssee. The most famous author who lived in Berchtesgaden was Ludwig Ganghofer.",
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"plaintext": "Adolf Hitler had been vacationing in the Berchtesgaden area since the 1920s. He purchased a home in the Obersalzberg above the town on the flank of the Hoher Goll and began extensive renovations on his Berghof in the following years. As other top Third Reich figures, such as Hermann Göring, Joseph Goebbels, Martin Bormann, Heinrich Himmler, and Albert Speer, began to frequent the area the Party began to purchase and requisition land in the Obersalzberg.",
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"plaintext": "In order to serve as an outpost of the German Reichskanzlei (Imperial Chancellery), Berchtesgaden and its environs (Stanggass) saw substantial expansion of offices, security, and support services, mainly on the Obersalzberg. Included in the town were a new railway station, with a reception area for Hitler and his guests, and an adjacent post office. The Berchtesgadener Hof Hotel, where famous visitors such as Neville Chamberlain and David Lloyd George stayed, was substantially upgraded.",
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"plaintext": "Even though a feared Alpine Fortress last stand of the Nazi Regime in the Alps failed to materialize late in World War II, the Allies launched a devastating air raid on the Berchtesgaden area in the spring of 1945. The 25 April bombing of Obersalzberg did little damage to the town. On 4 May, forward elements of the 7th Infantry Regiment of the 3rd Infantry Division arrived and received the town's surrender.",
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"plaintext": "After the war, Berchtesgaden became a military zone and most of its buildings were requisitioned by the U.S. Army. Hotel Platterhof was rebuilt and renamed the General Walker Hotel in 1952. It served as an integral part of the U.S. Armed Forces Recreation Centers for the duration of the Cold War and beyond. The remnants of homes of former Nazi leaders were all demolished in the early postwar years, though traces of some remained. In 1995, fifty years after the end of World War II and five years after German reunification, the AFRC Berchtesgaden was turned over to Bavarian authorities to facilitate military spending reductions mandated within the Base Realignment and Closure program by the US Congress and Pentagon during the administration of President Bill Clinton. The General Walker Hotel was demolished in 2000–2001.",
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"plaintext": "In 1986, Berchtesgaden was a first-round candidate city to host the XVI Olympic Winter Games to be held in 1992. The vote eventually went to Albertville, France, in October of that year.",
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"plaintext": "The Hotel Türken, which was near the Nazi buildings and was often used by the SS and then by the Generalmajor of the Police, was badly damaged in 1945. It was rebuilt in 1950 and reopened as a hotel before Christmas. Visitors can still explore the historic underground hallways and tunnels that had been used by the Nazis.",
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"plaintext": "In 1972, local government reform united the then independent municipalities of Salzberg, Maria Gern and Au (consisting of Oberau and Unterau) under the administration of the town of Berchtesgaden. Another suggested reform uniting all remaining five municipalities in the Berchtesgaden valley (Bischofswiesen, Ramsau, Marktschellenberg and Schönau) failed to gain enough popular support; it passed in Berchtesgaden but failed everywhere else.",
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"plaintext": "Recreational and competitive sports have grown in importance. The town's ski slope is popular. The Königssee bobsleigh, luge, and skeleton track has hosted ski-running and a number of international events and competitions. Berchtesgaden's most famous sports personality is Georg Hackl, a multiple Olympic medal winner. The city is home to the International Luge Federation (FIL).",
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"plaintext": "Unlike the northern part of Berchtesgadener Land and the Salzburg area, Berchtesgaden has virtually no manufacturing industry.",
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"plaintext": " Wolfgang Bartels, (1940–2007), Olympic alpine skier bronze medalist",
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"plaintext": " Sigmund Freud, (1856–1939), psychoanalyst, owned a house for family holidays in Schönau near Obersalzberg. His villa was taken over during the Second World War by Heinrich Himmler.",
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"plaintext": " Adolf Hitler, (1889–1945), leader of the Nazi Party and German dictator 1933–1945; owned the Eagle's Nest mountain retreat in Berchtesgaden",
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40,163 | 1,095,091,136 | Darmstadtium | [
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"plaintext": "Darmstadtium is a chemical element with the symbol Ds and atomic number 110. It is an extremely radioactive synthetic element. The most stable known isotope, darmstadtium-281, has a half-life of approximately 12.7 seconds. Darmstadtium was first created in 1994 by the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research in the city of Darmstadt, Germany, after which it was named.",
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"plaintext": "In the periodic table, it is a d-block transactinide element. It is a member of the 7th period and is placed in the group 10 elements, although no chemical experiments have yet been carried out to confirm that it behaves as the heavier homologue to platinum in group 10 as the eighth member of the 6d series of transition metals. Darmstadtium is calculated to have similar properties to its lighter homologues, nickel, palladium, and platinum.",
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"plaintext": "Darmstadtium was first created on November 9, 1994, at the Institute for Heavy Ion Research (Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung, GSI) in Darmstadt, Germany, by Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Münzenberg, under the direction of Sigurd Hofmann. The team bombarded a lead-208 target with accelerated nuclei of nickel-62 in a heavy ion accelerator and detected a single atom of the isotope darmstadtium-269:",
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"plaintext": "Two more atoms followed on November 12 and 17. (Yet another was originally reported to have been found on November 11, but it turned out to be based on data fabricated by Victor Ninov, and was then retracted.) ",
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"plaintext": "In the same series of experiments, the same team also carried out the reaction using heavier nickel-64 ions. During two runs, 9 atoms of were convincingly detected by correlation with known daughter decay properties:",
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"plaintext": "Prior to this, there had been failed synthesis attempts in 1986–87 at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna (then in the Soviet Union) and in 1990 at the GSI. A 1995 attempt at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory resulted in signs suggesting but not pointing conclusively at the discovery of a new isotope formed in the bombardment of with , and a similarly inconclusive 1994 attempt at the JINR showed signs of being produced from and . Each team proposed its own name for element 110: the American team proposed hahnium after Otto Hahn in an attempt to resolve the situation on element 105 (which they had long been suggesting this name for), the Russian team proposed becquerelium after Henri Becquerel, and the German team proposed darmstadtium after Darmstadt, the location of their institute. The IUPAC/IUPAP Joint Working Party (JWP) recognised the GSI team as discoverers in their 2001 report, giving them the right to suggest a name for the element.",
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"plaintext": "Using Mendeleev's nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements, darmstadtium should be known as eka-platinum. In 1979, IUPAC published recommendations according to which the element was to be called ununnilium (with the corresponding symbol of Uun), a systematic element name as a placeholder, until the element was discovered (and the discovery then confirmed) and a permanent name was decided on. Although widely used in the chemical community on all levels, from chemistry classrooms to advanced textbooks, the recommendations were mostly ignored among scientists in the field, who called it \"element 110\", with the symbol of E110, (110) or even simply 110.",
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"plaintext": "The name darmstadtium (Ds) was suggested by the GSI team in honor of the city of Darmstadt, where the element was discovered. The GSI team originally also considered naming the element wixhausium, after the suburb of Darmstadt known as Wixhausen where the element was discovered, but eventually decided on darmstadtium. Policium had also been proposed as a joke due to the emergency telephone number in Germany being 1-1-0. The new name darmstadtium was officially recommended by IUPAC on August 16, 2003.",
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"plaintext": "Darmstadtium has no stable or naturally occurring isotopes. Several radioactive isotopes have been synthesized in the laboratory, either by fusing two atoms or by observing the decay of heavier elements. Nine different isotopes of darmstadtium have been reported with atomic masses 267, 269–271, 273, 277, and 279–281, although darmstadtium-267 is unconfirmed. Three darmstadtium isotopes, darmstadtium-270, darmstadtium-271, and darmstadtium-281, have known metastable states, although that of darmstadtium-281 is unconfirmed. Most of these decay predominantly through alpha decay, but some undergo spontaneous fission.",
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"plaintext": "All darmstadtium isotopes are extremely unstable and radioactive; in general, the heavier isotopes are more stable than the lighter. The most stable known darmstadtium isotope, 281Ds, is also the heaviest known darmstadtium isotope; it has a half-life of 12.7seconds. The isotope 279Ds has a half-life of 0.18seconds, while the unconfirmed 281mDs has a half-life of 0.9seconds. The remaining seven isotopes and two metastable states have half-lives between 1microsecond and 70milliseconds. Some unknown darmstadtium isotopes may have longer half-lives, however.",
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"plaintext": "Theoretical calculation in a quantum tunneling model reproduces the experimental alpha decay half-life data for the known darmstadtium isotopes. It also predicts that the undiscovered isotope 294Ds, which has a magic number of neutrons (184), would have an alpha decay half-life on the order of 311years; exactly the same approach predicts a ~3500-year alpha half-life for the non-magic 293Ds isotope, however.",
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"plaintext": "Other than nuclear properties, no properties of darmstadtium or its compounds have been measured; this is due to its extremely limited and expensive production and the fact that darmstadtium (and its parents) decays very quickly. Properties of darmstadtium metal remain unknown and only predictions are available.",
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"plaintext": "Darmstadtium is the eighth member of the 6d series of transition metals, and should be much like the platinum group metals. Calculations on its ionization potentials and atomic and ionic radii are similar to that of its lighter homologue platinum, thus implying that darmstadtium's basic properties will resemble those of the other group 10 elements, nickel, palladium, and platinum.",
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"plaintext": "Prediction of the probable chemical properties of darmstadtium has not received much attention recently. Darmstadtium should be a very noble metal. The predicted standard reduction potential for the Ds2+/Ds couple is 1.7V. Based on the most stable oxidation states of the lighter group 10 elements, the most stable oxidation states of darmstadtium are predicted to be the +6, +4, and +2 states; however, the neutral state is predicted to be the most stable in aqueous solutions. In comparison, only palladium and platinum are known to show the maximum oxidation state in the group, +6, while the most stable states are +4 and +2 for both nickel and palladium. It is further expected that the maximum oxidation states of elements from bohrium (element 107) to darmstadtium (element 110) may be stable in the gas phase but not in aqueous solution. Darmstadtium hexafluoride (DsF6) is predicted to have very similar properties to its lighter homologue platinum hexafluoride (PtF6), having very similar electronic structures and ionization potentials. It is also expected to have the same octahedral molecular geometry as PtF6. Other predicted darmstadtium compounds are darmstadtium carbide (DsC) and darmstadtium tetrachloride (DsCl4), both of which are expected to behave like their lighter homologues. Unlike platinum, which preferentially forms a cyanide complex in its +2 oxidation state, Pt(CN)2, darmstadtium is expected to preferentially remain in its neutral state and form instead, forming a strong Ds–C bond with some multiple bond character.",
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"plaintext": "Darmstadtium is expected to be a solid under normal conditions and to crystallize in the body-centered cubic structure, unlike its lighter congeners which crystallize in the face-centered cubic structure, because it is expected to have different electron charge densities from them. It should be a very heavy metal with a density of around 26–27g/cm3. In comparison, the densest known element that has had its density measured, osmium, has a density of only 22.61g/cm3.",
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"plaintext": "The outer electron configuration of darmstadtium is calculated to be 6d87s2, which obeys the Aufbau principle and does not follow platinum's outer electron configuration of 5d96s1. This is due to the relativistic stabilization of the 7s2 electron pair over the whole seventh period, so that none of the elements from 104 to 112 are expected to have electron configurations violating the Aufbau principle. The atomic radius of darmstadtium is expected to be around 132pm.",
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"plaintext": "Unambiguous determination of the chemical characteristics of darmstadtium has yet to have been established due to the short half-lives of darmstadtium isotopes and a limited number of likely volatile compounds that could be studied on a very small scale. One of the few darmstadtium compounds that are likely to be sufficiently volatile is darmstadtium hexafluoride (), as its lighter homologue platinum hexafluoride () is volatile above 60°C and therefore the analogous compound of darmstadtium might also be sufficiently volatile; a volatile octafluoride () might also be possible. For chemical studies to be carried out on a transactinide, at least four atoms must be produced, the half-life of the isotope used must be at least 1second, and the rate of production must be at least one atom per week. Even though the half-life of 281Ds, the most stable confirmed darmstadtium isotope, is 12.7seconds, long enough to perform chemical studies, another obstacle is the need to increase the rate of production of darmstadtium isotopes and allow experiments to carry on for weeks or months so that statistically significant results can be obtained. Separation and detection must be carried out continuously to separate out the darmstadtium isotopes and have automated systems experiment on the gas-phase and solution chemistry of darmstadtium, as the yields for heavier elements are predicted to be smaller than those for lighter elements; some of the separation techniques used for bohrium and hassium could be reused. However, the experimental chemistry of darmstadtium has not received as much attention as that of the heavier elements from copernicium to livermorium.",
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"plaintext": "The more neutron-rich darmstadtium isotopes are the most stable and are thus more promising for chemical studies. However, they can only be produced indirectly from the alpha decay of heavier elements, and indirect synthesis methods are not as favourable for chemical studies as direct synthesis methods. The more neutron-rich isotopes 276Ds and 277Ds might be produced directly in the reaction between thorium-232 and calcium-48, but the yield is expected to be low. Furthermore, this reaction has already been tested without success, and more recent experiments that have successfully synthesized 277Ds using indirect methods show that it has a short half-life of 3.5ms, not long enough to perform chemical studies. The only known darmstadtium isotope with a half-life long enough for chemical research is 281Ds, which would have to be produced as the granddaughter of 289Fl.",
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"plaintext": " Darmstadtium at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)",
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"plaintext": "Broca's area, or the Broca area (, , ), is a region in the frontal lobe of the dominant hemisphere, usually the left, of the brain with functions linked to speech production.",
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"plaintext": "Language processing has been linked to Broca's area since Pierre Paul Broca reported impairments in two patients. They had lost the ability to speak after injury to the posterior inferior frontal gyrus (pars triangularis) (BA45) of the brain. Since then, the approximate region he identified has become known as Broca's area, and the deficit in language production as Broca's aphasia, also called expressive aphasia. Broca's area is now typically defined in terms of the pars opercularis and pars triangularis of the inferior frontal gyrus, represented in Brodmann's cytoarchitectonic map as Brodmann area 44 and Brodmann area 45 of the dominant hemisphere.",
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"plaintext": "Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has shown language processing to also involve the third part of the inferior frontal gyrus the pars orbitalis, as well as the ventral part of BA6 and these are now often included in a larger area called Broca's region.",
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"plaintext": "Studies of chronic aphasia have implicated an essential role of Broca's area in various speech and language functions. Further, fMRI studies have also identified activation patterns in Broca's area associated with various language tasks. However, slow destruction of Broca's area by brain tumors can leave speech relatively intact, suggesting its functions can shift to nearby areas in the brain.",
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"plaintext": "Broca's area is often identified by visual inspection of the topography of the brain either by macrostructural landmarks such as sulci or by the specification of coordinates in a particular reference space. The currently used Talairach and Tournoux atlas projects Brodmann's cytoarchitectonic map onto a template brain. Because Brodmann's parcelation was based on subjective visual inspection of cytoarchitectonic borders and also Brodmann analyzed only one hemisphere of one brain, the result is imprecise. Further, because of considerable variability across brains in terms of shape, size, and position relative to sulcal and gyral structure, a resulting localization precision is limited.",
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"plaintext": "Nevertheless, Broca's area in the left hemisphere and its homologue in the right hemisphere are designations usually used to refer to the triangular part of inferior frontal gyrus (PTr) and the opercular part of inferior frontal gyrus (POp). The PTr and POp are defined by structural landmarks that only probabilistically divide the inferior frontal gyrus into anterior and posterior cytoarchitectonic areas of 45 and 44, respectively, by Brodmann's classification scheme.",
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"plaintext": "Area 45 receives more afferent connections from the prefrontal cortex, the superior temporal gyrus, and the superior temporal sulcus, compared to area 44, which tends to receive more afferent connections from motor, somatosensory, and inferior parietal regions.",
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"plaintext": "The differences between area 45 and 44 in cytoarchitecture and in connectivity suggest that these areas might perform different functions. Indeed, recent neuroimaging studies have shown that the PTr and Pop, corresponding to areas 45 and 44, respectively, play different functional roles in the human with respect to language comprehension and action recognition/understanding.",
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"plaintext": "The Broca's area is about 20% larger in women than in men.",
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"plaintext": "For a long time, it was assumed that the role of Broca's area was more devoted to language production than language comprehension. However, there is evidence to demonstrate that Broca's area also plays a significant role in language comprehension. Patients with lesions in Broca's area who exhibit agrammatical speech production also show inability to use syntactic information to determine the meaning of sentences. Also, a number of neuroimaging studies have implicated an involvement of Broca's area, particularly of the pars opercularis of the left inferior frontal gyrus, during the processing of complex sentences. Further, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) experiments have shown that highly ambiguous sentences result in a more activated inferior frontal gyrus. Therefore, the activity level in the inferior frontal gyrus and the level of lexical ambiguity are directly proportional to each other, because of the increased retrieval demands associated with highly ambiguous content.",
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"plaintext": "There is also specialisation for particular aspects of comprehension within Broca's area. Work by Devlin et al. (2003) showed in a repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) study that there was an increase in reaction times when performing a semantic task under rTMS aimed at the pars triangularis (situated in the anterior part of Broca's area). The increase in reaction times is indicative that that particular area is responsible for processing that cognitive function. Disrupting these areas via TMS disrupts computations performed in the areas leading to an increase in time needed to perform the computations (reflected in reaction times). Later work by Nixon et al. (2004) showed that when the pars opercularis (situated in the posterior part of Broca's area) was stimulated under rTMS there was an increase in reaction times in a phonological task. Gough et al. (2005) performed an experiment combining elements of these previous works in which both phonological and semantic tasks were performed with rTMS stimulation directed at either the anterior or the posterior part of Broca's area. The results from this experiment conclusively distinguished anatomical specialisation within Broca's area for different components of language comprehension. Here the results showed that under rTMS stimulation: ",
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"plaintext": " Semantic tasks only showed a decrease in reaction times when stimulation was aimed at the anterior part of Broca's area (where a decrease of 10% (50ms) was seen compared to a no-TMS control group)",
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"plaintext": " Phonological tasks showed a decrease in reaction times when stimulation was aimed at the posterior part of Broca's area (where a decrease of 6% (30ms) was seen compared to control)",
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"plaintext": "To summarise, the work above shows anatomical specialisation in Broca's area for language comprehension, with the anterior part of Broca's area responsible for understanding the meaning of words (semantics) and the posterior part of Broca's area responsible for understanding how words sound (phonology).",
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"plaintext": "Recent experiments have indicated that Broca's area is involved in various cognitive and perceptual tasks. One important contribution of Brodmann's area 44 is also found in the motor-related processes. Observation of meaningful hand shadows resembling moving animals activates frontal language area, demonstrating that Broca's area indeed plays a role in interpreting action of others. An activation of BA 44 was also reported during execution of grasping and manipulation.",
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"plaintext": "It has been speculated that because speech-associated gestures could possibly reduce lexical or sentential ambiguity, comprehension should improve in the presence of speech-associated gestures. As a result of improved comprehension, the involvement of Broca's area should be reduced.",
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"plaintext": "Many neuroimaging studies have also shown activation of Broca's area when representing meaningful arm gestures. A recent study has shown evidence that word and gesture are related at the level of translation of particular gesture aspects such as its motor goal and intention. This finding helps explain why, when this area is defective, those who use sign language also have language deficits. This finding, that aspects of gestures are translated in words within Broca's area, also explains language development in terms of evolution. Indeed, many authors have proposed that speech evolved from a primitive communication that arose from gestures. (See below.)",
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"plaintext": "Damage to Broca's area is commonly associated with telegraphic speech made up of content vocabulary. For example, a person with Broca's aphasia may say something like, \"Drive, store. Mom.\" meaning to say, \"My mom drove me to the store today.\" Therefore, the content of the information is correct, but the grammar and fluidity of the sentence is missing.",
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"plaintext": "The essential role of the Broca's area in speech production has been questioned since it can be destroyed while leaving language nearly intact. In one case of a computer engineer, a slow-growing glioma tumor was removed. The tumor and the surgery destroyed the left inferior and middle frontal gyrus, the head of the caudate nucleus, the anterior limb of the internal capsule, and the anterior insula. However, there were minimal language problems three months after removal and the individual returned to his professional work. These minor problems include the inability to create syntactically complex sentences including more than two subjects, multiple causal conjunctions, or reported speech. These were explained by researchers as due to working memory problems. They also attributed his lack of problems to extensive compensatory mechanisms enabled by neural plasticity in the nearby cerebral cortex and a shift of some functions to the homologous area in the right hemisphere.",
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"plaintext": "A speech disorder known as stuttering is seen to be associated with underactivity in Broca's area.",
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"plaintext": "Aphasia is an acquired language disorder affecting all modalities such as writing, reading, speaking, and listening and results from brain damage. It is often a chronic condition that creates changes in all areas of one's life.",
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"plaintext": "Patients with expressive aphasia, also known as Broca's aphasia, are individuals who know \"what they want to say, they just cannot get it out\". They are typically able to comprehend words, and sentences with a simple syntactic structure (see above), but are more or less unable to generate fluent speech. Other symptoms that may be present include problems with fluency, articulation, word-finding, word repetition, and producing and comprehending complex grammatical sentences, both orally and in writing.",
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"plaintext": "This specific group of symptoms distinguishes those who have expressive aphasia from individuals with other types of aphasia. There are several distinct \"types\" of aphasia, and each type is characterized by a different set of language deficits. Although those who have expressive aphasia tend to retain good spoken language comprehension, other types of aphasia can render patients completely unable to understand any language at all, unable to understand any spoken language (auditory verbal agnosia), whereas still other types preserve language comprehension, but with deficits. People with expressive aphasia may struggle less with reading and writing (see alexia) than those with other types of aphasia. Although individuals with expressive aphasia tend to have a good ability to self-monitor their language output (they \"hear what they say\" and make corrections), other types of aphasics can seem entirely unaware of their language deficits.",
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"plaintext": "In the classical sense, expressive aphasia is the result of injury to Broca's area; it is often the case that lesions in specific brain areas cause specific, dissociable symptoms, although case studies show there is not always a one-to-one mapping between lesion location and aphasic symptoms. The correlation between damage to certain specific brain areas (usually in the left hemisphere) and the development of specific types of aphasia makes it possible to deduce (albeit very roughly) the location of a suspected brain lesion based only on the presence (and severity) of a certain type of aphasia, though this is complicated by the possibility that a patient may have damage to a number of brain areas and may exhibit symptoms of more than one type of aphasia. The examination of lesion data in order to deduce which brain areas are essential in the normal functioning of certain aspects of cognition is called the deficit-lesion method; this method is especially important in the branch of neuroscience known as aphasiology. Cognitive science – to be specific, cognitive neuropsychology – are branches of neuroscience that also make extensive use of the deficit-lesion method.",
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"plaintext": "Since studies carried out in the late 1970s it has been understood that the relationship between Broca's area and Broca's aphasia is not as consistent as once thought. Lesions to Broca's area alone do not result in Broca's aphasia, nor do Broca's aphasic patients necessarily have lesions in Broca's area. Lesions to Broca's area alone are known to produce a transient mutism that resolves within 3–6 weeks. This discovery suggests that Broca's area may be included in some aspect of verbalization or articulation; however, this does not address its part in sentence comprehension. Still, Broca's area frequently emerges in functional imaging studies of sentence processing. However, it also becomes activated in word-level tasks. This suggests that Broca's area is not dedicated to sentence processing alone, but supports a function common to both. In fact, Broca's area can show activation in such non-linguistic tasks as imagery of motion.",
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"plaintext": "Considering the hypothesis that Broca's area may be most involved in articulation, its activation in all of these tasks may be due to subjects' covert articulation while formulating a response. Despite this caveat, a consensus seems to be forming that whatever role Broca's area may play, it may relate to known working memory functions of the frontal areas. (There is a wide distribution of Talairach coordinates reported in the functional imaging literature that are referred to as part of Broca's area.) The processing of a passive voice sentence, for example, may require working memory to assist in the temporary retention of information while other relevant parts of the sentence are being manipulated (i.e. to resolve the assignment of thematic roles to arguments). Miyake, Carpenter, and Just have proposed that sentence processing relies on such general verbal working memory mechanisms, while Caplan and Waters consider Broca's area to be involved in working memory specifically for syntactic processing. Friederici (2002) breaks Broca's area into its component regions and suggests that Brodmann's area 44 is involved in working memory for both phonological and syntactic structure. This area becomes active first for phonology and later for syntax as the time course for the comprehension process unfolds. Brodmann's area 45 and Brodmann's area 47 are viewed as being specifically involved in working memory for semantic features and thematic structure where processes of syntactic reanalysis and repair are required. These areas come online after Brodmann's area 44 has finished its processing role and are active when comprehension of complex sentences must rely on general memory resources. All of these theories indicate a move towards a view that syntactic comprehension problems arise from a computational rather than a conceptual deficit. Newer theories take a more dynamic view of how the brain integrates different linguistic and cognitive components and are examining the time course of these operations.",
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"plaintext": "Neurocognitive studies have already implicated frontal areas adjacent to Broca's area as important for working memory in non-linguistic as well as linguistic tasks. Cabeza and Nyberg's analysis of imaging studies of working memory supports the view that BA45/47 is recruited for selecting or comparing information, while BA9/46 might be more involved in the manipulation of information in working memory. Since large lesions are typically required to produce a Broca's aphasia, it is likely that these regions may also become compromised in some patients and may contribute to their comprehension deficits for complex morphosyntactic structures.",
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"plaintext": "Broca's area has been previously associated with a variety of processes, including phonological segmentation, syntactic processing, and unification, all of which involve segmenting and linking different types of linguistic information. Although repeating and reading single words does not engage semantic and syntactic processing, it does require an operation linking phonemic sequences with motor gestures. Findings indicate that this linkage is coordinated by Broca's area through reciprocal interactions with temporal and frontal cortices responsible for phonemic and articulatory representations, respectively, including interactions with the motor cortex before the actual act of speech. Based on these unique findings, it has been proposed that Broca's area is not the seat of articulation, but rather is a key node in manipulating and forwarding neural information across large-scale cortical networks responsible for key components of speech production.",
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"plaintext": "In a study published in 2007, the preserved brains of both Leborgne and Lelong (patients of Broca) were reinspected using high-resolution volumetric MRI. The purpose of this study was to scan the brains in three dimensions and to identify the extent of both cortical and subcortical lesions in more detail. The study also sought to locate the exact site of the lesion in the frontal lobe in relation to what is now called Broca's area with the extent of subcortical involvement.",
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"plaintext": "Leborgne was a patient of Broca's. At 30 years old, he was almost completely unable to produce any words or phrases. He was able to repetitively produce only the word tan. After his death, a neurosyphilitic lesion was discovered on the surface of his left frontal lobe.",
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"plaintext": "Lelong was another patient of Broca's. He also exhibited reduced productive speech. He could only say five words, 'yes', 'no', 'three', 'always', and 'lelo' (a mispronunciation of his own name). A lesion within the lateral frontal lobe was discovered during Lelong's autopsy. Broca's previous patient, Leborgne, had this lesion in the same area of his frontal lobe. These two cases led Broca to believe that speech was localized to this particular area.",
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"plaintext": "Examination of the brains of Broca's two historic patients with high-resolution MRI has produced several interesting findings. First, the MRI findings suggest that other areas besides Broca's area may also have contributed to the patients' reduced productive speech. This finding is significant because it has been found that, though lesions to Broca's area alone can possibly cause temporary speech disruption, they do not result in severe speech arrest. Therefore, there is a possibility that the aphasia denoted by Broca as an absence of productive speech also could have been influenced by the lesions in the other region. Another finding is that the region, which was once considered to be critical for speech by Broca, is not precisely the same region as what is now known as Broca's area. This study provides further evidence to support the claim that language and cognition are far more complicated than once thought and involve various networks of brain regions.",
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"plaintext": "The pursuit of a satisfying theory that addresses the origin of language in humans has led to the consideration of a number of evolutionary \"models\". These models attempt to show how modern language might have evolved, and a common feature of many of these theories is the idea that vocal communication was initially used to complement a far more dominant mode of communication through gesture. Human language might have evolved as the \"evolutionary refinement of an implicit communication system already present in lower primates, based on a set of hand/mouth goal-directed action representations.\"",
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"plaintext": "\"Hand/mouth goal-directed action representations\" is another way of saying \"gestural communication\", \"gestural language\", or \"communication through body language\". The recent finding that Broca's area is active when people are observing others engaged in meaningful action is evidence in support of this idea. It was hypothesized that a precursor to the modern Broca's area was involved in translating gestures into abstract ideas by interpreting the movements of others as meaningful action with an intelligent purpose. It is argued that over time the ability to predict the intended outcome and purpose of a set of movements eventually gave this area the capability to deal with truly abstract ideas, and therefore (eventually) became capable of associating sounds (words) with abstract meanings. The observation that frontal language areas are activated when people observe Hand Shadows is further evidence that human language may have evolved from existing neural substrates that evolved for the purpose of gesture recognition. The study, therefore, claims that Broca's area is the \"motor center for speech\", which assembles and decodes speech sounds in the same way it interprets body language and gestures. Consistent with this idea is that the neural substrate that regulated motor control in the common ancestor of apes and humans was most likely modified to enhance cognitive and linguistic ability. Studies of speakers of American Sign Language and English suggest that the human brain recruited systems that had evolved to perform more basic functions much earlier; these various brain circuits, according to the authors, were tapped to work together in creating language.",
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"plaintext": "Another recent finding has showed significant areas of activation in subcortical and neocortical areas during the production of communicative manual gestures and vocal signals in chimpanzees. Further, the data indicating that chimpanzees intentionally produce manual gestures as well as vocal signals to communicate with humans suggests that the precursors to human language are present at both the behavioral and neuronanatomical levels. More recently, the neocortical distribution of activity-dependent gene expression in marmosets provided direct evidence that the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, which comprises Broca's area in humans and has been associated with auditory processing of species-specific vocalizations and orofacial control in macaques, is engaged during vocal output in a New World monkey. These findings putatively set the origin of vocalization-related neocortical circuits to at least 35 million years ago, when the Old and New World monkey lineages split.",
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40,171 | 1,097,226,483 | Lead(II)_azide | [
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"plaintext": "Lead(II) azide is prepared by the reaction of sodium azide and lead(II) nitrate in aqueous solution. Lead(II) acetate can also be used.",
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"plaintext": "Lead azide in its pure form was first prepared by Theodor Curtius in 1891. Due to sensitivity and stability concerns, the dextrinated form of lead azide (MIL-L-3055) was developed in the 1920s and 1930s with large scale production by DuPont Co beginning in 1932. Detonator development during World War II resulted in the need for a form of lead azide with a more brisant output. RD-1333 lead azide (MIL-DTL-46225), a version of lead azide with sodium carboxymethyl cellulose as a precipitating agent, was developed to meet that need. The Vietnam War saw an accelerated need for lead azide and it was during this time that Special Purpose Lead Azide (MIL-L-14758) was developed; the US government also began stockpiling lead azide in large quantities. After the Vietnam War, the use of lead azide dramatically decreased. Due to the size of the US stockpile, the manufacture of lead azide in the US ceased completely by the early 1990s. In the 2000s, concerns about the age and stability of stockpiled lead azide led the US government to investigate methods to dispose of its stockpiled lead azide and obtain new manufacturers.",
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"plaintext": "Lead azide was a component of the six .22 (5.6 mm) caliber Devastator rounds fired from a Röhm RG-14 revolver by John Hinckley, Jr. in his assassination attempt on U.S. President Ronald Reagan on March 30, 1981. The rounds consisted of lead azide centers with lacquer-sealed aluminum tips designed to explode upon impact. A strong probability exists that the bullet which struck White House press secretary James Brady in the head exploded. The remaining bullets that hit people, including the shot that hit President Reagan, did not explode.",
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"plaintext": "Strabismus, otherwise known as improper eye alignment, is caused by imbalances in the actions of muscles that rotate the eyes. This condition can sometimes be relieved by weakening a muscle that pulls too strongly, or pulls against one that has been weakened by disease or trauma. Muscles weakened by toxin injection recover from paralysis after several months, so injection might seem to need to be repeated, but muscles adapt to the lengths at which they are chronically held, so that if a paralyzed muscle is stretched by its antagonist, it grows longer, while the antagonist shortens, yielding a permanent effect. If binocular vision is good, the brain mechanism of motor fusion, which aligns the eyes on a target visible to both, can stabilize the corrected alignment.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2014, botulinum toxin was approved by UK's Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency for treatment of restricted ankle motion due to lower-limb spasticity associated with stroke in adults.",
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"plaintext": "On 29 July 2016, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved abobotulinumtoxinA for injection for the treatment of lower-limb spasticity in pediatric patients two years of age and older. AbobotulinumtoxinA is the first and only FDA-approved botulinum toxin for the treatment of pediatric lower limb spasticity. In the U.S., the FDA approves the text of the labels of prescription medicines and for which medical conditions the drug manufacturer may sell the drug. However, prescribers may freely prescribe them for any condition they wish, also known as off-label use. Botulinum toxins have been used off-label for several pediatric conditions, including infantile esotropia.",
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"plaintext": "AbobotulinumtoxinA (BTX-A) has been approved for the treatment of excessive underarm sweating of unknown cause, which cannot be managed by topical agents.",
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"plaintext": "In 2010, the FDA approved intramuscular botulinum toxin injections for prophylactic treatment of chronic migraine headache.",
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"plaintext": "In cosmetic applications, botulinum toxin is considered relatively safe and effective for reduction of facial wrinkles, especially in the uppermost third of the face. Commercial forms are marketed under the brand names Botox Cosmetic/Vistabel from Allergan, Dysport/Azzalure from Galderma and Ipsen, Xeomin/Bocouture from Merz, and in the U.S. only, Jeuveau from Evolus, manufactured by Daewoong. The effects of current botulinum toxin injections for glabellar lines ('11's lines' between the eyes) typically last two to four months and in some cases, product-dependent, with some patients experiencing a longer duration of effect. Injection of botulinum toxin into the muscles under facial wrinkles causes relaxation of those muscles, resulting in the smoothing of the overlying skin. Smoothing of wrinkles is usually visible three to five days after injection, with maximum effect typically a week following injection. Muscles can be treated repeatedly to maintain the smoothed appearance.",
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"plaintext": "Botulinum toxin is also used to treat disorders of hyperactive nerves including excessive sweating, neuropathic pain, and some allergy symptoms. In addition to these uses, botulinum toxin is being evaluated for use in treating chronic pain. Studies show that botulinum toxin may be injected into arthritic shoulder joints to reduce chronic pain and improve range of motion. The use of botulinum toxin A in children with cerebral palsy is safe in the upper and lower limb muscles.",
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"plaintext": "While botulinum toxin is generally considered safe in a clinical setting, serious side effects from its use can occur. Most commonly, botulinum toxin can be injected into the wrong muscle group or with time spread from the injection site, causing temporary paralysis of unintended muscles.",
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"plaintext": "Side effects from cosmetic use generally result from unintended paralysis of facial muscles. These include partial facial paralysis, muscle weakness, and trouble swallowing. Side effects are not limited to direct paralysis, however, and can also include headaches, flu-like symptoms, and allergic reactions. Just as cosmetic treatments only last a number of months, paralysis side effects can have the same durations. At least in some cases, these effects are reported to dissipate in the weeks after treatment. Bruising at the site of injection is not a side effect of the toxin, but rather of the mode of administration, and is reported as preventable if the clinician applies pressure to the injection site; when it occurs, it is reported in specific cases to last 7–11 days. When injecting the masseter muscle of the jaw, loss of muscle function can result in a loss or reduction of power to chew solid foods. With continued high doses, the muscles can atrophy or lose strength; research has shown that those muscles rebuild after a break from Botox.",
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"plaintext": "Side effects from therapeutic use can be much more varied depending on the location of injection and the dose of toxin injected. In general, side effects from therapeutic use can be more serious than those that arise during cosmetic use. These can arise from paralysis of critical muscle groups and can include arrhythmia, heart attack, and in some cases, seizures, respiratory arrest, and death. Additionally, side effects common in cosmetic use are also common in therapeutic use, including trouble swallowing, muscle weakness, allergic reactions, and flu-like syndromes.",
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"plaintext": "In response to the occurrence of these side effects, in 2008, the FDA notified the public of the potential dangers of the botulinum toxin as a therapeutic. Namely, the toxin can spread to areas distant from the site of injection and paralyze unintended muscle groups, especially when used for treating muscle spasticity in children treated for cerebral palsy. In 2009, the FDA announced that boxed warnings would be added to available botulinum toxin products, warning of their ability to spread from the injection site. However, the clinical use of botulinum toxin A in cerebral palsy children has been proven to be safe with minimal side effects. Additionally, the FDA announced name changes to several botulinum toxin products, to emphasize that the products are not interchangeable and require different doses for proper use. Botox and Botox Cosmetic were given the INN of onabotulinumtoxinA, Myobloc as rimabotulinumtoxinB, and Dysport retained its INN of abobotulinumtoxinA. In conjunction with this, the FDA issued a communication to health care professionals reiterating the new drug names and the approved uses for each. A similar warning was issued by Health Canada in 2009, warning that botulinum toxin products can spread to other parts of the body.",
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"plaintext": "Botulinum toxin produced by Clostridium botulinum is the cause of botulism. Humans most commonly ingest the toxin from eating improperly canned foods in which C. botulinum has grown. However, the toxin can also be introduced through an infected wound. In infants, the bacteria can sometimes grow in the intestines and produce botulinum toxin within the intestine and can cause a condition known as floppy baby syndrome. In all cases, the toxin can then spread, blocking nerves and muscle function. In severe cases, the toxin can block nerves controlling the respiratory system or heart, resulting in death.",
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"plaintext": "Botulism can be difficult to diagnose, as it may appear similar to diseases such as Guillain–Barré syndrome, myasthenia gravis, and stroke. Other tests, such as brain scan and spinal fluid examination, may help to rule out other causes. If the symptoms of botulism are diagnosed early, various treatments can be administered. In an effort to remove contaminated food that remains in the gut, enemas or induced vomiting may be used. For wound infections, infected material may be removed surgically. Botulinum antitoxin is available and may be used to prevent the worsening of symptoms, though it will not reverse existing nerve damage. In severe cases, mechanical respiration may be used to support patients with respiratory failure. The nerve damage heals over time, generally over weeks to months. With proper treatment, the case fatality rate for botulinum poisoning can be greatly reduced.",
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"plaintext": "Two preparations of botulinum antitoxins are available for treatment of botulism. Trivalent (serotypes A, B, E) botulinum antitoxin is derived from equine sources using whole antibodies. The second antitoxin is heptavalent botulinum antitoxin (serotypes A, B, C, D, E, F, G), which is derived from equine antibodies that have been altered to make them less immunogenic. This antitoxin is effective against all main strains of botulism.",
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"plaintext": "Botulinum toxin exerts its effect by cleaving key proteins required for nerve activation. First, the toxin binds specifically to nerves that use the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Once bound to the nerve terminal, the neuron takes up the toxin into a vesicle by receptor-mediated endocytosis. As the vesicle moves farther into the cell, it acidifies, activating a portion of the toxin that triggers it to push across the vesicle membrane and into the cell cytoplasm. BoNTs recognize distinct classes of receptors simultaneously (gangliosides, synaptotagmin and SV2). Once inside the cytoplasm, the toxin cleaves SNARE proteins (proteins that mediate vesicle fusion, with their target membrane bound compartments) meaning that the acetylcholine vesicles cannot bind to the intracellular cell membrane, preventing the cell from releasing vesicles of neurotransmitter. This stops nerve signaling, leading to paralysis.",
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"plaintext": "The toxin itself is released from the bacterium as a single chain, then becomes activated when cleaved by its own proteases. The active form consists of a two-chain protein composed of a 100-kDa heavy chain polypeptide joined via disulfide bond to a 50-kDa light chain polypeptide. The heavy chain contains domains with several functions; it has the domain responsible for binding specifically to presynaptic nerve terminals, as well as the domain responsible for mediating translocation of the light chain into the cell cytoplasm as the vacuole acidifies. The light chain is a M27-family zinc metalloprotease and is the active part of the toxin. It is translocated into the host cell cytoplasm where it cleaves the host protein SNAP-25, a member of the SNARE protein family, which is responsible for fusion. The cleaved SNAP-25 cannot mediate fusion of vesicles with the host cell membrane, thus preventing the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine from axon endings. This blockage is slowly reversed as the toxin loses activity and the SNARE proteins are slowly regenerated by the affected cell.",
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"plaintext": "The seven toxin serotypes (A–G) are traditionally separated by their antigenicity. They have different tertiary structures and sequence differences. While the different toxin types all target members of the SNARE family, different toxin types target different SNARE family members. The A, B, and E serotypes cause human botulism, with the activities of types A and B enduring longest in vivo (from several weeks to months). Existing toxin types can recombine to create \"hybrid\" (mosaic, chimeric) types. Examples include BoNT/CD, BoNT/DC, and BoNT/FA, with the first letter indicating the light chain type and the latter indicating the heavy chain type. BoNT/FA received considerable attention under the name \"BoNT/H\", as it was mistakenly thought it could not be neutralized by any existing antitoxin.",
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"plaintext": "Botulinum toxins are closely related to tetanus toxin; the two are collectively known as Clostridium neurotoxins and the light chain is classified by MEROPS as family M27. Nonclassical types include BoNT/X (), which is toxic in mice and possibly in humans; a BoNT/J () found in cow Enterococcus; and a BoNT/Wo () found in the rice-colonizing Weissella oryzae.",
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"plaintext": "One of the earliest recorded outbreaks of foodborne botulism occurred in 1793 in the village of Wildbad in what is now Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Thirteen people became sick and six died after eating pork stomach filled with blood sausage, a local delicacy. Additional cases of fatal food poisoning in Württemberg led the authorities to issue a public warning against consuming smoked blood sausages in 1802 and to collect case reports of \"sausage poisoning\". Between 1817 and 1822, the German physician Justinus Kerner published the first complete description of the symptoms of botulism, based on extensive clinical observations and animal experiments. He concluded that the toxin develops in bad sausages under anaerobic conditions, is a biological substance, acts on the nervous system, and is lethal even in small amounts. Kerner hypothesized that this \"sausage toxin\" could be used to treat a variety of diseases caused by an overactive nervous system, making him the first to suggest that it could be used therapeutically. In 1870, the German physician Müller coined the term \"botulism\" to describe the disease caused by sausage poisoning, from the Latin word botulus, meaning \"sausage\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1895 Émile van Ermengem, a Belgian microbiologist, discovered what is now called Clostridium botulinum and confirmed that a toxin produced by the bacteria causes botulism. On 14 December 1895, there was a large outbreak of botulism in the Belgian village of Ellezelles that occurred at a funeral where people ate pickled and smoked ham; three of them died. By examining the contaminated ham and performing autopsies on the people who died after eating it, van Ermengem isolated an anaerobic microorganism that he called Bacillus botulinus. He also performed experiments on animals with ham extracts, isolated bacterial cultures, and toxins extracts from the bacteria. From these he concluded that the bacteria themselves do not cause foodborne botulism, but rather produce a toxin that causes the disease after it is ingested. As a result of Kerner's and van Ermengem's research, it was thought that only contaminated meat or fish could cause botulism. This idea was refuted in 1904 when a botulism outbreak occurred in Darmstadt, Germany, because of canned white beans. In 1910, the German microbiologist J. Leuchs published a paper showing that the outbreaks in Ellezelles and Darmstadt were caused by different strains of Bacillus botulinus and that the toxins were serologically distinct. In 1917, Bacillus botulinus was renamed Clostridium botulinum, as it was decided that term Bacillus should only refer to a group of aerobic microorganisms, while Clostridium would be only used to describe a group of anaerobic microorganisms. In 1919, Georgina Burke used toxin-antitoxin reactions to identify two strains of Clostridium botulinum, which she designated A and B.",
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"plaintext": "Over the next three decades, 1895–1925, as food canning was approaching a billion-dollar-a-year industry, botulism was becoming a public health hazard. Karl Friedrich Meyer, a Swiss-American veterinary scientist, created a center at the Hooper Foundation in San Francisco, where he developed techniques for growing the organism and extracting the toxin, and conversely, for preventing organism growth and toxin production, and inactivating the toxin by heating. The California canning industry was thereby preserved. ",
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"plaintext": "With the outbreak of World War II, weaponization of botulinum toxin was investigated at Fort Detrick in Maryland. Carl Lamanna and James Duff developed the concentration and crystallization techniques that Edward J. Schantz used to create the first clinical product. When the Army's Chemical Corps was disbanded, Schantz moved to the Food Research Institute in Wisconsin, where he manufactured toxin for experimental use and provided it to the academic community.",
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"plaintext": "The mechanism of botulinum toxin action – blocking the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine from nerve endings – was elucidated in the mid-20th century, and remains an important research topic. Nearly all toxin treatments are based on this effect in various body tissues.",
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"plaintext": "Ophthalmologists specializing in eye muscle disorders (strabismus) had developed the method of EMG-guided injection (using the electromyogram, the electrical signal from an activated muscle, to guide injection) of local anesthetics as a diagnostic technique for evaluating an individual muscle's contribution to an eye movement. Because strabismus surgery frequently needed repeating, a search was undertaken for non-surgical, injection treatments using various anesthetics, alcohols, enzymes, enzyme blockers, and snake neurotoxins. Finally, inspired by Daniel B. Drachman's work with chicks at Johns Hopkins, Alan B. Scott and colleagues injected botulinum toxin into monkey extraocular muscles. The result was remarkable; a few picograms induced paralysis that was confined to the target muscle, long in duration, and without side effects.",
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"plaintext": "After working out techniques for freeze-drying, buffering with albumin, and assuring sterility, potency, and safety, Scott applied to the FDA for investigational drug use, and began manufacturing botulinum type A neurotoxin in his San Francisco lab. He injected the first strabismus patients in 1977, reported its clinical utility in 1980, and had soon trained hundreds of ophthalmologists in EMG-guided injection of the drug he named Oculinum (\"eye aligner\").",
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"plaintext": "In 1986, Oculinum Inc, Scott's micromanufacturer and distributor of botulinum toxin, was unable to obtain product liability insurance, and could no longer supply the drug. As supplies became exhausted, patients who had come to rely on periodic injections became desperate. For four months, as liability issues were resolved, American blepharospasm patients traveled to Canadian eye centers for their injections.",
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"plaintext": "Based on data from thousands of patients collected by 240 investigators, Oculinum Inc (which was soon acquired by Allergan) received FDA approval in 1989 to market Oculinum for clinical use in the United States to treat adult strabismus and blepharospasm. Allergan then began using the trademark Botox. This original approval was granted under the 1983 US Orphan Drug Act.",
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"plaintext": "The effect of BTX-A on reducing and eliminating forehead wrinkles was first described and published by Richard Clark, MD, a plastic surgeon from Sacramento, California. In 1987 Clark was challenged with eliminating the disfigurement caused by only the right side of the forehead muscles functioning after the left side of the forehead was paralyzed during a facelift procedure. This patient had desired to look better from her facelift, but was experiencing bizarre unilateral right forehead eyebrow elevation while the left eyebrow drooped, and she constantly demonstrated deep expressive right forehead wrinkles while the left side was perfectly smooth due to the paralysis. Clark was aware that Botulinum toxin was safely being used to treat babies with strabismus and he requested and was granted FDA approval to experiment with Botulinum toxin to paralyze the moving and wrinkling normal functioning right forehead muscles to make both sides of the forehead appear the same. This study and case report of the cosmetic use of Botulinum toxin to treat a cosmetic complication of a cosmetic surgery was the first report on the specific treatment of wrinkles and was published in the journal Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery in 1989. Editors of the journal of the American Society of Plastic Surgeons have clearly stated \"the first described use of the toxin in aesthetic circumstances was by Clark and Berris in 1989.\"",
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"plaintext": "Jean and Alastair Carruthers observed that blepharospasm patients who received injections around the eyes and upper face also enjoyed diminished facial glabellar lines (\"frown lines\" between the eyebrows). Alastair Carruthers reported that others at the time also noticed these effects and discussed the cosmetic potential of botulinum toxin. Unlike other investigators, the Carruthers did more than just talk about the possibility of using botulinum toxin cosmetically. They conducted a clinical study on otherwise normal individuals whose only concern was their eyebrow furrow. They performed their study during 1987-1989 and presented their results at the 1990 annual meeting of the American Society for Dermatologic Surgery. Their findings were subsequently published in 1992.",
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"plaintext": "William J. Binder reported in 2000, that patients who had cosmetic injections around the face reported relief from chronic headache. This was initially thought to be an indirect effect of reduced muscle tension, but the toxin is now known to inhibit release of peripheral nociceptive neurotransmitters, suppressing the central pain processing systems responsible for migraine headache.",
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"plaintext": ", botulinum toxin injections are the most common cosmetic operation, with 7.4 million procedures in the United States, according to the American Society of Plastic Surgeons. Qualifications for Botox injectors vary by county, state, and country. Botox cosmetic providers include dermatologists, plastic surgeons, aesthetic spa physicians, dentists, nurse practitioners, nurses, and physician assistants.",
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"plaintext": "The global market for botulinum toxin products, driven by their cosmetic applications, was forecast to reach $2.9 billion by 2018. The facial aesthetics market, of which they are a component, was forecast to reach $4.7 billion ($2 billion in the U.S.) in the same timeframe.",
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"plaintext": "Global Market In 2019, 6,271,488 Botulinum Toxin procedures were administered worldwide. The Global Botulinum Toxin market size was US$4.83 billion in 2019 and is projected to reach US$7.71 billion by 2027.",
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"plaintext": "US Market In 2020, 4,401,536 Botulinum Toxin Type A procedures were administered. In 2019 the botulinum Toxin market made US$3.19 billion.",
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"plaintext": "Botox cost Botox cost is generally determined by the number of units administered (avg. $10.00 - $30.00 per unit) or by the area ($200–1000) and depends on expertise of a physician, clinic location, number of units, and treatment complexity.",
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"plaintext": "Insurance Botox for medical purposes is usually covered by insurance if deemed medically necessary by your doctor and covers a plethora of medical problems including overactive bladder (OAB), urinary incontinence due to neurologic conditions, headaches and migraines, TMJ, spasticity in adult patients, cervical dystonia in adult patients, severe axillary hyperhidrosis (or other areas of the body), blepharospasm, upper or lower limb spasticity.",
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"plaintext": "Migraines For migraine induced headaches the FDA-recommended dosage is 155 units and costs between $300 to $600 per treatment out of pocket when covered by insurance.",
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"plaintext": "Hyperhidrosis Botox for excessive sweating is FDA approved.",
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"plaintext": "Cosmetic Standard areas for aesthetics botox injections include facial and other areas that can form fine lines and wrinkles due to every day muscle contractions and/or facial expressions such as smiling, frowning, squinting, and raising eyebrows. These areas include the glabellar region between the eyebrows, horizontal lines on the forehead, crow's feet around the eyes, and even circular bands that form around the neck secondary to platysmal hyperactivity.",
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"plaintext": "Botulinum toxin has been recognized as a potential agent for use in bioterrorism. It can be absorbed through the eyes, mucous membranes, respiratory tract, and non-intact skin.",
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"plaintext": "The effects of botulinum toxin are different from those of nerve agents involved insofar in that botulism symptoms develop relatively slowly (over several days), while nerve agent effects are generally much more rapid. Evidence suggests that nerve exposure (simulated by injection of atropine and pralidoxime) will increase mortality by enhancing botulinum toxin's mechanism of toxicity.",
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"plaintext": "With regard to detection, protocols using NBC detection equipment (such as M-8 paper or the ICAM) will not indicate a \"positive\" when samples containing botulinum toxin are tested. To confirm a diagnosis of botulinum toxin poisoning, therapeutically or to provide evidence in death investigations, botulinum toxin may be quantitated by immunoassay of human biological fluids; serum levels of 12–24 mouse LD50 units per milliliter have been detected in poisoned patients.",
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"plaintext": "Japanese doomsday cult Aum Shinrikyo produced botulinum toxin and spread it as an aerosol in downtown Tokyo during the 1990s, but the attacks caused no fatalities.",
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"plaintext": "During the early 1980s, German and French newspapers reported that the police had raided a Baader-Meinhof gang safe house in Paris and had found a makeshift laboratory that contained flasks full of Clostridium botulinum, which makes botulinum toxin. Their reports were later found to be incorrect; no such lab was ever found.",
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"plaintext": "Botulinum toxin A is sold under the brand names Jeuveau, Botox, and Xeomin. Botulinum toxin B is sold under the brand name Myobloc.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, botulinum toxin products are manufactured by a variety of companies, for both therapeutic and cosmetic use. A U.S. supplier reported in its company materials in 2011 that it could \"supply the world's requirements for 25 indications approved by Government agencies around the world\" with less than one gram of raw botulinum toxin. Myobloc or Neurobloc, a botulinum toxin type B product, is produced by Solstice Neurosciences, a subsidiary of US WorldMeds. AbobotulinumtoxinA), a therapeutic formulation of the type A toxin manufactured by Galderma in the United Kingdom, is licensed for the treatment of focal dystonias and certain cosmetic uses in the U.S. and other countries.",
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"plaintext": "Besides the three primary U.S. manufacturers, numerous other botulinum toxin producers are known. Xeomin, manufactured in Germany by Merz, is also available for both therapeutic and cosmetic use in the U.S. Lanzhou Institute of Biological Products in China manufactures a BTX-A product; as of 2014, it was the only BTX-A approved in China. BTX-A is also sold as Lantox and Prosigne on the global market. Neuronox, a BTX-A product, was introduced by Medy-Tox Inc. of South Korea in 2009.",
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"plaintext": "Botulism toxins are produced by bacteria of the genus Clostridium, namely C. botulinum, C. butyricum, C. baratii and C. argentinense, which are widely distributed, including in soil and dust. Also, the bacteria can be found inside homes on floors, carpet, and countertops even after cleaning.",
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"plaintext": "Food-borne botulism results, indirectly, from ingestion of food contaminated with Clostridium spores, where exposure to an anaerobic environment allows the spores to germinate, after which the bacteria can multiply and produce toxin. Critically, ingestion of toxin rather than spores or vegetative bacteria causes botulism. Botulism is nevertheless known to be transmitted through canned foods not cooked correctly before canning or after can opening, so is preventable. Infant botulism arising from consumption of honey or any other food that can carry these spores can be prevented by eliminating these foods from diets of children less than 12 months old.",
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"plaintext": "Proper refrigeration at temperatures below 3°C (38°F) slows the growth of C. botulinum. The organism is also susceptible to high salt, high oxygen, and low pH levels. The toxin itself is rapidly destroyed by heat, such as in thorough cooking. The spores that produce the toxin are heat-tolerant and will survive boiling water for an extended period of time.",
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"plaintext": "The botulinum toxin is denatured and thus deactivated at temperatures greater than for five minutes. As a zinc metalloprotease (see below), the toxin's activity is also susceptible, post-exposure, to inhibition by protease inhibitors, e.g., zinc-coordinating hydroxamates.",
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"plaintext": "University-based ophthalmologists in the US and Canada further refined the use of botulinum toxin as a therapeutic agent. By 1985, a scientific protocol of injection sites and dosage had been empirically determined for treatment of blepharospasm and strabismus. Side effects in treatment of this condition were deemed to be rare, mild and treatable. The beneficial effects of the injection lasted only 4–6 months. Thus, blepharospasm patients required re-injection two or three times a year.",
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"plaintext": "In 1986, Scott's micromanufacturer and distributor of Botox was no longer able to supply the drug because of an inability to obtain product liability insurance. Patients became desperate, as supplies of Botox were gradually consumed, forcing him to abandon patients who would have been due for their next injection. For a period of four months, American blepharospasm patients had to arrange to have their injections performed by participating doctors at Canadian eye centers until the liability issues could be resolved.",
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"plaintext": "In December 1989, Botox was approved by the U.S. FDA for the treatment of strabismus, blepharospasm, and hemifacial spasm in patients over 12 years old.",
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"plaintext": "Botox has not been approved for any pediatric use. It has, however, been used off-label by physicians for several conditions, including spastic conditions in pediatric patients with cerebral palsy, a therapeutic course that has resulted in patient deaths. In the case of treatment of infantile esotropia in patients younger than 12 years of age, several studies have yielded differing results.",
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"plaintext": "The effect of BTX-A on reducing and eliminating forehead wrinkles was first described and published by Richard Clark, MD a plastic surgeon from Sacramento, California. In 1987 Clark was challenged with eliminating the disfigurement caused by only the right side of the forehead muscles functioning after the left side of the forehead was paralyzed during a facelift procedure. This patient had desired to look better from her facelift, but was experiencing bizarre unilateral right forehead eyebrow elevation while the left eyebrow drooped and she emoted with deep expressive right forehead wrinkles while the left side was perfectly smooth due to the paralysis. Clark was aware that Botulinum toxin was safely being used to treat babies with strabismus and he requested and was granted FDA approval to experiment with Botulinum toxin to paralyze the moving and wrinkling normal functioning right forehead muscles to make both sides of the forehead appear the same. This study and case report of the Cosmetic use of Botulinum toxin to treat a Cosmetic complication of a Cosmetic surgery was the first report on the specific treatment of wrinkles and was published in the journal Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery in 1989. Editors of the journal of the American Society of Plastic Surgeons have clearly stated \"the first described use of the toxin in aesthetic circumstances was by Clark and Berris in 1989.\"",
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"plaintext": "JD and JA Carruthers also studied and reported in 1992 the use of BTX-A as a cosmetic treatment.[78] They conducted a study of patients whose only concern was their glabellar forehead wrinkle or furrow. Study participants were otherwise normal. Sixteen of seventeen patients available for follow-up demonstrated a cosmetic improvement. This study was reported at a meeting in 1991. The study for the treatment of glabellar frown lines was published in 1992. This result was subsequently confirmed by other groups (Brin, and the Columbia University group under Monte Keen). The FDA announced regulatory approval of botulinum toxin type A (Botox Cosmetic) to temporarily improve the appearance of moderate-to-severe frown lines between the eyebrows (glabellar lines) in 2002 after extensive clinical trials. Well before this, the cosmetic use of botulinum toxin type A became widespread. The results of Botox Cosmetic can last up to four months and may vary with each patient. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved an alternative product-safety testing method in response to increasing public concern that LD50 testing was required for each batch sold in the market.",
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"plaintext": "BTX-A has also been used in the treatment of gummy smiles, the material is injected into the hyperactive muscles of upper lip, which causes a reduction in the upward movement of lip thus resulting in a smile with a less exposure of gingiva. Botox is usually injected in the three lip elevator muscles that converge on the lateral side of the ala of the nose; the levator labii superioris (LLS), the levator labii superioris alaeque nasi muscle (LLSAN), and the zygomaticus minor (ZMi).",
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"plaintext": "BTX-A is now a common treatment for muscles affected by the upper motor neuron syndrome (UMNS), such as cerebral palsy, for muscles with an impaired ability to effectively lengthen. Muscles affected by UMNS frequently are limited by weakness, loss of reciprocal inhibition, decreased movement control, and hypertonicity (including spasticity). In January 2014, Botulinum toxin was approved by UK's Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) for the treatment of ankle disability due to lower limb spasticity associated with stroke in adults. Joint motion may be restricted by severe muscle imbalance related to the syndrome, when some muscles are markedly hypertonic, and lack effective active lengthening. Injecting an overactive muscle to decrease its level of contraction can allow improved reciprocal motion, so improved ability to move and exercise.",
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"plaintext": "Sialorrhea is a condition where oral secretions are unable to be eliminated, causing pooling of saliva in the mouth. This condition can be caused by various neurological syndromes such as Bell's_palsy, intellectual disability, and cerebral palsy. Injection of BTX-A into salivary glands is useful in reducing the secretions.",
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"plaintext": "BTX-A is commonly used to treat cervical dystonia, but it can become ineffective after a time. Botulinum toxin type B (BTX-B) received FDA approval for treatment of cervical dystonia on 21 December 2000. Brand names for BTX-B are Myobloc in the United States, and Neurobloc in the European Union.",
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"plaintext": "Onabotulinumtoxin A (trade name Botox) received FDA approval for treatment of chronic migraines on 15 October 2010. The toxin is injected into the head and neck to treat these chronic headaches. Approval followed evidence presented to the agency from two studies funded by Allergan showing a very slight improvement in incidence of chronic migraines for those with migraines undergoing the Botox treatment.",
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"plaintext": "Since then, several randomized control trials have shown botulinum toxin type A to improve headache symptoms and quality of life when used prophylactically for patients with chronic migraine who exhibit headache characteristics consistent with: pressure perceived from outside source, shorter total duration of chronic migraines (<30 years), \"detoxification\" of patients with coexisting chronic daily headache due to medication overuse, and no current history of other preventive headache medications.",
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"plaintext": "A few small trials have found benefits in people with depression. Research is based on the facial feedback hypothesis.",
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"plaintext": "The drug for the treatment of premature ejaculation has been under development since 7 August 2013, and is in Phase II of the FDA trials.",
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"plaintext": " BotDB: extensive resources on BoNT structures, inhibitors, kinetics, and literature",
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"Botox",
"Bontoxilysin",
"botulinum toxin type H",
"Botulinum Toxins"
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40,173 | 1,107,144,657 | 8th_century_BC | [
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"plaintext": "The 8th century BCE started the first day of 800 BC and ended the last day of 701 BC. The 8th century BC is a period of great change for several historically significant civilizations. In Egypt, the 23rd and 24th dynasties lead to rule from Nubia in the 25th Dynasty. The Neo-Assyrian Empire reaches the peak of its power, conquering the Kingdom of Israel as well as nearby countries.",
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"plaintext": "Greece colonizes other regions of the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea. Rome is founded in 753 BC, and the Etruscan civilization expands in Italy. The 8th century BC is conventionally taken as the beginning of Classical Antiquity, with the first Olympiad set at 776 BC, and the epics of Homer dated to between 750 and 650 BC.",
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"plaintext": "Iron Age India enters the later Vedic period. Vedic ritual is annotated in many priestly schools in Brahmana commentaries, and the earliest Upanishads mark the beginning of Vedanta philosophy.",
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"plaintext": "Late 8th century BC: Earrings, crown and rosettes, from the tomb of Queen Yabay in Kalhu (modern Nimrud, Iraq) are made. They are now at Iraq Museum, Baghdad. Discovered in 1988.",
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"plaintext": "Second half of the 8th century BC: In the Kingdom of Judah, Jerusalem begins an expansion in population and size, going from a small town into a major city.",
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"plaintext": " 797 BC: Thespieus, King of Athens, dies after a reign of 27 years and is succeeded by his son Agamestor.",
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"plaintext": " 788 BC: The Malay society of Sungai Batu in Old Kedah Kingdom (History of Kedah) had established the dynamic city port and industry which iron smelting has operated in a large scale and their entreport was an important trade centre. Iron was the major commodity which exported from Sungai Batu, Old Kedah Kingdom or it was known in the past as Kataha, Qalah, Chie-Cha and some other names. At these time, Old Kedah Kingdom located in Malaysia or Malay Peninsular. The excavation works at the ancient city are still going on.",
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"plaintext": " 783 BC: Shalmaneser IV succeeds his father Adad-nirari III as king of Assyria.",
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"plaintext": " 782 BC: Founding of Erebuni (Էրեբունի) by the orders of King Argishtis I at the site of current-day Yerevan.",
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"plaintext": " 782 BC: Death of King Xuan of Zhou, King of the Zhou Dynasty (1122 BC—256 BC) of China.",
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"plaintext": " 781 BC: King You of Zhou becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty (1122 BC—256 BC) of China.",
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"plaintext": " 780 BC: The first historic solar eclipse is recorded in China.",
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"plaintext": "(Although other ancient civilizations such as Greece and Egypt & other Eastern societies had been counting their centuries on lunar and solar cycles. And have mentioned lunar eclipses and solar eclipses on tabloids.",
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"plaintext": "The mentioned solar eclipse lasted longer than previous records)",
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"plaintext": "Priestley was born to an established English Dissenting family (i.e. they did not conform to the Church of England) in Birstall (near Batley) in the West Riding of Yorkshire. He was the oldest of six children born to Mary Swift and Jonas Priestley, a finisher of cloth. Priestley was sent to live with his grandfather around the age of one. He returned home five years later, after his mother died. When his father remarried in 1741, Priestley went to live with his aunt and uncle, the wealthy and childless Sarah (d. 1764), and John Keighley, from Fieldhead. Sarah, his father's eldest sister had married John Keighley (d. 1745) of the Old Hall, Heckmondwike. Keighley was known as a \"man of substance.\" Sarah entertained dissenting ministers in the neighbourhood, and though a strong Calvinist, welcomed \"honest heretics.\"",
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"plaintext": "Priestley was quite precocious as a child—at the age of four, he could flawlessly recite all 107 questions and answers of the Westminster Shorter Catechism—his aunt sought the best education for him, intending him to enter ministry. During his youth, Priestley attended local schools, where he learned Greek, Latin, and Hebrew.",
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"plaintext": "Around 1749, Priestley became seriously ill and believed he was dying. Raised as a devout Calvinist, he believed a conversion experience was necessary for salvation, but doubted he had had one. This emotional distress eventually led him to question his theological upbringing, causing him to reject election and to accept universal salvation. As a result, the elders of his home church, the Independent Upper Chapel of Heckmondwike, refused him admission as a full member.",
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"plaintext": "Priestley's illness left him with a permanent stutter and he gave up any thoughts of entering the ministry at that time. In preparation for joining a relative in trade in Lisbon, he studied French, Italian, and German in addition to Aramaic, and Arabic. He was tutored by the Reverend George Haggerstone, who first introduced him to higher mathematics, natural philosophy, logic, and metaphysics through the works of Isaac Watts, Willem 's Gravesande, and John Locke.",
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"plaintext": "Priestley eventually decided to return to his theological studies and, in 1752, matriculated at Daventry, a Dissenting academy. Because he had already read widely, Priestley was allowed to skip the first two years of coursework. He continued his intense study; this, together with the liberal atmosphere of the school, shifted his theology further leftward and he became a Rational Dissenter. Abhorring dogma and religious mysticism, Rational Dissenters emphasised the rational analysis of the natural world and the Bible.",
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"plaintext": "Priestley later wrote that the book that influenced him the most, save the Bible, was David Hartley's Observations on Man (1749). Hartley's psychological, philosophical, and theological treatise postulated a material theory of mind. Hartley aimed to construct a Christian philosophy in which both religious and moral \"facts\" could be scientifically proven, a goal that would occupy Priestley for his entire life. In his third year at Daventry, Priestley committed himself to the ministry, which he described as \"the noblest of all professions\".",
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"plaintext": "Robert Schofield, Priestley's major modern biographer, describes his first \"call\" in 1755 to the Dissenting parish in Needham Market, Suffolk, as a \"mistake\" for both Priestley and the congregation. Priestley yearned for urban life and theological debate, whereas Needham Market was a small, rural town with a congregation wedded to tradition. Attendance and donations dropped sharply when they discovered the extent of his heterodoxy. Although Priestley's aunt had promised her support if he became a minister, she refused any further assistance when she realised he was no longer a Calvinist. To earn extra money, Priestley proposed opening a school, but local families informed him that they would refuse to send their children. He also presented a series of scientific lectures titled \"Use of the Globes\" that was more successful.",
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"plaintext": "Priestley's Daventry friends helped him obtain another position and in 1758 he moved to Nantwich, Cheshire, living at Sweetbriar Hall in the town's Hospital Street; his time there was happier. The congregation cared less about Priestley's heterodoxy and he successfully established a school. Unlike many schoolmasters of the time, Priestley taught his students natural philosophy and even bought scientific instruments for them. Appalled at the quality of the available English grammar books, Priestley wrote his own: The Rudiments of English Grammar (1761). His innovations in the description of English grammar, particularly his efforts to dissociate it from Latin grammar, led 20th-century scholars to describe him as \"one of the great grammarians of his time\". After the publication of Rudiments and the success of Priestley's school, Warrington Academy offered him a teaching position in 1761.",
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"plaintext": "In 1761, Priestley moved to Warrington in Cheshire and assumed the post of tutor of modern languages and rhetoric at the town's Dissenting academy, although he would have preferred to teach mathematics and natural philosophy. He fitted in well at Warrington, and made friends quickly. These included the doctor and writer John Aikin, his sister the children's author Anna Laetitia Aikin, and the potter and businessman Josiah Wedgwood. Wedgwood met Priestley in 1762, after a fall from his horse. Wedgwood and Priestley met rarely, but exchanged letters, advice on chemistry, and laboratory equipment. Wedgwood eventually created a medallion of Priestley in cream-on-blue jasperware.",
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"plaintext": "This proved a very suitable and happy connexion, my wife being a woman of an excellent understanding, much improved by reading, of great fortitude and strength of mind, and of a temper in the highest degree affectionate and generous; feeling strongly for others, and little for herself. Also, greatly excelling in every thing relating to household affairs, she entirely relieved me of all concern of that kind, which allowed me to give all my time to the prosecution of my studies, and the other duties of my station.",
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"plaintext": "All of the books Priestley published while at Warrington emphasised the study of history; Priestley considered it essential for worldly success as well as religious growth. He wrote histories of science and Christianity in an effort to reveal the progress of humanity and, paradoxically, the loss of a pure, \"primitive Christianity\".",
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"plaintext": "In his Essay on a Course of Liberal Education for Civil and Active Life (1765), Lectures on History and General Policy (1788), and other works, Priestley argued that the education of the young should anticipate their future practical needs. This principle of utility guided his unconventional curricular choices for Warrington's aspiring middle-class students. He recommended modern languages instead of classical languages and modern rather than ancient history. Priestley's lectures on history were particularly revolutionary; he narrated a providentialist and naturalist account of history, arguing that the study of history furthered the comprehension of God's natural laws. Furthermore, his millennial perspective was closely tied to his optimism regarding scientific progress and the improvement of humanity. He believed that each age would improve upon the previous and that the study of history allowed people to perceive and to advance this progress. Since the study of history was a moral imperative for Priestley, he also promoted the education of middle-class women, which was unusual at the time. Some scholars of education have described Priestley as the most important English writer on education between the 17th-century John Locke and the 19th-century Herbert Spencer. Lectures on History was well received and was employed by many educational institutions, such as New College at Hackney, Brown, Princeton, Yale, and Cambridge. Priestley designed two Charts to serve as visual study aids for his Lectures. These charts are in fact timelines; they have been described as the most influential timelines published in the 18th century. Both were popular for decades, and the trustees of Warrington were so impressed with Priestley's lectures and charts that they arranged for the University of Edinburgh to grant him a Doctor of Law degree in 1764. During this period Priestley also regularly delivered lectures on rhetoric that were later published in 1777 as A Course of Lectures on Oratory and Criticism.",
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"plaintext": "The intellectually stimulating atmosphere of Warrington, often called the \"Athens of the North\" (of England) during the 18th century, encouraged Priestley's growing interest in natural philosophy. He gave lectures on anatomy and performed experiments regarding temperature with another tutor at Warrington, his friend John Seddon. Despite Priestley's busy teaching schedule, he decided to write a history of electricity. Friends introduced him to the major experimenters in the field in Britain—John Canton, William Watson, Timothy Lane, and the visiting Benjamin Franklin—who encouraged Priestley to perform the experiments he wanted to include in his history. In the process of replicating others' experiments, Priestley became intrigued by unanswered questions and was prompted to undertake experiments of his own design. (Impressed with his Charts and the manuscript of his history of electricity, Canton, Franklin, Watson, and Richard Price nominated Priestley for a fellowship in the Royal Society; he was accepted in 1766.)",
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"plaintext": "In 1767, the 700-page The History and Present State of Electricity was published to positive reviews. The first half of the text is a history of the study of electricity to 1766; the second and more influential half is a description of contemporary theories about electricity and suggestions for future research. The volume also contains extensive comments on Priestley's views that scientific inquiries be presented with all reasoning in one's discovery path, including false leads and mistakes. He contrasted his narrative approach with Newton's analytical proof-like approach which did not facilitate future researchers to continue the inquiry. Priestley reported some of his own discoveries in the second section, such as the conductivity of charcoal and other substances and the continuum between conductors and non-conductors. This discovery overturned what he described as \"one of the earliest and universally received maxims of electricity\", that only water and metals could conduct electricity. This and other experiments on the electrical properties of materials and on the electrical effects of chemical transformations demonstrated Priestley's early and ongoing interest in the relationship between chemical substances and electricity. Based on experiments with charged spheres, Priestley was among the first to propose that electrical force followed an inverse-square law, similar to Newton's law of universal gravitation. He did not generalise or elaborate on this, and the general law was enunciated by French physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb in the 1780s.",
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"plaintext": "Priestley's strength as a natural philosopher was qualitative rather than quantitative and his observation of \"a current of real air\" between two electrified points would later interest Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell as they investigated electromagnetism. Priestley's text became the standard history of electricity for over a century; Alessandro Volta (who later invented the battery), William Herschel (who discovered infrared radiation), and Henry Cavendish (who discovered hydrogen) all relied upon it. Priestley wrote a popular version of the History of Electricity for the general public titled A Familiar Introduction to the Study of Electricity (1768). He marketed the book with his brother Timothy, but unsuccessfully.",
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"plaintext": "Perhaps prompted by Mary Priestley's ill health, or financial problems, or a desire to prove himself to the community that had rejected him in his childhood, Priestley moved with his family from Warrington to Leeds in 1767, and he became Mill Hill Chapel's minister. Two sons were born to the Priestleys in Leeds: Joseph junior on 24 July 1768 and William three years later. Theophilus Lindsey, a rector at Catterick, Yorkshire, became one of Priestley's few friends in Leeds, of whom he wrote: \"I never chose to publish any thing of moment relating to theology, without consulting him.\" Although Priestley had extended family living around Leeds, it does not appear that they communicated. Schofield conjectures that they considered him a heretic. Each year Priestley travelled to London to consult with his close friend and publisher, Joseph Johnson, and to attend meetings of the Royal Society.",
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"plaintext": "When Priestley became its minister, Mill Hill Chapel was one of the oldest and most respected Dissenting congregations in England; however, during the early 18th century the congregation had fractured along doctrinal lines, and was losing members to the charismatic Methodist movement. Priestley believed that by educating the young, he could strengthen the bonds of the congregation.",
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"plaintext": "In his three-volume Institutes of Natural and Revealed Religion (1772–74), Priestley outlined his theories of religious instruction. More importantly, he laid out his belief in Socinianism. The doctrines he explicated would become the standards for Unitarians in Britain. This work marked a change in Priestley's theological thinking that is critical to understanding his later writings—it paved the way for his materialism and necessitarianism (the belief that a divine being acts in accordance with necessary metaphysical laws).",
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"plaintext": "Priestley's major argument in the Institutes was that the only revealed religious truths that could be accepted were those that matched one's experience of the natural world. Because his views of religion were deeply tied to his understanding of nature, the text's theism rested on the argument from design. The Institutes shocked and appalled many readers, primarily because it challenged basic Christian orthodoxies, such as the divinity of Christ and the miracle of the Virgin Birth. Methodists in Leeds penned a hymn asking God to \"the Unitarian fiend expel / And chase his doctrine back to Hell.\" Priestley wanted to return Christianity to its \"primitive\" or \"pure\" form by eliminating the \"corruptions\" which had accumulated over the centuries. The fourth part of the Institutes, An History of the Corruptions of Christianity, became so long that he was forced to issue it separately in 1782. Priestley believed that the Corruptions was \"the most valuable\" work he ever published. In demanding that his readers apply the logic of the emerging sciences and comparative history to the Bible and Christianity, he alienated religious and scientific readers alike—scientific readers did not appreciate seeing science used in the defence of religion and religious readers dismissed the application of science to religion.",
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"plaintext": "Priestley engaged in numerous political and religious pamphlet wars. According to Schofield, \"he entered each controversy with a cheerful conviction that he was right, while most of his opponents were convinced, from the outset, that he was willfully and maliciously wrong. He was able, then, to contrast his sweet reasonableness to their personal rancor\", but as Schofield points out Priestley rarely altered his opinion as a result of these debates. While at Leeds he wrote controversial pamphlets on the Lord's Supper and on Calvinist doctrine; thousands of copies were published, making them some of Priestley's most widely read works.",
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"plaintext": "Priestley founded the Theological Repository in 1768, a journal committed to the open and rational inquiry of theological questions. Although he promised to print any contribution, only like-minded authors submitted articles. He was therefore obliged to provide much of the journal's content himself (this material became the basis for many of his later theological and metaphysical works). After only a few years, due to a lack of funds, he was forced to cease publishing the journal. He revived it in 1784 with similar results.",
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"plaintext": "Many of Priestley's political writings supported the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts, which restricted the rights of Dissenters. They could not hold political office, serve in the armed forces, or attend Oxford and Cambridge unless they subscribed to the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England. Dissenters repeatedly petitioned Parliament to repeal the Acts, arguing that they were being treated as second-class citizens.",
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"plaintext": "Priestley's friends, particularly other Rational Dissenters, urged him to publish a work on the injustices experienced by Dissenters; the result was his Essay on the First Principles of Government (1768). An early work of modern liberal political theory and Priestley's most thorough treatment of the subject, itunusually for the timedistinguished political rights from civil rights with precision and argued for expansive civil rights. Priestley identified separate private and public spheres, contending that the government should have control only over the public sphere. Education and religion, in particular, he maintained, were matters of private conscience and should not be administered by the state. Priestley's later radicalism emerged from his belief that the British government was infringing upon these individual freedoms.",
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"plaintext": "Priestley also defended the rights of Dissenters against the attacks of William Blackstone, an eminent legal theorist, whose Commentaries on the Laws of England (1765–69) had become the standard legal guide. Blackstone's book stated that dissent from the Church of England was a crime and that Dissenters could not be loyal subjects. Furious, Priestley lashed out with his Remarks on Dr. Blackstone's Commentaries (1769), correcting Blackstone's interpretation of the law, his grammar (a highly politicised subject at the time), and history. Blackstone, chastened, altered subsequent editions of his Commentaries: he rephrased the offending passages and removed the sections claiming that Dissenters could not be loyal subjects, but he retained his description of Dissent as a crime.",
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"plaintext": "Although Priestley claimed that natural philosophy was only a hobby, he took it seriously. In his History of Electricity, he described the scientist as promoting the \"security and happiness of mankind\". Priestley's science was eminently practical and he rarely concerned himself with theoretical questions; his model was Benjamin Franklin. When he moved to Leeds, Priestley continued his electrical and chemical experiments (the latter aided by a steady supply of carbon dioxide from a neighbouring brewery). Between 1767 and 1770, he presented five papers to the Royal Society from these initial experiments; the first four papers explored coronal discharges and other phenomena related to electrical discharge, while the fifth reported on the conductivity of charcoals from different sources. His subsequent experimental work focused on chemistry and pneumatics.",
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"plaintext": "Priestley published the first volume of his projected history of experimental philosophy, The History and Present State of Discoveries Relating to Vision, Light and Colours (referred to as his Optics), in 1772. He paid careful attention to the history of optics and presented excellent explanations of early optics experiments, but his mathematical deficiencies caused him to dismiss several important contemporary theories. He followed the (corpuscular) particle theory of light, influenced by the works of Reverend John Rowning and others. Furthermore, he did not include any of the practical sections that had made his History of Electricity so useful to practising natural philosophers. Unlike his History of Electricity, it was not popular and had only one edition, although it was the only English book on the topic for 150 years. The hastily written text sold poorly; the cost of researching, writing, and publishing the Optics convinced Priestley to abandon his history of experimental philosophy.",
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"plaintext": "Priestley was considered for the position of astronomer on James Cook's second voyage to the South Seas, but was not chosen. Still, he contributed in a small way to the voyage: he provided the crew with a method for making carbonated water, which he erroneously speculated might be a cure for scurvy. He then published a pamphlet with Directions for Impregnating Water with Fixed Air (1772). Priestley did not exploit the commercial potential of carbonated water, but others such as made fortunes from it. For his discovery of carbonated water Priestley has been labelled \"the father of the soft drink\", with the beverage company Schweppes regarding him as “the father of our industry”. In 1773, the Royal Society recognised Priestley's achievements in natural philosophy by awarding him the Copley Medal.",
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"plaintext": "Priestley's friends wanted to find him a more financially secure position. In 1772, prompted by Richard Price and Benjamin Franklin, Lord Shelburne wrote to Priestley asking him to direct the education of his children and to act as his general assistant. Although Priestley was reluctant to sacrifice his ministry, he accepted the position, resigning from Mill Hill Chapel on 20 December 1772, and preaching his last sermon on 16 May 1773.",
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"plaintext": "In 1773, the Priestleys moved to Calne in Wiltshire, and a year later Lord Shelburne and Priestley took a tour of Europe. According to Priestley's close friend Theophilus Lindsey, Priestley was \"much improved by this view of mankind at large\". Upon their return, Priestley easily fulfilled his duties as librarian and tutor. The workload was intentionally light, allowing him time to pursue his scientific investigations and theological interests. Priestley also became a political adviser to Shelburne, gathering information on parliamentary issues and serving as a liaison between Shelburne and the Dissenting and American interests. When the Priestleys' third son was born on 24 May 1777, they named him Henry at the lord's request.",
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"plaintext": "Priestley wrote his most important philosophical works during his years with Lord Shelburne. In a series of major metaphysical texts published between 1774 and 1780—An Examination of Dr. Reid's Inquiry into the Human Mind (1774), Hartley's Theory of the Human Mind on the Principle of the Association of Ideas (1775), Disquisitions relating to Matter and Spirit (1777), The Doctrine of Philosophical Necessity Illustrated (1777), and Letters to a Philosophical Unbeliever (1780)—he argues for a philosophy that incorporates four concepts: determinism, materialism, causation, and necessitarianism. By studying the natural world, he argued, people would learn how to become more compassionate, happy, and prosperous.",
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"plaintext": "Priestley strongly suggested that there is no mind-body duality, and put forth a materialist philosophy in these works; that is, one founded on the principle that everything in the universe is made of matter that we can perceive. He also contended that discussing the soul is impossible because it is made of a divine substance, and humanity cannot perceive the divine. Despite his separation of the divine from the mortal, this position shocked and angered many of his readers, who believed that such a duality was necessary for the soul to exist.",
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"plaintext": "Responding to Baron d'Holbach's Système de la Nature (1770) and David Hume's Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (1779) as well as the works of the French philosophers, Priestley maintained that materialism and determinism could be reconciled with a belief in God. He criticised those whose faith was shaped by books and fashion, drawing an analogy between the scepticism of educated men and the credulity of the masses.",
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"plaintext": "Maintaining that humans had no free will, Priestley argued that what he called \"philosophical necessity\" (akin to absolute determinism) is consonant with Christianity, a position based on his understanding of the natural world. Like the rest of nature, man's mind is subject to the laws of causation, Priestley contended, but because a benevolent God created these laws, the world and the people in it will eventually be perfected. Evil is therefore only an imperfect understanding of the world.",
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"plaintext": "Although Priestley's philosophical work has been characterised as \"audacious and original\", it partakes of older philosophical traditions on the problems of free will, determinism, and materialism. For example, the 17th-century philosopher Baruch Spinoza argued for absolute determinism and absolute materialism. Like Spinoza and Priestley,",
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"plaintext": "Leibniz argued that human will was completely determined by natural laws;",
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"plaintext": "unlike them, Leibniz argued for a \"parallel universe\" of immaterial objects (such as human souls) so arranged by God that its outcomes agree exactly with those of the material universe.",
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"plaintext": "and Priestley",
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"plaintext": "share an optimism that God has chosen the chain of events benevolently; however, Priestley believed that the events were leading to a glorious millennial conclusion, whereas for Leibniz the entire chain of events was optimal in and of itself, as compared with other conceivable chains of events.",
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"plaintext": "When Priestley's friend Theophilus Lindsey decided to found a new Christian denomination that would not restrict its members' beliefs, Priestley and others hurried to his aid. On 17 April 1774, Lindsey held the first Unitarian service in Britain, at the newly formed Essex Street Chapel in London; he had even designed his own liturgy, of which many were critical. Priestley defended his friend in the pamphlet Letter to a Layman, on the Subject of the Rev. Mr. Lindsey's Proposal for a Reformed English Church (1774), claiming that only the form of worship had been altered, not its substance, and attacking those who followed religion as a fashion. Priestley attended Lindsey's church regularly in the 1770s and occasionally preached there. He continued to support institutionalised Unitarianism for the rest of his life, writing several Defenses of Unitarianism and encouraging the foundation of new Unitarian chapels throughout Britain and the United States.",
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"plaintext": "Priestley's years in Calne were the only ones in his life dominated by scientific investigations; they were also the most scientifically fruitful. His experiments were almost entirely confined to \"airs\", and out of this work emerged his most important scientific texts: the six volumes of Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air (1774–86). These experiments helped repudiate the last vestiges of the theory of four elements, which Priestley attempted to replace with his own variation of phlogiston theory. According to that 18th-century theory, the combustion or oxidation of a substance corresponded to the release of a material substance, phlogiston.",
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"plaintext": "Priestley's work on \"airs\" is not easily classified. As historian of science Simon Schaffer writes, it \"has been seen as a branch of physics, or chemistry, or natural philosophy, or some highly idiosyncratic version of Priestley's own invention\". Furthermore, the volumes were both a scientific and a political enterprise for Priestley, in which he argues that science could destroy \"undue and usurped authority\" and that government has \"reason to tremble even at an air pump or an electrical machine\".",
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"plaintext": "Volume I of Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air outlined several discoveries: \"nitrous air\" (nitric oxide, NO); \"vapor of spirit of salt\", later called \"acid air\" or \"marine acid air\" (anhydrous hydrochloric acid, HCl); \"alkaline air\" (ammonia, NH3); \"diminished\" or \"dephlogisticated nitrous air\" (nitrous oxide, N2O); and, most famously, \"dephlogisticated air\" (oxygen, O2) as well as experimental findings that showed plants revitalised enclosed volumes of air, a discovery that would eventually lead to the discovery of photosynthesis. Priestley also developed a \"nitrous air test\" to determine the \"goodness of air\". Using a pneumatic trough, he would mix nitrous air with a test sample, over water or mercury, and measure the decrease in volume—the principle of eudiometry. After a small history of the study of airs, he explained his own experiments in an open and sincere style. As an early biographer writes, \"whatever he knows or thinks he tells: doubts, perplexities, blunders are set down with the most refreshing candour.\" Priestley also described his cheap and easy-to-assemble experimental apparatus; his colleagues therefore believed that they could easily reproduce his experiments. Faced with inconsistent experimental results, Priestley employed phlogiston theory. This led him to conclude that there were only three types of \"air\": \"fixed\", \"alkaline\", and \"acid\". Priestley dismissed the burgeoning chemistry of his day. Instead, he focused on gases and \"changes in their sensible properties\", as had natural philosophers before him. He isolated carbon monoxide (CO), but apparently did not realise that it was a separate \"air\".",
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"plaintext": "In August 1774 he isolated an \"air\" that appeared to be completely new, but he did not have an opportunity to pursue the matter because he was about to tour Europe with Shelburne. While in Paris, Priestley replicated the experiment for others, including French chemist Antoine Lavoisier. After returning to Britain in January 1775, he continued his experiments and discovered \"vitriolic acid air\" (sulphur dioxide, SO2).",
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"plaintext": "In March he wrote to several people regarding the new \"air\" that he had discovered in August. One of these letters was read aloud to the Royal Society, and a paper outlining the discovery, titled \"An Account of further Discoveries in Air\", was published in the Society's journal Philosophical Transactions. Priestley called the new substance \"dephlogisticated air\", which he made in the famous experiment by focusing the sun's rays on a sample of mercuric oxide. He first tested it on mice, who surprised him by surviving quite a while entrapped with the air, and then on himself, writing that it was \"five or six times better than common air for the purpose of respiration, inflammation, and, I believe, every other use of common atmospherical air\". He had discovered oxygen gas (O2).",
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"plaintext": "Priestley assembled his oxygen paper and several others into a second volume of Experiments and Observations on Air, published in 1776. He did not emphasise his discovery of \"dephlogisticated air\" (leaving it to Part III of the volume) but instead argued in the preface how important such discoveries were to rational religion. His paper narrated the discovery chronologically, relating the long delays between experiments and his initial puzzlements; thus, it is difficult to determine when exactly Priestley \"discovered\" oxygen. Such dating is significant as both Lavoisier and Swedish pharmacist Carl Wilhelm Scheele have strong claims to the discovery of oxygen as well, Scheele having been the first to isolate the gas (although he published after Priestley) and Lavoisier having been the first to describe it as purified \"air itself entire without alteration\" (that is, the first to explain oxygen without phlogiston theory).",
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"plaintext": "In his paper \"Observations on Respiration and the Use of the Blood\", Priestley was the first to suggest a connection between blood and air, although he did so using phlogiston theory. In typical Priestley fashion, he prefaced the paper with a history of the study of respiration. A year later, clearly influenced by Priestley, Lavoisier was also discussing respiration at the Académie des sciences. Lavoisier's work began the long train of discovery that produced papers on oxygen respiration and culminated in the overthrow of phlogiston theory and the establishment of modern chemistry.",
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"plaintext": "Around 1779 Priestley and Shelburne - soon to be the 1st Marquess of Landsdowne - had a rupture, the precise reasons for which remain unclear. Shelburne blamed Priestley's health, while Priestley claimed Shelburne had no further use for him. Some contemporaries speculated that Priestley's outspokenness had hurt Shelburne's political career. Schofield argues that the most likely reason was Shelburne's recent marriage to Louisa Fitzpatrick—apparently, she did not like the Priestleys. Although Priestley considered moving to America, he eventually accepted Birmingham New Meeting's offer to be their minister.",
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"plaintext": "Both Priestley and Shelburne's families upheld their Unitarian faith for generations.",
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"plaintext": "In December 2013, it was reported that Sir Christopher Bullock – a direct descendant of Shelburne's brother, Thomas Fitzmaurice (MP) – had married his wife, Lady Bullock, née Barbara May Lupton, at London's Unitarian Essex Church in 1917. Barbara Lupton was the second cousin of Olive Middleton, née Lupton, the great grandmother of Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge. In 1914, Olive and Noel Middleton had married at Leeds' Mill Hill Chapel, which Priestley, as its minister, had once guided towards Unitarianism.",
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"plaintext": "In 1780 the Priestleys moved to Birmingham and spent a happy decade surrounded by old friends, until they were forced to flee in 1791 by religiously motivated mob violence in what became known as the Priestley Riots. Priestley accepted the ministerial position at New Meeting on the condition that he be required to preach and teach only on Sundays, so that he would have time for his writing and scientific experiments. As in Leeds, Priestley established classes for the youth of his parish and by 1781, he was teaching 150 students. Because Priestley's New Meeting salary was only 100 guineas, friends and patrons donated money and goods to help continue his investigations. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1782.",
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"plaintext": "Many of the friends that Priestley made in Birmingham were members of the Lunar Society, a group of manufacturers, inventors, and natural philosophers who assembled monthly to discuss their work. The core of the group included men such as the manufacturer Matthew Boulton, the chemist and geologist James Keir, the inventor and engineer James Watt, and the botanist, chemist, and geologist William Withering. Priestley was asked to join this unique society and contributed much to the work of its members. As a result of this stimulating intellectual environment, he published several important scientific papers, including \"Experiments relating to Phlogiston, and the seeming Conversion of Water into Air\" (1783). The first part attempts to refute Lavoisier's challenges to his work on oxygen; the second part describes how steam is \"converted\" into air. After several variations of the experiment, with different substances as fuel and several different collecting apparatuses (which produced different results), he concluded that air could travel through more substances than previously surmised, a conclusion \"contrary to all the known principles of hydrostatics\". This discovery, along with his earlier work on what would later be recognised as gaseous diffusion, would eventually lead John Dalton and Thomas Graham to formulate the kinetic theory of gases.",
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"plaintext": "In 1777, Antoine Lavoisier had written Mémoire sur la combustion en général, the first of what proved to be a series of attacks on phlogiston theory; it was against these attacks that Priestley responded in 1783. While Priestley accepted parts of Lavoisier's theory, he was unprepared to assent to the major revolutions Lavoisier proposed: the overthrow of phlogiston, a chemistry based conceptually on elements and compounds, and a new chemical nomenclature. Priestley's original experiments on \"dephlogisticated air\" (oxygen), combustion, and water provided Lavoisier with the data he needed to construct much of his system; yet Priestley never accepted Lavoisier's new theories and continued to defend phlogiston theory for the rest of his life. Lavoisier's system was based largely on the quantitative concept that mass is neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions (i.e., the conservation of mass). By contrast, Priestley preferred to observe qualitative changes in heat, color, and particularly volume. His experiments tested \"airs\" for \"their solubility in water, their power of supporting or extinguishing flame, whether they were respirable, how they behaved with acid and alkaline air, and with nitric oxide and inflammable air, and lastly how they were affected by the electric spark.\"",
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"plaintext": "By 1789, when Lavoisier published his Traité Élémentaire de Chimie and founded the Annales de Chimie, the new chemistry had come into its own. Priestley published several more scientific papers in Birmingham, the majority attempting to refute Lavoisier. Priestley and other Lunar Society members argued that the new French system was too expensive, too difficult to test, and unnecessarily complex. Priestley in particular rejected its \"establishment\" aura. In the end, Lavoisier's view prevailed: his new chemistry introduced many of the principles on which modern chemistry is founded.",
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"plaintext": "Priestley's refusal to accept Lavoisier's \"new chemistry\"—such as the conservation of mass—and his determination to adhere to a less satisfactory theory has perplexed many scholars. Schofield explains it thus: \"Priestley was never a chemist; in a modern, and even a Lavoisierian, sense, he was never a scientist. He was a natural philosopher, concerned with the economy of nature and obsessed with an idea of unity, in theology and in nature.\" Historian of science John McEvoy largely agrees, writing that Priestley's view of nature as coextensive with God and thus infinite, which encouraged him to focus on facts over hypotheses and theories, prompted him to reject Lavoisier's system. McEvoy argues that \"Priestley's isolated and lonely opposition to the oxygen theory was a measure of his passionate concern for the principles of intellectual freedom, epistemic equality and critical inquiry.\" Priestley himself claimed in the last volume of Experiments and Observations that his most valuable works were his theological ones because they were \"superior [in] dignity and importance\".",
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"plaintext": "Although Priestley was busy defending phlogiston theory from the \"new chemists\", most of what he published in Birmingham was theological. In 1782 he published the fourth volume of his Institutes, An History of the Corruptions of Christianity, describing how he thought the teachings of the early Christian church had been \"corrupted\" or distorted. Schofield describes the work as \"derivative, disorganized, wordy, and repetitive, detailed, exhaustive, and devastatingly argued\". The text addresses issues ranging from the divinity of Christ to the proper form for the Lord's Supper. Priestley followed up in 1786 with the provocatively titled book, An History of Early Opinions concerning Jesus Christ, compiled from Original Writers, proving that the Christian Church was at first Unitarian. Thomas Jefferson would later write of the profound effect that these two books had on him: \"I have read his Corruptions of Christianity, and Early Opinions of Jesus, over and over again; and I rest on them... as the basis of my own faith. These writings have never been answered.\" Although a few readers such as Jefferson and other Rational Dissenters approved of the work, it was harshly reviewed because of its extreme theological positions, particularly its rejection of the Trinity.",
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"plaintext": "In 1785, while Priestley was engaged in a pamphlet war over Corruptions, he also published The Importance and Extent of Free Enquiry, claiming that the Reformation had not really reformed the church. In words that would boil over into a national debate, he challenged his readers to enact change:",
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"plaintext": "Let us not, therefore, be discouraged, though, for the present, we should see no great number of churches professedly unitarian.... We are, as it were, laying gunpowder, grain by grain, under the old building of error and superstition, which a single spark may hereafter inflame, so as to produce an instantaneous explosion; in consequence of which that edifice, the erection of which has been the work of ages, may be overturned in a moment, and so effectually as that the same foundation can never be built upon again....",
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"plaintext": "Although discouraged by friends from using such inflammatory language, Priestley refused to back down from his opinions in print and he included it, forever branding himself as \"Gunpowder Joe\". After the publication of this seeming call for revolution in the midst of the French Revolution, pamphleteers stepped up their attacks on Priestley and he and his church were even threatened with legal action.",
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"plaintext": "In 1787, 1789, and 1790, Dissenters again tried to repeal the Test and Corporation Acts. Although initially it looked as if they might succeed, by 1790, with the fears of revolution looming in Parliament, few were swayed by appeals to equal rights. Political cartoons, one of the most effective and popular media of the time, skewered the Dissenters and Priestley. In Parliament, William Pitt and Edmund Burke argued against the repeal, a betrayal that angered Priestley and his friends, who had expected the two men's support. Priestley wrote a series of Letters to William Pitt and Letters to Burke in an attempt to persuade them otherwise, but these publications only further inflamed the populace against him.",
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"plaintext": "Dissenters such as Priestley who supported the French Revolution came under increasing suspicion as scepticism regarding the revolution grew. In its propaganda against \"radicals\", Pitt's administration used the \"gunpowder\" statement to argue that Priestley and other Dissenters wanted to overthrow the government. Burke, in his famous Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), tied natural philosophers, and specifically Priestley, to the French Revolution, writing that radicals who supported science in Britain \"considered man in their experiments no more than they do mice in an air pump\". Burke also associated republican principles with alchemy and insubstantial air, mocking the scientific work done by both Priestley and French chemists. He made much in his later writings of the connections between \"Gunpowder Joe\", science, and Lavoisier—who was improving gunpowder for the French in their war against Britain. Paradoxically, a secular statesman, Burke, argued against science and maintained that religion should be the basis of civil society, whereas a Dissenting minister, Priestley, argued that religion could not provide the basis for civil society and should be restricted to one's private life.",
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"plaintext": "Priestley also supported the campaign to abolish the British slave trade, and published a sermon in 1788 in which he declared that nobody treated enslaved people \"with so much cruelty as the English\".",
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"plaintext": "The animus that had been building against Dissenters and supporters of the American and French Revolutions exploded in July 1791. Priestley and several other Dissenters had arranged to have a celebratory dinner on the anniversary of the storming of the Bastille, a provocative action in a country where many disapproved of the French Revolution and feared that it might spread to Britain. Amid fears of violence, Priestley was convinced by his friends not to attend. Rioters gathered outside the hotel during the banquet and attacked the attendees as they left. The rioters moved on to the New Meeting and Old Meeting churches—and burned both to the ground. Priestley and his wife fled from their home; although their son William and others stayed behind to protect their property, the mob overcame them and torched Priestley's house \"Fairhill\" at Sparkbrook, destroying his valuable laboratory and all of the family's belongings. Twenty-six other Dissenters’ homes and three more churches were burned in the three-day riot. Priestley spent several days hiding with friends until he was able to travel safely to London. The carefully executed attacks of the \"mob\" and the farcical trials of only a handful of the \"leaders\" convinced many at the time—and modern historians later—that the attacks were planned and condoned by local Birmingham magistrates. When George III was eventually forced to send troops to the area, he said: \"I cannot but feel better pleased that Priestley is the sufferer for the doctrines he and his party have instilled, and that the people see them in their true light.\"",
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"plaintext": "Unable to return to Birmingham, the Priestleys eventually settled in Lower Clapton, a district in Hackney, Middlesex where he gave a series of lectures on history and natural philosophy at the Dissenting academy, the New College at Hackney. Friends helped the couple rebuild their lives, contributing money, books, and laboratory equipment. Priestley tried to obtain restitution from the government for the destruction of his Birmingham property, but he was never fully reimbursed. He also published An Appeal to the Public on the Subject of the Riots in Birmingham (1791), which indicted the people of Birmingham for allowing the riots to occur and for \"violating the principles of English government\".",
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"plaintext": "The couple's friends urged them to leave Britain and emigrate to either France or the new United States, even though Priestley had received an appointment to preach for the Gravel Pit Meeting congregation. Priestley was minister between 1793 and 1794 and the sermons he preached there, particularly the two Fast Sermons, reflect his growing millenarianism, his belief that the end of the world was fast approaching. After comparing Biblical prophecies to recent history, Priestley concluded that the French Revolution was a harbinger of the Second Coming of Christ. Priestley's works had always had a millennial cast, but after the beginning of the French Revolution, this strain increased. He wrote to a younger friend that while he himself would not see the Second Coming, his friend \"may probably live to see it... It cannot, I think be more than twenty years [away].\"",
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"plaintext": "Joseph Priestley's son William was presented to the French Assembly and granted letters of naturalisation on 8 June 1792. Priestley learned about it from the Morning Chronicle. A decree of 26 August 1792 by the French National Assembly conferred French citizenship on Joseph Priestley and others who had \"served the cause of liberty\" by their writings. Priestley accepted French citizenship, considering it \"the greatest of honours\". In the French National Convention election on 5 September 1792, Joseph Priestley was elected to the French National Convention by at least two departments, (Orne and Rhône-et-Loire). He declined the honour, on the grounds that he was not fluent in French.",
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"plaintext": "As relations between England and France worsened, a removal to France became impracticable. Following the declaration of war of February 1793, and the Aliens Bill of March 1793, which forbade correspondence or travel between England and France, William Priestley left France for America. Joseph Priestley's sons Harry and Joseph chose to leave England for America in August 1793. Finally Priestley himself followed with his wife, boarding the Sansom at Gravesend on 7 April 1794. Five weeks after Priestley left, William Pitt's administration began arresting radicals for seditious libel, resulting in the famous 1794 Treason Trials.",
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"plaintext": "The Priestleys arrived in New York City on 4 June 1794, where they were fêted by various political factions vying for Priestley's endorsement. Priestley declined their entreaties, hoping to avoid political discord in his new country. Before travelling to a new home in the backwoods of Northumberland County, Pennsylvania, at Point township (now the Borough of Northumberland), Dr and Mrs Priestley lodged in Philadelphia, where Priestley gave a series of sermons which led to the founding of the First Unitarian Church of Philadelphia. Priestley turned down an opportunity to teach chemistry at the University of Pennsylvania.",
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"plaintext": "Priestley's son Joseph Priestley Jr. was a leading member of a consortium that had purchased 300,000 acres of virgin woodland between the forks of Loyalsock Creek, which they intended to lease or sell in 400-acre plots, with payment deferred to seven annual instalments, with interest. His brothers, William and Henry, bought a 284-acre plot of woodland which they attempted to transform into a farm, later called \"Fairhill\", felling and uprooting trees, and making lime to sweeten the soil by building their own lime kilns. Henry Priestley died 11 December 1795, possibly of malaria which he may have contracted after landing at New York. Mary Priestley's health, already poor, deteriorated further; although William's wife, Margaret Foulke-Priestley, moved in with the couple to nurse Mary twenty-four hours a day, Mary Priestley died 17 September 1796. Dr Priestley now moved in with his elder son, Joseph Jr., and his wife Elizabeth Ryland-Priestley. Thomas Cooper, whose son, Thomas Jr., was living with the Priestleys, was a frequent visitor.",
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"plaintext": "Since his arrival in America, Priestley had continued to defend his Christian Unitarian beliefs; now, falling increasingly under the influence of Thomas Cooper and Elizabeth Ryland-Priestley, he was unable to avoid becoming embroiled in political controversy. In 1798, when, in response to the Pinckney affair, a belligerent President Adams sought to enlarge the navy and mobilise the militia into what Priestley and Cooper saw as a 'standing army', Priestley published an anonymous newspaper article: Maxims of political arithmetic, which attacked Adams, defended free trade, and advocated a form of Jeffersonian isolationism. In the same year, a small package, addressed vaguely: \"Dr Priestley in America,\" was seized by the Royal Navy on board a neutral Danish boat. It was found to contain three letters, one of which was signed by the radical printer John Hurford Stone. These intercepted letters were published in London, and copied in numerous papers in America. One of the letters was addressed to \"MBP\", with a note: \"I inclose a note for our friend MBP—but, as ignorant of the name he bears at present among you, I must beg you to seal and address it.\" This gave the intercepted letters a tinge of intrigue. Fearful lest they be taken as evidence of him being a 'spy in the interest of France', Priestley sent a clumsy letter to numerous newspaper editors, in which he naively named \"MBP\" (Member of the British Parliament) as Mr. Benjamin Vaughan, who \"like me, thought it necessary to leave England, and for some time is said to have assumed a feigned name.\" William Cobbett, in his Porcupine's Gazette, 20 August 1798, added that Priestley \"has told us who Mr MBP is, and has confirmed me in the opinion of their both being spies in the interest of France.\"",
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"plaintext": "Joseph Priestley Jr. left on a visit to England at Christmas 1798, not returning until August 1800. In his absence, his wife Elizabeth Ryland-Priestley and Thomas Cooper became increasing close, collaborating in numerous political essays. Priestley allowed himself to fall too heavily under Elizabeth and Cooper's influences, even helping hawk a seditious handbill Cooper had printed, around Point township, and across the Susquehanna at Sunbury. In September 1799, William Cobbett printed extracts from this handbill, asserting that: \"Dr Priestley has taken great pains to circulate this address, has travelled through the country for the purpose, and is in fact the patron of it.\" He challenged Priestley to \"clear himself of the accusation\" or face prosecution.\" Barely a month later, in November and December 1799, Priestley stepped forward in his own defence, with his Letters to the inhabitants of Northumberland.",
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"plaintext": "Priestley's son, William, now living in Philadelphia, was increasingly embarrassed by his father's actions. He confronted his father, expressing John and Benjamin Vaughan’s unease, his own wife's concerns about Elizabeth Ryland-Priestley's dietary care, and his own concerns at the closeness of Elizabeth Ryland-Priestley and Thomas Cooper's relationship, and their adverse influence on Dr Priestley; but this only led to a further estrangement between William and his sister-in-law. When, a while later, Priestley's household suffered a bout of food poisoning, perhaps from milk sickness or a bacterial infection, Elizabeth Ryland-Priestley, falsely accused William of having poisoned the family's flour. Although this allegation has attracted the attention of some modern historians, it is believed to be without foundation.",
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"plaintext": "Priestley continued the educational projects that had always been important to him, helping to establish the \"Northumberland Academy\" and donating his library to the fledgling institution. He exchanged letters regarding the proper structure of a university with Thomas Jefferson, who used this advice when founding the University of Virginia. Jefferson and Priestley became close, and when the latter had completed his General History of the Christian Church, he dedicated it to President Jefferson, writing that \"it is now only that I can say I see nothing to fear from the hand of power, the government under which I live being for the first time truly favourable to me.\"",
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"plaintext": "Priestley tried to continue his scientific investigations in America with the support of the American Philosophical Society, to which he had been previously elected a member in 1785. He was hampered by lack of news from Europe; unaware of the latest scientific developments, Priestley was no longer on the forefront of discovery. Although the majority of his publications focused on defending phlogiston theory, he also did some original work on spontaneous generation and dreams. Despite Priestley's reduced scientific output, his presence stimulated American interest in chemistry.",
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"plaintext": "By 1801, Priestley had become so ill that he could no longer write or experiment. He died on the morning of 6 February 1804, aged seventy and was buried at Riverview Cemetery in Northumberland, Pennsylvania.",
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"plaintext": "Priestley's epitaph reads:",
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"plaintext": "By the time he died in 1804, Priestley had been made a member of every major scientific society in the Western world and he had discovered numerous substances. The 19th-century French naturalist George Cuvier, in his eulogy of Priestley, praised his discoveries while at the same time lamenting his refusal to abandon phlogiston theory, calling him \"the father of modern chemistry [who] never acknowledged his daughter\". Priestley published more than 150 works on topics ranging from political philosophy to education to theology to natural philosophy. He led and inspired British radicals during the 1790s, paved the way for utilitarianism, and helped found Unitarianism. A wide variety of philosophers, scientists, and poets became associationists as a result of his redaction of David Hartley's Observations on Man, including Erasmus Darwin, Coleridge, William Wordsworth, John Stuart Mill, Alexander Bain, and Herbert Spencer. Immanuel Kant praised Priestley in his Critique of Pure Reason (1781), writing that he \"knew how to combine his paradoxical teaching with the interests of religion\". Indeed, it was Priestley's aim to \"put the most 'advanced' Enlightenment ideas into the service of a rationalized though heterodox Christianity, under the guidance of the basic principles of scientific method\".",
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"plaintext": "Considering the extent of Priestley's influence, relatively little scholarship has been devoted to him. In the early 20th century, Priestley was most often described as a conservative and dogmatic scientist who was nevertheless a political and religious reformer. In a historiographic review essay, historian of science Simon Schaffer describes the two dominant portraits of Priestley: the first depicts him as \"a playful innocent\" who stumbled across his discoveries; the second portrays him as innocent as well as \"warped\" for not understanding their implications better. Assessing Priestley's works as a whole has been difficult for scholars because of his wide-ranging interests. His scientific discoveries have usually been divorced from his theological and metaphysical publications to make an analysis of his life and writings easier, but this approach has been challenged recently by scholars such as John McEvoy and Robert Schofield. Although early Priestley scholarship claimed that his theological and metaphysical works were \"distractions\" and \"obstacles\" to his scientific work, scholarship published in the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s maintained that Priestley's works constituted a unified theory. However, as Schaffer explains, no convincing synthesis of his work has yet been expounded. More recently, in 2001, historian of science Dan Eshet has argued that efforts to create a \"synoptic view\" have resulted only in a rationalisation of the contradictions in Priestley's thought, because they have been \"organized around philosophical categories\" and have \"separate[d] the producers of scientific ideas from any social conflict\".",
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"plaintext": "Priestley has been remembered by the towns in which he served as a reforming educator and minister and by the scientific organisations he influenced. Two educational institutions have been named in his honour—Priestley College in Warrington and Joseph Priestley College in Leeds (now part of Leeds City College)—and an asteroid, 5577 Priestley, discovered in 1986 by Duncan Waldron. In Birstall, the Leeds City Square, and in Birmingham, he is memorialised through statues, and plaques commemorating him have been posted in Birmingham, Calne and Warrington. The main undergraduate chemistry laboratories at the University of Leeds were refurbished as part of a £4m refurbishment plan in 2006 and renamed as the Priestley Laboratories in his honour as a prominent chemist from Leeds. In 2016 the University of Huddersfield renamed the building housing its Applied Sciences department as the Joseph Priestley Building, as part of an effort to rename all campus buildings after prominent local figures. ",
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"plaintext": "Since 1952 Dickinson College, Pennsylvania, has presented the Priestley Award to a \"distinguished scientist whose work has contributed to the welfare of humanity\". Priestley's work is recognised by a National Historic Chemical Landmark designation for his discovery of oxygen, made on 1 August 1994, at the Priestley House in Northumberland, Penn., by the American Chemical Society. Similar recognition was made on 7 August 2000, at Bowood House in Wiltshire, England. The ACS also awards their highest honour, the Priestley Medal, in his name.",
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"plaintext": " Passmore, John A., ed. Priestley's Writings on Philosophy, Science and Politics. New York: Collier Books, 1964. ",
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"plaintext": " Schofield, Robert E., ed. A Scientific Autobiography of Joseph Priestley (1733–1804): Selected Scientific Correspondence. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1966. ",
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"plaintext": " Schofield, Robert E. The Enlightened Joseph Priestley: A Study of His Life and Work from 1773 to 1804. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2004. .",
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"plaintext": " Smith, Edgar F. Priestley in America, 1794–1804. Philadelphia: P. Blakiston's Son and Co., 1920.",
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"plaintext": " Tapper, Alan. \"Joseph Priestley\". Dictionary of Literary Biography 252: British Philosophers 1500–1799. Eds. Philip B. Dematteis and Peter S. Fosl. Detroit: Gale Group, 2002.",
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"plaintext": " Thorpe, T. E. Joseph Priestley. London: J. M. Dent, 1906.",
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"plaintext": " Uglow, Jenny. The Lunar Men: Five Friends Whose Curiosity Changed the World. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002. .",
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"plaintext": " Anderson, R. G. W. and Christopher Lawrence. Science, Medicine and Dissent: Joseph Priestley (1733–1804). London: Wellcome Trust, 1987. .",
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"plaintext": " Bowers, J. D. Joseph Priestley and English Unitarianism in America. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2007. .",
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"plaintext": " Braithwaite, Helen. Romanticism, Publishing and Dissent: Joseph Johnson and the Cause of Liberty. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. .",
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"plaintext": " Conant, J. B., ed. \"The Overthrow of the Phlogiston Theory: The Chemical Revolution of 1775–1789\". Harvard Case Histories in Experimental Science. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1950.",
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"plaintext": " Crook, R. E. A Bibliography of Joseph Priestley. London: Library Association, 1966.",
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"plaintext": " Crossland, Maurice. \"The Image of Science as a Threat: Burke versus Priestley and the 'Philosophic Revolution'\". British Journal for the History of Science 20 (1987): 277–307.",
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"plaintext": " Donovan, Arthur. Antoine Lavoisier: Science, Administration and Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. ",
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"plaintext": " Eshet, Dan. \"Rereading Priestley\". History of Science 39.2 (2001): 127–59.",
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"plaintext": " Fitzpatrick, Martin. \"Joseph Priestley and the Cause of Universal Toleration\". The Price-Priestley Newsletter 1 (1977): 3–30.",
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"plaintext": " Garrett, Clarke. \"Joseph Priestley, the Millennium, and the French Revolution\". Journal of the History of Ideas 34.1 (1973): 51–66.",
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"plaintext": " Fruton, Joseph S. Methods and Styles in the Development of Chemistry. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 2002. .",
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"plaintext": " Kramnick, Isaac. \"Eighteenth-Century Science and Radical Social Theory: The Case of Joseph Priestley's Scientific Liberalism\". Journal of British Studies 25 (1986): 1–30.",
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"plaintext": " McCann, H. Chemistry Transformed: The Paradigmatic Shift from Phlogiston to Oxygen. Norwood: Alex Publishing, 1978. .",
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"plaintext": " McEvoy, John G. \"Joseph Priestley, 'Aerial Philosopher': Metaphysics and Methodology in Priestley's Chemical Thought, from 1762 to 1781\". Ambix 25 (1978): 1–55, 93–116, 153–75; 26 (1979): 16–30.",
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"plaintext": " McEvoy, John G. \"Enlightenment and Dissent in Science: Joseph Priestley and the Limits of Theoretical Reasoning\". Enlightenment and Dissent 2 (1983): 47–68.",
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"plaintext": " McEvoy, John G. \"Priestley Responds to Lavoisier's Nomenclature: Language, Liberty, and Chemistry in the English Enlightenment\". Lavoisier in European Context: Negotiating a New Language for Chemistry. Eds. Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent and Ferdinando Abbri. Canton, MA: Science History Publications, 1995. .",
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"plaintext": " McEvoy, John G. and J.E. McGuire. \"God and Nature: Priestley's Way of Rational Dissent\". Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 6 (1975): 325–404.",
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"plaintext": " McLachlan, John. Joseph Priestley Man of Science 1733–1804: An Iconography of a Great Yorkshireman. Braunton and Devon: Merlin Books, 1983. .",
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"plaintext": " McLachlan, John. \"Joseph Priestley and the Study of History\". Transactions of the Unitarian Historical Society 19 (1987–90): 252–63.",
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"plaintext": " Philip, Mark. \"Rational Religion and Political Radicalism\". Enlightenment and Dissent 4 (1985): 35–46.",
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"plaintext": " Rose, R. B. \"The Priestley Riots of 1791\". Past and Present 18 (1960): 68–88.",
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"plaintext": " Rosenberg, Daniel. Joseph Priestley and the Graphic Invention of Modern Time. Studies in Eighteenth Century Culture 36(1) (2007): pp.55–103.",
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"plaintext": " Sheps, Arthur. \"Joseph Priestley's Time Charts: The Use and Teaching of History by Rational Dissent in late Eighteenth-Century England\". Lumen 18 (1999): 135–54.",
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"plaintext": " Watts, R. \"Joseph Priestley and Education\". Enlightenment and Dissent 2 (1983): 83–100.",
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40,177 | 1,035,184,563 | 550s_BC | [
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{
"plaintext": "550 BC—Siddhartha Gautama founds Buddhism in Northern India after achieving enlightenment after six years of practicing penance and meditation.",
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"plaintext": "556 BC—Rule of Labashi-Marduk as king of Babylon",
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"plaintext": "556 BC—Rule of Nabonidus as king of Babylon",
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"plaintext": "558 BC—Death of Solon, Athenian statesman, poet. ",
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"plaintext": "c. 556 BC—Birth of Simonides of Ceos.",
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"plaintext": "555 BC—Death of Stesichorus, Greek lyric poet.",
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"plaintext": "September 28, 551 BC—Birth of Confucius, Chinese philosopher (traditional date).",
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"plaintext": "c. 551 BC—Commonly accepted date of death of Zoroaster, founder of Zoroastrianism.",
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"plaintext": "550 BC—Birth of Epicharmus, Greek poet (d. 460 BC).",
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] | 190,598 | 213 | 2 | 74 | 0 | 0 | 550s BC | decade | [] |
40,178 | 1,106,309,782 | 7th_millennium_BC | [
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"plaintext": "The 7th millennium BC spanned the years 7000 BC to 6001 BC (c. 9 ka to c. 8 ka). It is impossible to precisely date events around this millennium, and all dates mentioned here are estimates mostly based on geological and anthropological analysis. ",
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"plaintext": "Towards the end of this millennium, the islands of Great Britain, and Ireland were severed from continental Europe by rising seawater.",
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"plaintext": "Neolithic culture and technology were established in the Near East by 7000 BC and there is increasing evidence through the millennium of its spread or introduction to Europe and the Far East. In most of the world, however, including north and western Europe, people still lived in scattered Palaeolithic hunter-gatherer communities. The Mehrgarh chalcolithic civilization began around 7000 BC. The world population is believed to have been stable and slowly increasing. It has been estimated that there were perhaps ten million people worldwide at the end of this millennium, growing to forty million by 5000 BC and 100 million by 1600 BC, an average growth rate of 0.027% p.a. from the beginning of the Neolithic to the Middle Bronze Age.",
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"plaintext": "Neolithic culture and technology reached modern Turkey and Greece c. 7000 BC; and Crete about the same time. The innovations, including the introduction of farming, spread from the Middle East through Turkey and Egypt. There is evidence of domesticated sheep or goats, pigs and cattle together with grains of cultivated bread wheat. The domestication of pigs in Eastern Europe is believed to have begun c. 6800 BC. The pigs may have descended from European wild boar or were probably introduced by farmers migrating from the Middle East. There is evidence, c. 6200 BC, of farmers from the Middle East reaching the Danube and moving into Romania and Serbia. Farming gradually spread westward and northward over the next four millennia, finally reaching Great Britain and Scandinavia c. 3000 BC to complete the transition of Europe from the Mesolithic to the Neolithic.",
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"plaintext": "The Ubaid period (c. 6500–3800 BC) began in Mesopotamia, its name derived from Tell al-'Ubaid where the first significant excavation took place.",
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"plaintext": "By the end of this millennium, Tell es-Sultan (Jericho) had become a large agricultural settlement with some eight to ten acres within its walls. Kathleen Kenyon reckoned that it was home to about three thousand people. Construction was done using stone implements to mould clay into bricks. The main crop was wheat.",
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"plaintext": "In the geologic time scale, the \"Northgrippian\" succeeded the \"Greenlandian\" c. 6236 BC (to c. 2250 BC). The starting point for the Northgrippian is the so-called 8.2 kiloyear event, which was an abrupt climate change lasting some four centuries in which there was a marked decrease in global temperatures, possibly caused by an influx of glacial meltwater into the North Atlantic Ocean.",
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"plaintext": "The influx is believed to be one factor in the creation of Great Britain and Ireland as islands separate from the European continent. After the Last Ice Age ended c. 9700 BC, increasing sea levels gradually inundated Doggerland, a land bridge which linked Great Britain to Denmark and the Netherlands. This process began the formation of the North Sea and the English Channel. Further west, another low-lying land area was being flooded to form the Irish Sea and create Ireland. Sometime in the second half of the 7th millennium, the Storegga Slides occurred off Norway to generate a huge tsunami which completely overwhelmed Doggerland and its Mesolithic community of an estimated 5,000 hunter-gatherers. By about 6100 BC, Great Britain had become an island.",
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"plaintext": "Jupiter occulted Saturn in 6857 B.C.E. This is one of the rarest events known, with the next occurrence on February 10, 7541.",
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"Millennia"
] | 32,820 | 5,851 | 48 | 37 | 0 | 0 | 7th millennium BC | millennium between 7000 BC and 6001 BC | [
"7th-millennium BC"
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40,179 | 1,089,174,784 | 6th_millennium_BC | [
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"plaintext": "The 6th millennium BC spanned the years 6000 BC to 5001 BC (c. 8 ka to c. 7 ka). It is impossible to precisely date events that happened around the time of this millennium and all dates mentioned here are estimates mostly based on geological and anthropological analysis. The only exceptions are the felling dates for some construction timbers from neolithic wells in Central Europe. ",
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"plaintext": "This millennium is reckoned to mark the end of the global deglaciation which had followed the Last Glacial Maximum and caused sea levels to rise by some over a period of about 5,000 years.",
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"plaintext": "Neolithic culture and technology had spread from the Near East and into eastern Europe by 6000 BC. Its development in the Far East grew apace and there is increasing evidence through the millennium of its presence in Prehistoric Egypt and the Far East. In much of the world, however, including north and western Europe, people still lived in scattered Palaeolithic hunter-gatherer communities. The world population is believed to have increased sharply, possibly quadrupling, as a result of the Neolithic Revolution. It has been estimated that there were perhaps forty million people worldwide at the end of this millennium, growing to 100 million by the Middle Bronze Age c. 1600 BC.",
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"plaintext": "Use of pottery found near Tbilisi is evidence that grapes were being used for winemaking c. 5980 BC.",
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"plaintext": "It has been estimated that humans first settled in Malta c. 5900 BC, arriving across the Mediterranean from both Europe and North Africa.",
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"plaintext": "Evidence of cheese-making in Poland is dated c. 5500 BC.",
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"plaintext": "The Junglefowl is domesticated around c. 5500 BC in Southeast Asia.",
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"plaintext": "The Zhaobaogou culture in China began c. 5400 BC. It was in the north-eastern part of the country, primarily in the Luan River valley in Inner Mongolia and northern Hebei.",
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"plaintext": "Four identified cultures starting around 5300 BC were the Dnieper-Donets, the Narva (eastern Baltic), the Ertebølle (Denmark and northern Germany) and the Swifterbant (Low Countries). They were linked by a common pottery style that had spread westward from Asia and is sometimes called \"ceramic Mesolithic\", distinguishable by a point or knob base and flared rims.",
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"plaintext": "The early Holocene sea level rise (EHSLR), which began c.10,000 BC, tailed off during the 6th millennium. Global water levels had risen by about 60 metres due to deglaciation of ice masses since the end of the Last Ice Age. Accelerated rises in sea level rise, called meltwater pulses, occurred three times during the EHSLR. The last one, Meltwater Pulse 1C, which peaked c. 6000 BC, produced a rise of 6.5 metres in only 140 years. It is believed that the cause was a major ice sheet collapse in Antarctica.",
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"plaintext": "Approximately 8,000 years ago (c. 6000 BC), a massive volcanic landslide off Mount Etna, Sicily, caused a megatsunami that devastated the eastern Mediterranean coastline on the continents of Asia, Africa and Europe.",
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},
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"plaintext": "In South America, a large eruption occurred at Cueros de Purulla c. 5870 BC, forming a buoyant cloud and depositing the Cerro Paranilla Ash in the Calchaquí Valleys.",
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"plaintext": "A cataclysmic volcanic eruption occurred c. 5700 BC in Oregon when high Mount Mazama created Crater Lake as the resulting caldera filled with water. Another major eruption occurred c. 5550 BC on Mount Takahe, Antarctica, possibly creating an ozone hole in the region.",
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"plaintext": "The carbon-14 content in tree rings created c. 5480 BC indicates an abnormal level of solar activity.",
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"plaintext": "The epoch of the Byzantine calendar, used in the Byzantine Empire and many Christian Orthodox countries, is equivalent to 1 September 5509 BC on the Julian proleptic calendar (see image right).",
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"plaintext": "The 6th millennium BC falls entirely within the Astrological Age of Gemini (c. 6450 BC to c. 4300 BC) according to some astrologers.",
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] | [
"6th_millennium_BC",
"Millennia"
] | 34,245 | 7,591 | 94 | 51 | 0 | 0 | 6th millennium BC | millennium between 6000 BC and 5001 BC | [
"6th-millennium BC"
] |
40,180 | 1,106,223,817 | Bessemer_process | [
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"plaintext": "The Bessemer process was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass production of steel from molten pig iron before the development of the open hearth furnace. The key principle is removal of impurities from the iron by oxidation with air being blown through the molten iron. The oxidation also raises the temperature of the iron mass and keeps it molten.",
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"plaintext": "Related decarburizing with air processes had been used outside Europe for hundreds of years, but not on an industrial scale. One such process (similar to puddling) was known in the 11th century in East Asia, where the scholar Shen Kuo of that era described its use in the Chinese iron and steel industry. In the 17th century, accounts by European travelers detailed its possible use by the Japanese.",
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"plaintext": "The modern process is named after its inventor, the Englishman Henry Bessemer, who took out a patent on the process in 1856. The process was said to be independently discovered in 1851 by the American inventor William Kelly though the claim is controversial.",
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"plaintext": "The process using a basic refractory lining is known as the \"basic Bessemer process\" or Gilchrist–Thomas process after the English discoverers Percy Gilchrist and Sidney Gilchrist Thomas.",
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"plaintext": "A system akin to the Bessemer process has existed since the 11th century in East Asia. Economic historian Robert Hartwell writes that the Chinese of the Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE) innovated a \"partial decarbonization\" method of repeated forging of cast iron under a cold blast. Sinologist Joseph Needham and historian of metallurgy Theodore A. Wertime have described the method as a predecessor to the Bessemer process of making steel. This process was first described by the prolific scholar and polymath government official Shen Kuo (1031–1095) in 1075, when he visited Cizhou. Hartwell states that perhaps the earliest center where this was practiced was the great iron-production district along the Henan–Hebei border during the 11th century.",
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"plaintext": "In the 15th century, the finery process, another process which shares the air-blowing principle with the Bessemer process, was developed in Europe. In 1740, Benjamin Huntsman developed the crucible technique for steel manufacture, at his workshop in the district of Handsworth in Sheffield. This process had an enormous impact on the quantity and quality of steel production, but it was unrelated to the Bessemer-type process employing decarburization.",
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"plaintext": "The Japanese may have made use of a Bessemer-type process, which was observed by European travellers in the 17th century. The adventurer Johan Albrecht de Mandelslo describes the process in a book published in English in 1669. He writes, \"They have, among others, particular invention for the melting of iron, without the using of fire, casting it into a tun done about on the inside without about half a foot of earth, where they keep it with continual blowing, take it out by ladles full, to give it what form they please.\" According to historian Donald Wagner, Mandelslo did not personally visit Japan, so his description of the process is likely derived from accounts of other Europeans who had traveled to Japan. Wagner believes that the Japanese process may have been similar to the Bessemer process, but cautions that alternative explanations are also plausible.",
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"plaintext": "In the early-to-mid 1850s, the American inventor William Kelly experimented with a method similar to the Bessemer process. Wagner",
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"plaintext": "writes that Kelly may have been inspired by techniques introduced by Chinese ironworkers hired by Kelly in 1854. The claim that both Kelly and Bessemer invented the same process remains controversial. When Bessemer's patent for the process was reported by Scientific American, Kelly responded by writing a letter to the magazine. In the letter, Kelly states that he had previously experimented with the process and claimed that Bessemer knew of Kelly's discovery. He wrote that \"I have reason to believe my discovery was known in England three or four years ago, as a number of English puddlers visited this place to see my new process. Several of them have since returned to England and may have spoken of my invention there.\" It is suggested Kelly's process was less developed and less successful than Bessemer's process.",
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"plaintext": "Sir Henry Bessemer described the origin of his invention in his autobiography written in 1890. During the outbreak of the Crimean War, many English industrialists and inventors became interested in military technology. According to Bessemer, his invention was inspired by a conversation with Napoleon III in 1854 pertaining to the steel required for better artillery. Bessemer claimed that it \"was the spark which kindled one of the greatest revolutions that the present century had to record, for during my solitary ride in a cab that night from Vincennes to Paris, I made up my mind to try what I could to improve the quality of iron in the manufacture of guns.\" At the time, steel was used to make only small items like cutlery and tools, but was too expensive for cannons. Starting in January 1855, he began working on a way to produce steel in the massive quantities required for artillery and by October he filed his first patent related to the Bessemer process. He patented the method a year later in 1856.",
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"plaintext": "Bessemer licensed the patent for his process to four ironmasters, for a total of £27,000, but the licensees failed to produce the quality of steel he had promised—it was \"rotten hot and rotten cold\", according to his friend, William Clay—and he later bought them back for £32,500. His plan had been to offer the licenses to one company in each of several geographic areas, at a royalty price per ton that included a lower rate on a proportion of their output in order to encourage production, but not so large a proportion that they might decide to reduce their selling prices. By this method he hoped to cause the new process to gain in standing and market share.",
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"plaintext": "He realised that the technical problem was due to impurities in the iron and concluded that the solution lay in knowing when to turn off the flow of air in his process so that the impurities were burned off but just the right amount of carbon remained. However, despite spending tens of thousands of pounds on experiments, he could not find the answer. Certain grades of steel are sensitive to the 78% nitrogen which was part of the air blast passing through the steel.",
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"plaintext": "The solution was first discovered by English metallurgist Robert Forester Mushet, who had carried out thousands of experiments in the Forest of Dean. His method was to first burn off, as far as possible, all the impurities and carbon, then reintroduce carbon and manganese by adding an exact amount of spiegeleisen, an alloy of iron and manganese with trace amounts of carbon and silicon. This had the effect of improving the quality of the finished product, increasing its malleability—its ability to withstand rolling and forging at high temperatures and making it more suitable for a vast array of uses. Mushet's patent ultimately lapsed due to Mushet's inability to pay the patent fees and was acquired by Bessemer. Bessemer earned over 5 million dollars in royalties from the patents.",
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"plaintext": "The first company to license the process was the Manchester firm of W & J Galloway, and they did so before Bessemer announced it at Cheltenham in 1856. They are not included in his list of the four to whom he refunded the license fees. However, they subsequently rescinded their license in 1858 in return for the opportunity to invest in a partnership with Bessemer and others. This partnership began to manufacture steel in Sheffield from 1858, initially using imported charcoal pig iron from Sweden. This was the first commercial production.",
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"plaintext": "A 20% share in the Bessemer patent was also purchased for use in Sweden and Norway by Swedish trader and Consul Göran Fredrik Göransson during a visit to London in 1857. During the first half of 1858, Göransson, together with a small group of engineers, experimented with the Bessemer process at Edsken near Hofors, Sweden before he finally succeeded. Later in 1858 he again met with Henry Bessemer in London, managed to convince him of his success with the process, and negotiated the right to sell his steel in England. Production continued in Edsken, but it was far too small for the industrial-scale production needed. In 1862 Göransson built a new factory for his Högbo Iron and Steel Works company on the shore of Lake Storsjön, where the town of Sandviken was founded. The company was renamed Sandviken's Ironworks, continued to grow and eventually became Sandvik in the 1970s.",
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"plaintext": "Alexander Lyman Holley contributed significantly to the success of Bessemer steel in the United States. His A Treatise on Ordnance and Armor is an important work on contemporary weapons manufacturing and steel-making practices. In 1862, he visited Bessemer's Sheffield works, and became interested in licensing the process for use in the US. Upon returning to the US, Holley met with two iron producers from Troy, New York, John F. Winslow and John Augustus Griswold, who asked him to return to the United Kingdom and negotiate with the Bank of England on their behalf. Holley secured a license for Griswold and Winslow to use Bessemer's patented processes and returned to the United States in late 1863.",
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"plaintext": "The trio began setting up a mill in Troy, New York in 1865. The factory contained a number of Holley's innovations that greatly improved productivity over Bessemer's factory in Sheffield, and the owners gave a successful public exhibition in 1867. The Troy factory attracted the attention of the Pennsylvania Railroad, which wanted to use the new process to manufacture steel rail. It funded Holley's second mill as part of its Pennsylvania Steel subsidiary. Between 1866 and 1877, the partners were able to license a total of 11 Bessemer steel mills.",
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"plaintext": "One of the investors they attracted was Andrew Carnegie, who saw great promise in the new steel technology after a visit to Bessemer in 1872, and saw it as a useful adjunct to his existing businesses, the Keystone Bridge Company and the Union Iron Works. Holley built the new steel mill for Carnegie, and continued to improve and refine the process. The new mill, known as the Edgar Thomson Steel Works, opened in 1875, and started the growth of the United States as a major world steel producer. Using the Bessemer process, Carnegie Steel was able to reduce the costs of steel railroad rails from $100 per ton to $50 per ton between 1873 and 1875. The price of steel continued to fall until Carnegie was selling rails for $18 per ton by the 1890s. Prior to the opening of Carnegie's Thomson Works, steel output in the United States totaled around 157,000 tons per year. By 1910, American companies were producing 26 million tons of steel annually.",
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"plaintext": "William Walker Scranton, manager and owner of the Lackawanna Iron & Coal Company in Scranton, Pennsylvania, had also investigated the process in Europe. He built a mill in 1876 using the Bessemer process for steel rails and quadrupled his production.",
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"plaintext": "Bessemer steel was used in the United States primarily for railroad rails. During the construction of the Brooklyn Bridge, a major dispute arose over whether crucible steel should be used instead of the cheaper Bessemer steel. In 1877, Abram Hewitt wrote a letter urging against the use of Bessemer steel in the construction of the Brooklyn Bridge. Bids had been submitted for both crucible steel and Bessemer steel; John A. Roebling's Sons submitted the lowest bid for Bessemer steel, but at Hewitt's direction, the contract was awarded to J. Lloyd Haigh Co.",
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"plaintext": "Using the Bessemer process, it took between 10 and 20 minutes to convert three to five tons of iron into steel — it would previously take at least a full day of heating, stirring and reheating to achieve this.",
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"plaintext": "The blowing of air through the molten pig iron introduces oxygen into the melt which results in oxidation, removing impurities found in the pig iron, such as silicon, manganese, and carbon in the form of oxides. These oxides either escape as gas or form a solid slag. The refractory lining of the converter also plays a role in the conversion — clay linings may be used when there is little phosphorus in the raw material, and Bessemer himself used ganister sandstone – this is known as the acid Bessemer process. When the phosphorus content is high, dolomite, or sometimes magnesite, linings are required in the basic Bessemer limestone process, see \"Basic\" vs. acidic Bessemer process. In order to produce steel with desired properties, additives such as spiegeleisen (a ferromanganese alloy), can be added to the molten steel once the impurities have been removed.",
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"plaintext": "When the required steel had been formed, it was poured into ladles and then transferred into moulds while the lighter slag was left behind. The conversion process, called the \"blow\", was completed in approximately 20 minutes. During this period, the progress of the oxidation of the impurities was judged by the appearance of the flame issuing from the mouth of the converter. The modern use of photoelectric methods of recording the characteristics of the flame greatly aided the blower in controlling final product quality. After the blow, the liquid metal was recarburized to the desired point and other alloying materials were added, depending on the desired product.",
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"plaintext": "A Bessemer converter could treat a \"heat\" (batch of hot metal) of 5 to 30 tons at a time. They were usually operated in pairs, one being blown while another was being filled or tapped.",
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"plaintext": "By the early 19th century the puddling process was widespread. Until technological advances made it possible to work at higher heats, slag impurities could not be removed entirely, but the reverberatory furnace made it possible to heat iron without placing it directly in the fire, offering some degree of protection from the impurity of the fuel source. Thus, with the advent of this technology, coal began to replace charcoal fuel. The Bessemer process allowed steel to be produced without fuel, using the impurities of the iron to create the necessary heat. This drastically reduced the costs of steel production, but raw materials with the required characteristics could be difficult to find.",
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"plaintext": "High-quality steel was made by the reverse process of adding carbon to carbon-free wrought iron, usually imported from Sweden. The manufacturing process, called the cementation process, consisted of heating bars of wrought iron together with charcoal for periods of up to a week in a long stone box. This produced blister steel. The blister steel was put in a crucible with wrought iron and melted, producing crucible steel. Up to 3 tons of expensive coke was burnt for each ton of steel produced. Such steel when rolled into bars was sold at £50 to £60 (approximately £3,390 to £4,070 in 2008) a long ton. The most difficult and work-intensive part of the process, however, was the production of wrought iron done in finery forges in Sweden.",
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"plaintext": "This process was refined in the 18th century with the introduction of Benjamin Huntsman's crucible steel-making techniques, which added an additional three hours firing time and required additional large quantities of coke. In making crucible steel, the blister steel bars were broken into pieces and melted in small crucibles, each containing 20kg or so. This produced higher quality crucible steel but increased the cost. The Bessemer process reduced the time needed to make steel of this quality to about half an hour while requiring only the coke needed initially to melt the pig iron. The earliest Bessemer converters produced steel for £7 a long ton, although it initially sold for around £40 a ton.",
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"plaintext": "Sidney Gilchrist Thomas, a Londoner with a Welsh father, was an industrial chemist who decided to tackle the problem of phosphorus in iron, which resulted in the production of low grade steel. Believing that he had discovered a solution, he contacted his cousin, Percy Gilchrist, who was a chemist at the Blaenavon Ironworks. The manager at the time, Edward Martin, offered Sidney equipment for large-scale testing and helped him draw up a patent that was taken out in May 1878. Sidney Gilchrist Thomas's invention consisted of using dolomite or sometimes limestone linings for the Bessemer converter rather than clay, and it became known as the 'basic' Bessemer rather than the 'acid' Bessemer process. An additional advantage was that the processes formed more slag in the converter, and this could be recovered and used very profitably as a phosphate fertilizer.",
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"plaintext": "In 1898, Scientific American published an article called Bessemer Steel and its Effect on the World explaining the significant economic effects of the increased supply in cheap steel. They noted that the expansion of railroads into previously sparsely inhabited regions of the country had led to settlement in those regions, and had made the trade of certain goods profitable, which had previously been too costly to transport.",
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"plaintext": "The Bessemer process revolutionized steel manufacture by decreasing its cost, from £40 per long ton to £6–7 per long ton, along with greatly increasing the scale and speed of production of this vital raw material. The process also decreased the labor requirements for steel-making. Before it was introduced, steel was far too expensive to make bridges or the framework for buildings and thus wrought iron had been used throughout the Industrial Revolution. After the introduction of the Bessemer process, steel and wrought iron became similarly priced, and some users, primarily railroads, turned to steel. Quality problems, such as brittleness caused by nitrogen in the blowing air, prevented Bessemer steel from being used for many structural applications. Open-hearth steel was suitable for structural applications.",
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"plaintext": "Steel greatly improved the productivity of railroads. Steel rails lasted ten times longer than iron rails. Steel rails, which became heavier as prices fell, could carry heavier locomotives, which could pull longer trains. Steel rail cars were longer and were able to increase the freight to car weight from 1:1 to 2:1.",
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"plaintext": "As early as 1895 in the UK it was being noted that the heyday of the Bessemer process was over and that the open hearth method predominated. The Iron and Coal Trades Review said that it was \"in a semi-moribund condition. Year after year, it has not only ceased to make progress, but it has absolutely declined.\" It has been suggested, both at that time and more recently, that the cause of this was the lack of trained personnel and investment in technology rather than anything intrinsic to the process itself. For example, one of the major causes of the decline of the giant ironmaking company Bolckow Vaughan of Middlesbrough was its failure to upgrade its technology. The basic process, the Thomas-Gilchrist process, remained in use longer, especially in Continental Europe, where iron ores were of high phosphorus content and the open-hearth process was not able to remove all phosphorus; almost all inexpensive construction steel in Germany was produced with this method in the 1950s and 1960s. It was eventually superseded by basic oxygen steelmaking.",
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"plaintext": "In the U.S., commercial steel production using this method stopped in 1968. It was replaced by processes such as the basic oxygen (Linz–Donawitz) process, which offered better control of final chemistry. The Bessemer process was so fast (10–20 minutes for a heat) that it allowed little time for chemical analysis or adjustment of the alloying elements in the steel. Bessemer converters did not remove phosphorus efficiently from the molten steel; as low-phosphorus ores became more expensive, conversion costs increased. The process permitted only limited amount of scrap steel to be charged, further increasing costs, especially when scrap was inexpensive. Use of electric arc furnace technology competed favourably with the Bessemer process resulting in its obsolescence.",
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"plaintext": "Basic oxygen steelmaking is essentially an improved version of the Bessemer process (decarburization by blowing oxygen as gas into the heat rather than burning the excess carbon away by adding oxygen carrying substances into the heat). The advantages of pure oxygen blast over air blast were known to Henry Bessemer, but 19th-century technology was not advanced enough to allow for the production of the large quantities of pure oxygen necessary to make it economical.",
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"plaintext": "As the Neolithic began in the Fertile Crescent, most people around the world still lived in scattered hunter-gatherer communities which remained firmly in the Palaeolithic. The world population was probably stable and slowly increasing. It has been estimated that there were some five million people in 10,000 BC growing to forty million by 5000 BC and 100 million by 1600 BC. That is an average growth rate of 0.027% per annum from the beginning of the Neolithic to the Middle Bronze Age.",
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"plaintext": "From the beginning of the 9th millennium, Göbekli Tepe was inhabited after possibly being first occupied during the previous millennium. It is a carved stone hilltop sanctuary in south-eastern Anatolia which includes the world's oldest known megaliths. As with Göbekli Tepe, the site at Tell Qaramel, in north-west Syria, was inhabited from 9000 BC following possible first occupation in the previous millennium. In the same region, the settlement at Nevalı Çori has been dated about 8500 BC. Elsewhere in the Fertile Crescent, there is evidence of settlements at Mureybet and Ganj Dareh from around 8500 BC. Towards the end of the millennium, by 8200 BC, the site of Aşıklı Höyük in central Anatolia was first occupied (until around 7400 BC).",
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"plaintext": "It is believed that European sites settled before 8500 were still Palaeolithic, or at best Mesolithic, communities. At Star Carr in North Yorkshire, the results of radiocarbon analysis in 2018 indicate that occupation first commenced between 9335 and 9275BC, lasting for a period of around 800 years until 8525–8440BC, although such occupations may have been episodic in nature, varying in intensity between different periods. Archaeological excavations at Cramond in prehistoric Scotland have uncovered evidence of habitation dating to around 8500 BC. Another settlement may have been established at Ærø in Denmark.",
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"plaintext": "In Japan, the Jomon culture had probably been established by small communities on the Pacific side of Honshu by this time. The word means \"cord-pattern\", referring to the distinctive pottery of the period. As there was no potter's wheel, the clay was prepared in the shape of a rope and manually coiled upwards to create a vessel that was baked in an open fire. At first, the vessels were simple bowls and jars but later became artistic. Proposed dates for the start of the Jomon are wildly variable, ranging from the Ice Ages to as late as c. 4500. It is generally accepted that the period ended c. 300 BC when it was superseded by the Yayoi culture.",
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"plaintext": "In North America, the Paleo-Indian Clovis Culture is believed to have ended around 8800 BC having fathered numerous local variants. One of these was the Folsom complex which was centred in the Great Plains and is dated from c.9000 to c.8000 BC. The people were hunter-gatherers who hunted the now-extinct Bison antiquus.",
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"plaintext": "In Patagonia, the Fell's Tradition prevailed through the millennium at Cueva Fell. Another Paleo-Indian site in the region is the Las Cuevas Canyon near Los Toldos (Santa Cruz) where rock art has been found.",
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"plaintext": "In Central America, remains of three prehistoric human fossils have been discovered since 2006 in the cave system at Chan Hol in Quintana Roo, Mexico. All have been dated to around the 9th millennium.",
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"plaintext": "Evidence of a precursor to warfare has been found at Nataruk in Kenya. Remains of at least 27 individuals have been found and dated to around 8500 BC. The condition of the skeletons indicates that a massacre took place as hands were bound and skulls were smashed by blunt force. Communities in Africa at the time would have been nomadic hunter-gatherers.",
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"plaintext": "The Natufian culture continued to prevail in the Levantine and upper Mesopotamian areas of the Fertile Crescent with their most significant site at Jericho (Tell es-Sultan) in the Jordan Valley. The Natufian people had been sedentary or semi-sedentary through the 10th millennium, even before the introduction of agriculture.",
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"plaintext": "By about 8500 BC, the Natufians were harvesting wild wheat with flint-edged sickles. It was around that time, or soon afterwards, that the wild wheat crossed with a natural goat grass to form emmer, the seeds of which could scatter in the wind to spread naturally. Later, emmer crossed with another goat grass to form the even larger hybrid that is bread wheat. The Natufians learned how to harvest the new wheat, grind it into flour and make bread. The early bread was unleavened, with the dough allowed to dry on hot stones. Writing in 1973, Jacob Bronowski argued that the combination of wheat and water at Jericho enabled man to begin civilisation. Jericho, having a natural spring, was an oasis on the edge of the Syrian Desert and, although similar developments occurred elsewhere, Bronowski called Jericho \"a microcosm of history\".",
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"plaintext": "The earliest known cultivation of lentils was at Mureybet in Syria, where wheat and barley were also grown. Lentils were later (by 7500 BC) found at Hacilar and Çayönü in Turkey. Ganj Dareh, in Iranian Kurdistan, has been cited as the earliest settlement to domesticate animals, specifically the goat, towards the end of the millennium.",
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"plaintext": "Agriculture may have begun in the Far East before 8300 BC, the estimated date for the earliest cultivation of common millet. Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum) and foxtail millet (Setaria italica) were important crops beginning in the Early Neolithic of China. Some of the earliest evidence of millet cultivation in China was found at Cishan (north), where proso millet husk phytoliths and biomolecular components have been identified around 10,300–8,700 years ago in storage pits along with remains of pit-houses, pottery, and stone tools related to millet cultivation.",
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"plaintext": "Beginning with China c.18,000 BC, pottery is believed to have been invented independently in various places – for example, at Ounjougou in central Mali (dated c.9400 BC). These early innovations were probably created accidentally by fires lit on clay soil. The potter's wheel had not yet been invented and, where pottery as such was made, it was still hand-built, often by means of coiling, and pit fired.",
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"plaintext": "The first chronological pottery system was the Early, Middle and Late Minoan framework devised in the early 20th century by Sir Arthur Evans for his Bronze Age findings at Knossos for the period c. 2800 BC to c. 1050 BC. Dame Kathleen Kenyon was the principal archaeologist at Tell es-Sultan (ancient Jericho) and she discovered that there was no pottery there. The vessels she found were made from stone and she reasonably surmised that others made from wood or vegetable fibres would have long since decayed. Using Evans' system as a benchmark, Kenyon divided the Near East Neolithic into phases called Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA), from c. 10,000 BC to c. 8800 BC; Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB), from c. 8800 BC to c. 6500 BC; and then Pottery Neolithic (PN), which had varied start-points from c. 6500 BC until the beginnings of the Bronze Age towards the end of the 4th millennium. At the beginning of the 9th millennium, the Natufian culture co-existed with the PPNA which prevailed in the Levantine and upper Mesopotamian areas of the Fertile Crescent.",
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"plaintext": "Copper (Cu, 29) was originally found in raw surface lumps and first used in the Middle East. It was later extracted from ores such as malachite. A copper pendant from Mesopotamia is dated 8700 BC. The use of copper and, from the eighth millennium, lead (Pb, 82) was gradual – it could not become widespread until systematic processes had been developed for extraction of the metals from their ores; this did not happen until about the sixth millennium.",
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"plaintext": "기원전 제8천년기",
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] | [
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"Millennia"
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"9th-millennium BC"
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40,182 | 1,101,102,776 | Photomontage | [
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"plaintext": "Photomontage is the process and the result of making a composite photograph by cutting, gluing, rearranging and overlapping two or more photographs into a new image. Sometimes the resulting composite image is photographed so that the final image may appear as a seamless physical print. A similar method, although one that does not use film, is realized today through image-editing software. This latter technique is referred to by professionals as \"compositing\", and in casual usage is often called \"photoshopping\" (from the name of the popular software system). A composite of related photographs to extend a view of a single scene or subject would not be labeled as a montage, but instead a stitched image or a digital image mosaic.",
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"plaintext": "Author Oliver Grau in his book, Virtual Art: From Illusion to Immersion, notes that the creation of an artificial immersive virtual reality, arising as a result of technical exploitation of new inventions, is a long-standing human practice throughout the ages. Such environments as dioramas were made of composited images.",
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"plaintext": "The first and most famous mid-Victorian photomontage (then called combination printing) was \"The Two Ways of Life\" (1857) by Oscar Rejlander, followed shortly thereafter by the images of photographer Henry Peach Robinson such as \"Fading Away\" (1858). These works actively set out to challenge the then-dominant painting and theatrical tableau vivants.",
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"plaintext": "In late Victorian North America, William Notman of Montreal used photomontage to commemorate large social events which could not otherwise be captured on film. Fantasy photomontage postcards were also popular in the late Victorian era and Edwardian era. One of the preeminent producers in this period was the Bamforth & Co Ltd, of Holmfirth, West Yorkshire, and New York. The high point of its popularity came, however, during World War I, when photographers in France, Great Britain, Germany, Austria, and Hungary produced a profusion of postcards showing soldiers on one plane and lovers, wives, children, families, or parents on another. Many of the early examples of fine-art photomontage consist of photographed elements superimposed on watercolours, a combination returned to by (e.g.) George Grosz in about 1915.",
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"plaintext": "In 1916, John Heartfield and George Grosz experimented with pasting pictures together, a form of art later named \"Photomontage.”",
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"plaintext": "George Grosz wrote, “When John Heartfield and I invented photomontage in my South End studio at five o’clock on a May morning in 1916, neither of us had any inkling of its great possibilities, nor of the thorny yet successful road it was to take. As so often happens in life, we had stumbled across a vein of gold without knowing it.”",
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"plaintext": "John Heartfield and George Grosz were members of Berlin Club Dada (1916-1920). The German Dadists were instrumental in making montage into a modern art-form. The term \"photomontage” became widely known at the end of World War I, around 1918 or 1919.[5]",
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"plaintext": "Heartfield used photomontage extensively in his innovative book dust jackets for the Berlin publishing house Malik-Verlag. He revolutionized the look of these book covers. Heartfield was the first to use photomontage to tell a “story” from the front cover of the book to the back cover. He also employed groundbreaking typography to enhance the effect.",
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"plaintext": "From 1930 to 1938, John Heartfield used photomontage to create 240 “Photomontages of The Nazi Period” to use art as a weapon against fascism and The Third Reich. The photomontages appeared on street covers all over Berlin on the cover of the widely circulated AIZ magazine published by Willi Münzenberg, Heartfield lived in Berlin until April, 1933, when he escaped to Czechoslovakia after he was targeted for assassination by the SS. Continuing to produce anti-fascist art in Czechoslovakia until 1938, Heartfield's political photomontages earned him the number five position on the Gestapo's Most Wanted List.",
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"plaintext": "Hannah Höch began experimenting with photomontage in 1918. Höch worked for Ullstein Verlag designing knitting and embroidery patterns that were inspired by her photomontage work of the time. She continued to work with photomontage for almost the rest of her life, even after she broke from the Berlin Dadaists.",
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"plaintext": "Other major artists who were members of Berlin Club Dada and major exponents of photomontage were Kurt Schwitters, Raoul Hausmann, and Johannes Baader. Individual photographs combined to create a new subject or visual image proved to be a powerful tool for the Dadists protesting World War I and the interests that they believed inspired the war. Photomontage survived Dada and was a technique inherited and used by European Surrealists such as Salvador Dalí. Its influence also spread to Japan where avant-garde painter Harue Koga produced photomontage-style paintings based on images culled from magazines. The world's first retrospective show of photomontage was held in Germany in 1931. A later term coined in Europe was, \"photocollage\", which usually referred to large and ambitious works that added typography, brushwork, or even objects stuck to the photomontage.",
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"plaintext": "Following his exile to Mexico in the late 1930s, Spanish Civil War activist and montage artist, Josep Renau Berenguer, compiled his acclaimed, Fata Morgana USA: the American Way of Life, a book of photomontage images highly critical of American culture and North American \"consumer culture\". His contemporary, Lola Alvarez Bravo, experimented with photomontage on life and social issues in Mexican cities.",
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"plaintext": "In Argentina during the late 1940s, the German exile, Grete Stern, began to contribute photomontage work on the theme of Sueños (Dreams), as part of a regular psychoanalytical article in the magazine, Idilio.",
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"plaintext": "The pioneering techniques of early photomontage artists were co-opted by the advertising industry from the late 1920s onward. The American photographer Alfred Gescheidt, while working primarily in advertising and commercial art in the 1960s and 1970s, used photomontage techniques to create satirical posters and postcards.",
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"plaintext": "Starting in the 1960s, Jerry Uelsmann became influential in the photomontage world, using multiple enlargers to utilize many techniques that would someday influence digital photomontage, down to the naming of tools in Photoshop. In 1985 he even published a book demonstrating and explaining his techniques, two years before Thomas and John Knoll began selling Photoshop through Adobe.",
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"plaintext": "Ten years later in 1995, Adobe's creative director Russel Brown tried to get Uelsmann to test out Photoshop. Uelsmann didn't like it, but his wife Maggie Taylor did, and began using it to produce digital photomontage, becoming a founder of the modern genre.",
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"plaintext": "Other methods for combining images are also called photomontage, such as Victorian \"combination printing\", the printing of more than one negative on a single piece of printing paper (e.g. O. G. Rejlander, 1857), front-projection and computer montage techniques. Much as a collage is composed of multiple facets, artists also combine montage techniques. A series of black and white \"photomontage projections\" by Romare Bearden (1912–1988) is an example. His method began with compositions of paper, paint, and photographs put on boards measuring 8½ × 11inches. Bearden fixed the imagery with an emulsion that he then applied with hand roller. Subsequently, he photographed and enlarged them. The nineteenth century tradition of physically joining multiple images into a composite and photographing the results prevailed in press photography and offset lithography until the widespread use of digital image editing.",
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"plaintext": "\"Official John Heartfield Exhibition & Archive\", Dada and Political Photomontage, January 9, 2017.",
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"plaintext": " \"Life through a lens: A different perspective,\" Ealing Times; January 3, 2006.",
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"plaintext": " Greek Olympics; Outdoor Advertising Association of America",
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"plaintext": " \"A Portrait of Goldwater Is a Computer-Aided Mosaic of His Own,\" The Chronicle of Higher Education; February 1, 2002.",
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"plaintext": "Cut & Paste: a history of photomontage",
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"plaintext": "Interactive Digital Photomontage – a technical paper on a semi-automated approach to photomontage, published at SIGGRAPH 2004.",
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"plaintext": "See: List of sovereign states in the 10th century BC.",
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"Centuries"
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40,186 | 1,103,336,458 | 8th_millennium_BC | [
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"plaintext": "The 8th millennium BC spanned the years 8000 BC to 7001 BC (c. 10 ka to c. 9 ka). In chronological terms, it is the second full millennium of the current Holocene epoch and is entirely within the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) phase of the Early Neolithic. It is impossible to precisely date events that happened around the time of this millennium and all dates mentioned here are estimates mostly based on geological and anthropological analysis, or by radiometric dating.",
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"plaintext": "In the geologic time scale, the first stratigraphic stage of the Holocene epoch is the \"Greenlandian\" from about 9700 BC to the fixed date 6236 BC and so including the whole of the 8th millennium. The Greenlandian followed the Younger Dryas and essentially featured a climate shift from near-glacial to interglacial, causing glaciers to retreat and sea levels to rise. Towards the end of the 8th millennium, the Holocene Climate Optimum (HCO) – also called the Holocene Thermal Maximum (HTM) – began as a warm period lasting roughly 4,000 years until about 3000 BC. Insolation during summers in the northern hemisphere was unusually strong with pronounced warming in the higher latitudes such as Greenland, northern Canada and northern Europe with a resultant reduction in Arctic sea ice.",
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"plaintext": "During the 8th millennium, there were four known volcanic eruptions which registered magnitude 5 or 6 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI). These were at Rotoma Caldera in New Zealand's Taupo Volcanic Zone about 7560 BC; Lvinaya Past in the Kuril Islands about 7480 BC; Pinatubo on the island of Luzon in the Philippines about 7460 BC; and Fisher Caldera, on Unimak Island in the Aleutians about 7420 BC. The biggest eruption was at Fisher Caldera, VEI 6, producing more than of tephra.",
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"plaintext": "The date of c. 7640 BC has been theorised for the impact of Tollmann's hypothetical bolide with Earth. The hypothesis holds that there was a resultant global cataclysm such as early Holocene extinctions or possibly the legendary Universal Deluge. Bolides are asteroids or comets.",
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"plaintext": "Outside the Near East, most people around the world still lived in scattered hunter-gatherer communities which remained firmly in the Palaeolithic. Within the Near East, Neolithic culture and technology had become established throughout much of the Fertile Crescent by 8000 BC and was gradually spreading westward, though it is not believed to have reached Europe till about the end of this millennium. Planting and harvesting techniques were transferred through Asia Minor and across the Aegean Sea to Greece and the Balkans. The techniques were, in the main, cultivation of wheats and barleys; and domestication of sheep, goats and cattle.",
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"plaintext": "The world population was probably stable and slowly increasing. It has been estimated that there were some five million people c. 10,000 BC growing to forty million by 5000 BC and 100 million by 1600 BC. That is an average growth rate of 0.027% p.a. from the beginning of the Neolithic to the Middle Bronze Age.",
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"plaintext": "By c. 7500 BC (see map above right), important sites in or near the Fertile Crescent included Jericho (Tell es-Sultan), 'Ain Ghazal, Huleh, Tell Aswad, Tell Abu Hureyra, Tell Qaramel, Tell Mureibit, Jerf el Ahmar, Göbekli Tepe, Nevalı Çori, Hacilar, Çatalhöyük, Hallan Çemi Tepesi, Çayönü Tepesi, Shanidar, Jarmo, Zrebar, Ganj Dareh and Ali Kosh. Jericho in the Jordan Valley continued to be the world's most significant site through this millennium. Çatalhöyük (see image) was a very large Neolithic and Chalcolithic proto-city settlement in southern Anatolia which flourished from c. 7500 BC until it was abandoned c. 5700 BC.",
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"plaintext": "There was no pottery per se in the Near East at this time as the potter's wheel had not yet been invented. Rudimentary clay vessels were hand-built, often by means of coiling, and pit fired. Dame Kathleen Kenyon was the principal archaeologist at Tell es-Sultan (ancient Jericho) and she discovered that there was no pottery there. The vessels she found were made from stone and she reasonably surmised that others made from wood or vegetable fibres would have long since decayed. The first chronological pottery system had been devised by Sir Arthur Evans for his Bronze Age findings at Knossos and Kenyon used this as a benchmark for the Near East Neolithic. She divided the period into phases called Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA), from c. 10,000 BC to c. 8800 BC; Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB), which includes the entire 8th millennium, from c. 8800 BC to c. 6500 BC; and then Pottery Neolithic (PN), which had varied start-points from c. 6500 BC until the beginnings of the Bronze Age towards the end of the 4th millennium (c. 3000 BC).",
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"plaintext": "It was from c. 8000 BC that agriculture developed throughout the Americas, especially in modern Mexico. There were numerous New World crops, as they are now termed, and domestication began with the potato and the cucurbita (squash) about this time. Other crops began to be harvested over the next 7,500 years including chili peppers, maize, peanut, avocado, beans, cotton, sunflower, cocoa and tomato.",
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"plaintext": "The Mount Sandel Mesolithic site in Ireland is dated to c. 7900–7600 BC. This was long thought to be the earliest human activity on the island, until the discovery of the Alice and Gwendoline Cave pushed the date back to 10,000 BC.",
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"plaintext": "The date for construction of a round-house near Howick, Northumberland is calculated c. 7600 BC by radiocarbon dating. The site is believed to have been occupied for about 100 years.",
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"plaintext": "The Homo sapiens fossil from Combe-Capelle in southern France, discovered in 1909, is estimated to be 9,500 years old (c. 7500 BC).",
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] | 33,652 | 6,897 | 47 | 92 | 0 | 0 | 8th millennium BC | millennium between 8000 BC and 7001 BC | [
"8th-millennium BC"
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40,187 | 1,100,974,882 | Conjugate_(acid-base_theory) | [
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"plaintext": "A conjugate acid, within the Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory, is a chemical compound formed when an acid donates a proton (H+) to a base—in other words, it is a base with a hydrogen ion added to it, as in the reverse reaction it loses a hydrogen ion. On the other hand, a conjugate base is what is left over after an acid has donated a proton during a chemical reaction. Hence, a conjugate base is a species formed by the removal of a proton from an acid, as in the reverse reaction it is able to gain a hydrogen ion. Because some acids are capable of releasing multiple protons, the conjugate base of an acid may itself be acidic.",
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"plaintext": "In summary, this can be represented as the following chemical reaction:",
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"plaintext": "Acid + Base Conjugate Base + Conjugate Acid",
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"plaintext": "Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted and Martin Lowry introduced the Brønsted–Lowry theory,",
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"plaintext": "which proposed that any compound that can transfer a proton to any other compound is an acid, and the compound that accepts the proton is a base. A proton is a nuclear particle with a unit positive electrical charge; it is represented by the symbol H+ because it constitutes the nucleus of a hydrogen atom, that is, a hydrogen cation.",
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"plaintext": "A cation can be a conjugate acid, and an anion can be a conjugate base, depending on which substance is involved and which acid–base theory is the viewpoint. The simplest anion which can be a conjugate base is the solvated electron whose conjugate acid is the atomic hydrogen.",
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"plaintext": "In an acid–base reaction, an acid plus a base reacts to form a conjugate base plus a conjugate acid. The acid loses a proton and the base gains a proton. In chemical diagrams which illustrate this, the new bond formed between the base and the proton is shown by an arrow that conventionally starts on an electron pair from the base and whose arrow-head ends at the hydrogen ion (proton) that will be transferred:",
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"plaintext": "In this case, the water molecule is the conjugate acid of the hydroxide ion after the latter received the hydrogen ion donated by ammonium. On the other hand, ammonia is the conjugate base for the acid ammonium after ammonium has donated a hydrogen ion and produced the water molecule. Also, OH− can be considered as the conjugate base of , since the water molecule donates a proton to give in the reverse reaction. The terms \"acid\", \"base\", \"conjugate acid\", and \"conjugate base\" are not fixed for a certain chemical species but are interchangeable according to the reaction taking place.",
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"plaintext": "The strength of a conjugate acid is directly proportional to its dissociation constant. If a conjugate acid is strong, its dissociation will have a higher equilibrium constant and the products of the reaction will be favored. The strength of a conjugate base can be seen as the tendency of the species to \"pull\" hydrogen protons towards itself. If a conjugate base is classified as strong, it will \"hold on\" to the hydrogen proton when in solution and its acid will not dissociate.",
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"plaintext": "If a species is classified as a strong acid, its conjugate base will be weak. An example of this case would be the dissociation of hydrochloric acid in water. Since HCl is a strong acid (it dissociates to a great extent), its conjugate base () will be a weak conjugate base. Therefore, in this system, most will be in the form of a hydronium ion instead of attached to a Cl− anion and the conjugate base will be weaker than a water molecule.",
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"plaintext": "On the other hand, if a species is classified as a weak acid its conjugate base will not necessarily be a strong base. Consider that acetate, the conjugate base of acetic acid, has a base dissociation constant (Kb) of approximately , making it a weak base. ",
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"plaintext": "In order for a species to have a strong conjugate base it has to be a very weak acid, like water for example.",
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"plaintext": "To identify the conjugate acid, look for the pair of compounds that are related. The acid–base reaction can be viewed in a before and after sense. The before is the reactant side of the equation, the after is the product side of the equation. The conjugate acid in the after side of an equation gains a hydrogen ion, so in the before side of the equation the compound that has one less hydrogen ion of the conjugate acid is the base. The conjugate base in the after side of the equation lost a hydrogen ion, so in the before side of the equation, the compound that has one more hydrogen ion of the conjugate base is the acid.",
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"plaintext": "Consider the following acid–base reaction:",
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{
"plaintext": " + → + ",
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{
"plaintext": "Nitric acid () is an acid because it donates a proton to the water molecule and its conjugate base is nitrate (). The water molecule acts as a base because it receives the hydrogen cation (proton) and its conjugate acid is the hydronium ion ().",
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"plaintext": "One use of conjugate acids and bases lies in buffering systems, which include a buffer solution. In a buffer, a weak acid and its conjugate base (in the form of a salt), or a weak base and its conjugate acid, are used in order to limit the pH change during a titration process. Buffers have both organic and non-organic chemical applications. For example, besides buffers being used in lab processes, human blood acts as a buffer to maintain pH. The most important buffer in our bloodstream is the carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer, which prevents drastic pH changes when is introduced. This functions as such:",
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"plaintext": "Furthermore, here is a table of common buffers.",
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{
"plaintext": "{| class=\"wikitable\" style=\"text-align:center\"",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Applications",
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},
{
"plaintext": "!Buffering agent!!pKa!!Useful pH range",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Applications",
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},
{
"plaintext": "|-",
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"plaintext": "|Citric acid||3.13, 4.76, 6.40||2.1 - 7.4",
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"plaintext": "|-",
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"plaintext": "|Acetic acid||4.8||3.8 - 5.8",
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"plaintext": "|-",
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{
"plaintext": "|KH2PO4||7.2|| 6.2 - 8.2",
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"plaintext": "|-",
"section_idx": 4,
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"plaintext": "|CHES||9.3|| 8.3–10.3",
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"plaintext": "|-",
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{
"plaintext": "|Borate||9.24||8.25 - 10.25",
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"plaintext": "|}",
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"plaintext": "A second common application with an organic compound would be the production of a buffer with acetic acid. If acetic acid, a weak acid with the formula , was made into a buffer solution, it would need to be combined with its conjugate base in the form of a salt. The resulting mixture is called an acetate buffer, consisting of aqueous and aqueous . Acetic acid, along with many other weak acids, serve as useful components of buffers in different lab settings, each useful within their own pH range.",
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"plaintext": "Ringer's lactate solution is an example where the conjugate base of an organic acid, lactic acid, is combined with sodium, calcium and potassium cations and chloride anions in distilled water which together form a fluid which is isotonic in relation to human blood and is used for fluid resuscitation after blood loss due to trauma, surgery, or a burn injury.",
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"plaintext": "Tabulated below are several examples of acids and their conjugate bases; notice how they differ by just one proton (H+ ion). Acid strength decreases and conjugate base strength increases down the table.",
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"plaintext": "In contrast, here is a table of bases and their conjugate acids. Similarly, base strength decreases and conjugate acid strength increases down the table.",
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"plaintext": " Buffer solution",
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"plaintext": " Deprotonation",
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"plaintext": " Protonation",
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"plaintext": "MCAT General Chemistry Review - 10.4 Titration and Buffers",
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"plaintext": "The Pharmaceutics and Compounding Laboratory - Buffers and Buffer Capacity.",
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] | 2,014,867 | 4,285 | 266 | 48 | 0 | 0 | conjugate acid | chemical species formed by the reception of a proton | [] |
40,189 | 1,104,138,834 | Founding_of_Rome | [
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"plaintext": "The national epic of mythical Rome, the Aeneid of Virgil, tells the story of how Trojan prince Aeneas came to Italy. The Aeneid was written under Augustus, who claimed ancestry through Julius Caesar to Aeneas and his mother Venus. According to the Aeneid, the survivors from the fallen city of Troy banded together under Aeneas and underwent a series of adventures around the Mediterranean Sea, including a stop at newly founded Carthage under the rule of Queen Dido, eventually reaching the Italian coast. The Trojans were thought to have landed in an area between modern Anzio and Fiumicino, southwest of Rome, probably at Laurentum or, in other versions, at Lavinium, a place named for Lavinia, the daughter of King Latinus. King Latinus agreed that Lavinia marry Aeneas. This started a series of armed conflicts with Turnus over the marriage of Lavinia. Before the arrival of Aeneas, Turnus was betrothed to Lavinia, who was then promised to Aeneas, starting the war. Aeneas won the war and killed Turnus. The Trojans won the right to stay and to assimilate with the local peoples. The young son of Aeneas, Ascanius, also known as Iulus, went on to found Alba Longa and the line of Alban kings who filled the chronological gap between the Trojan saga and the traditional founding of Rome in the 8th century BC.",
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"plaintext": "Toward the end of this line, King Procas was the father of Numitor and Amulius. At Procas' death, Numitor became king of Alba Longa, but Amulius captured him and sent him to prison; he also forced Numitor's daughter Rhea Silvia to become a virgin priestess among the Vestals.",
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"plaintext": "Evander goes on to explain that from that \"first time\" the god Saturn brings these scattered people laws and bestows upon them the name Latium.",
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"plaintext": "Sallust writes that Aeneas and his men founded the city, then Aborigines came to the city and later other tribes also came to live there.",
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"plaintext": "The myth of Aeneas was of Greek origin and had to be reconciled with the Italian myth of Romulus and Remus. They were purported to be sons of Rhea Silvia and either Mars, the god of war, or the demigod hero Hercules. They were abandoned at birth, in the manner of many mythological heroes, because of a prophecy that they would overthrow their great-uncle Amulius, who had overthrown Silvia's father Numitor. The twins were abandoned on the river Tiber by servants who took pity on the infants, despite their orders. The twins were nurtured by a she-wolf until a shepherd named Faustulus found the boys and took them as his sons. Faustulus and his wife Acca Larentia raised the children. When Remus and Romulus became adults, they killed Amulius and restored Numitor. They decided to establish a city. Each of them took auspices, then quarelled over the result. Romulus and his followers began to establish city walls on his favoured hill, the Palatine. Remus wanted to found the city on the Aventine Hill. In the commonest version, according to Livy, Remus slighted Romulus' wall by leaping over it, and was killed, either by his twin or followers. Thus, Rome began with divisions and a fratricide, a story that was later taken to represent the city's history of internecine political strife and bloodshed.",
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"plaintext": "Strabo writes that there is also an older story, about the founding of Rome, than the previous legends that he had mentioned. The city was an Arcadian colony and was founded by Evander. Strabo also writes that Lucius Coelius Antipater believed that Rome was founded by Greeks.",
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"plaintext": "Hellanicus of Lesbos wrote that Rome was founded by the heroes Aeneas and Odysseus who came together there. Other ancient historians, including Damastes of Sigeum, agreed with him.",
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"plaintext": "Dionysius of Halicarnassus writes that the people who came to the lands that later became the city of Rome were first the Aborigines, who drove the Sicels out of these lands, and were from the Arcadia, then the Pelasgians, who came from Thessaly. Third came those who accompanied Evander into Italy from the city of Pallantium in Arcadia; next the Epeans from Elis and Pheneats from Pheneus, who were part of the army commanded by Heracles which decided to stay there while they were returning from the expedition at the Erytheia, with whom a Trojan element also was commingled. Last of all came Trojans who had escaped with Aeneas from Ilium, Dardanus, and the other Trojan cities. Dionysius mentions that the Trojans were also Greek people who were originally from the Peloponnesus. He also adds that even Romans say that the Pallantium was founded by Greeks from Pallantium of Arcadia, about sixty years before the Trojan War and the leader was Evander.",
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"plaintext": "Later at the sixteenth generation after the Trojan War the Albans united these places into one settlement, surrounding them with a wall and a ditch. The Albans were a mixed nation composed of all the above people. Dionysius adds that it is possible that a barbarian element from among the neighboring people or a remnant of the ancient inhabitants of the place were mixed with the Greek. But all these people, having lost their tribal past came to be called by one common name, Latins, after Latinus, who had been the king of the country. The leaders of the colony were the twin brothers Romulus and Remus.",
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"plaintext": "Dionysius also mention that many other historians say that Aeneas came into Italy from the land of the Molossians with Odysseus and founded the city. And he named the city Rome after a Trojan woman who persuaded the other women to set fire to the ships because they didn't want to weary anymore.",
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"plaintext": "Diodorus Siculus wrote that some historians believe that the Romulus who was the son of the daughter of Aeneas was the founder of Rome.",
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"plaintext": "But he did not believe this, and backed up his disbelief with the fact that there were many kings in the period between Aeneas and Romulus, and the city was founded in the second year of the Seventh Olympiad, and the date of this founding falls after the Trojan War by four hundred and thirty-three years.",
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"plaintext": "Virgil also mentions Evander as the founder of Rome.",
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"plaintext": "Ovid writes that when Evander came from Arcadia to the place where Rome was later built, there were only some trees, a few sheep and some cottages. Evander then taught the natives his gods and sacred rites.",
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"plaintext": "Solinus writes that the Arcadians were the founders of the Palatine Hill and the Pallantium. ",
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"plaintext": "He also mentions, that there are different stories of why it is named Rome. One version is that when Evander with his people came, there was already a small town built and the youths called it in Latin “Valentia” and he called it in Greek “Rome”. ",
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"plaintext": "Another version is that after the Trojan war, some Argives came and a captive noble woman named Roma persuaded them to burn their ships. They set up a base, built walls and named the town “Rome” after her. ",
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"plaintext": "Agathocles though writes that it was named after the daughter of Ascanius, granddaughter of Aeneas.",
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"plaintext": "Plutarch writes that \"some say that the Pelasgians\" founded the city and that they called it Rome because of \"their strength in war\". While \"others say\" that after Troy fell, some of its people came to Italy and a noble woman, who was called Roma, proposed to burn the ships and live there, so they named the city after her.",
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"plaintext": "Eusebius in his Chronicon (Eusebius) describe all the different stories about the founding of Rome from many different authors.",
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"plaintext": "Another story told how Romos, a son of Odysseus and Circe, was the one who founded Rome. Martin P. Nilsson speculates that this older story was becoming a bit embarrassing as Rome became more powerful and tensions with the Greeks grew. Being descendants of the Greeks was no longer preferable, so the Romans settled on the Trojan foundation myth instead. Nilsson further speculates that the name of Romos was changed by the Romans to the native name Romulus, but the name Romos (later changed to the native Remus) was never forgotten by the people, and so these two names came to stand side by side as founders of the city.",
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"plaintext": "Xenagoras writes that Odysseus and Circe had three sons Rhomos (), Anteias () and Ardeias (), who built three cities and called them after their own names (Rome, Anteia and Ardea).",
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"plaintext": "Emperor Julian in his satire called \"The Caesars\", which describes a contest between the previous Roman emperors with Alexander the Great called in as an extra contestant in the presence of the assembled gods, made Alexander say: \"I am aware that you Romans are yourselves descended from the Greeks,...\"",
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"plaintext": "The ancient Romans were certain of the day Rome was founded: April 21, the day of the festival sacred to Pales, goddess of shepherds, on which date they celebrated the Par ilia (or Palilia). However, they did not know, or they were uncertain of, the exact year the city had been founded; this is one reason they preferred to date their years by the presiding consuls rather than using the formula A.U.C. or Ab urbe condita. Several dates had been proposed by ancient authorities, and Dionysius of Halicarnassus records these: The Greek historian Timaeus, one of the first to write a history to include the Romans, stated that Rome was founded in the 38th year prior to the first Olympiad, or 814/3 BC; Quintus Fabius Pictor, the first Roman to write the history of his people, in Greek, stated Rome was founded in the first year of the eighth Olympiad, or 748/7 BC; Lucius Cincius Alimentus claimed Rome was founded in the fourth year of the twelfth Olympiad, or 729/8 BC; and Cato the Elder calculated that Rome was founded 432 years after the Trojan War, which Dionysius states was equivalent to the first year of the seventh Olympiad, or 752/1 BC. Dionysius himself provided calculations showing that Rome was founded in 751 BC, starting with the Battle of the Allia, which he dated to the first year of the ninety-eighth Olympiad, 388/7 BC, then added 120 years to reach the date of the first consuls, Junius Brutus and Tarquinius Collatinus, 508/7 BC, then added the combined total of the reigns of the Kings of Rome (244 years) to arrive at his own date, 751 BC. Even the official Fasti Capitolini offers its own date, 752 BC.",
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"plaintext": "The most familiar date given for the foundation of Rome, 753 BC, was derived by the Roman antiquarian Titus Pomponius Atticus, and adopted by Marcus Terentius Varro, having become part of what has come to be known as the Varronian chronology. An anecdote in Plutarch where the astrologer Lucius Tarrutius of Firmum provides an argument based on a non-existent eclipse and other erroneous astronomical details that Rome was founded in 753 BC suggests that this had become the most commonly accepted date. Through its use by the third-century writer Censorinus, whose De Die Natali was the ultimate influence of Joseph Justus Scaliger's work to establish a scientific basis of ancient chronology, it became familiar.",
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"plaintext": "Discoveries by Andrea Carandini on Rome's Palatine Hill have also yielded evidence of a series of fortification walls on the north slope that can be dated to the middle of the 8th century BC. According to the legend, Romulus ploughed a furrow (sulcus) around the hill in order to mark the boundary of his new city.",
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"plaintext": "There is no consensus on the etymology of the city's name. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) suggested Greek \"\" (), meaning \"strength, vigor\". A modern theory of etymology holds that the name of the city is of Etruscan origin (and perhaps the city itself, though this cannot be proven), derived from rumon, \"river\".",
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"plaintext": "There is archaeological evidence of human occupation of the Rome area from about 14,000 years ago, but the dense layer of much younger debris obscures Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites. Several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age, each hill between the sea and the Capitol was topped by a village (on the Capitol Hill, a village is attested since the end of the 14th century BC).",
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"plaintext": "In any case, the location that became the city of Rome was inhabited by Latin settlers from various regions, farmers and pastoralists, as evidenced by differences in pottery and burial techniques. The historical Latins were originally an Italic tribe who inhabited, from around 1000 BC, the Alban Hills. They later moved down into the valleys, which provided better land for agriculture. The island Isola Tiberina was the site of an important ancient ford. The area around the Tiber was particularly advantageous and offered notable strategic resources: the river was a natural border on one side, and the hills could provide a safe defensive position on the other side. This position would also have enabled the Latins to control the river and the commercial and military traffic on it from the natural observation point at Isola Tiberina. Moreover, road traffic could be controlled, since Rome was at the intersection of the principal roads to the sea coming from Sabinum (in the northeast) and Etruria (to the northwest).",
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"plaintext": "There is a wide consensus that the city developed gradually through the aggregation (synoecism) of several villages around the largest one on the Palatine. This aggregation, signalling the transition from a proto-urban to an urban settlement, was made possible by the increase in agricultural productivity above the subsistence level: in turn, these boosted the development of trade with the Greek colonies of southern Italy (mainly Ischia and Cumae). All these events, which according to the archaeological excavations occurred around the mid 8th century BC, can be considered as the origin of the city.",
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{
"plaintext": "Recent studies suggest that the Quirinal hill was very important in ancient times, although the first hill to be inhabited seems to have been the Palatine (thus confirming the legend), which is also at the centre of ancient Rome. Its three peaks, the minor hills Cermalus or Germalus, Palatium, and Velia, were united with the three peaks of the Esquiline (Cispius, Fagutal, and Oppius), and then villages on the Caelian Hill and Suburra.",
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{
"plaintext": "Recent discoveries revealed that the Germalus on the northern part of the Palatine was the site of a village (dated to the 9th century BC) with circular or elliptical dwellings. It was protected by a clay wall (perhaps reinforced with wood), and it is likely that this is the particular location on the Palatine hill where Rome was actually founded.",
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"section_name": "Archaeology",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Festivals for the Septimontium (literally \"of the seven hills\") on December 11 were previously considered to be related to the foundation of Rome. However, April 21 is the only date for Rome's foundation upon which all the legends agree, and it has recently been argued that Septimontium celebrated the first federations among Roman hills.",
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"section_name": "Archaeology",
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1591512
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"plaintext": "During the Italian Renaissance, a group of humanists affiliated with the Roman Academy formed a sodality to pursue antiquarian interests, celebrating the \"birthday of Rome\" annually on April 20. In 1468, the Academy was suppressed by Pope Paul II for fomenting \"republicanism, paganism, and conspiracy\", but the sodality was reinstated about ten years later under Sixtus IV as the Societas Literatorum S. Victoris in Esquiliis (\"Literary Society of Saint Victor on the Esquiline\"). The reformed group placed itself under the new patronage of saints Victor, Fortunatus, and Genesius, \"whose feast day was conveniently proven to coincide with the Palilia\". Their \"Palilia\" was organized by Pomponio Leto and featured speeches, a communal meal, and a poetry competition.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Later commemoration",
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573,
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590,
599
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645,
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688,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Coarelli, F. 1974. Guida archeologica di Roma. 1. ed. Varia Grandi opere. [Milano]: A. Mondadori.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Caradini, Andrea. 2011. Rome: Day One. Princeton: Princeton University Press.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Forsythe, Gary. 2005. A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War. Berkeley: University of California Press.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Fromentin, Valérie and Sophie Gotteland, ed. 2001. Origines Gentium, Collection Etudes 7. Bordeaux: Editions Ausonius. ",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Lintott, Andrew. 2010. The Romans in the Age of Augustus. The Peoples of Europe. Chichester/Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. ",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Raaflaub, Kurt A, and Tim Cornell. 1986. Social Struggles In Archaic Rome : New Perspectives On the Conflict of the Orders. Berkeley: University of California Press.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Schultze, C. E. 1995. \"Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Roman Chronology.\" Cambridge Classical Journal 41:192–214.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Serres, Michel. 1991. Rome: The Book of Foundations. Trans. Felicia McCarren. Stanford: Stanford University Press.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Slayman, Andrew. 2007. \"Fact or Legend? Debate Over the Origins of Rome – Were Romulus and Remus Historical Figures?.\" Archaeology 60.4:22–27.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Wiseman, T.P. 1995. Remus: A Roman Myth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Wiseman, T. P. 2004. The Myths of Rome. Exeter: University of Exeter Press.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "History of Rome by Theodor Mommsen",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [
85762
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
19,
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]
]
}
] | [
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"Ancient_city_of_Rome",
"City_founding",
"Etruscan_mythology",
"Origin_myths",
"Roman_mythology",
"Romulus_and_Remus",
"She-wolf_(Roman_mythology)"
] | 1,247,524 | 13,174 | 165 | 159 | 0 | 0 | founding of Rome | mythical tale | [] |
40,195 | 1,065,899,466 | Telecommunications_in_Azerbaijan | [
{
"plaintext": "Telecommunications in Azerbaijan provides information about television, radio, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet in Azerbaijan.",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
"target_page_ids": [
29831,
15368428,
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30003,
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],
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60,
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72,
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79,
84
],
[
89,
95
],
[
96,
105
],
[
116,
124
],
[
128,
138
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The Azerbaijan economy has been markedly stronger in recent years and, not surprisingly, the country has been making progress in developing ICT sector. Nonetheless, it still faces problems. These include poor infrastructure and an immature telecom regulatory regime. The Ministry of Communications and Information Technologies of Azerbaijan (MCIT), as well as being an operator through its role in Aztelekom, is both a policy-maker and regulator.",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
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"anchor_spans": [
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15,
22
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[
140,
143
],
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271,
340
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Telephones - main lines in use: 1,820,000 (2014)",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Telephones",
"target_page_ids": [
30003
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Country comparison to the world: 64",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Telephones",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Telephones - mobile cellular: 11,000,000 (2014)",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Telephones",
"target_page_ids": [
19644137
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
13,
28
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Country comparison to the world: 75",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Telephones",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Azerbaijan's telephone system is a combination of old Soviet era technology used by Azerbaijani citizens and small- to medium-size commercial establishments, and modern cellular telephones used by an increasing middle class, large commercial ventures, international companies, and most government officials; the average citizen waits on a 200,000-person list for telephone service; Internet and e-mail service are available in all major cities and some remote towns.",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Telephones",
"target_page_ids": [
26779
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
54,
60
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "general assessment: inadequate; requires considerable expansion and modernization; teledensity of 15 main lines per 100 persons is low; mobile-cellular penetration is increasing and is currently about 50 telephones per 100 persons.",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Telephones",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "domestic: local - the majority of telephones are in Baku or other industrial centers - about 700 villages still do not have public telephone service; intercity; all long-distance service must use Azertel's (Ministry of Communications) lines; satellite service connects Baku to a modern switch in its separated enclave of Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic.",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Telephones",
"target_page_ids": [
385358
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
321,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "international: the old Soviet system of cable and microwave is still serviceable; satellite service between Baku and Turkey provides access to 200 countries; additional satellite providers supply services between Baku and specific countries; Azerbaijan is a signator of the Trans-Asia-Europe Fiber-Optic Line (TAE); their lines are not laid but a Turkish satellite and a microwave link between Azerbaijan and Iran could provide Azerbaijan worldwide access",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Telephones",
"target_page_ids": [
11125639,
14653
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
117,
123
],
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409,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "As of June 2014, Azerbaijan has 11.0 million subscribers in total, and a 107% penetration rate.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Mobile phone",
"target_page_ids": [
746
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
17,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "There are three major mobile phone operators currently in Azerbaijan: Azercell, Bakcell and Nar (Brand of Azerfon). Azercell, Bakcell and Nar (Brand of Azerfon) offer 2G, 3G and 4G services. All three networks are widely modern and reliable with shops located in major towns and cities where one can purchase a sim card or get assistance if needed. Most unlocked mobile phones are able to be used on roaming however network charges apply. Azercell, Bakcell and Azerfon are often recommended to tourists due to the variety of tariffs available and the help available in a variety of languages. Other mobile phone operators include Aztelekom, AzEuroTel, Caspian Telecom and Catel Eurasiacom.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Mobile phone",
"target_page_ids": [
9719883,
21447824,
21447824,
21447824,
21447824,
41909935
],
"anchor_spans": [
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70,
78
],
[
92,
95
],
[
106,
113
],
[
138,
141
],
[
152,
159
],
[
652,
667
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "As of June 2014, approximately 95% of all main lines are digitized and provide excellent quality services for the region. The remaining 5% is in modernization process.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Mobile phone",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Azerbaijan is connected to the Trans-Asia-Europe (TAE) fiber-optic cable providing international connectivity to the rest of the World. Additionally the old Soviet system by microwave radio relay and landline connections to other countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States is still available, and by satellite earth stations. The main backbones of Azerbaijani networks are made by E3 or STM-1 lines via microwave units across whole country with many passive retranslations.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Mobile phone",
"target_page_ids": [
36870
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
247,
281
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "There are two major private companies in Azerbaijan that connects the country to the global Internet network. These are AzerTelecom and Delta Telekom companies.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Mobile phone",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "As of 2014, Azerbaijan has 9 AM stations, 17 FM stations, and one shortwave station. Additionally, there are approximately 4,350,000 radios in existence. Primary network provider is the Ministry of Communications and Information Technologies of Azerbaijan (MCIT). According to MCIT, the FM radio penetration rate is 97% according to 2014 data.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Radio",
"target_page_ids": [
113509,
1607203,
15368428,
29401981
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
29,
31
],
[
45,
47
],
[
133,
139
],
[
186,
255
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Radio broadcast stations: 26 (2014) ",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Radio",
"target_page_ids": [
15368428
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Radio Respublika - FM 105.0MHz",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Radio",
"target_page_ids": [
14121
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
27,
30
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "İctimai FM - FM 90MHz",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Radio",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Naxçıvan Dövlət radiosu (Nakhchivan State Radio) - FM 103MHz",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Radio",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Naxçıvanın səsi (Voice of Nakhchivan) - FM 103MHz",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Radio",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "ARAZ FM - FM 103.3MHz",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Radio",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Antenn FM - FM 101MHz",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Radio",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "ANS ChM - FM 102MHz",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Radio",
"target_page_ids": [
16194952
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Avto FM - FM 107.7MHz",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Radio",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Azad Azərbaycan FM - FM 106MHz",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Radio",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Bürc FM FM 100.5MHz",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Radio",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Kəpəz FM - FM 90.3MHz",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Radio",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Lider FM - FM 107MHz",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Radio",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Media FM - FM 105.5MHz",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Radio",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Space FM - FM 104MHz",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Radio",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Xəzər FM - FM 103MHz",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Radio",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Radios: 175,000 (1997)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Radio",
"target_page_ids": [
15368428
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Azerbaijan has a total of 47 television channels, of which 4 are public television channels and 43 are private television channels of which 12 are national television channels and 31 regional television channels. According to the Ministry of Communications and Information Technologies of Azerbaijan (MCIT), the television penetration rate is 99% according to 2014 data. The penetration rate of cable television in Azerbaijan totaled 28.1% of households in 2013, from a study by the State Statistical Committee of the Azerbaijan Republic. Almost 39% of the cable television subscriber base is concentrated in major cities. The penetration rate is 59.1% in the city of Baku.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Television",
"target_page_ids": [
29840,
178808,
1551784,
7587,
29764723,
4566
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
29,
48
],
[
65,
82
],
[
103,
121
],
[
395,
411
],
[
483,
537
],
[
668,
672
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Television broadcast stations: 43 (2014)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Television",
"target_page_ids": [
29840
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
29
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Televisions: 170,000 (1997)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Television",
"target_page_ids": [
29831
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Internet service providers (ISPs): 15 (2005) 29 (2009)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Internet",
"target_page_ids": [
100245
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
33
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Country code: AZE",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Internet",
"target_page_ids": [
5375
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Internet TLD: .az",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Internet",
"target_page_ids": [
31115,
999454
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
12
],
[
14,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Internet hosts: 46,856 (2011)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Internet",
"target_page_ids": [
4534553
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Country comparison to the world: 98",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Internet",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Internet users: 2.200,000 (2014)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Internet",
"target_page_ids": [
14539
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Country comparison to the world: 70",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Internet",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Internet penetration:' 77% (2015)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Internet",
"target_page_ids": [
300602
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ministry of Communications and Information Technologies (Azerbaijan)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
29401981
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
69
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sidorenko, Alexey: \"The Internet in Azerbaijan\" in the Caucasus Analytical Digest No. 15 ",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Kazimova, Arifa: \"Media in Azerbaijan: The Ruling Family Dominates TV, the Opposition Has Some Papers\" in the Caucasus Analytical Digest No. 25",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Telecommunication Companies in Azerbaijan ",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Azerbaijan Companies ",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
] | [
"Telecommunications_in_Azerbaijan"
] | 4,202,085 | 406 | 8 | 48 | 0 | 0 | telecommunications in Azerbaijan | [] |
|
40,196 | 1,095,722,251 | Transport_in_Azerbaijan | [
{
"plaintext": "The transport in Azerbaijan involves air traffic, waterways and railroads. All transportation services in Azerbaijan except for oil and gas pipelines are regulated by the Ministry of Transportation of Azerbaijan Republic.",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
"target_page_ids": [
746,
6131588,
29650359
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
106,
116
],
[
128,
149
],
[
171,
220
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " For Soviet transportation, see Transport in the Soviet Union.",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
"target_page_ids": [
29236242
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
32,
61
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "There are of rail tracks out of which only are in common carrier service and are industrial lines. ",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Railways",
"target_page_ids": [
321365,
2234123
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
14,
24
],
[
84,
100
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Total: (2013)",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Railways",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Country comparison to the world: 59",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Railways",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Broad gauge: gauge",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Railways",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Currently, the only metro system in Azerbaijan is the Baku Metro, located in Baku, the country's capital.",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Railways",
"target_page_ids": [
18361733,
4379005,
4566
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
20,
25
],
[
54,
64
],
[
77,
81
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "New plans to open metro systems in the most populated and developed cities of Azerbaijan were unveiled. Sumgayit, Nakhchivan and Ganja all plan to have subway systems in the future.",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Railways",
"target_page_ids": [
710842,
1492960,
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"plaintext": "There are about 25,000 kilometres of roads in Azerbaijan, serving domestic cargo traffic and giving access to international main highways. Highways are mostly in fair condition and need an upgrade to international standards in a view to accommodate growing transit traffic. Main and rural roads are in poor condition and in urgent need of rehabilitation and maintenance. The total vehicle fleet in Azerbaijan was about 517,000 in 2004, with about 49 private passenger cars per 1,000 inhabitants, which is quite low compared to European benchmarks but rapidly increasing due to the fast economic growth. Road transport accounted for 54% of all freight in 2003, up from about 48% in 1999.",
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"plaintext": "Main highways carrying international traffic are the Baku-Alat-Ganja-Qazakh-Georgian Border corridor (Azerbaijani section of TRACECA corridor) with a length of 503km and the so-called North-South Transport Corridor that stretches out from the Russian to the Iranian border along 521km. Road connections are disrupted with Armenia because of the unresolved conflict regarding the possession of the Nagorno-Karabakh. Travel between the mainland and the detached exclave of Nakhchivan is made by air or by road through Iran. Nakhchivan has a 9-kilometre strategic border with Turkey.",
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"plaintext": "Baku is the centre of major oil- and gas-producing regions and major long-distance pipelines radiate from the region's oil fields to all neighbouring areas. Pipelines are generally high-capacity lines and have diameters of either 1,020 or 1,220 millimetres. The main petroleum pipeline was completed in 2005 under American pressure to limit Russian and Iranian influence in the area. It runs from Baku via Tbilisi to Ceyhan in Turkey, therefore the acronym BTC pipeline. It made partly obsolete the old Soviet pipeline pumping crude oil from the onshore and offshore Caspian fields near Baku west across Azerbaijan and Georgia to the port of Batumi, where the oil is either exported in its crude form or processed at Batumi's refinery. Two natural gas lines parallel the old petroleum line as far as Tbilisi, where they turn north across the Caucasus Mountains to join the grid of natural gas pipelines that supply cities throughout Russia and Eastern Europe.",
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"plaintext": "Condensate 89km; gas 3,890km; oil 2,446km ",
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"plaintext": "Sea and water cargo transportation have vital importance for Azerbaijan, especially in regions where road and rail connections are disputed. Azerbaijan has direct maritime connections only with other Caspian littoral states (Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Turkmenistan). However, the Volga-Don Canal provides maritime access to the high seas. The main activity is the transport of cargo, mainly of oil and oil products. Shipping regions are Caspian, Black, Mediterranean, and Marmara Seas. The main shipping company owes 72 ships, 37 of which are tankers (including 1 water carrier).",
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"plaintext": "Baku International Marine Trade Port is the largest port on the Caspian Sea. Its ferry terminal underwent a major reconstruction supported by a US$16.2 million loan from EBRD. It is now able to handle 30 million tons of freight a year. The Caspian Sea provides vital transport links with other countries and is being used to ship oil until various pipeline projects are completed.",
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"plaintext": "In 2014 Azerbaijan stated it would seek to ease transportation on the Caspian Sea due to increased demand by its neighbouring states.",
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"plaintext": "On June 4, 2004, the Ministry of Transportation of the Republic of Azerbaijan established the Maritime Administration. As the regulatory authority in maritime transport, its functions include participating in the formulation of state policy, regulating transport demand of goods and passengers and for other types of maritime transport services, as well as implementing state programs, concepts, and projects for the development of maritime transport.",
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"section_name": "Ports and harbours",
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"plaintext": "Ports and harbors: Alat, Baku, Dubandi, Lankaran",
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"plaintext": "Total: 305 ships ",
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"plaintext": "Ships by type: general cargo 40, oil tanker 48, other 217",
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"plaintext": "Country comparison to the world: 53",
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"plaintext": "There are regular passenger flights between Azerbaijan and former Soviet countries, UK, Germany, France, Austria, Italy, Israel, Iran, Turkey, UAE, United States, China, Georgia and cargo flights to UAE, Turkey, Luxembourg, Germany, China, Kyrgyzstan, Afghanistan, and Iraq. The national airline is Azerbaijan Airlines (AZAL). There are 5 international airports located in Baku, Ganja, Nakhchivan, Lankaran and Zaqatala. Heydar Aliyev International Airport in Baku reopened in 1999 after a US$64 million upgrade and extension financed by Turkish company Enka. The airport can now handle 1,600 passengers an hour. The new runways are also able to serve jumbo jets. The complete overhaul of the international airport in Nakhchivan was completed in May 2004. The US$32 million reconstruction project of Ganja Airport has been launched by the Government and was completed by mid-2006. In 2008, two more airports were opened in Azerbaijan. The Lankaran International Airport is located in the southern part of Azerbaijan, Zaqatala Airport is in the north-west of Azerbaijan territory.",
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[
114,
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[
129,
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[
135,
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143,
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[
148,
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163,
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170,
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199,
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204,
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222
],
[
224,
231
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[
233,
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],
[
240,
250
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273
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299,
318
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421,
456
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800,
813
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"plaintext": "Airports: 37 ",
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{
"plaintext": "Country comparison to the world: 107 ",
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"section_name": "Airports",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Total: 30",
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{
"plaintext": "Over 3,047 m: 5",
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{
"plaintext": "2,438 to 3,047 m: 5",
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"plaintext": "1,524 to 2,437 m: 13",
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},
{
"plaintext": "914 to 1,523 m: 4",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Under 914 m: 3 ",
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{
"plaintext": "Total: 7",
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{
"plaintext": "Under 914 m: 7 ",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Total: 4 ",
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{
"plaintext": " Azerbaijan",
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"plaintext": " Economy of Azerbaijan",
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] | [
"Transport_in_Azerbaijan"
] | 1,268,738 | 409 | 30 | 73 | 0 | 0 | transport in Azerbaijan | overview of the transport in Azerbaijan | [] |
40,197 | 1,106,358,635 | Vapor_pressure | [
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"plaintext": "Vapor pressure (or vapour pressure in English-speaking countries other than the US; see spelling differences) or equilibrium vapor pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by a vapor in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phases (solid or liquid) at a given temperature in a closed system. The equilibrium vapor pressure is an indication of a liquid's evaporation rate. It relates to the tendency of particles to escape from the liquid (or a solid). A substance with a high vapor pressure at normal temperatures is often referred to as volatile. The pressure exhibited by vapor present above a liquid surface is known as vapor pressure. As the temperature of liquid increases, the kinetic energy of its molecules also increases. As the kinetic energy of the molecules increases, the number of molecules transitioning into a vapor also increases, thereby increasing the vapor pressure.",
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"plaintext": "The vapor pressure of any substance increases non-linearly with temperature according to the Clausius–Clapeyron relation. The atmospheric pressure boiling point of a liquid (also known as the normal boiling point) is the temperature at which the vapor pressure equals the ambient atmospheric pressure. With any incremental increase in that temperature, the vapor pressure becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure and lift the liquid to form vapor bubbles inside the bulk of the substance. Bubble formation deeper in the liquid requires a higher temperature due to the higher fluid pressure, because fluid pressure increases above the atmospheric pressure as the depth increases. More important at shallow depths is the higher temperature required to start bubble formation. The surface tension of the bubble wall leads to an overpressure in the very small, initial bubbles.",
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"plaintext": "The vapor pressure that a single component in a mixture contributes to the total pressure in the system is called partial pressure. For example, air at sea level, and saturated with water vapor at 20°C, has partial pressures of about 2.3 kPa of water, 78 kPa of nitrogen, 21 kPa of oxygen and 0.9 kPa of argon, totaling 102.2 kPa, making the basis for standard atmospheric pressure.",
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"plaintext": "Vapor pressure is measured in the standard units of pressure. The International System of Units (SI) recognizes pressure as a derived unit with the dimension of force per area and designates the pascal (Pa) as its standard unit. One pascal is one newton per square meter (N·m−2 or kg·m−1·s−2).",
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"plaintext": "Experimental measurement of vapor pressure is a simple procedure for common pressures between 1 and 200 kPa. Most accurate results are obtained near the boiling point of substances and large errors result for measurements smaller than . Procedures often consist of purifying the test substance, isolating it in a container, evacuating any foreign gas, then measuring the equilibrium pressure of the gaseous phase of the substance in the container at different temperatures. Better accuracy is achieved when care is taken to ensure that the entire substance and its vapor are at the prescribed temperature. This is often done, as with the use of an isoteniscope, by submerging the containment area in a liquid bath.",
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"plaintext": "Very low vapor pressures of solids can be measured using the Knudsen effusion cell method.",
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"plaintext": "In a medical context, vapor pressure is sometimes expressed in other units, specifically millimeters of mercury (mmHg). This is important for volatile anesthetics, most of which are liquids at body temperature, but with a relatively high vapor pressure.",
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"plaintext": "The Antoine equation is a pragmatic mathematical expression of the relation between the vapor pressure and the temperature of pure liquid or solid substances. It is obtained by curve-fitting and is adapted to the fact that vapor pressure is usually increasing and concave as a function of temperature. The basic form of the equation is:",
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"plaintext": "and it can be transformed into this temperature-explicit form:",
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"plaintext": "where:",
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"plaintext": " is the absolute vapor pressure of a substance",
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"plaintext": " is the temperature of the substance",
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"plaintext": " , and are substance-specific coefficients (i.e., constants or parameters)",
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"plaintext": "A simpler form of the equation with only two coefficients is sometimes used:",
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"plaintext": "which can be transformed to:",
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"plaintext": "Sublimations and vaporizations of the same substance have separate sets of Antoine coefficients, as do components in mixtures. Each parameter set for a specific compound is only applicable over a specified temperature range. Generally, temperature ranges are chosen to maintain the equation's accuracy of a few up to 8–10 percent. For many volatile substances, several different sets of parameters are available and used for different temperature ranges. The Antoine equation has poor accuracy with any single parameter set when used from a compound's melting point to its critical temperature. Accuracy is also usually poor when the vapor pressure is under 10 Torr because of the limitations of the apparatus used to establish the Antoine parameter values.",
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"plaintext": "The Wagner equation gives \"one of the best\" fits to experimental data but is quite complex. It expresses reduced vapor pressure as a function of reduced temperature.",
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"plaintext": "As a general trend, vapor pressures of liquids at ambient temperatures increase with decreasing boiling points. This is illustrated in the vapor pressure chart (see right) that shows graphs of the 'vapor pressures versus temperatures for a variety of liquids. At the normal boiling point of a liquid, the vapor pressure is equal to the standard atmospheric pressure defined as 1 atmosphere, 760Torr, 101.325kPa, or 14.69595psi.",
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"plaintext": "For example, at any given temperature, methyl chloride has the highest vapor pressure of any of the liquids in the chart. It also has the lowest normal boiling point at , which is where the vapor pressure curve of methyl chloride (the blue line) intersects the horizontal pressure line of one atmosphere (atm) of absolute vapor pressure.",
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"plaintext": "Although the relation between vapor pressure and temperature is non-linear, the chart uses a logarithmic vertical axis to produce slightly curved lines, so one chart can graph many liquids. A nearly straight line is obtained when the logarithm of the vapor pressure is plotted against 1/(T + 230) where T is the temperature in degrees Celsius. The vapor pressure of a liquid at its boiling point equals the pressure of its surrounding environment.",
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"plaintext": "Raoult's law gives an approximation to the vapor pressure of mixtures of liquids. It states that the activity (pressure or fugacity) of a single-phase mixture is equal to the mole-fraction-weighted sum of the components' vapor pressures:",
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"plaintext": "where is the mixture's vapor pressure, is the mole fraction of component in the liquid phase and is the mole fraction of component in the vapor phase respectively. is the vapor pressure of component . Raoult's law is applicable only to non-electrolytes (uncharged species); it is most appropriate for non-polar molecules with only weak intermolecular attractions (such as London forces).",
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"plaintext": "Systems that have vapor pressures higher than indicated by the above formula are said to have positive deviations. Such a deviation suggests weaker intermolecular attraction than in the pure components, so that the molecules can be thought of as being \"held in\" the liquid phase less strongly than in the pure liquid. An example is the azeotrope of approximately 95% ethanol and water. Because the azeotrope's vapor pressure is higher than predicted by Raoult's law, it boils at a temperature below that of either pure component.",
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"plaintext": "There are also systems with negative deviations that have vapor pressures that are lower than expected. Such a deviation is evidence for stronger intermolecular attraction between the constituents of the mixture than exists in the pure components. Thus, the molecules are \"held in\" the liquid more strongly when a second molecule is present. An example is a mixture of trichloromethane (chloroform) and 2-propanone (acetone), which boils above the boiling point of either pure component.",
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"plaintext": "The negative and positive deviations can be used to determine thermodynamic activity coefficients of the components of mixtures.",
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"plaintext": "Equilibrium vapor pressure can be defined as the pressure reached when a condensed phase is in equilibrium with its own vapor. In the case of an equilibrium solid, such as a crystal, this can be defined as the pressure when the rate of sublimation of a solid matches the rate of deposition of its vapor phase. For most solids this pressure is very low, but some notable exceptions are naphthalene, dry ice (the vapor pressure of dry ice is 5.73 MPa (831 psi, 56.5 atm) at 20°C, which causes most sealed containers to rupture), and ice. All solid materials have a vapor pressure. However, due to their often extremely low values, measurement can be rather difficult. Typical techniques include the use of thermogravimetry and gas transpiration.",
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"plaintext": "There are a number of methods for calculating the sublimation pressure (i.e., the vapor pressure) of a solid. One method is to estimate the sublimation pressure from extrapolated liquid vapor pressures (of the supercooled liquid), if the heat of fusion is known, by using this particular form of the Clausius–Clapeyron relation:",
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"plaintext": "where:",
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"plaintext": " is the extrapolated vapor pressure of the liquid component at the temperature .",
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"plaintext": " is the heat of fusion.",
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"plaintext": " is the gas constant.",
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"plaintext": " is the sublimation temperature.",
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"plaintext": " is the melting point temperature.",
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"plaintext": "where the temperature is the boiling point in degrees Celsius and the pressure is in Torr.",
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"plaintext": "Several empirical methods exist to estimate the vapor pressure from molecular structure for organic molecules. Some examples are SIMPOL.1 method, the method of Moller et al., and EVAPORATION (Estimation of VApour Pressure of ORganics, Accounting for Temperature, Intramolecular, and Non-additivity effects).",
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"plaintext": " Raoult's law: vapor pressure lowering in solution",
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"plaintext": " Relative humidity",
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"plaintext": " Relative volatility",
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"plaintext": " Saturation vapor density",
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"plaintext": " Triple point",
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"plaintext": " True vapor pressure",
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"plaintext": " Vapor–liquid equilibrium",
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{
"plaintext": " Vapor pressures of the elements (data page)",
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"plaintext": " Vapour pressure of water",
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"plaintext": "Fluid Characteristics Chart",
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"plaintext": "Hyperphysics",
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"plaintext": "MSDS Vapor Pressure",
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"plaintext": "Online vapor pressure calculation tool (Requires Registration)",
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{
"plaintext": "Prediction of Vapor Pressures of Pure Liquid Organic Compounds",
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] | [
"Thermodynamic_properties",
"Engineering_thermodynamics",
"Meteorological_concepts",
"Gases",
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40,202 | 1,045,658,341 | 12th_century_BC | [
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"plaintext": " April 16, 1178 BC: A solar eclipse may mark the return of Odysseus, legendary King of Ithaca, to his kingdom after the Trojan War. He discovers a number of suitors competing to marry his wife Penelope, whom they believe to be a widow, in order to succeed him on the throne. He organizes their slaying and re-establishes himself on the throne.",
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"plaintext": " 1126 BC: Thymoetes, legendary King of Athens, dies childless after a reign of 8 years. He is succeeded by his designated heir Melanthus of Pylos, a fifth-generation descendant of Neleus who had reportedly assisted him in battle against the Boeotians.",
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"plaintext": "Hubble features a mirror, and its five main instruments observe in the ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Hubble's orbit outside the distortion of Earth's atmosphere allows it to capture extremely high-resolution images with substantially lower background light than ground-based telescopes. It has recorded some of the most detailed visible light images, allowing a deep view into space. Many Hubble observations have led to breakthroughs in astrophysics, such as determining the rate of expansion of the universe.",
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"plaintext": "Space telescopes were proposed as early as 1923, and the Hubble telescope was funded and built in the 1970s by the United States space agency NASA with contributions from the European Space Agency. Its intended launch was 1983, but the project was beset by technical delays, budget problems, and the 1986 Challenger disaster. Hubble was finally launched in 1990, but its main mirror had been ground incorrectly, resulting in spherical aberration that compromised the telescope's capabilities. The optics were corrected to their intended quality by a servicing mission in 1993.",
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"plaintext": "Hubble forms the visible light component of NASA's Great Observatories program, along with the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, the Chandra X-ray Observatory, and the Spitzer Space Telescope (which covers the infrared bands).",
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"plaintext": "In 1923, Hermann Oberth—considered a father of modern rocketry, along with Robert H. Goddard and Konstantin Tsiolkovsky—published (\"The Rocket into Planetary Space\"), which mentioned how a telescope could be propelled into Earth orbit by a rocket.",
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"plaintext": "The history of the Hubble Space Telescope can be traced back as far as 1946, to astronomer Lyman Spitzer's paper entitled \"Astronomical advantages of an extraterrestrial observatory\". In it, he discussed the two main advantages that a space-based observatory would have over ground-based telescopes. First, the angular resolution (the smallest separation at which objects can be clearly distinguished) would be limited only by diffraction, rather than by the turbulence in the atmosphere, which causes stars to twinkle, known to astronomers as seeing. At that time ground-based telescopes were limited to resolutions of 0.5–1.0 arcseconds, compared to a theoretical diffraction-limited resolution of about 0.05 arcsec for an optical telescope with a mirror in diameter. Second, a space-based telescope could observe infrared and ultraviolet light, which are strongly absorbed by the atmosphere of Earth.",
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"plaintext": "Spitzer devoted much of his career to pushing for the development of a space telescope. In 1962, a report by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences recommended development of a space telescope as part of the space program, and in 1965 Spitzer was appointed as head of a committee given the task of defining scientific objectives for a large space telescope.",
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"plaintext": "Also crucial was the work of Nancy Grace Roman, the \"Mother of Hubble\". Well before it became an official NASA project, she gave public lectures touting the scientific value of the telescope. After it was approved, she became the program scientist, setting up the steering committee in charge of making astronomer needs feasible to implement and writing testimony to Congress throughout the 1970s to advocate continued funding of the telescope. Her work as project scientist helped set the standards for NASA's operation of large scientific projects.",
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"plaintext": "Space-based astronomy had begun on a very small scale following World War II, as scientists made use of developments that had taken place in rocket technology. The first ultraviolet spectrum of the Sun was obtained in 1946, and the NASA launched the Orbiting Solar Observatory (OSO) to obtain UV, X-ray, and gamma-ray spectra in 1962. An orbiting solar telescope was launched in 1962 by the United Kingdom as part of the Ariel programme, and in 1966 NASA launched the first Orbiting Astronomical Observatory (OAO) mission. OAO-1's battery failed after three days, terminating the mission. It was followed by Orbiting Astronomical Observatory 2 (OAO-2), which carried out ultraviolet observations of stars and galaxies from its launch in 1968 until 1972, well beyond its original planned lifetime of one year.",
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"plaintext": "The OSO and OAO missions demonstrated the important role space-based observations could play in astronomy. In 1968, NASA developed firm plans for a space-based reflecting telescope with a mirror in diameter, known provisionally as the Large Orbiting Telescope or Large Space Telescope (LST), with a launch slated for 1979. These plans emphasized the need for crewed maintenance missions to the telescope to ensure such a costly program had a lengthy working life, and the concurrent development of plans for the reusable Space Shuttle indicated that the technology to allow this was soon to become available.",
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"plaintext": "The continuing success of the OAO program encouraged increasingly strong consensus within the astronomical community that the LST should be a major goal. In 1970, NASA established two committees, one to plan the engineering side of the space telescope project, and the other to determine the scientific goals of the mission. Once these had been established, the next hurdle for NASA was to obtain funding for the instrument, which would be far more costly than any Earth-based telescope. The U.S. Congress questioned many aspects of the proposed budget for the telescope and forced cuts in the budget for the planning stages, which at the time consisted of very detailed studies of potential instruments and hardware for the telescope. In 1974, public spending cuts led to Congress deleting all funding for the telescope project.",
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"plaintext": "In 1977, then NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher proposed a token $5 million for Hubble in NASA's budget. Then NASA Associate Administrator for Space Science, Noel Hinners, instead cut all funding for Hubble, gambling that this would galvanize the scientific community into fighting for full funding. As Hinners recalls:",
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"plaintext": "The political ploy worked. In response to Hubble being zeroed out of NASA's budget, a nationwide lobbying effort was coordinated among astronomers. Many astronomers met congressmen and senators in person, and large scale letter-writing campaigns were organized. The National Academy of Sciences published a report emphasizing the need for a space telescope, and eventually the Senate agreed to half the budget that had originally been approved by Congress.",
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"plaintext": "The funding issues led to something of a reduction in the scale of the project, with the proposed mirror diameter reduced from 3 m to 2.4 m, both to cut costs and to allow a more compact and effective configuration for the telescope hardware. A proposed precursor space telescope to test the systems to be used on the main satellite was dropped, and budgetary concerns also prompted collaboration with the European Space Agency (ESA). ESA agreed to provide funding and supply one of the first generation instruments for the telescope, as well as the solar cells that would power it, and staff to work on the telescope in the United States, in return for European astronomers being guaranteed at least 15% of the observing time on the telescope. Congress eventually approved funding of US$36 million for 1978, and the design of the LST began in earnest, aiming for a launch date of 1983. In 1983, the telescope was named after Edwin Hubble, who confirmed one of the greatest scientific discoveries of the 20th century, made by Georges Lemaître, that the universe is expanding.",
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"plaintext": "Optically, the HST is a Cassegrain reflector of Ritchey–Chrétien design, as are most large professional telescopes. This design, with two hyperbolic mirrors, is known for good imaging performance over a wide field of view, with the disadvantage that the mirrors have shapes that are hard to fabricate and test. The mirror and optical systems of the telescope determine the final performance, and they were designed to exacting specifications. Optical telescopes typically have mirrors polished to an accuracy of about a tenth of the wavelength of visible light, but the Space Telescope was to be used for observations from the visible through the ultraviolet (shorter wavelengths) and was specified to be diffraction limited to take full advantage of the space environment. Therefore, its mirror needed to be polished to an accuracy of 10 nanometers, or about 1/65 of the wavelength of red light. On the long wavelength end, the OTA was not designed with optimum IR performance in mind—for example, the mirrors are kept at stable (and warm, about 15°C) temperatures by heaters. This limits Hubble's performance as an infrared telescope.",
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"plaintext": "Perkin-Elmer intended to use custom-built and extremely sophisticated computer-controlled polishing machines to grind the mirror to the required shape. However, in case their cutting-edge technology ran into difficulties, NASA demanded that PE sub-contract to Kodak to construct a back-up mirror using traditional mirror-polishing techniques. (The team of Kodak and Itek also bid on the original mirror polishing work. Their bid called for the two companies to double-check each other's work, which would have almost certainly caught the polishing error that later caused Flawed mirror.) The Kodak mirror is now on permanent display at the National Air and Space Museum. An Itek mirror built as part of the effort is now used in the 2.4 m telescope at the Magdalena Ridge Observatory.",
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"plaintext": "Doubts continued to be expressed about Perkin-Elmer's competence on a project of this importance, as their budget and timescale for producing the rest of the OTA continued to inflate. In response to a schedule described as \"unsettled and changing daily\", NASA postponed the launch date of the telescope until April 1985. Perkin-Elmer's schedules continued to slip at a rate of about one month per quarter, and at times delays reached one day for each day of work. NASA was forced to postpone the launch date until March and then September 1986. By this time, the total project budget had risen to US$1.175 billion.",
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"plaintext": "The spacecraft in which the telescope and instruments were to be housed was another major engineering challenge. It would have to withstand frequent passages from direct sunlight into the darkness of Earth's shadow, which would cause major changes in temperature, while being stable enough to allow extremely accurate pointing of the telescope. A shroud of multi-layer insulation keeps the temperature within the telescope stable and surrounds a light aluminum shell in which the telescope and instruments sit. Within the shell, a graphite-epoxy frame keeps the working parts of the telescope firmly aligned. Because graphite composites are hygroscopic, there was a risk that water vapor absorbed by the truss while in Lockheed's clean room would later be expressed in the vacuum of space; resulting in the telescope's instruments being covered by ice. To reduce that risk, a nitrogen gas purge was performed before launching the telescope into space.",
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"plaintext": "WF/PC was a high-resolution imaging device primarily intended for optical observations. It was built by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and incorporated a set of 48 filters isolating spectral lines of particular astrophysical interest. The instrument contained eight charge-coupled device (CCD) chips divided between two cameras, each using four CCDs. Each CCD has a resolution of 0.64 megapixels. The wide field camera (WFC) covered a large angular field at the expense of resolution, while the planetary camera (PC) took images at a longer effective focal length than the WF chips, giving it a greater magnification.",
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"plaintext": "HST's guidance system can also be used as a scientific instrument. Its three Fine Guidance Sensors (FGS) are primarily used to keep the telescope accurately pointed during an observation, but can also be used to carry out extremely accurate astrometry; measurements accurate to within 0.0003 arcseconds have been achieved.",
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"plaintext": "The Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) is responsible for the scientific operation of the telescope and the delivery of data products to astronomers. STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) and is physically located in Baltimore, Maryland on the Homewood campus of Johns Hopkins University, one of the 39 U.S. universities and seven international affiliates that make up the AURA consortium. STScI was established in 1981 after something of a power struggle between NASA and the scientific community at large. NASA had wanted to keep this function in-house, but scientists wanted it to be based in an academic establishment. The Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (ST-ECF), established at Garching bei München near Munich in 1984, provided similar support for European astronomers until 2011, when these activities were moved to the European Space Astronomy Centre.",
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"plaintext": "One rather complex task that falls to STScI is scheduling observations for the telescope. Hubble is in a low-Earth orbit to enable servicing missions, but this means most astronomical targets are occulted by the Earth for slightly less than half of each orbit. Observations cannot take place when the telescope passes through the South Atlantic Anomaly due to elevated radiation levels, and there are also sizable exclusion zones around the Sun (precluding observations of Mercury), Moon and Earth. The solar avoidance angle is about 50°, to keep sunlight from illuminating any part of the OTA. Earth and Moon avoidance keeps bright light out of the FGSs, and keeps scattered light from entering the instruments. If the FGSs are turned off, the Moon and Earth can be observed. Earth observations were used very early in the program to generate flat-fields for the WFPC1 instrument. There is a so-called continuous viewing zone (CVZ), within roughly 24° of Hubble's orbital poles, in which targets are not occulted for long periods.",
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"plaintext": "Due to the precession of the orbit, the location of the CVZ moves slowly over a period of eight weeks. Because the limb of the Earth is always within about 30° of regions within the CVZ, the brightness of scattered earthshine may be elevated for long periods during CVZ observations. Hubble orbits in low Earth orbit at an altitude of approximately and an inclination of 28.5°. The position along its orbit changes over time in a way that is not accurately predictable. The density of the upper atmosphere varies according to many factors, and this means Hubble's predicted position for six weeks' time could be in error by up to . Observation schedules are typically finalized only a few days in advance, as a longer lead time would mean there was a chance the target would be unobservable by the time it was due to be observed. Engineering support for HST is provided by NASA and contractor personnel at the Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, south of the STScI. Hubble's operation is monitored 24hours per day by four teams of flight controllers who make up Hubble's Flight Operations Team.",
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"plaintext": "By January 1986, the planned launch date for Hubble that October looked feasible, but the Challenger disaster brought the U.S. space program to a halt, grounded the Shuttle fleet, and forced the launch to be postponed for several years. During this delay the telescope had to be kept in a clean room, powered up and purged with nitrogen, until a launch could be rescheduled. This costly situation (about per month) pushed the overall costs of the project even higher. This delay did allow time for engineers to perform extensive tests, swap out a possibly failure-prone battery, and make other improvements. Furthermore, the ground software needed to control Hubble was not ready in 1986, and was barely ready by the 1990 launch. Following the resumption of shuttle flights, successfully launched the Hubble on 24 April 1990, as part of the STS-31 mission.",
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"plaintext": "At launch, NASA had spent approximately in inflation-adjusted 2010 dollars on the project. Hubble's cumulative costs are estimated to be about in 2015 dollars, which include all subsequent servicing costs, but not ongoing operations, making it the most expensive science mission in NASA history.",
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"plaintext": "Hubble accommodates five science instruments at a given time, plus the Fine Guidance Sensors, which are mainly used for aiming the telescope but are occasionally used for scientific astrometry measurements. Early instruments were replaced with more advanced ones during the Shuttle servicing missions. COSTAR was a corrective optics device rather than a science instrument, but occupied one of the four axial instrument bays.",
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"plaintext": "Since the final servicing mission in 2009, the four active instruments have been ACS, COS, STIS and WFC3. NICMOS is kept in hibernation, but may be revived if WFC3 were to fail in the future.",
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"plaintext": "Of the former instruments, three (COSTAR, FOS and WFPC2) are displayed in the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum. The FOC is in the Dornier museum, Germany. The HSP is in the Space Place at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. The first WFPC was dismantled, and some components were then re-used in WFC3.",
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"plaintext": "Within weeks of the launch of the telescope, the returned images indicated a serious problem with the optical system. Although the first images appeared to be sharper than those of ground-based telescopes, Hubble failed to achieve a final sharp focus and the best image quality obtained was drastically lower than expected. Images of point sources spread out over a radius of more than one arcsecond, instead of having a point spread function (PSF) concentrated within a circle 0.1arcseconds (485nrad) in diameter, as had been specified in the design criteria.",
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"plaintext": "Analysis of the flawed images revealed that the primary mirror had been polished to the wrong shape. Although it was believed to be one of the most precisely figured optical mirrors ever made, smooth to about 10 nanometers, the outer perimeter was too flat by about 2200 nanometers (about mm or inch). This difference was catastrophic, introducing severe spherical aberration, a flaw in which light reflecting off the edge of a mirror focuses on a different point from the light reflecting off its center.",
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"plaintext": "The effect of the mirror flaw on scientific observations depended on the particular observation—the core of the aberrated PSF was sharp enough to permit high-resolution observations of bright objects, and spectroscopy of point sources was affected only through a sensitivity loss. However, the loss of light to the large, out-of-focus halo severely reduced the usefulness of the telescope for faint objects or high-contrast imaging. This meant nearly all the cosmological programs were essentially impossible, since they required observation of exceptionally faint objects. This led politicians to question NASA's competence, scientists to rue the cost which could have gone to more productive endeavors, and comedians to make jokes about NASA and the telescope. In the 1991 comedy The Smell of Fear, in a scene where historical disasters are displayed, Hubble is pictured with RMS Titanic and LZ 129 Hindenburg. Nonetheless, during the first three years of the Hubble mission, before the optical corrections, the telescope still carried out a large number of productive observations of less demanding targets. The error was well characterized and stable, enabling astronomers to partially compensate for the defective mirror by using sophisticated image processing techniques such as deconvolution.",
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"plaintext": "A commission headed by Lew Allen, director of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, was established to determine how the error could have arisen. The Allen Commission found that a reflective null corrector, a testing device used to achieve a properly shaped non-spherical mirror, had been incorrectly assembled—one lens was out of position by . During the initial grinding and polishing of the mirror, Perkin-Elmer analyzed its surface with two conventional refractive null correctors. However, for the final manufacturing step (figuring), they switched to the custom-built reflective null corrector, designed explicitly to meet very strict tolerances. The incorrect assembly of this device resulted in the mirror being ground very precisely but to the wrong shape. A few final tests, using the conventional null correctors, correctly reported spherical aberration. But these results were dismissed, thus missing the opportunity to catch the error, because the reflective null corrector was considered more accurate.",
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"plaintext": "The commission blamed the failings primarily on Perkin-Elmer. Relations between NASA and the optics company had been severely strained during the telescope construction, due to frequent schedule slippage and cost overruns. NASA found that Perkin-Elmer did not review or supervise the mirror construction adequately, did not assign its best optical scientists to the project (as it had for the prototype), and in particular did not involve the optical designers in the construction and verification of the mirror. While the commission heavily criticized Perkin-Elmer for these managerial failings, NASA was also criticized for not picking up on the quality control shortcomings, such as relying totally on test results from a single instrument.",
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"plaintext": "Many feared that Hubble would be abandoned. The design of the telescope had always incorporated servicing missions, and astronomers immediately began to seek potential solutions to the problem that could be applied at the first servicing mission, scheduled for 1993. While Kodak had ground a back-up mirror for Hubble, it would have been impossible to replace the mirror in orbit, and too expensive and time-consuming to bring the telescope back to Earth for a refit. Instead, the fact that the mirror had been ground so precisely to the wrong shape led to the design of new optical components with exactly the same error but in the opposite sense, to be added to the telescope at the servicing mission, effectively acting as \"spectacles\" to correct the spherical aberration.",
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"plaintext": "The first step was a precise characterization of the error in the main mirror. Working backwards from images of point sources, astronomers determined that the conic constant of the mirror as built was , instead of the intended . The same number was also derived by analyzing the null corrector used by Perkin-Elmer to figure the mirror, as well as by analyzing interferograms obtained during ground testing of the mirror.",
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"plaintext": "Because of the way the HST's instruments were designed, two different sets of correctors were required. The design of the Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2, already planned to replace the existing WF/PC, included relay mirrors to direct light onto the four separate charge-coupled device (CCD) chips making up its two cameras. An inverse error built into their surfaces could completely cancel the aberration of the primary. However, the other instruments lacked any intermediate surfaces that could be configured in this way, and so required an external correction device.",
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"plaintext": "The Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial Replacement (COSTAR) system was designed to correct the spherical aberration for light focused at the FOC, FOS, and GHRS. It consists of two mirrors in the light path with one ground to correct the aberration. To fit the COSTAR system onto the telescope, one of the other instruments had to be removed, and astronomers selected the High Speed Photometer to be sacrificed. By 2002, all the original instruments requiring COSTAR had been replaced by instruments with their own corrective optics. COSTAR was removed and returned to Earth in 2009 where it is exhibited at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C. The area previously used by COSTAR is now occupied by the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph.",
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"plaintext": "Hubble was designed to accommodate regular servicing and equipment upgrades while in orbit. Instruments and limited life items were designed as orbital replacement units. Five servicing missions (SM 1, 2, 3A, 3B, and 4) were flown by NASA Space Shuttles, the first in December 1993 and the last in May 2009. Servicing missions were delicate operations that began with maneuvering to intercept the telescope in orbit and carefully retrieving it with the shuttle's mechanical arm. The necessary work was then carried out in multiple tethered spacewalks over a period of four to five days. After a visual inspection of the telescope, astronauts conducted repairs, replaced failed or degraded components, upgraded equipment, and installed new instruments. Once work was completed, the telescope was redeployed, typically after boosting to a higher orbit to address the orbital decay caused by atmospheric drag.",
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"plaintext": "The first Hubble servicing mission was scheduled for 1993 before the mirror problem was discovered. It assumed greater importance, as the astronauts would need to do extensive work to install corrective optics; failure would have resulted in either abandoning Hubble or accepting its permanent disability. Other components failed before the mission, causing the repair cost to rise to $500million (not including the cost of the shuttle flight). A successful repair would help demonstrate the viability of building Space Station Alpha.",
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"plaintext": "STS-49 in 1992 demonstrated the difficulty of space work. While its rescue of Intelsat 603 received praise, the astronauts had taken possibly reckless risks in doing so. Neither the rescue nor the unrelated assembly of prototype space station components occurred as the astronauts had trained, causing NASA to reassess planning and training, including for the Hubble repair. The agency assigned to the mission Story Musgrave—who had worked on satellite repair procedures since 1976—and six other experienced astronauts, including two from STS-49. The first mission director since Project Apollo would coordinate a crew with 16 previous shuttle flights. The astronauts were trained to use about a hundred specialized tools.",
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"plaintext": "Heat had been the problem on prior spacewalks, which occurred in sunlight. Hubble needed to be repaired out of sunlight. Musgrave discovered during vacuum training, seven months before the mission, that spacesuit gloves did not sufficiently protect against the cold of space. After STS-57 confirmed the issue in orbit, NASA quickly changed equipment, procedures, and flight plan. Seven total mission simulations occurred before launch, the most thorough preparation in shuttle history. No complete Hubble mockup existed, so the astronauts studied many separate models (including one at the Smithsonian) and mentally combined their varying and contradictory details.",
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"plaintext": "Service Mission 1 flew aboard Endeavour in December 1993, and involved installation of several instruments and other equipment over ten days. Most importantly, the High Speed Photometer was replaced with the COSTAR corrective optics package, and WF/PC was replaced with the Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) with an internal optical correction system. The solar arrays and their drive electronics were also replaced, as well as four gyroscopes in the telescope pointing system, two electrical control units and other electrical components, and two magnetometers. The onboard computers were upgraded with added coprocessors, and Hubble's orbit was boosted.",
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"plaintext": "On 13 January 1994, NASA declared the mission a complete success and showed the first sharper images. The mission was one of the most complex performed up until that date, involving five long extra-vehicular activity periods. Its success was a boon for NASA, as well as for the astronomers who now had a more capable space telescope.",
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"plaintext": "Servicing Mission 2, flown by Discovery in February 1997, replaced the GHRS and the FOS with the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) and the Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS), replaced an Engineering and Science Tape Recorder with a new Solid State Recorder, and repaired thermal insulation. NICMOS contained a heat sink of solid nitrogen to reduce the thermal noise from the instrument, but shortly after it was installed, an unexpected thermal expansion resulted in part of the heat sink coming into contact with an optical baffle. This led to an increased warming rate for the instrument and reduced its original expected lifetime of 4.5 years to about two years.",
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"plaintext": "Servicing Mission 3A, flown by Discovery, took place in December 1999, and was a split-off from Servicing Mission3 after three of the six onboard gyroscopes had failed. The fourth failed a few weeks before the mission, rendering the telescope incapable of performing scientific observations. The mission replaced all six gyroscopes, replaced a Fine Guidance Sensor and the computer, installed a Voltage/temperature Improvement Kit (VIK) to prevent battery overcharging, and replaced thermal insulation blankets.",
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"plaintext": "Servicing Mission 3B flown by Columbia in March 2002 saw the installation of a new instrument, with the FOC (which, except for the Fine Guidance Sensors when used for astrometry, was the last of the original instruments) being replaced by the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS). This meant COSTAR was no longer required, since all new instruments had built-in correction for the main mirror aberration. The mission also revived NICMOS by installing a closed-cycle cooler and replaced the solar arrays for the second time, providing 30 percent more power.",
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"plaintext": "Plans called for Hubble to be serviced in February 2005, but the Columbia disaster in 2003, in which the orbiter disintegrated on re-entry into the atmosphere, had wide-ranging effects to the Hubble program and other NASA missions. NASA Administrator Sean O'Keefe decided all future shuttle missions had to be able to reach the safe haven of the International Space Station should in-flight problems develop. As no shuttles were capable of reaching both HST and the space station during the same mission, future crewed service missions were canceled. This decision was criticised by numerous astronomers who felt Hubble was valuable enough to merit the human risk. HST's planned successor, the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), by 2004 was not expected to launch until at least 2011. JWST was eventually launched in December 2021. A gap in space-observing capabilities between a decommissioning of Hubble and the commissioning of a successor was of major concern to many astronomers, given the significant scientific impact of HST. The consideration that JWST will not be located in low Earth orbit, and therefore cannot be easily upgraded or repaired in the event of an early failure, only made concerns more acute. On the other hand, NASA officials were concerned that continuing to service Hubble would consume funds from other programs and delay the JWST.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2004, O'Keefe said he would review his decision to cancel the final servicing mission to HST, due to public outcry and requests from Congress for NASA to look for a way to save it. The National Academy of Sciences convened an official panel, which recommended in July 2004 that the HST should be preserved despite the apparent risks. Their report urged \"NASA should take no actions that would preclude a space shuttle servicing mission to the Hubble Space Telescope\". In August 2004, O'Keefe asked Goddard Space Flight Center to prepare a detailed proposal for a robotic service mission. These plans were later canceled, the robotic mission being described as \"not feasible\". In late 2004, several Congressional members, led by Senator Barbara Mikulski, held public hearings and carried on a fight with much public support (including thousands of letters from school children across the U.S.) to get the Bush Administration and NASA to reconsider the decision to drop plans for a Hubble rescue mission.",
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"plaintext": "The nomination in April 2005 of a new NASA Administrator, Michael D. Griffin, changed the situation, as Griffin stated he would consider a crewed servicing mission. Soon after his appointment Griffin authorized Goddard to proceed with preparations for a crewed Hubble maintenance flight, saying he would make the final decision after the next two shuttle missions. In October 2006 Griffin gave the final go-ahead, and the 11-day mission by Atlantis was scheduled for October 2008. Hubble's main data-handling unit failed in September 2008, halting all reporting of scientific data until its back-up was brought online on 25 October 2008. Since a failure of the backup unit would leave the HST helpless, the service mission was postponed to incorporate a replacement for the primary unit.",
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"plaintext": "Servicing Mission 4 (SM4), flown by Atlantis in May 2009, was the last scheduled shuttle mission for HST. SM4 installed the replacement data-handling unit, repaired the ACS and STIS systems, installed improved nickel hydrogen batteries, and replaced other components including all six gyroscopes. SM4 also installed two new observation instruments—Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3) and the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph (COS)—and the Soft Capture and Rendezvous System, which will enable the future rendezvous, capture, and safe disposal of Hubble by either a crewed or robotic mission. Except for the ACS's High Resolution Channel, which could not be repaired and was disabled, the work accomplished during SM4 rendered the telescope fully functional.",
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"plaintext": "Since the start of the program, a number of research projects have been carried out, some of them almost solely with Hubble, others coordinated facilities such as Chandra X-ray Observatory and ESO's Very Large Telescope. Although the Hubble observatory is nearing the end of its life, there are still major projects scheduled for it. One example is the current (2022) ULLYSES project (Ultraviolet Legacy Library of Young Stars as Essential Standards) which will last for three years to observe a set of high- and low-mass young stars and will shed light on star formation and composition.",
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"plaintext": "In an August 2013 press release, CANDELS was referred to as \"the largest project in the history of Hubble\". The survey \"aims to explore galactic evolution in the early Universe, and the very first seeds of cosmic structure at less than one billion years after the Big Bang.\" The CANDELS project site describes the survey's goals as the following:",
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"plaintext": "The Cosmic Assembly Near-IR Deep Extragalactic Legacy Survey is designed to document the first third of galactic evolution from z = 8 to 1.5 via deep imaging of more than 250,000 galaxies with WFC3/IR and ACS. It will also find the first Type Ia SNe beyond z > 1.5 and establish their accuracy as standard candles for cosmology. Five premier multi-wavelength sky regions are selected; each has multi-wavelength data from Spitzer and other facilities, and has extensive spectroscopy of the brighter galaxies. The use of five widely separated fields mitigates cosmic variance and yields statistically robust and complete samples of galaxies down to 109 solar masses out to z ~ 8.",
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"plaintext": "The program, officially named \"Hubble Deep Fields Initiative 2012\", is aimed to advance the knowledge of early galaxy formation by studying high-redshift galaxies in blank fields with the help of gravitational lensing to see the \"faintest galaxies in the distant universe\". The Frontier Fields web page describes the goals of the program being:",
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"plaintext": " to reveal hitherto inaccessible populations of z = 5–10 galaxies that are ten to fifty times fainter intrinsically than any presently known",
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"plaintext": " to solidify our understanding of the stellar masses and star formation histories of sub-L* galaxies at the earliest times",
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"plaintext": " to provide the first statistically meaningful morphological characterization of star forming galaxies at z > 5",
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"plaintext": " to find z > 8 galaxies stretched out enough by cluster lensing to discern internal structure and/or magnified enough by cluster lensing for spectroscopic follow-up.",
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"plaintext": "The Cosmic Evolution Survey (COSMOS) is an astronomical survey designed to probe the formation and evolution of galaxies as a function of both cosmic time (redshift) and the local galaxy environment. The survey covers a two square degree equatorial field with spectroscopy and X-ray to radio imaging by most of the major space-based telescopes and a number of large ground based telescopes, making it a key focus region of extragalactic astrophysics. COSMOS was launched in 2006 as the largest project pursued by the Hubble Space Telescope at the time, and still is the largest continuous area of sky covered for the purposes of mapping deep space in blank fields, 2.5 times the area of the moon on the sky and 17 times larger than the largest of the CANDELS regions. The COSMOS scientific collaboration that was forged from the initial COSMOS survey is the largest and longest-running extragalactic collaboration, known for its collegiality and openness. The study of galaxies in their environment can be done only with large areas of the sky, larger than a half square degree. More than two million galaxies are detected, spanning 90% of the age of the Universe. The COSMOS collaboration is led by Caitlin Casey, Jeyhan Kartaltepe, and Vernesa Smolcic and involves more than 200 scientists in a dozen countries.",
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"plaintext": "Anyone can apply for time on the telescope; there are no restrictions on nationality or academic affiliation, but funding for analysis is available only to U.S. institutions. Competition for time on the telescope is intense, with about one-fifth of the proposals submitted in each cycle earning time on the schedule.",
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"plaintext": "Calls for proposals are issued roughly annually, with time allocated for a cycle lasting about one year. Proposals are divided into several categories; \"general observer\" proposals are the most common, covering routine observations. \"Snapshot observations\" are those in which targets require only 45 minutes or less of telescope time, including overheads such as acquiring the target. Snapshot observations are used to fill in gaps in the telescope schedule that cannot be filled by regular general observer programs.",
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"plaintext": "Astronomers may make \"Target of Opportunity\" proposals, in which observations are scheduled if a transient event covered by the proposal occurs during the scheduling cycle. In addition, up to 10% of the telescope time is designated \"director's discretionary\" (DD) time. Astronomers can apply to use DD time at any time of year, and it is typically awarded for study of unexpected transient phenomena such as supernovae.",
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"plaintext": "Other uses of DD time have included the observations that led to views of the Hubble Deep Field and Hubble Ultra Deep Field, and in the first four cycles of telescope time, observations that were carried out by amateur astronomers.",
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"plaintext": "In 2012, the ESA held a contest for public image processing of Hubble data to encourage the discovery of \"hidden treasures\" in the raw Hubble data.",
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"plaintext": "The first director of STScI, Riccardo Giacconi, announced in 1986 that he intended to devote some of his director discretionary time to allowing amateur astronomers to use the telescope. The total time to be allocated was only a few hours per cycle but excited great interest among amateur astronomers.",
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"plaintext": "Proposals for amateur time were stringently reviewed by a committee of amateur astronomers, and time was awarded only to proposals that were deemed to have genuine scientific merit, did not duplicate proposals made by professionals, and required the unique capabilities of the space telescope. Thirteen amateur astronomers were awarded time on the telescope, with observations being carried out between 1990 and 1997. One such study was \"Transition Comets—UV Search for OH\". The first proposal, \"A Hubble Space Telescope Study of Posteclipse Brightening and Albedo Changes on Io\", was published in Icarus, a journal devoted to solar system studies. A second study from another group of amateurs was also published in Icarus. After that time, however, budget reductions at STScI made the support of work by amateur astronomers untenable, and no additional amateur programs have been carried out.",
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"plaintext": "Regular Hubble proposals still include findings or discovered objects by amateurs and citizen scientists. These observations are often in a collaboration with professional astronomers. One of earliest such observations is the Great White Spot of 1990 on planet Saturn, discovered by amateur astronomer S. Wilber and observed by HST under a proposal by J. Westphal (Caltech). Later professional-amateur observations by Hubble include discoveries by the Galaxy Zoo project, such as Voorwerpjes and Green Pea galaxies. The \"Gems of the Galaxies\" program is based on a list of objects by galaxy zoo volunteers that was shortened with the help of an online vote. Additionally there are observations of minor planets discovered by amateur astronomers, such as 2I/Borisov and changes in the atmosphere of the gas giants Jupiter and Saturn or the ice giants Uranus and Neptune. In the pro-am collaboration backyard worlds the HST was used to observe a planetary mass object, called WISE J0830+2837. The non-detection by the HST helped to classify this peculiar object.",
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"plaintext": "In the early 1980s, NASA and STScI convened four panels to discuss key projects. These were projects that were both scientifically important and would require significant telescope time, which would be explicitly dedicated to each project. This guaranteed that these particular projects would be completed early, in case the telescope failed sooner than expected. The panels identified three such projects: 1) a study of the nearby intergalactic medium using quasar absorption lines to determine the properties of the intergalactic medium and the gaseous content of galaxies and groups of galaxies; 2) a medium deep survey using the Wide Field Camera to take data whenever one of the other instruments was being used and 3) a project to determine the Hubble constant within ten percent by reducing the errors, both external and internal, in the calibration of the distance scale.",
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"plaintext": "Hubble has helped resolve some long-standing problems in astronomy, while also raising new questions. Some results have required new theories to explain them.",
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"plaintext": "Among its primary mission targets was to measure distances to Cepheid variable stars more accurately than ever before, and thus constrain the value of the Hubble constant, the measure of the rate at which the universe is expanding, which is also related to its age. Before the launch of HST, estimates of the Hubble constant typically had errors of up to 50%, but Hubble measurements of Cepheid variables in the Virgo Cluster and other distant galaxy clusters provided a measured value with an accuracy of ±10%, which is consistent with other more accurate measurements made since Hubble's launch using other techniques. The estimated age is now about 13.7billion years, but before the Hubble Telescope, scientists predicted an age ranging from 10 to 20billion years.",
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"plaintext": "While Hubble helped to refine estimates of the age of the universe, it also upended theories about its future. Astronomers from the High-z Supernova Search Team and the Supernova Cosmology Project used ground-based telescopes and HST to observe distant supernovae and uncovered evidence that, far from decelerating under the influence of gravity, the expansion of the universe is instead accelerating. Three members of these two groups have subsequently been awarded Nobel Prizes for their discovery. The cause of this acceleration remains poorly understood; the term used for the currently-unknown cause is dark energy, signifying that it is dark (unable to be directly seen and detected) to our current scientific instruments.",
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"plaintext": "The high-resolution spectra and images provided by the HST have been especially well-suited to establishing the prevalence of black holes in the center of nearby galaxies. While it had been hypothesized in the early 1960s that black holes would be found at the centers of some galaxies, and astronomers in the 1980s identified a number of good black hole candidates, work conducted with Hubble shows that black holes are probably common to the centers of all galaxies. The Hubble programs further established that the masses of the nuclear black holes and properties of the galaxies are closely related.",
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"plaintext": "A unique window on the Universe enabled by Hubble are the Hubble Deep Field, Hubble Ultra-Deep Field, and Hubble Extreme Deep Field images, which used Hubble's unmatched sensitivity at visible wavelengths to create images of small patches of sky that are the deepest ever obtained at optical wavelengths. The images reveal galaxies billions of light years away, thereby providing information about the early Universe, and have accordingly generated a wealth of scientific papers. The Wide Field Camera3 improved the view of these fields in the infrared and ultraviolet, supporting the discovery of some of the most distant objects yet discovered, such as MACS0647-JD.",
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"plaintext": "The non-standard object SCP 06F6 was discovered by the Hubble Space Telescope in February 2006.",
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"plaintext": "On 3 March 2016, researchers using Hubble data announced the discovery of the farthest confirmed galaxy to date: GN-z11, which Hubble observed as it existed roughly 400 million years after the Big Bang. The Hubble observations occurred on 11 February 2015, and 3 April 2015, as part of the CANDELS/GOODS-North surveys.",
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"plaintext": "The collision of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 with Jupiter in 1994 was fortuitously timed for astronomers, coming just a few months after Servicing Mission1 had restored Hubble's optical performance. Hubble images of the planet were sharper than any taken since the passage of Voyager 2 in 1979, and were crucial in studying the dynamics of the collision of a large comet with Jupiter, an event believed to occur once every few centuries.",
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"plaintext": "In March 2015, researchers announced that measurements of aurorae around Ganymede, one of Jupiter's moons, revealed that it has a subsurface ocean. Using Hubble to study the motion of its aurorae, the researchers determined that a large saltwater ocean was helping to suppress the interaction between Jupiter's magnetic field and that of Ganymede. The ocean is estimated to be deep, trapped beneath a ice crust.",
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"plaintext": "HST has also been used to study objects in the outer reaches of the Solar System, including the dwarf planets Pluto, Eris, and Sedna. During June and July 2012, U.S. astronomers using Hubble discovered Styx, a tiny fifth moon orbiting Pluto.",
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"plaintext": "From June to August 2015, Hubble was used to search for a Kuiper belt object (KBO) target for the New Horizons Kuiper Belt Extended Mission (KEM) when similar searches with ground telescopes failed to find a suitable target. This resulted in the discovery of at least five new KBOs, including the eventual KEM target, 486958 Arrokoth, that New Horizons performed a close fly-by of on 1 January 2019.",
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"plaintext": "In April 2022 NASA announced that astronomers were able to use images from HST to determine the size of the nucleus of comet C/2014 UN271 (Bernardinelli–Bernstein), which is the largest icy comet nucleus ever seen by astronomers. The nucleus of C/2014 UN271 has an estimated mass of 50 trillion tons which is 50 times the mass of other known comets in our solar system. ",
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"plaintext": "On 11 December 2015, Hubble captured an image of the first-ever predicted reappearance of a supernova, dubbed \"Refsdal\", which was calculated using different mass models of a galaxy cluster whose gravity is warping the supernova's light. The supernova was previously seen in November 2014 behind galaxy cluster MACS J1149.5+2223 as part of Hubble's Frontier Fields program. The light from the cluster took roughly five billion years to reach Earth, while the light from the supernova behind it took five billion more years than that, as measured by their respective redshifts. Because of the gravitational effect of the galaxy cluster, four images of the supernova appeared instead of one, an example of an Einstein cross. Based on early lens models, a fifth image was predicted to reappear by the end of 2015. Refsdal reappeared as predicted in 2015.",
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"plaintext": "In March 2019, observations from Hubble and data from the European Space Agency's Gaia space observatory were combined to determine that the mass of the Milky Way Galaxy is approximately 1.5trillion times the mass of the Sun, a value intermediate between prior estimates.",
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"plaintext": "Other discoveries made with Hubble data include proto-planetary disks (proplyds) in the Orion Nebula; evidence for the presence of extrasolar planets around Sun-like stars; and the optical counterparts of the still-mysterious gamma-ray bursts. Using gravitational lensing, Hubble observed a galaxy designated MACS 2129-1 approximately 10 billion light-years from Earth. MACS 2129-1 subverted expectations about galaxies in which new star formation had ceased, a significant result for understanding the formation of elliptical galaxies.",
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"plaintext": "In 2022 Hubble detected the light of the farthest individual star ever seen to date. The star, WHL0137-LS (nicknamed Earendel), existed within the first billion years after the big bang. It will be observed by NASA's James Webb Space Telescope to confirm Earendel is indeed a star.",
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"plaintext": "Many objective measures show the positive impact of Hubble data on astronomy. Over 15,000 papers based on Hubble data have been published in peer-reviewed journals, and countless more have appeared in conference proceedings. Looking at papers several years after their publication, about one-third of all astronomy papers have no citations, while only two percent of papers based on Hubble data have no citations. On average, a paper based on Hubble data receives about twice as many citations as papers based on non-Hubble data. Of the 200 papers published each year that receive the most citations, about 10% are based on Hubble data.",
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"plaintext": "Although the HST has clearly helped astronomical research, its financial cost has been large. A study on the relative astronomical benefits of different sizes of telescopes found that while papers based on HST data generate 15 times as many citations as a ground-based telescope such as the William Herschel Telescope, the HST costs about 100 times as much to build and maintain.",
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"plaintext": "Deciding between building ground- versus space-based telescopes is complex. Even before Hubble was launched, specialized ground-based techniques such as aperture masking interferometry had obtained higher-resolution optical and infrared images than Hubble would achieve, though restricted to targets about 108 times brighter than the faintest targets observed by Hubble. Since then, advances in adaptive optics have extended the high-resolution imaging capabilities of ground-based telescopes to the infrared imaging of faint objects. The usefulness of adaptive optics versus HST observations depends strongly on the particular details of the research questions being asked. In the visible bands, adaptive optics can correct only a relatively small field of view, whereas HST can conduct high-resolution optical imaging over a wider field. Moreover, Hubble can image more faint objects, since ground-based telescopes are affected by the background of scattered light created by the Earth's atmosphere.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to its scientific results, Hubble has also made significant contributions to aerospace engineering, in particular the performance of systems in low Earth orbit (LEO). These insights result from Hubble's long lifetime on orbit, extensive instrumentation, and return of assemblies to the Earth where they can be studied in detail. In particular, Hubble has contributed to studies of the behavior of graphite composite structures in vacuum, optical contamination from residual gas and human servicing, radiation damage to electronics and sensors, and the long term behavior of multi-layer insulation. One lesson learned was that gyroscopes assembled using pressurized oxygen to deliver suspension fluid were prone to failure due to electric wire corrosion. Gyroscopes are now assembled using pressurized nitrogen. Another is that optical surfaces in LEO can have surprisingly long lifetimes; Hubble was only expected to last 15 years before the mirror became unusable, but after 14 years there was no measureable degradation. Finally, Hubble servicing missions, particularly those that serviced components not designed for in-space maintenance, have contributed towards the development of new tools and techniques for on-orbit repair.",
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"plaintext": "Hubble data was initially stored on the spacecraft. When launched, the storage facilities were old-fashioned reel-to-reel tape drives, but these were replaced by solid state data storage facilities during servicing missions2 and 3A. About twice daily, the Hubble Space Telescope radios data to a satellite in the geosynchronous Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS), which then downlinks the science data to one of two 60-foot (18-meter) diameter high-gain microwave antennas located at the White Sands Test Facility in White Sands, New Mexico. From there they are sent to the Space Telescope Operations Control Center at Goddard Space Flight Center, and finally to the Space Telescope Science Institute for archiving. Each week, HST downlinks approximately 140 gigabits of data.",
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"plaintext": "All images from Hubble are monochromatic grayscale, taken through a variety of filters, each passing specific wavelengths of light, and incorporated in each camera. Color images are created by combining separate monochrome images taken through different filters. This process can also create false-color versions of images including infrared and ultraviolet channels, where infrared is typically rendered as a deep red and ultraviolet is rendered as a deep blue.",
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"plaintext": "All Hubble data is eventually made available via the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes at STScI, CADC and ESA/ESAC. Data is usually proprietary—available only to the principal investigator (PI) and astronomers designated by the PI—for twelve months after being taken. The PI can apply to the director of the STScI to extend or reduce the proprietary period in some circumstances.",
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"plaintext": "Observations made on Director's Discretionary Time are exempt from the proprietary period, and are released to the public immediately. Calibration data such as flat fields and dark frames are also publicly available straight away. All data in the archive is in the FITS format, which is suitable for astronomical analysis but not for public use. The Hubble Heritage Project processes and releases to the public a small selection of the most striking images in JPEG and TIFF formats.",
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"plaintext": "Astronomical data taken with CCDs must undergo several calibration steps before they are suitable for astronomical analysis. STScI has developed sophisticated software that automatically calibrates data when they are requested from the archive using the best calibration files available. This 'on-the-fly' processing means large data requests can take a day or more to be processed and returned. The process by which data is calibrated automatically is known as 'pipeline reduction', and is increasingly common at major observatories. Astronomers may if they wish retrieve the calibration files themselves and run the pipeline reduction software locally. This may be desirable when calibration files other than those selected automatically need to be used.",
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"plaintext": "Hubble data can be analyzed using many different packages. STScI maintains the custom-made Space Telescope Science Data Analysis System (STSDAS) software, which contains all the programs needed to run pipeline reduction on raw data files, as well as many other astronomical image processing tools, tailored to the requirements of Hubble data. The software runs as a module of IRAF, a popular astronomical data reduction program.",
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"plaintext": "NASA considered it important for the Space Telescope to capture the public's imagination, given the considerable contribution of taxpayers to its construction and operational costs. After the difficult early years when the faulty mirror severely dented Hubble's reputation with the public, the first servicing mission allowed its rehabilitation as the corrected optics produced numerous remarkable images.",
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"plaintext": "Several initiatives have helped to keep the public informed about Hubble activities.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, outreach efforts are coordinated by the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) Office for Public Outreach, which was established in 2000 to ensure that U.S. taxpayers saw the benefits of their investment in the space telescope program. To that end, STScI operates the HubbleSite.org website. The Hubble Heritage Project, operating out of the STScI, provides the public with high-quality images of the most interesting and striking objects observed. The Heritage team is composed of amateur and professional astronomers, as well as people with backgrounds outside astronomy, and emphasizes the aesthetic nature of Hubble images. The Heritage Project is granted a small amount of time to observe objects which, for scientific reasons, may not have images taken at enough wavelengths to construct a full-color image.",
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"plaintext": "Since 1999, the leading Hubble outreach group in Europe has been the Hubble European Space Agency Information Centre (HEIC). This office was established at the Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility in Munich, Germany. HEIC's mission is to fulfill HST outreach and education tasks for the European Space Agency. The work is centered on the production of news and photo releases that highlight interesting Hubble results and images. These are often European in origin, and so increase awareness of both ESA's Hubble share (15%) and the contribution of European scientists to the observatory. ESA produces educational material, including a videocast series called Hubblecast designed to share world-class scientific news with the public.",
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"plaintext": "The Hubble Space Telescope has won two Space Achievement Awards from the Space Foundation, for its outreach activities, in 2001 and 2010.",
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"plaintext": "A replica of the Hubble Space Telescope is on the courthouse lawn in Marshfield, Missouri, the hometown of namesake Edwin P. Hubble.",
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"plaintext": "The Hubble Space Telescope celebrated its 20th anniversary in space on 24 April 2010. To commemorate the occasion, NASA, ESA, and the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) released an image from the Carina Nebula.",
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"plaintext": "To commemorate Hubble's 25th anniversary in space on 24 April 2015, STScI released images of the Westerlund 2 cluster, located about away in the constellation Carina, through its Hubble 25 website. The European Space Agency created a dedicated 25th anniversary page on its website. In April 2016, a special celebratory image of the Bubble Nebula was released for Hubble's 26th \"birthday\".",
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"plaintext": "HST uses gyroscopes to detect and measure any rotations so it can stabilize itself in orbit and point accurately and steadily at astronomical targets. Three gyroscopes are normally required for operation; observations are still possible with two or one, but the area of sky that can be viewed would be somewhat restricted, and observations requiring very accurate pointing are more difficult. In 2018, the plan was to drop into one-gyroscope mode if fewer than three working gyroscopes were operational. The gyroscopes are part of the Pointing Control System, which uses five types of sensors (magnetic sensors, optical sensors, and the gyroscopes) and two types of actuators (reaction wheels and magnetic torquers).",
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"plaintext": "After the Columbia disaster in 2003, it was unclear whether another servicing mission would be possible, and gyroscope life became a concern again, so engineers developed new software for two-gyroscope and one-gyroscope modes to maximize the potential lifetime. The development was successful, and in 2005, it was decided to switch to two-gyroscope mode for regular telescope operations as a means of extending the lifetime of the mission. The switch to this mode was made in August 2005, leaving Hubble with two gyroscopes in use, two on backup, and two inoperable. One more gyroscope failed in 2007.",
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"plaintext": "By the time of the final repair mission in May 2009, during which all six gyroscopes were replaced (with two new pairs and one refurbished pair), only three were still working. Engineers determined that the gyroscope failures were caused by corrosion of electric wires powering the motor that was initiated by oxygen-pressurized air used to deliver the thick suspending fluid. The new gyroscope models were assembled using pressurized nitrogen and were expected to be much more reliable. In the 2009 servicing mission all six gyroscopes were replaced, and after almost ten years only three gyroscopes failed, and only after exceeding the average expected run time for the design.",
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"plaintext": "Of the six gyroscopes replaced in 2009, three were of the old design susceptible for flex-lead failure, and three were of the new design with a longer expected lifetime. The first of the old-style gyroscopes failed in March 2014, and the second in April 2018. On 5 October 2018, the last of the old-style gyroscopes failed, and one of the new-style gyroscopes was powered-up from standby state. However, that reserve gyroscope did not immediately perform within operational limits, and so the observatory was placed into \"safe\" mode while scientists attempted to fix the problem. NASA tweeted on 22 October 2018, that the \"rotation rates produced by the backup gyro have reduced and are now within a normal range. Additional tests to be performed to ensure Hubble can return to science operations with this gyro.\"",
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"plaintext": "The solution that restored the backup new-style gyroscope to operational range was widely reported as \"turning it off and on again\". A \"running restart\" of the gyroscope was performed, but this had no effect, and the final resolution to the failure was more complex. The failure was attributed to an inconsistency in the fluid surrounding the float within the gyroscope (e.g., an air bubble). On 18 October 2018, the Hubble Operations Team directed the spacecraft into a series of maneuvers—moving the spacecraft in opposite directions—in order to mitigate the inconsistency. Only after the maneuvers, and a subsequent set of maneuvers on 19 October, did the gyroscope truly operate within its normal range.",
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"plaintext": "Past servicing missions have exchanged old instruments for new ones, avoiding failure and making new types of science possible. Without servicing missions, all the instruments will eventually fail. In August 2004, the power system of the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) failed, rendering the instrument inoperable. The electronics had originally been fully redundant, but the first set of electronics failed in May 2001. This power supply was fixed during Servicing Mission4 in May 2009.",
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"plaintext": "Similarly, the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS) main camera primary electronics failed in June 2006, and the power supply for the backup electronics failed on 27 January 2007. Only the instrument's Solar Blind Channel (SBC) was operable using the side-1 electronics. A new power supply for the wide angle channel was added during SM 4, but quick tests revealed this did not help the high resolution channel. The Wide Field Channel (WFC) was returned to service by STS-125 in May 2009 but the High Resolution Channel (HRC) remains offline.",
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"plaintext": "On 8 January 2019, Hubble entered a partial safe mode following suspected hardware problems in its most advanced instrument, the Wide Field Camera 3 instrument. NASA later reported that the cause of the safe mode within the instrument was a detection of voltage levels out of a defined range. On 15 January 2019, NASA said the cause of the failure was a software problem. Engineering data within the telemetry circuits were not accurate. In addition, all other telemetry within those circuits also contained erroneous values indicating that this was a telemetry issue and not a power supply issue. After resetting the telemetry circuits and associated boards the instrument began functioning again. On 17 January 2019, the device was returned to normal operation and on the same day it completed its first science observations.",
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"plaintext": "On 13 June 2021, Hubble's payload computer halted due to a suspected issue with a memory module. An attempt to restart the computer on 14 June failed. Further attempts to switch to one of three other backup memory modules on board the spacecraft failed on 18 June. On 23 and 24 June, NASA engineers switched Hubble to a backup payload computer, but these operations have failed as well with the same error. On 28 June 2021, NASA announced that it was extending the investigation to other components. Scientific operations were suspended while NASA worked to diagnose and resolve the issue. After identifying a malfunctioning power control unit (PCU) supplying power to one of Hubble's computers, NASA was able to switch to a backup PCU and bring Hubble back to operational mode on 16 July. On 23 October 2021, HST instruments reported missing synchronization messages and went into safe mode. By 8 December 2021, NASA had restored full science operations and was developing updates to make instruments more resilient to missing synchronization messages.",
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"plaintext": "Hubble orbits the Earth in the extremely tenuous upper atmosphere, and over time its orbit decays due to drag. If not reboosted, it will re-enter the Earth's atmosphere within some decades, with the exact date depending on how active the Sun is and its impact on the upper atmosphere. If Hubble were to descend in a completely uncontrolled re-entry, parts of the main mirror and its support structure would probably survive, leaving the potential for damage or even human fatalities. In 2013, deputy project manager James Jeletic projected that Hubble could survive into the 2020s. Based on solar activity and atmospheric drag, or lack thereof, a natural atmospheric reentry for Hubble will occur between 2028 and 2040. In June 2016, NASA extended the service contract for Hubble until June 2021. In November 2021, NASA extended the service contract for Hubble until June 2026.",
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"plaintext": "NASA's original plan for safely de-orbiting Hubble was to retrieve it using a Space Shuttle. Hubble would then have most likely been displayed in the Smithsonian Institution. This is no longer possible since the Space Shuttle fleet has been retired, and would have been unlikely in any case due to the cost of the mission and risk to the crew. Instead, NASA considered adding an external propulsion module to allow controlled re-entry. Ultimately, in 2009, as part of Servicing Mission 4, the last servicing mission by the Space Shuttle, NASA installed the Soft Capture Mechanism (SCM), to enable deorbit by either a crewed or robotic mission. The SCM, together with the Relative Navigation System (RNS), mounted on the Shuttle to collect data to \"enable NASA to pursue numerous options for the safe de-orbit of Hubble\", constitute the Soft Capture and Rendezvous System (SCRS).",
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"plaintext": ", the Trump Administration was considering a proposal by the Sierra Nevada Corporation to use a crewed version of its Dream Chaser spacecraft to service Hubble some time in the 2020s both as a continuation of its scientific capabilities and as insurance against any malfunctions in the James Webb Space Telescope. In 2020, John Grunsfeld said that SpaceX Crew Dragon or Orion could perform another repair mission within ten years. While robotic technology is not yet sophisticated enough, he said, with another crewed visit \"We could keep Hubble going for another few decades\" with new gyros and instruments.",
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"plaintext": "There is no direct replacement to Hubble as an ultraviolet and visible light space telescope, because near-term space telescopes do not duplicate Hubble's wavelength coverage (near-ultraviolet to near-infrared wavelengths), instead concentrating on the further infrared bands. These bands are preferred for studying high redshift and low-temperature objects, objects generally older and farther away in the universe. These wavelengths are also difficult or impossible to study from the ground, justifying the expense of a space-based telescope. Large ground-based telescopes can image some of the same wavelengths as Hubble, sometimes challenge HST in terms of resolution by using adaptive optics (AO), have much larger light-gathering power, and can be upgraded more easily, but cannot yet match Hubble's excellent resolution over a wide field of view with the very dark background of space.",
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"plaintext": "Plans for a Hubble successor materialized as the Next Generation Space Telescope project, which culminated in plans for the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), the formal successor of Hubble. Very different from a scaled-up Hubble, it is designed to operate colder and farther away from the Earth at the L2 Lagrangian point, where thermal and optical interference from the Earth and Moon are lessened. It is not engineered to be fully serviceable (such as replaceable instruments), but the design includes a docking ring to enable visits from other spacecraft. A main scientific goal of JWST is to observe the most distant objects in the universe, beyond the reach of existing instruments. It is expected to detect stars in the early Universe approximately 280million years older than stars HST now detects. The telescope is an international collaboration between NASA, the European Space Agency, and the Canadian Space Agency since 1996, and was launched on 25 December 2021, on an Ariane 5 rocket. Although JWST is primarily an infrared instrument, its coverage extends down to 600nm wavelength light, or roughly orange in the visible spectrum. A typical human eye can see to about 750nm wavelength light, so there is some overlap with the longest visible wavelength bands, including orange and red light.",
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"plaintext": "A complementary telescope, looking at even longer wavelengths than Hubble or JWST, was the European Space Agency's Herschel Space Observatory, launched on 14 May 2009. Like JWST, Herschel was not designed to be serviced after launch, and had a mirror substantially larger than Hubble's, but observed only in the far infrared and submillimeter. It needed helium coolant, of which it ran out on 29 April 2013.",
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"plaintext": "Further concepts for advanced 21st-century space telescopes include the Large Ultraviolet Optical Infrared Surveyor (LUVOIR), a conceptualized optical space telescope that if realized could be a more direct successor to HST, with the ability to observe and photograph astronomical objects in the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with substantially better resolution than Hubble or the Spitzer Space Telescope. The final planning report, prepared for the 2020 Astronomy and Astrophysics Decadal Survey, suggested a launch date of 2039. The Decadal Survey eventually recommended that ideas for LUVOIR be combined with the Habitable Exoplanet Observer proposal to devise a new, 6-meter flagship telescope that could launch in the 2040s.",
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"plaintext": "Existing ground-based telescopes, and various proposed Extremely Large Telescopes, can exceed the HST in terms of sheer light-gathering power and diffraction limit due to larger mirrors, but other factors affect telescopes. In some cases, they may be able to match or exceed Hubble in resolution by using adaptive optics (AO). However, AO on large ground-based reflectors will not make Hubble and other space telescopes obsolete. Most AO systems sharpen the view over a very narrow field—Lucky Cam, for example, produces crisp images just 10 to 20 arcseconds wide, whereas Hubble's cameras produce crisp images across a 150 arcsecond (2½ arcminutes) field. Furthermore, space telescopes can study the universe across the entire electromagnetic spectrum, most of which is blocked by Earth's atmosphere. Finally, the background sky is darker in space than on the ground, because air absorbs solar energy during the day and then releases it at night, producing a faint—but nevertheless discernible—airglow that washes out low-contrast astronomical objects.",
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"plaintext": " Hubble (2010 documentary)",
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"plaintext": " List of deep fields",
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"plaintext": " List of Hubble anniversary images",
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40,205 | 1,106,332,591 | Foreign_relations_of_Albania | [
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"plaintext": "The foreign relations of Albania are its relations with other governments and peoples. Foreign relations are conducted through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Tirana. The current minister is Olta Xhaçka. The current Ambassador to the United Nations is Ferit Hoxha.",
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"plaintext": "Albania is a sovereign country in Southern Europe and the Mediterranean that declared its independence on 28 November 1912. Its foreign policy has maintained a policy of complementerianism by trying to have friendly relations with all countries. Since the collapse of Communism in 1990, Albania has extended its responsibilities and position in European and international affairs, supporting and establishing friendly relations with other nations around the world. ",
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"plaintext": "The main factors defining Albanian foreign policy consist of geopolitical location, population, economic crisis, and ties with Albanian diaspora throughout the world. It also maintains strong diplomatic relations with the EU (primarily Croatia, France, Germany, Italy) Balkan countries (primarily Kosovo, Greece and North Macedonia), Arab world, Canada, China, Turkey, Israel, India, Japan, South Korea, Switzerland, UK and the United States.",
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"plaintext": "The main objectives of the Albanian foreign policy are the accession of Albania to the European Union, the international recognition of Kosovo, the recognition of expulsion of Cham Albanians, helping and protecting the rights of Albanians in Montenegro, North Macedonia, Greece, Serbia, Italy, and the Albanian diaspora.",
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"plaintext": "Albania was voted to become a member of the 15-country United Nations Security Council for a two-year term, 2022–23.",
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"plaintext": "The government of Albania was concerned with the developments in neighboring Kosovo, particularly in the post-Dayton agreement period. During the Kosovo War in 1999 as well as the ethnic cleansing of Kosovo Albanians by Serbs alongside the subsequent refugee influx into the country, Albania's status as an ally of the United States was confirmed. Albania emerged as being generally supportive of the United States. The support for the United States has remained high at 95% in Muslim majority (56% of the population) Albania in contrast to the rest of the Islamic world.",
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"plaintext": "During the post-cold war, geo-political complexities and conflicts in the Balkans, made Albania seek a protector power with Turkey, which is a NATO member. During the 1990s, state relations between Albania and Turkey were marked by high level visits, military agreements and the deployment of Turkish soldiers. An Albanian-Turkish military cooperation agreement was signed on 29 July 1992. The military agreement entailed education and training of personnel, bilateral cooperation in weapons production, joint military exercises, the exchange of military delegations and joint commissions on expanding further military ties into the future. The agreement also encompassed rebuilding Albania's Pasha Liman Base in the Bay of Vlorë on the Ionian sea by Turkey, in return for granting Turkey's access and use. Turkey has trained the Albanian Armed Forces, in particular officers and commando units. During civil war in 1997, Turkey alongside other countries, participated in Operation Alba by providing a brigade of 800 Turkish troops to restore order and its involvement served mainly as a stabilising force.",
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"plaintext": "Turkey considers its friendship with Albania as important due to the context of state relations with Greece and through policy have exploited difficulties arising in Albanian-Greek relations. Having a powerful ally in Turkey has suited Albania at times regarding difficult interstate relations with Greece. Albania's emergence in the Balkans as a key NATO partner contributed to good and stronger Albanian-Turkish relations, in particular relating to military matters. The military alliance during the 1990s between Turkey and Albania was also aimed against Serbia in case a war over Kosovo had a wider regional spread. Greece has expressed concerns regarding Turkish relations with Albania and interpreted them as an anti-Greek measure to isolate Greece within the wider context of Albania being a potential outlet for expanding Muslim influence and Turkey allying with Muslim populations in the Balkans. Turkey on the other hand claimed Greece increased tensions within the region and conveyed concerns relating to Albanian and Greek polemics with Ankara expressing a partial bias on Albania's side angering the Greeks. Greece, aware of Albanian-Turkish military agreements denounced Turkey's interference in Greek affairs. Though not officially considered in Turkey as a rival within Albania, during the unrest of 1997 Greece was able to become an influential actor in Albania and the early period of the Kosovo crisis (1998-1999) when Albanian officials looked to Greece for assistance. The resumption of closer Albanian-Turkish relations ensured during the Kosovo crisis that made both countries act along the same policy lines toward Slobodan Milošević and the issue of Greater Serbia.",
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"plaintext": "Turkey supported Albania's membership to become part of NATO. Military cooperation between Albania and Turkey is viewed by NATO as a stabilising factor within the volatile region of the Balkans. Albania has come to depend heavily on Turkish assistance and a high amount of military security. Turkey remains for Albania an important military ally alongside the U.S. Through its military personnel Turkey continues to train Albanian armed forces and also to provide assistance in logistics and modernisation efforts of the Albanian military. Radar systems for the surveillance of Albanian airspace in addition to telecommunication equipment have been supplied by Turkey to Albania. Albania receives Turkish assistance for police training. Turkey has continuously supported Albania from the 1990s on EU related matters as both countries view EU membership as an eventual final goal and common objective. State relations of Albania with Turkey are friendly and close, due to maintenance of close links with the Albanian diaspora in Turkey and strong Turkish sociopolitical, cultural, economic and military ties with Albania. Turkey has been supportive of Albanian geopolitical interests within the Balkans. In Gallup polls conducted in recent times Turkey is viewed as a friendly country by 73% of people in Albania. Albania has established political and economic ties with Arab countries, in particular with Arab Persian Gulf states who have heavily invested in religious, transport and other infrastructure alongside other facets of the economy in addition to the somewhat limited societal links they share. Albania is also working to develop social-political and economic ties with Israel.",
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"plaintext": "After the fall of the Albanian communist regime in 1991, relations between Greece and Albania became increasingly strained because of widespread allegations of mistreatment by Albanian authorities of the Greek ethnic minority in southern Albania and of the Albanian communities in northern Greece. A wave of Albanian illegal economic migrants to Greece exacerbated tensions. The crisis in Greek–Albanian relations reached its peak in late August 1994, when an Albanian court sentenced five members (a sixth member was added later) of the ethnic Greek political party Omonia to prison terms on charges of undermining the Albanian state. Greece responded by freezing all EU aid to Albania, and sealing its border with Albania. In December 1994, however, Greece began to permit limited EU aid to Albania, while Albania released two of the Omonia defendants and reduced the sentences of the remaining four. ",
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"plaintext": "There are still other impending issues in the relations between the two countries, regarding many Albanian workers in Greece who have not received legal papers despite promises by the Greek government. In 1996, the two countries signed a Treaty of Peace and Friendship and discussed the issues of the status of Albanian refugees in Greece and education in the mother tongue for the ethnic Greek minority in southern Albania. In the 1990s, Greece preferred and assisted Fatos Nano as Albanian leader due to him being Orthodox over Sali Berisha a Muslim, as Nano was seen as being friendlier to Greek interests. The government of Fatos Nano was viewed by Turkey as having a pro-Greek orientation and expressed some dissatisfaction though during that time still maintained close military relations with Albania in rebuilding its armed forces and a military base.",
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"plaintext": "Today, as result of very frequent high-level contacts between the governments and the parliaments, relations between the two countries are regarded as excellent. Greece is a staunch supporter of the Euro-Atlantic integration of the Republic of Albania. Since Albania's NATO entry in May 2009, Albanian-Greek relations have been developing on all fronts, and especially after the election victory of Edi Rama in 2013, with the Albanian Chief of Foreign Policy, Ralf Gjoni, describing the diplomatic relations between two countries as \"excellent\". Greece today is Albania's most important European Union ally and NATO partner. At the Albanian government's request, about 250 Greek military personnel are stationed in Albania to assist with the training and restructuring of the Albanian Armed Forces, as part of the NATO programme. Big projects currently in running between the two countries include the touristic development of the Ionian coastline shared between the two countries, and the Trans Adriatic Pipeline (TAP), which helped boosting the relations of the two countries even further.",
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"plaintext": "Albania's ties with Greece are also based on cultural and historic relations of the two peoples, including migration and national minorities. In addition, since Albania's transition to democracy, Greece has become a major financial partner of the country with Albania's economy being heavily reliant on investments from Greece. Culturally, the two nations' populations, whilst having a tense history, share numerous cultural and historic traits that have been used to boost the political relations of the neighbouring countries.",
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"plaintext": "Albania was voted to become a member of the 15-country UN Security Council for a two-year term, in 2022–23, on June 11, 2021. Former ambassador Kadare said that Albania's priorities in the Security Council will include a focus on women, peace, and security, promoting human rights and international law, preventing conflicts, protecting civilians, countering violent extremism, addressing climate change and its links to security, and strengthening multilateralism and the rules-based international order. She tweeted thanks to all countries that: \"entrusted us with this huge responsibility\".",
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"plaintext": "Disputes ",
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"plaintext": "The Albanian government supports the protection of the rights of ethnic Albanians outside of its borders but has downplayed them to further its primary foreign policy goal of regional cooperation; Albanian majority in Kosovo seeks full recognition of the declared independence from Serbia; Albanians in the Republic of Macedonia claim discrimination in education, access to public-sector jobs, and representation in government. A handful of Albanian troops have participated in the U.S.-led military operations in Iraq and Afghanistan. Albanian policy is very favorable to that of the United States and European Union.",
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"plaintext": "The $30 million Albanian-American Enterprise Fund (AAEF), launched in 1994, is actively making debt and equity investments in local businesses. AAEF is designed to harness private sector efforts to assist in the economic transformation. U.S. assistance priorities include promotion of agricultural development and a market economy, advancement of democratic institutions (including police training), and improvements in quality of life.",
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"plaintext": ", Albania maintains diplomatic relations with 170 sovereign entities:",
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"plaintext": "Other countries which Albania has diplomatic relations are Mauritius and Uganda (established after 2008).",
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"plaintext": "In 2008 and 2009, the Albanian Parliament ordered the Foreign Ministry to establish diplomatic relations with countries which Albania did not maintain diplomatic relations with, namely Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Belize, Chad, Comoros, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Dominica, East Timor, Eswatini, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Gambia, Grenada, Kiribati, Liberia, Marshall Islands, Palau, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Suriname, Rwanda, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, Tuvalu, Uganda and Vanuatu.",
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"plaintext": "List of diplomatic missions in Albania",
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"plaintext": " Ministry of Foreign Affairs (official site)",
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"plaintext": "United Kingdom",
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{
"plaintext": " FCO Profile",
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"plaintext": " Estonian",
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"plaintext": " Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Albania",
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"plaintext": " Estonian embassy in Athens is also accredited to Albania",
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{
"plaintext": "Croatia",
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"plaintext": " Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Albania",
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"plaintext": "Kosovo",
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{
"plaintext": " Albanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs",
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"plaintext": "Turkey",
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"plaintext": " Albanian embassies in Turkey",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Turkish embassy in Albania",
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},
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"plaintext": " Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Albania",
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"plaintext": "Russia",
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"plaintext": "Embassy of the Russian federation in Tirana",
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"plaintext": "Analysis",
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"plaintext": " Is there an Albanian question?, Chaillot Paper No. 107, February 2008, European Union Institute for Security Studies",
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] | [
"Foreign_relations_of_Albania",
"Politics_of_Albania"
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|
40,207 | 1,102,306,678 | Albanian_Armed_Forces | [
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"plaintext": "The Albanian Armed Forces () are the military of Albania and were formed after the declaration of independence in 1912. Today, it consists of the General Staff, the Albanian Land Force, Albanian Air Force and the Albanian Naval Force.",
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"plaintext": "The President of Albania is the Commander-in-Chief of the nation's military. In times of peace, the President's powers as Commander-in-Chief are executed through the Prime Minister and the Defence Minister.",
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"plaintext": "According to the Albanian Constitution, the Albanian Armed Forces are charged to: protect the territorial integrity of the country, be present in areas incurring menace, assist the population in case of natural and industrial disasters and warn the dangers of military and non-military nature, protect the constitutional order as it is determined by law and participate in international operations in composition of multinational forces.",
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"plaintext": "On 4 December 1912, the Albanian Prime Minister, Ismail Qemali and his government, formed the Albanian National Army. Its first Chief in Command was Lieutenant Colonel Ali Shefqet Shkupi ",
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"plaintext": "By 1923, the Albanian Armed Forces fielded 10,691 active troops, including military police forces. At that time, Albania did not have a navy.",
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"plaintext": "In 1927, the Albanian Armed Forces numbered approximately 8,000. These troops were organised into three groups, based in Tirana, Shkodër to the north and Berat to the south. Each group was organised into three battalions of 500. A guards battalion of 350 was organized in Tirana. Four frontier battalions of mountaineers were held on reserve, as well as tanks and armoured cars. Additionally, a cadet school, a machine-gun school, and a bombing school were housed in the capital. Italian involvement in the Albanian Armed Forces was significant, with an Italian Colonel attached to each of the three main troop groups and an Italian officer attached to each battalion and battery and to each medical, veterinary, and transportation unit. In 1927 alone, the Albanian military ordered 20,000 rifles, 40 mountain guns, 120 machine guns, and other supplies from Italy.",
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"plaintext": "The Royal Albanian Army () was the army of King Zogu from 1928 until 1939. Its commander-in-chief was himself; its commander General Xhemal Aranitasi; its Chief of Staff was General Gustav von Myrdacz. The army was mainly financed by Italy. On 7 April 1939, Italian troops invaded the country, and captured it in six days after weak resistance by the overwhelmed Albanian army.",
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"plaintext": "After the Second World War, Albania became a Soviet-aligned country. The ranks and structure of the Albanian Armed Forces were organised based on Soviet concepts, thus increasing the political control of the State-Party over the Armed Forces. One of the defining characteristics of civilian-military relations during this period was the effort of the civilian leadership to ensure the loyalty of the military to the communist system's values and institutions.",
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"plaintext": "Like all other branches of the state, the military was subjugated to Communist Party control. All high-ranking military officers and most of the lower and middle ranks were members of the Communist Party—and had loyalties to it. The system was re-enforced by the establishment of Party cells within the military and extensive communist political education alongside soldiers' military training, by the political commissars. To further increase its political control, the Albanian Communist Party enlarged the conscription system, thus enlisting in the Armed Forces personnel dedicated to the military career from the Albanian rural areas.",
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"plaintext": "The State and Party went even further, beginning on 1 May 1966, military ranks were abolished following the example of the Chinese People's Liberation Army, heavily influenced by Maoism during the years of the Cultural Revolution, and thus adopting strategic concepts related to forms of guerrilla war (Vietnam War doctrine). The military was still organised during this period into basic structural forms, but the role of the military commander was insignificant with respect to the commanding role of the political commissars. In 1991 the rank system was reestablished under President Ramiz Alia.",
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"plaintext": "During all these years, Sigurimi which was the Albanian secret service during the period and was formed upon the KGB structure, was responsible for the execution, imprisonment, and deportation of more than 600 officers from the Armed Forces, by completely neutralising the Armed Forces ability to start a coup d'état. Initially the communist purge concentrated on military personnel who had graduated from the Western Military Academies (mainly from Italy 1927–1939), and was extended later to the officers graduated from the Soviet Union (after Albania abandoned the Warsaw Pact in 1968). As the communist regime collapsed in Albania during 1990, there was a real fear that the armed forces might intervene to halt the collapse of communism by force. In the event, the armed forces stood by as the regime of which they had been a part disintegrated.",
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"plaintext": "During the 1980s, Albania had reduced the number of infantry brigades from eight to four. It had shifted to fully manned units from its prior reliance on the mobilisation of reserve soldiers to flesh out a larger number of units manned at a lower level. Each brigade had three infantry battalions and one lightly equipped artillery battalion. Armoured forces consisted of one tank brigade. Artillery forces were increased from one to three regiments during the 1980s, and six battalions of coastal artillery were maintained at strategic points along the Adriatic Sea littoral.",
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"plaintext": "In 1992, the Library of Congress estimated that the ground forces had about 35,000 men, or about three-quarters of all armed forces personnel. Because the strength of the ground forces was sufficient to man only about two divisions, brigades of approximately 3,000 soldiers became the largest army formation. In 1991 four infantry brigades constituted the bulk of combat units in the ground forces.",
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"plaintext": "During the civilian riots in 1997, the political attempts by the government to use the Armed Forces to crush the rebellion were soon demonstrated to be a failure, following a total disintegration of the Armed Forces and the looting of the military facilities by the civilian population.",
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"plaintext": "Albania sheltered many thousands of Kosovar refugees during the 1999 conflict, and allowed NATO to provide logistical assistance for Kosovo Force (KFOR) troops through Communications Zone West headquartered in Durrës. Albania was part of the International Stabilization Force (SFOR) serving in Bosnia (then EU mission ALTHEA), and Albanian peacekeepers are part of the International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan, ISAF and the international stabilization force in Iraq. Albania has been a steadfast supporter of U.S. policy in Iraq, and one of only four nations to contribute troops to the combat phase of Operation Enduring Freedom.",
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"plaintext": "Increasing the military budget was one of the most important conditions for NATO integration. Military spending has generally been lower than 1.5% since 1996 only to peak in 2009 at 2% and fall again to 1.5%.",
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"plaintext": "There was an incident in 2002 in Albania where it was discovered, in a cluster of mountain bunkers, 16 tons of primitive, undocumented chemical weapon agents that Albania had forgotten about.",
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"plaintext": "In December 2006, the Armed Forces adopted a new structure based on the Joint warfare concept. It had three main Commands: the Joint Forces Command, the Joint Support Command and the Training and Doctrine Command. The Albanian Joint Forces Command (AJFC) consists of the Rapid Reaction Brigade, the Commando Regiment, the Navy Brigade, the Air Brigade and the Area Support Brigade. The Albanian Joint Support Command provides support and logistical functions to all AAF units. The Albanian Training and Doctrine Command was established as the main educational and training provider for the Albanian Armed Forces. The final number of personnel will be 13,800 (including 2,000 civilians). However this new structure lasted a little more than 3 years and in April 2010 returned to its classic and current form.",
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"plaintext": "In March 2008 the problem of massive amounts of excess ammunition stockpiled in Albania became known to the public through the tragic consequences of the explosion of an ammunition depot (the 2008 Tirana explosions).",
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"plaintext": "The Albanian Land Force or Albanian Army consists of the Rapid Reaction Brigade, a Commando Regiment, and the Area Support Brigade. Part of the structure of the Albanian Commando Regiment is the Special Operations Battalion (BOS). The Albanian Army is mostly supported by the United States, Germany, the Netherlands, Italy, the United Kingdom, Greece, Turkey, Switzerland, Denmark and Belgium.",
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"plaintext": "The Albanian Navy performs mainly Coast Guard duties, and recently the Albanian parliament has approved some amendments to the articles of the actual Law on the Coast Guard in Albania, in order to improve the necessary legal framework due to efforts at European Union-NATO integration. Since February 2008, Albania participates officially in NATO's Operation Active Endeavor in the Mediterranean. Albania became a full member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization on 1 April 2009. It hosts an international fair on security and defense called the Albanian Military Exhibition (ALMEX) where different security industries can present their products and services for the regional market.",
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"plaintext": "After several major re-equipment programs, in 2001 the Albanian Armed Forces launched a 10-year reform program to become technologically advanced and fully professional by 2011. The new armed forces consists of about 14,500 troops including 2,000 civilians, trained to NATO standards. The same radical reform is being implemented on surplus equipment, including airplanes, tanks, helicopters, artillery equipment, navy vessels, SALW and ammunition. Albania started an ambitious destruction program. However, Albania is still dealing with a huge amount of surplus and obsolete ammunition, a direct result of the country's long isolation and ethnic tensions in the area. The Albanian Ministry of Defense estimates such quantity up to 85,000 tons, but it is expected to increase up to 104,000 tons due to the ongoing downsizing process of the AAF.",
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"plaintext": "In 2004 U.S. President George W. Bush authorised the use of Nunn-Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction program funds for projects in Albania, marking the first time such funds were reauthorised for use outside the former Soviet Union. With this funding the U.S. assisted the Government of Albania with the destruction of a stockpile of chemical warfare agents left over from the communist regime (Category 1, Total amount 16.7 tons). The final cost of the project was US$48 million and was officially completed on 10 July 2007.",
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"plaintext": "On 3 April 2006, the final contract for the delivery of 12 Bölkow-Blom MBB BO-105 lightweight twin-engine multi-role helicopters to the Republic of Albania was signed in Tirana between the Albanian Ministry of Defence and Eurocopter Deutschland GmbH. According to the Albanian Government, six of the BO-105 helicopters are designated for the Albanian Air Brigade, four for the Ministry of Interior and the remaining two for the Albanian Ministry of Health.",
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"plaintext": "Albania has recently acquired 4 Eurocopter AS532 Cougar helicopters and has 2 more EC 145 on order as of 2015. Also, since 2008 four Damen Stan 4207 patrol vessels have been commissioned in the Navy, 3 of them have been constructed in Albania.",
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"plaintext": "On 16 July 2014, The Albanian Defence Minister declared that within 2014 the Albanian Motorised Infantry Battalion will be fully combat ready and also equipped with modern NATO equipment. This will be the first unit in the Albanian Armed Forces to not have the AK 47 in its inventory. Instead the M4 carbine will act as its standard battle rifle.",
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"plaintext": "In August 2018, the Prime Minister of Albania, Edi Rama, announced via Facebook that NATO would be investing in the base, saying \"NATO will invest more than 50 million euros ($58 million) for the first phase of the project alone, to modernise the Kuçovë Air Base.\"",
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"plaintext": "The process of modernization of the Albanian Armed Forces is based on the short-term, middle-term and long-term objectives and priorities of their restructuring and development aiming at achieving the increase of the operational capacities. The modernization programme started before the country's North Atlantic Treaty Organization membership (on 1 April 2009) with the purchase of armaments produced by the NATO countries. It also started a programme for the disposal and alienation of surplus ammunition inherited from the communist regime for 50 years.",
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"plaintext": "The modernization of the Land Forces began around 2006, starting with Special Forces such as the BFS (then known as the Batalioni i Operacioneve Speciale, BOS) and the Commandos. Seeing their involvement in NATO peacekeeping operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, the need arose for more modern armaments given that until then these branches used old Soviet or Chinese era armaments. In 2007, the Ministry of Defense (MOD) reached agreement with the German company Heckler & Koch for the purchase of several weapons in limited quantities for special forces, including HK146, two variants of H&K G36, HK417, MP7, and variants of H&K USP. Some of them were only for evaluation purposes. In 2009 the Beretta ARX160 was issued in much larger quantities thus becoming the standard assault rifle for the BFS over the HK416 and HK G-36. In 2015, the Colt M4A1 joined ARX160 as standard use alongside it. For the 3 infantry battalions, the modernization started in 2013, initially introducing the as standard handgun the Beretta Px4, as a light machine gun H&K MG4 and H&K MG5 as a General-purpose machine gun.",
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{
"plaintext": "In 2015 other weapons were introduced over all ground units. The 2nd Infantry Battalion (B2K) was equipped with Colt M4A1. The Military Police was equipped with the Beretta ARX160 and added 4 new Iveco LMV vehicles. The Sako TRG-22 and TGR-44 were distributed to all sniper units, while the Benelli M4 Super 90 to the BFS and MP for Close-quarters combat.",
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"plaintext": "The following year the Italian Government offered an aid package of 5,000 Beretta AR70/90 units, which at the time were in the process of being withdrawn and replaced in favor of the Beretta ARX160 over Italian Army. This package fitted the needs of the Albanian Armed Forces (AAF) as the process of replacing the old Soviet 7.62×39mm ammunition with 5.56×45mm, a task-requirement by Standardization Agreement (STANAG) of NATO allies since Albania's accession in 2009. The process that was expected to last within 10 years, but the aid package helped completing the process 4 years earlier and without additional costs. After the process of replacing the AK47 variants (many of which were locally produced under the name ASh-78 and ASh-82) with the AR70/90 was ended, the rifle became the standard weapon and most used over most Land Forces branches.",
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"plaintext": "In 2017 the Combat Support Battalion (Batalioni Mbështetjes së Luftimit, BML) was equipped with Hirtenberger M6 60mm and Hirtenberger M8 81mm mortars by the Austrian company Hirtenberger Defense Systems. Thus removing from use the Chinese made mortars from the communist period. In March of the same year came the first 77 HMMWV M1114 of an aid package totaling 250 armored vehicles. They are obtained from Excess Defense Articles (EDA) through the Defense Security Cooperation Agency, a United States program to support NATO partners and allies. The vehicles were immediately put at the service of B1K. In 2019 came the second part of the package of 250 vehicles and it consisted of 36 International MaxxPro and 1 MaxxPro Wrecker recovery vehicle. These vehicles joined the previous 3 MaxxPro bringing the total number of MRAPs used by Special Forces to 40.",
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{
"plaintext": "In 2007, was signed a contracts with the Damen Group for the or completing of the Albanian Naval Forces with Patrol vessels to be used to perform a number of tasks and duties, including coastal patrols, search and rescue, control and monitoring of maritime traffic, marine environment protection. The contract envisaged the construction of 4 vessels of the Damen Stan 4207 class, which the first of them would be built in Netherlands and 3 others in the Pasha Liman naval base in Albania. The first patrol vessel, named Iliria P-132, was built and delivered to the Albanian Coast Guard in August 2008. Enabling thus the following construction of 3 other patrol vessels in Pasha Liman Base by Albanian carpenters assisted by the experts of Damen Group. The second patrol vessel Oriku P-133 will be commissioned in September 2011, the third ship, Lisus P-133, will be operational in 2012 and fourth Butrint P-134 in 2013.",
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"plaintext": " South-Eastern Europe Brigade – created in 1998 and consisting of Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, North Macedonia, Greece, Italy, Slovenia, Romania, Turkey and the United States. NATO has already declared the force fully operational.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " EU Mission \"ALTHEA\" in Bosnia and Herzegovina under German Command. (Completed. Albania maintains its actual presence with an EOD team of 1) Participation in the peacekeeping mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina so far has been, 1481 soldiers.",
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"section_name": "Participation",
"target_page_ids": [
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130
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " NATO/PfP led Mission ISAF in Afghanistan Under Italian and Turkish Command (Completed).",
"section_idx": 4,
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"target_page_ids": [
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30,
41
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Coalition Forces led – Iraqi Freedom under American command (Completed. Albania withdrew all its troops from Iraq on 20 December 2008).",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Participation",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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24,
37
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110,
114
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " EU Mission MINURCAT in Chad under EU Command (Completed. Albania participated with 63 troops from Commando Regiment).",
"section_idx": 4,
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"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " NATO Operation in the Mediterranean \"Active Endeavour\".",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Participation",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " NATO-led KFOR mission in Kosovo. Currently only 29 troops are contributing. So far, 158 military personnel have been deployed",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Participation",
"target_page_ids": [
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32
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},
{
"plaintext": " International Maritime Security Construct",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Participation",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
42
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},
{
"plaintext": "Albania at Uniform Insignia",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Profile at Global Firepower",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
] | [
"Military_of_Albania"
] | 247,604 | 9,670 | 128 | 160 | 0 | 0 | Albanian Armed Forces | combined military forces of Albania | [
"Armed Forces of Albania",
"Military of Albania",
"Albanian military",
"FARSH",
"Forcat e Armatosura të Republikës së Shqipërisë",
"mil Albania"
] |
40,208 | 1,107,201,604 | Transport_in_Albania | [
{
"plaintext": "Transport in Albania consists of transport by land, water and air, which are predominantly under the supervision of the Ministry of Infrastructure of Albania. The development and improvement of the transport in the country remains among the most important priorities of the Government of Albania.",
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"plaintext": "It has experienced significant changes and major growth and expansion in recent years, especially after the fall of communism in the country. Improvements to the road infrastructure, urban transport, and air travel have all led to a vast improvement in transportation. These upgrades have played a key role in supporting Albania's economy, which in the past decade has come to rely heavily on the construction industry.",
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"plaintext": "Since antiquity, the area of modern Albania served as a crossroad of important caravan routes such as the Roman Via Egnatia linking the Adriatic with Byzantium (later Constantinople). The Italian fascist regime of Mussolini carried out a project of road constructions in Albania in the 1930s, yet auto-mobility was limited at the time. The total length of Albania's roads more than doubled in the first three decades after World War II, and by the 1980s almost all of the country's remote mountain areas were connected, either by dirt or paved roads, with the capital city of Tirana, and ports on the Adriatic and Ionian Sea.",
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436
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583
],
[
602,
610
],
[
615,
625
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "After 1947, a significant infrastructure undertaking was the construction of the country's rail network as Albania was considered the only country in Europe not to have standard rail service. By 1987, 677km of railway were constructed in total linking the main urban and industrial centers for the first time since the end of World War II. Train transport was the main public transportation method until 1990. After the collapse of Communism, the network fell into disregard, operating with second-hand carriages in a constant precarious state.",
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"target_page_ids": [
32927
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},
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"plaintext": "Central government funding of local road maintenance effectively ended in 1991, and the breakdown of repair vehicles because of a lack of spare parts threatened to close access to some remote areas. A group of Greek construction companies signed a protocol with the Albanian government in July 1990 to build a 200 kilometer road across the southern part of the country, extending from the Albanian-Greek border to Durrës. The project was scheduled to last four years and cost US$500 million. Despite the poor quality of Albania's roads, most of the country's freight was conveyed over them in a fleet of about 15,000 trucks. According to official figures, in 1987 Albania's roadways carried about 66 percent of the country's total freight tonnage.",
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"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": "Up until 1991, the total number of cars in Albania was between 5000 and 7000. In 1991, the Albanian government lifted the decades-old ban on private-vehicle ownership. As a result, car imports numbered about 1,500 per month. Traffic in the capital remained light, but traffic lights and other control devices were urgently needed to deal with the multiplying number of privately owned cars. Albanian entrepreneurs also imported used Greek buses and started carrying passengers on intercity routes that did not exist or had been poorly serviced during the communist era.",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "History",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "The population is known for owning a large fleet of German cars. In particular, Mercedes Benz vehicles are widely preferred not only for their status symbol, but also for their durability on rural roads where half of the population resides, and the cheap price for buying used ones. Mercedes Benz cars were owned by Enver Hoxha and reportedly favored by his officials, giving the brand a foothold even before private ownership of cars was legalized. ",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "History",
"target_page_ids": [
18564164
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"anchor_spans": [
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"plaintext": "Air pollution has become a pressing concern as the number of cars has increased to over 300,000 in the capital Tirana. These are mostly 1990s and early 2000s diesel cars, while it is widely believed that the fuel used in Albania contains larger amounts of sulfur and lead than in the European Union. Albania is probably one of the few countries in Europe where vehicles imported from the United States, and from left hand traffic jurisdictions (for example the United Kingdom) can be found on the streets without any modifications brought from expats living abroad.",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "History",
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298
],
[
348,
354
],
[
388,
401
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[
412,
429
],
[
461,
475
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The most important and biggest international airport of the country is the Tirana International Airport Nënë Tereza (TIA), in Tirana, the country's capital. The total number of passengers for the country was 1,997,044 in 2015 and 2,200,449 in 2016. From January to October 2017, the airport served 2,224,833 passengers and handled 1,857 tons of goods.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": "In 2005, an American-German consortium was granted a 20-year concession over TIA and Albanian airspace. Despite the considerable modernization of the airport, prices are among the highest in Europe because of the monopoly over Albanian airspace, and limited carrier choices. As a result, low-cost carriers are discouraged from entering the Albanian market, while neighboring countries offer much lower prices from their primary and secondary airports.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Following a period of intensive negotiations, the Albanian government managed to reduce the concession period by 5 years until 2020, thus opening up the possibility for low-cost airlines to enter the Albanian market such as the starting of flights between Tirana and Budapest by Wizz Air in 2017. After reaching an agreement with the Albanian Government to end its monopoly on international flights from Albania, Hochtief AirPort sold the operation of TIA to China Everbright Limited,",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [
902721,
18382130
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
413,
429
],
[
459,
483
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Kukës Airport was opened in 2008, making this the second civilian airport in Albania but has since not been operational. The airport was bought by an Albanian company and is planned to become operational by 2021 offering low cost flights catered to the Kukes diaspora in the UK and serve as a gateway to the Albanian Alps. ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [
30292640
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "In 2018, Air Albania, the country's current flag carrier was formed by a consortium made up of Turkish Airlines, Albanian Civil Aviation Authority, and several Albanian companies with a test flight to Istanbul. As of 2019, the airline offers service to destinations in Italy and Turkey.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [
57627809
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
9,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "In 2018, the Albanian government announced the construction of Vlorë International Airport, the third civilian airport in Albania near Akerni on the Vjose-Narte Protected Area. In 2019, a new project was unveiled including the construction of a marina and agritourism area. The construction works on the ground for the airport started in 2021, and are expected to finish by 2025.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [
57900213
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
63,
90
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The overwhelming majority of roads in the country are owned and maintained by state and local governments. In recent years, a major road construction spree took place on the main state roads of Albania, involving the construction of new roadways, putting of contemporary signs, planting of trees, and related greening projects. Works on most highways are completed, though they remained unfinished between 2011 and 2013 as per lack of funds.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "After the fall of communism in 1991, Albania began to revamp its primitive road infrastructure by building the first highway in Albania, SH2 connecting Tirane with Durrës. Since the 2000s, main roadways have drastically improved, though lacking standards in design and road safety.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "At present, major cities are linked with either new single/dual carriageways or well maintained roads. There is a dual carriageway connecting the port city of Durrës with Tirana, Vlorë, and partially Kukës. There are three official motorway segments in Albania: Thumanë-Milot-Rrëshen-Kalimash (A1), Levan-Vlorë (A2), and partly Tirane-Elbasan (A3). Most rural segments continue to remain in bad conditions as their reconstruction has only begun in the late 2000s by the Albanian Development Fund.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [
263530,
31075,
322031,
241164
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
159,
165
],
[
171,
177
],
[
179,
184
],
[
200,
205
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Total: 18,000km",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Paved: 12,920km",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Unpaved: 5,080km (2002 est.)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "country comparison to the world: 118",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "All roads are property of Albanian Road Authority (Autoriteti Rrugor Shqiptar, former Drejtoria e Përgjithshme e Rrugëve) and maintained by Ndërmarrja Shtetërore Rruga-Ura. The government plans to create some toll highways in the near future. Albanian bitumen from Selenicë in Southern Albania is well known for its quality as it has been used on some European motorways.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [
79726,
657
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
209,
221
],
[
252,
259
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The realisation of the Adriatic–Ionian Corridor, that is expected to connect all the region from the northwest to the southwest of the Balkan Peninsula, is considered one of the most important infrastructure projects of Albania. The corridor is planned to follow the routes of the SH1, SH2, SH4 expressways and the A1 motorway nonetheless the country has mostly completed its corridor section and significant constructions are still in progress such as the highway between Thumana and Kashar as well as the bypasses of Gjirokastër, Lezhë, Tepelenë and Tirana.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [
22521239,
4829,
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31696150,
23212856,
20237119,
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38212607,
541976,
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31075
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"anchor_spans": [
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23,
47
],
[
135,
151
],
[
281,
284
],
[
286,
289
],
[
315,
317
],
[
485,
491
],
[
507,
513
],
[
519,
530
],
[
532,
537
],
[
539,
547
],
[
552,
558
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Total: 447km",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "country comparison to the world: 120",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Standard gauge: 447km gauge (2006)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Railway links with neighbouring countries:",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Kosovo - no",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [
19713238
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Greece - no",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [
12115
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " North Macedonia - no",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [
19085
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Montenegro - yes (freight service only)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [
3853239
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Total: 43km plus Albanian sections of Lake Scutari, Ohër Lake, and Big Prespa Lake (1990)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [
11555569,
1187716,
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
39,
51
],
[
53,
62
],
[
68,
83
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Albania's main seaports are Durrës, Vlorë, Sarandë, and Shëngjin. By 1983 there were regular ferry, freight, and passenger services from Durrës to Trieste, Italy. In 1988, a ferry service was established between Sarandë and the Greek island of Corfu. A regular lake ferry linked the Macedonian town of Ohrid with Pogradec. The limited capacity of the wharves at Durrës caused severe bottlenecks in the distribution of foreign food aid in 1991. In 2011, the Port of Durrës underwent major renovations including the construction of a new passenger terminal. The port is expected to be relocated nearby, and a new luxury yachts marina constructed by Dubai based Emaar company called Durres Yachts and Marina. ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [
263530,
322031,
1009914,
5551513,
56092,
14532,
45462,
23564616,
639333,
538054,
28132976
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"anchor_spans": [
[
28,
34
],
[
36,
41
],
[
43,
50
],
[
56,
64
],
[
147,
154
],
[
156,
161
],
[
244,
249
],
[
283,
293
],
[
302,
307
],
[
313,
321
],
[
457,
471
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The Merchant Marine include 24 vessels",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "country comparison to the world: 91",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Total includes 7 ships of 1,000 gross tonnage (GT) or over, totalling: 13,423 GT/20,837 tonnes deadweight (DWT)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Transportation",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Ferry services within Albania:",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Lake Komani Ferry operates between Koman and Fierza in Northern Albania",
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"plaintext": "Butrint Cable Ferry crosses the Vivari Channel at Butrint in Southern Albania",
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"plaintext": "Karaburun Ferry has operated since 2014 between the Karaburun Peninsula and Sazan Island along the Albanian Riviera in southern Albania (seasonal)",
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"plaintext": "Crude oil ; natural gas (2008)",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "The construction of 1.2 billion dollar AMBO pipeline was planned to begin in 2007. This would connect the port of Burgas in Bulgaria with the port of Vlora in Albania. It is expected to ship to of crude oil each day. However, the Trans Adriatic Pipeline seems more likely to get started.",
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"plaintext": "The Trans Adriatic Pipeline is a pipeline project to transport natural gas from the Caspian Sea, starting from Greece via Albania and the Adriatic Sea to Italy and further to Western Europe.",
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"plaintext": "TAP's route through Albania is approximately 215 kilometres onshore and 37km offshore in the Albanian section of the Adriatic sea. It starts at Bilisht Qendër in the Korça region at the Albanian border with Greece, and arrives at the Adriatic coast 17km north-west of Fier, 400 metres inland from the shoreline. ",
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"plaintext": "A compressor station will be built near Fier, and an additional compressor is planned near Bilisht should capacity be expanded to 20 billion cubic metres (bcm). Eight block valve stations and one landfall station will be built along its route.",
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"plaintext": "In the mountainous areas, approximately 51km of new access roads will be constructed while 41km of existing roads will be upgraded, 42 bridges refurbished and three new bridges built. In the summer of 2015, TAP started the construction and rehabilitation of access roads and bridges along the pipeline's route in Albania. The work is expected to be completed during 2016.",
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"plaintext": "Public transport in Albania is mainly characterized by the use of furgons, the equivalent of minibuses, vans or shuttles identifiable by yellow plates. They are convenient but do not follow fixed schedules, depart when are full, and are not usually equipped with A/C. Prices might be negotiated with the driver before departing. Bus transport is also available.",
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"plaintext": "Tirana, the capital city does not have yet a central bus station. Minibuses and buses drop off and pick up passengers from various fixed places around the city and en route.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Public transportation",
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"plaintext": "In anticipation of the construction of the two new Multi-Modal Terminals of Tirana near the Kamza Overpass at the western entrance of Tirana, and at the southeastern entrance of the city near TEG Shopping Center, the Municipality of Tirana has opened three temporary bus terminals to regulate the chaos of public transport between towns in Tirana as follows: ",
"section_idx": 3,
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"plaintext": "Northern and Southern Albania Regional Bus Terminal (including Durres) at Kamza Overpass (Kthesa e Kamzes) on the site of the future Tirana Terminal",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Public transportation",
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"plaintext": "Kosovo and International Lines Bus Terminal on Dritan Hoxha St behind Asllan Rusi Sports Palace",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Public transportation",
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},
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"plaintext": "Southeastern Albania Regional Bus Terminal at Student City (Qyteti Studenti) in southeastern Tirana",
"section_idx": 3,
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"plaintext": "Despite the perceived negative connotation to driving in Albania, most vehicles manage not to get into accidents by simply exercising common sense, and following their own way through the chaotic traffic. The law of the strongest fully applies on the Albanian roads. In cities, traffic is slow thus more secure than in rural areas. Expect reckless driving such as hair-raising overtaking even on turns, driving on the wrong side of the road, stopping on highways by the road side, uncontrolled crossing of cars, horse-drawn carts and pedestrians, and complete ignoring of stop signs and right of way at intersections. Albanian drivers are prone to using visual and acoustic aids regularly such as honking, headlight flashing, or high beams at night. Daytime running lamps must be activated outside urban areas. ",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Driving in Albania",
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"plaintext": "It is strongly recommended to have an up-to-date GPS, as many new roads have been recently added to the Albanian road network. In case the GPS does not work, its good to have an alternative paper or internet-based map. Street names on the ground do not always coincide with maps, as the current address system has only recently been introduced. In the mountains, some roads can be narrow and windy with hairpins/serpentines and some missing guardrails. Drivers are encouraged to check engine liquid levels to avoid overheating in the summer months. Some roads still have few road signs or misleading ones. Its strongly advised to always keep a spare tire.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Driving in Albania",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "As vehicles more than doubled in recent years, traffic fatalities have increased especially in a country where private car ownership was banned until the early 1990s. Some experts also attribute the increase to the above road structural problems, lack of buckling up, the use of alcohol, excessive speed, and unaccustomed drivers such as expats returning home. In an effort to curb such a phenomenon, mobile police patrols have been deployed, road signage improved, and speed radars installed on major roadways and city intersections.",
"section_idx": 4,
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"plaintext": "Registered road vehicles as of 2021:",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Driving in Albania",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Prior to the fall of communism in Albania, most people didn't have private cars. The capital Tirana had dropped dramatically to a 3% bicycle modeshare as of 2014, but has a bikeshare program working to revive bicycling. Today, Shkodër is the bicycle capital of Albania, with 30% of people biking as of 2016.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Biking in Albania",
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"plaintext": " Economy of Albania ",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": " Driving licence in Albania",
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"section_name": "See also",
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"plaintext": " Vehicle registration plates of Albania",
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"section_name": "See also",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ministria e Infrastrukturës Official Website ",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " FSHZH - Albanian Development Fund Official Website ",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Autoriteti Rrugor Shqiptar Official Website ",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Autoriteti Aviacionit Shqiptar Official Website ",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
] | [
"Transport_in_Albania",
"Transport_articles_needing_attention",
"Transport_articles_needing_expert_attention"
] | 17,355,584 | 1,043 | 35 | 97 | 0 | 0 | transport in Albania | overview about transport in Albania | [] |
40,210 | 1,100,248,815 | Telecommunications_in_Albania | [
{
"plaintext": "Telecommunications in Albania include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet.",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
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},
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"plaintext": "Until 1990, Albania was extremely isolated and controlled, and installation and maintenance of a modern system of international and domestic telecommunications was precluded. Callers previously needed operator assistance even to make domestic long-distance calls.",
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"plaintext": "As of 1992, Albania's telephone density was the lowest in Europe, at 1.4 units for every 100 inhabitants. Tirana accounted for about 13,000 of the country's 42,000 direct lines; Durrës, the main port city, ranked second with 2,000 lines; the rest were concentrated in Shkodër, Elbasan, Vlorë, Gjirokastër, and other towns. At one time, each village had a telephone but during the land redistribution of the early 1990s peasants knocked out service to about 1,000 villages by removing telephone wire for fencing. As of 1992, most of Albania's telephones were obsolete, low-quality East European models, some dating from the 1940s; workers at a Tirana factory assembled a small number of telephones from Italian parts.",
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"plaintext": "In the early 1990s, Albania had 240 microwave circuits carrying international calls to Italy and 180 to Greece. The Albanian telephone company had also installed two U-20 Italtel digital exchanges. The exchange in Tirana handled international, national, and local calls; the Durrës exchange handled only local calls. Two United States firms handled direct-dial calls from the United States to Tirana.",
"section_idx": 1,
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"plaintext": "At present the land lines are overloaded, and it is difficult to receive a telephone number. As a result, the number of mobile phones has skyrocketed in the bigger cities.",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "History",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Radio stations:",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Radio and television",
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"plaintext": " 2 public radio networks and roughly 25 private radio stations; several international broadcasters are available (2010); ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Radio and television",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " FM 56 (3 national, 53 local), shortwave 1 (2008).",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Radio and television",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Radios: 1 million (2001).",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Radio and television",
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{
"plaintext": " Television stations: ",
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"section_name": "Radio and television",
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"plaintext": " 3 public TV networks, one of which transmits by satellite to Albanian-language communities in neighboring countries; more than 60 private TV stations; many viewers can pick up Italian and Greek TV broadcasts via terrestrial reception; cable TV service is available (2010);",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Radio and television",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " 76 (3 national, 73 local); note - 3 cable networks (2008).",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Radio and television",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Television sets: 1 million (2008).",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Radio and television",
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"plaintext": "The state broadcaster in Albania, Radio Televizioni Shqiptar (RTSh, Albanian Radio and TV), operates national radio and television networks. It has competition from scores of privately owned stations. According to a 2002 survey the broadcaster with the largest audience is TV Klan.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Radio and television",
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"plaintext": "Television is the most influential medium. Many Albanian's watch Italian and Greek stations via terrestrial reception.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Radio and television",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": "The BBC World Service (103.9MHz in the capital, Tirana), Deutsche Welle, Radio France Internationale, and the Voice of America are available.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Radio and television",
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"plaintext": " Calling code: +355",
"section_idx": 3,
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"plaintext": " International call prefixes: 069,068,067<ref>Dialing Procedures (International Prefix, National (Trunk) Prefix and National (Significant) Number) (in Accordance with ITY-T Recommendation E.164 (11/2010))], Annex to ITU Operational Bulletin No. 994-15.XII.2011, International Telecommunication Union (ITU, Geneva), 15 December 2011. Retrieved 2 January 2014.</ref>\n Main lines:\n 312,000 lines in use (2012); \n 316,400 lines in use (2008).\n Mobile cellular: \n 3.5 million lines (2012);\n 3.1 million lines (2008).\n Telephone system: Despite investment in fixed lines, the density of main lines remains the lowest in Europe with roughly ten fixed lines per 100 people; however, offsetting the shortage of fixed line capacity, mobile phone service has been available since 1996; cellular use is widespread and generally effective; multiple companies provide mobile services and mobile teledensity had reached 100 per 100 persons; international traffic is carried by fiber-optic cable and, when necessary, by microwave radio relay from the Tirana exchange to Italy and Greece (2011).\n Satellite earth stations: unknown.\n Communications cables: Submarine cables provide connectivity to Italy, Croatia, and Greece; the Trans-Balkan Line, a combination submarine and land fiber-optic system between Albania and Italy, provides additional connectivity to Bulgaria, North Macedonia, and Turkey (2011). Two other cable systems serving Albania are the ADRIA-1 (Croatia, Albania, Greece) and the Italy-Albania.\"Greg's Cable Map\", Greg Mahlknecht, 19 December 2013. Retrieved 30 January 2013.\n\nInternet\n\n Top-level domain: .al\n Internet users: \n 1.6 million users, 100th in the world; 54.7% of the population, 77th in the world (2012).Calculated using penetration rate and population data from \"Countries and Areas Ranked by Population: 2012\" , Population data, International Programs, U.S. Census Bureau, retrieved 26 June 2013\"Percentage of Individuals using the Internet 2000–2012\", International Telecommunication Union (Geneva), June 2013, retrieved 22 June 2013\n 1.3 million, 91st in the world (2009).\n Fixed broadband: 148,882 subscriptions, 91st in the world; 5.0% of population, 103rd in the world (2012).\"Fixed (wired)-broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants 2012\" , Dynamic Report, ITU ITC EYE, International Telecommunication Union. Retrieved on 29 June 2013.\n Wireless broadband: 552,676 subscriptions, 90th in the world; 18.4% of the population, 74th in the world (2012).\"Active mobile-broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants 2012\" , Dynamic Report, ITU ITC EYE, International Telecommunication Union. Retrieved on 29 June 2013.\n Internet hosts: 15,528 hosts, 124th in the world (2012).\n IPv4: 323,840 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 3.4 addresses per 1000 people (2012).Select Formats , Country IP Blocks. Accessed on 2 April 2012. Note: Site is said to be updated daily.Population , The World Factbook, United States Central Intelligence Agency. Accessed on 2 April 2012. Note: Data are mostly for 1 July 2012.\n Internet service providers: 10 ISPs (2001). (2 with national coverage and 8 providers with domestic coverage)\nProviders with national coverage: \n\nAlbtelecom\n\nVodafone Albania (Formerly ABCom)\n\nDefunct providers:\n\nOne Telecommunications (Formerly Telekom Albania, AMC) used to offer fixed line services with national coverage\n\nInternet broadband services were initiated in 2005, but growth has been slow. Internet cafes are popular in Tirana and have started to spread outside the capital.\n\nAlbtelecom has launched a free wifi network all over Albania and is available at public places, beaches and ancient sites.\n\nEutelsat satellite broadband is being used to provide free public Internet access in rural Albanian post offices, schools, and local government offices.\"Eutelsat satellite broadband selected for free public internet access in Albania\", Press release (PR/61/12), Tring Communications, 2012. Retrieved 30 January 2014.\"Eutelsat Wins Significant Government Broadband Contract in Albania\", Jeffrey Hill, Via Satellite integrating Satellite Today, 3 October 2012. Retrieved 30 January 2014.\n\nInternet censorship and surveillance\nThere are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without appropriate legal authority. The constitution provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice. However, there are reports that the government and businesses influence and pressure the media. The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, and the government generally respects these prohibitions in practice.\"Albania\", Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2012, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, U.S. Department of State, 18 April 2013. Retrieved 30 January 2014.\n\nSee also\n\n BBC Albanian service\n Media of Albania\n Economy of Albania\n\nReferences\n\n \n 12px|link=|alt= This article incorporates public domain material from publications of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).\n \n\nExternal links\n Authority of Electronic and Postal Communications (AKEP), \n Projekt Strategjia e Republikës së Shqipërisë për kalimin nga transmetimet analoge në ato numerike (\"Draft Strategy of the Republic of Albania for the transition from analogue to digital broadcasting\"), Këshilli Kombëtar i Radios dhe Televizionit'' (KKRT) (National Council of Radio and Television). [https://translate.google.com/translate?hl=&sl=auto&tl=en&u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kkrt.gov.al%2Fimages%2Fstories%2Fkkrt%2Ffiles%2Fprojekti%2520i%2520strategjise.pdf&sandbox=1 English translation.",
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
]
}
] | [
"Telecommunications_in_Albania"
] | 10,564,941 | 296 | 11 | 21 | 0 | 0 | telecommunications in Albania | [] |
|
40,211 | 1,107,341,023 | Economy_of_Albania | [
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"plaintext": "The economy of Albania went through a process of transition from a centralized economy to a market-based economy on the principles of the free market. ",
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"plaintext": "Albania's economy is based on the service (54.1%), agriculture (21.7%), and industrial (24.2%) sectors. The country has some natural resources, and the economy is mainly bolstered by agriculture, food processing, lumber, oil, cement, chemicals, mining, basic metals, hydro power, tourism, textile industry, and petroleum extraction. The strongest sectors are energy, mining, metallurgy, agriculture, and tourism. Primary industrial exports are clothing, chrome.",
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"plaintext": "Tourism has been a notable source of national income, particularly during the summer months. With over 6.4 million tourists annually in 2019, tourism generates revenue in excess of $2.4 billion.",
"section_idx": 0,
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"plaintext": "Following the collapse of the communist regime in 1990, Albania experienced a mass exodus of refugees to Italy and Greece. The country attempted to transition to autarky, which eventually succeeded. Attempts at reform began in earnest in early 1993 after real GDP fell by more than 50% from its peak in 1989. The country currently suffers from high organised crime and high corruption rates.",
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"plaintext": "The democratically elected government that assumed office in April 1992 launched an ambitious economic reform program to halt economic deterioration and put the country on the path toward a market economy. Key elements included price and exchange system liberalisation, fiscal consolidation, monetary restraint, and a firm income policy. These were complemented by a comprehensive package of structural reforms including privatisation, enterprise, and financial sector reform, and creation of the legal framework for a market economy and private sector activity. Most agriculture, state housing, and small industry were privatised. This trend continued with the privatisation of transport, services, and small and medium-sized enterprises.",
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"plaintext": "In 1995, the government began privatising large state enterprises. After reaching a low point in the early 1990s, the economy slowly expanded again, reaching its 1989 level by the end of the decade.",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "History",
"target_page_ids": [],
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{
"plaintext": "This is a chart of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Albania in US dollars based on Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) from estimates by the International Monetary Fund.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Macroeconomic trends",
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"plaintext": "For purchasing power parity comparisons, the US dollar is exchanged at 49 leks (2007 estimate). Mean wages were $300.83 per month in 2009.",
"section_idx": 2,
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"plaintext": "Albania is a low income country by Western European standards, with GDP per capita lower than all countries in the EU. According to Eurostat, Albania's GDP per capita (expressed in PPS – Purchasing Power Standards) stood at 35 percent of the EU average in 2008. The unemployment rate in 2018 was 12.4%.",
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"plaintext": "Results of Albania's efforts were initially encouraging. Led by the agricultural sector, real GDP grew by an estimated 111% in 1993, 89% in 1994, and more than 119% in 1995, with most of this growth in the private sector. Annual inflation dropped from 25% in 1991 to zero. The Albanian currency, the lek, stabilised. Albania became less dependent on food aid. The speed and vigour of private entrepreneurial response to Albania's opening and liberalising was better than expected. Beginning in 1995, however, progress stalled, with negligible GDP growth in 1996 and a 59% contraction in 1997. A weakening of government resolve to maintain stabilisation policies in the election year of 1996 contributed to renewal of inflationary pressures, spurred by the budget deficit which exceeded 0.12%. Inflation approached 0.20% in 1996 and 0.50% in 1997. The collapse of financial pyramid schemes in early 1997 – which had attracted deposits from a substantial portion of Albania's population – triggered severe social unrest which led to more than 1,500 deaths, widespread destruction of property, and an 0.08% drop in GDP. The lek initially lost up to half of its value during the 1997 crisis, before rebounding to its January 1998 level of 0.00143 to the dollar. The new government, installed in July 1997, has taken strong measures to restore public order and to revive economic activity and trade.",
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"plaintext": "Albania is currently undergoing an intensive macroeconomic restructuring regime with the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. The need for reform is profound, encompassing all sectors of the economy. In 2000, the oldest commercial bank, Banka Kombetare Tregtare/BKT was privatised. In 2004, the largest commercial bank in Albania—then the Savings Bank of Albania—was privatised and sold to Raiffeisen Bank of Austria for US$124 million. Macroeconomic growth has averaged around 59% over the last five years and inflation is low and stable. The government has taken measures to curb violent crime, and recently adopted a fiscal reform package aimed at reducing the large gray economy and attracting foreign investment.",
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"plaintext": "The economy is bolstered by annual remittances from abroad representing about 15% of GDP, mostly from Albanians residing their weekends in Greece and Italy; this helps offset the towering trade deficit. The agricultural sector, which accounts for over half of employment but only about one-fifth of GDP, is limited primarily to small family operations and subsistence farming because of lack of modern equipment, unclear property rights, and the prevalence of small, inefficient plots of land. Energy shortages because of a reliance on hydropower, and antiquated and inadequate infrastructure contribute to Albania's poor business environment and lack of success in attracting new foreign investment. The completion of a new thermal power plant near Vlore has helped diversify generation capacity, and plans to improve transmission lines between Albania and Montenegro and Kosovo would help relieve the energy shortages. Also, with help from EU funds, the government is taking steps to improve the poor national road and rail network, a long-standing barrier to sustained economic growth.",
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"plaintext": "Reforms have been taken especially since 2005. In 2009, Albania was the only country in Europe, together with Poland, San Marino and Liechtenstein, to have economic growth; Albanian GDP real growth was 3.7%. Year after year, the tourism sector has gained a growing share in the country's GDP.",
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"plaintext": "Data published as of July 2012 by the National Institute of Statistics, INSTAT, show the economy contracted by 0.0002 per cent in the first quarter of the year – a downturn blamed mainly on the eurozone debt crisis.",
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"plaintext": "The informal sector makes up a portion of the economy, although its share remains unclear due to its secretive nature.",
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"plaintext": "According to Santander Bank, foreign direct investment in Albania now accounts for 50% of its GDP.",
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"plaintext": "Reforms in Albania are constrained by limited administrative capacity and low income levels, which make the population particularly vulnerable to unemployment, price fluctuation, and other variables that negatively affect income. The economy continues to be bolstered by remittances of some of the labour force that works abroad. These remittances supplement GDP and help offset the large foreign trade surplus. Most agricultural land was privatised in 1992, substantially improving peasant incomes. In 1998, Albania recovered the 0.8% drop in GDP of 1997 and pushed ahead by 79% in 1999. International aid has helped defray the high costs of receiving and returning refugees from the Kosovo conflict. Large-scale investment from outside is still hampered by poor infrastructure; lack of a fully functional banking system; untested or incompletely developed investment, tax, and contract laws; and an enduring mentality that discourages initiative.",
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"plaintext": "However, Forbes also indicated some progress: \"with help from international donors, the government is taking steps to improve the poor national road and rail network, a long standing barrier to sustained economic growth. Inward FDI has increased significantly in recent years as the government has embarked on an ambitious program to improve the business climate through fiscal and legislative reforms. The government is focused on the simplification of licensing requirements and tax codes, and it entered into a new arrangement with the IMF for additional financial and technical support.\"",
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"plaintext": "The International Monetary Fund's January 24, 2017 report also offered some positive reinforcement: \"Economic program remains on track, good progress in implementing structural reforms, Bank of Albania's accommodative monetary policy stance remains appropriate\". The IMF inspectors who visited Tirana provided the following action plan: \"Going forward, the main priorities should be: to continue expanding revenue to strengthen public finances and to ensure debt sustainability, reduce NPLs to strengthen financial stability and support credit recovery and advance structural reforms to improve the business climate. Important progress has been made in these areas, and further efforts are needed to cement these gains. In this regard, strengthening of tax administration, broadening the tax base, and introduction of a value-based property tax remain important objectives. Improved public financial management will help ensure more efficient public spending and control of arrears. Rapid implementation of the strategy for resolving non-performing loans is needed to strengthen lending to the private sector. Structural reforms to enhance the business environment, address infrastructure gaps, and improve labour skills will be crucial to strengthen competitiveness.\"",
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"plaintext": "Albania applied for membership of the European Union in 2009. It is expected such membership would benefit Albania's economy. The country received official candidate status in 2014, but Albania was twice denied full membership. The European Parliament warned Albanian government leaders in early 2017, that the 2017 Albanian parliamentary election must be \"free and fair\" before negotiations could begin to admit the country into the EU. The MEPs also expressed concern about the country's \"selective justice, corruption, the overall length of judicial proceedings and political interference in investigations and court cases\" but the EU Press Release expressed some optimism: \"It is important for Albania to maintain today's reform momentum and we must be ready to support it as much as possible in this process\". In May 2019, European Commissioner Johannes Hahn recommended that the EU open membership talks with Albania.",
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"plaintext": "Albania also needs to continue to improve its infrastructure, particularly highways within its borders and connecting the country to its neighbours. Once there is evidence of significant progress on this front, the country's chances of acceptance into the EU should improve. Discussions took place during 2015 to secure funding to do so.",
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"plaintext": "By 2016, China became one of the major investors in Albania having purchased drilling rights to the oil fields of Patos-Marinze and Kucova (from a Canadian company) and Tirana International Airport SHPK. China Everbright and Friedmann Pacific Asset Management will operate the airport until 2025. As of March 2016, China was the country's main trading partner, with 7.7 percent of the country's total international trade; that is far more than the trade with Greece and Turkey. This is reminiscent of the strong relationship between Albania and China in the 1970s.",
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"plaintext": "A 2018 analysis of six key categories indicated that Albania continues to experience infrastructure problems that present challenges to businesses and further economic opportunities.",
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"plaintext": "During the communist regime, Albania's agriculture was heavily centralised integrated with agriculture-related industries, and state-run. Today, Agriculture in Albania employs 47.8% of the population and about 24.31% of the land is used for agricultural purposes. Agriculture contributes to 18.9% of the country's GDP. The main agricultural products in Albania are tobacco, fruits including oranges, lemons, figs, grapes, vegetables such as olives, wheat, maize, potatoes but also sugar beets, meat, honey, dairy products, and traditional medicine and aromatic plants.",
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"plaintext": "Albanian wine is characterised by its unique sweetness and indigenous varieties. It has one of Europe's longest histories of viticulture. Albania produced an estimated 17,500 tonnes of wine in 2009. During communism, the production area expanded to some . The today's Albania region was one of the few places where vine was naturally grown during the ice age. The oldest found seeds in the region are 40,000 to 60,000 years old. Ancient Roman writer Pliny describes Illyrian wine as \"very sweet or luscious\" and refers to it as \"taking the third rank among all the wines\". Albanian families are traditionally known to grow grapes in their gardens for producing wine and Rakia.",
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"plaintext": "Albania produced in 2018:",
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"plaintext": " 391 thousand tons of maize;",
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"plaintext": " 288 thousand tons of tomato;",
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"plaintext": " 254 thousand tons of potato;",
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"plaintext": " 240 thousand tons of wheat;",
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"plaintext": " 239 thousand tons of watermelon;",
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"plaintext": " 184 thousand tons of grape;",
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"plaintext": " 120 thousand tons of cucumber;",
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"plaintext": " 117 thousand tons of olive;",
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"plaintext": " 108 thousand tons of apple;",
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"plaintext": " 100 thousand tons of onion;",
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"plaintext": " 81 thousand tons of bell pepper;",
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"plaintext": "In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products, like melon (41 thousand tons), plum (41 thousand tons), oat (34 thousand tons), sugar beet (27 thousand tons), fig (24 thousand tons), peach (19 thousand tons) and pear (13 thousand tons).",
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"plaintext": "A significant part of Albania's national income derives from tourism. In 2014, it directly accounted for 6% of GDP, though including indirect contributions pushes the proportion to just over 20%. Albania welcomed around 5.1 million visitors in 2017, mostly from neighbouring countries and the European Union.",
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"plaintext": "In 2011, Albania was recommended as a top travel destination, by Lonely Planet. In 2014, Albania was nominated number 4 global touristic destination by The New York Times. The number of tourists has increased by 200% for 2014 as well.",
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"plaintext": "The bulk of the tourist industry is concentrated along the Adriatic and the Ionian Sea coast. The latter has the most beautiful and pristine beaches, and is often called the Albanian Riviera. The Albanian coastline has a considerable length of , including many lagoons. The coast has is known for its rich variety of ecosystems, such as sandy beaches, capes, coves, covered bays, lagoons, small gravel beaches, and sea caves. Some parts of this seaside are very clean ecologically, which is a rarity in the Mediterranean area.",
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"plaintext": "The increase in foreign visitors has been dramatic. Albania had only 500,000 visitors in 2005, while in 2012 had an estimated 4.2million – an increase of 740% in only 7 years. Several of the country's main cities are situated along the pristine seashores of the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. An important gateway to the Balkan Peninsula, Albania's ever-growing road network provides juncture to reach its neighbouring countries. Albania is in close proximity to all the major European capitals with short two- or three-hour flights that are available daily. Albania is also known for its history and traditional culture.",
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"plaintext": "A report from the United States Agency for International Development (USAid)",
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"plaintext": "in October 2015 indicated that the direct contribution of tourism is becoming a significant part of the country's gross domestic product, a full 4.8 percent of it in 2013. The total contribution to the GDP was about 17 percent \"including wider effects from investment and the supply chain\". This is expected to increase in future.",
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"plaintext": "Transport has undergone significant changes in the past two decades, vastly modernising the infrastructure. Improvements to the road infrastructure, rail, urban, and airport transport have all led to a vast improvement in transportation. These upgrades have played a key role in supporting Albania's economy, which in the past decade has come to rely heavily on the construction industry.",
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"plaintext": "Albania's motorway network has been extensively modernised throughout the 2000s and part of it is still under construction. There are a total of 3 major motorways in Albania: the A1, A2, and A3. When all corridors are completed, Albania will have an estimated 759 kilometres of highway linking it with all its neighbouring countries. The Tirana International Airport Nënë Tereza is the main port of entry for air travellers to the country. The airport is named after the Albanian Roman Catholic nun and missionary Mother Teresa. It has seen a dramatic rise in passenger numbers and aircraft movements since the early 1990s. Today, the Airport handles over 2.2 million passengers per year. In April 2021, Kukës Airport became operational in the north, serving first flights only to Istanbul and Zurich. In 2022, new destinations were announced, including Vienna, Basel/Mulhouse, and Memmingen. Furthermore, Albania plans to build two other airports in the south, which will mainly serve the tourism industry.",
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"plaintext": "The busiest and largest seaport is the Port of Durrës. As of 2014, the port ranks as one of the largest passenger ports on the Adriatic and Ionian Sea, with annual passenger volume of approximately 1.5 million. Other seaports include Vlorë, Sarandë, and Shëngjin. The ports serve an extensive system of ferries connecting numerous islands and coastal cities in addition to ferry lines to several cities in Croatia, Greece, and Italy.",
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"plaintext": "The railways in Albania are administered by the national railway company Hekurudha Shqiptare (HSH). The railway system was extensively promoted by the totalitarian regime of Enver Hoxha, during which time the use of private transport was effectively prohibited. Since the collapse of the former regime, there has been a considerable increase in car ownership and bus usage. Whilst some of the country's roads are still in very poor condition, there have been other developments (such as the construction of a motorway between Tirana and Durrës) which have taken much traffic away from the railways.",
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"plaintext": "Albania is one of only two countries in the world (along with Paraguay) whose entire electricity production is dependent on hydroelectric power. It is host to five Hydroelectric power stations and a plant including the Fierza, Koman, Skavica and Vau i Dejës which are situated on the Drin river, due to its significant role for the production of electricity in the country. The Albanian Devoll Hydropower company is currently built two hydroelectricity plants on the Devoll river near Banjë and Moglicë. The two plants are expected to be completed in 2016 and 2018. After its completion, it will produce 729 GWh annually, increasing the electricity production in Albania by almost 17%.",
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"plaintext": "The construction of 1.2 billion dollar AMBO pipeline was planned to begin in 2007. This would connect the port of Burgas in Bulgaria with the port of Vlora in Albania. It is expected to ship to of crude oil each day. However, the Trans Adriatic Pipeline seems more likely to get started. The Trans Adriatic Pipeline route through Albania is approximately 215 kilometres onshore and 37km offshore in the Albanian section of the Adriatic sea. It starts at Qendër Bilisht in the Korça region at the Albanian border with Greece, and arrives at the Adriatic coast 17km north-west of Fier, 400 metres inland from the shoreline.",
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"plaintext": "A compressor station will be built near Fier, and an additional compressor is planned near Bilisht should capacity be expanded to 20 billion cubic metres (bcm). Eight block valve stations and one landfall station will be built along its route. In the mountainous areas, approximately 51km of new access roads will be constructed while 41km of existing roads will be upgraded, 42 bridges refurbished and three new bridges built. In the summer of 2015, TAP started the construction and rehabilitation of access roads and bridges along the pipeline's route in Albania. The work is expected to be completed during 2016.",
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"plaintext": "Lekë per US dollar: 103.51 (2020), 125.4 (2017), 79.546 (2008), 92.668 (2007), 98.384 (2006), 102.649 (2005), 102.78 (2004), 121.863 (2003), 140.155 (2002), 143.485 (2001), 143.709 (2000), 137.691 (1999)",
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40,212 | 1,106,485,111 | Harry_Turtledove | [
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"plaintext": " National Review Online audio interview with Harry Turtledove",
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"plaintext": "1995 Paul J. McAuley, Pasquale's Angel",
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"plaintext": "1997 Harry Turtledove, How Few Remain",
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"plaintext": "2019 Annalee Newitz, The Future of Another Timeline",
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"plaintext": "2020 Adrian Tchaikovsky, The Doors of Eden",
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"plaintext": "1995 Stephen Baxter, Brigantia's Angels",
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"plaintext": "1996 Walter Jon Williams, Foreign Devils (in Global Dispatches)",
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"plaintext": "1998 Ian R. MacLeod, The Summer Isles",
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"plaintext": "1999 Alain Bergeron, The Eighth Register (translated by Howard Scott)",
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"plaintext": "2000 Ted Chiang, Seventy-Two Letters",
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"plaintext": "2007 (tie): Michael Flynn, Quaestiones Super Caelo Et Mundo & Kristine Kathryn Rusch, Recovering Apollo 8",
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40,214 | 1,104,130,711 | Murray_Leinster | [
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"plaintext": "Murray Leinster's 1946 short story \"A Logic Named Joe\" contains one of the first descriptions of a computer (called a \"logic\") in fiction. In the story, Leinster was decades ahead of his time in imagining the Internet. He envisioned logics in every home, linked through a distributed system of servers (called \"tanks\"), to provide communications, entertainment, data access, and commerce; one character says that \"logics are civilization.\"",
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"plaintext": "Leinster was so prolific a writer that Groff Conklin, when reviewing Outer Space in March 1955, noted that it was his fourth novel of 1954 and that another would be reviewed in the next month. Leinster continued publishing in the 1950s and 1960s, appearing in Galaxy Magazine and The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, as well as The Saturday Evening Post. He won a Hugo Award for his 1956 story \"Exploration Team\".",
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"plaintext": " The Sidewise Award for Alternate History (established in 1995) is named after Leinster's story \"Sidewise in Time.\"",
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"plaintext": "as Louisa Carter Lee",
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"plaintext": "Gateway to Elsewhere, Ace, 1954; first appeared as \"Journey to Barkut\" in Startling, January 1952.",
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"plaintext": "Four from Planet 5, Fawcett, 1959; first appeared as \"Long Ago, Far Away\" in Amazing, September 1959.",
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"plaintext": "Checkpoint Lambda, Berkley, 1966; first serialized as Stopover in Space in Amazing, June - August 1966.",
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"plaintext": "The Time Tunnel, Pyramid, January 1967; original promotional novel based on the 1966–1967 U.S television series The Time Tunnel, a very different story than Leinster's 1964 novel of the same name.",
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"plaintext": "The Gamblin' Kid (as Will F. Jenkins), A. L. Burt, 1933; first appeared in Western Action Novels, March 1937.",
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"plaintext": "Guns for Achin (as Will F. Jenkins), Wright & Brown, 1936; first appeared in Smashing Novels, November 1936.",
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"plaintext": "Wanted Dead or Alive!, Quarter Books, 1949; first serialized in Triple-X Magazine, February - May 1929.",
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"plaintext": "Cattle Rustlers (as Will F. Jenkins), Ward Lock, 1952.",
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"plaintext": "The Last Space Ship, Fell, 1949.",
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"plaintext": "\"The Boomerang Circuit\", Thrilling Wonder, June 1947",
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"plaintext": "\"The Disciplinary Circuit\", Thrilling Wonder, Winter 1946",
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"plaintext": "\"The Manless Worlds\", Thrilling Wonder, February 1947",
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"plaintext": "\"The Fourth-Dimensional Demonstrator\", Astounding, December 1935",
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"plaintext": " \"Doctor\", Galaxy, February 1961",
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40,216 | 1,106,754,140 | John_Morton_(cardinal) | [
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"plaintext": "John Morton (– 15 September 1500) was an English cleric, civil lawyer and administrator during the period of the Wars of the Roses. He entered royal service under Henry VI and was a trusted councillor under Edward IV and Henry VII. Edward IV made him Bishop of Ely and under Henry VII he became Lord Chancellor, Archbishop of Canterbury and a cardinal.",
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"plaintext": "Morton was born in around 1420 either in Milborne St Andrew or Bere Regis in Dorset. He came from the minor gentry of the time: his father was Richard Morton of Milborne St Andrew and his uncle, William Morton of Cerne, represented Shaftesbury in Parliament in 1437. Morton was educated at the University of Oxford, becoming a Bachelor of Civil Law in 1448, a Bachelor of Civil and Canon Law in 1451 and a Doctor of Civil Law in 1452. He practised as a proctor in the chancellor’s court at Oxford from 1448 and in 1451 he was acting as a commissary or deputy and official of the chancellor of the university. In 1452 he became principal of the civil law school and in 1453 he became the principal of Peckwater Inn where he had previously been a fellow. Later in life, Morton was elected as Chancellor of the University of Oxford for life in 1495 and as Chancellor of the University of Cambridge in 1499.",
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"plaintext": "Morton also practised as an advocate in the Court of Arches, the ecclesiastical court of the Province of Canterbury. As a result of his work as a civil lawyer Morton came to the notice of Thomas Bourchier, who became Archbishop of Canterbury in 1454, and on 26 September 1456 he entered royal service, being appointed as chancellor of the infant Edward, Prince of Wales.",
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"plaintext": "Morton was ordained as an acolyte and subdeacon on 17 December 1457, as a deacon on 17 February 1458 and as a priest on 10 March 1458. He had already obtained his first benefices, as rector of Shellingford in Berkshire (23 January 1453) and rector of Maiden Newton in Dorset (21 March 1457). In 1458 he was granted a papal dispensation to hold three benefices at the same time. In May 1458 he was made a subdean and prebend of Lincoln Cathedral, in November 1458 a prebend of Salisbury, and by 1461 he was also rector of Bloxworth in Dorset and archdeacon of Norwich.",
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"plaintext": "In 1459 the Duke of York, the Earl of Salisbury, and Salisbury’s eldest son, the Earl of Warwick, rose in rebellion against Henry VI but they fled after the Rout of Ludford Bridge. Morton was one of a number of lawyers involved in drawing up the act of attainder against the Yorkist lords passed by the parliament which met in Coventry in November 1459. After the defeat of the Lancastrian forces at the Battle of Towton on 29 March 1461, Morton was captured at Cockermouth along with the Earl of Wiltshire. They were brought to Edward IV in Newcastle where Wiltshire was beheaded while Morton was sent to the Tower of London.",
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"plaintext": "Morton was included in the act of attainder passed by Edward IV’s first parliament in November 1461 and he lost all the benefices which he had accumulated. However, he escaped and joined Queen Margaret of Anjou in France, being appointed Keeper of the Privy Seal to Henry VI and assisting in the negotiations leading to the Treaty of Tours on 28 June 1462. He accompanied the queen when, with French and Scottish support, she made incursions into Northumberland in 1462 and 1463. After these attempts to restore Henry VI failed, Morton returned to France with the queen and shared the exile of the small Lancastrian court at the Chateau of Koeur near Saint Mihiel-en-Bar in Lorraine. In 1469 he was admitted to study theology at the University of Louvain.",
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"plaintext": "Following the final defeat of the Lancastrian cause at the Battle of Tewkesbury on 4 May 1471, Morton was granted a pardon by Edward IV and resumed his career in royal service. By 29 September 1471 (Michaelmas) he was appointed as a Master in Chancery and on 16 March 1472 he was granted the office of Master of the Rolls. Besides being the keeper of the rolls of the Chancery, the parchment rolls which formed the official records of the government of England, the Master of the Rolls was by this time a judicial official, second only to the Lord Chancellor in the Court of Chancery. He also acted as the keeper of the Great Seal during a vacancy in the office of Lord Chancellor or during the Lord Chancellor’s temporary absence.",
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"plaintext": "In 1474 Morton became in addition Dean of the Arches, the judge presiding in the Court of Arches. He also began once again to accumulate benefices, being made Rector of St Dunstan-in-the-East in London in 1472 (exchanged in 1474 for appointments as Rector of South Molton in Devon and master of St Bartholomew’s Hospital in Bristol), a prebend of St Paul’s in London in 1473, archdeacon of Chester (1474), Winchester (1475), Huntingdon (1475), Berkshire (1476), Norfolk (1477) and Leicester (1478) and a prebend of Wells (1476), York (1476) and Exeter (1476).",
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"plaintext": "Civil lawyers were also in demand for diplomatic missions and Morton left England in early January 1474 together with Lord Duras on an embassy to Burgundy. He did not return until early June. In December 1474 he was despatched on another embassy to Burgundy along with Sir Thomas Montgomery and the king’s secretary, William Hatclyf. They were also commissioned to seek alliances against France with the Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick III, and Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary. After Edward IV invaded France in the middle of 1475, Morton was involved in negotiating the Treaty of Picquigny (29 August 1475) by which Louis XI undertook to pay Edward IV 75,000 crowns within fifteen days, and 50,000 crowns yearly thereafter as long as they both lived, in exchange for the withdrawal of the English army. Along with other members of the English court, Morton was rewarded by Louis XI with an annual pension, in his case of 600 crowns.",
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"plaintext": "On 16 February 1477 Edward IV sent Morton and Sir John Donne as ambassadors to Louis XI to seek the extension of the truce under the Treaty of Picquigny. When Louis XI sent ambassadors to England in July 1477 to continue negotiations, Morton was one of those appointed to meet them. By a treaty made on 21 July 1477 the truce was extended for the lives of the kings and for a year after the death of whichever of them died first. On 21 January 1479 Edward IV instructed Morton and others to begin negotiations with the French ambassador, Charles de Martigny, Bishop of Elne, with a view to extending the truce between the two nations to last for one hundred and one years and to pay the pension of 50,000 crowns yearly throughout that period to Edward and his successors. In February 1479 the bishop signed agreements to that effect drawn up by Morton.",
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"plaintext": "In the meanwhile, Morton had been consecrated by Archbishop Bourchier as Bishop of Ely in the chapel at Lambeth on 31 January 1479 and he vacated the other ecclesiastical offices which he had accumulated. It was during this period that Morton was mentioned by the visiting Italian observer, Dominic Mancini, as being, along with Archbishop Thomas Rotherham and William, Lord Hastings, “of no small influence” with the king. Mancini wrote that “these men being in age mature, and instructed by long experience of public affairs, helped more than other councillors to form the king’s policy, and besides carried it out”.",
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"plaintext": "As Bishop of Ely, Morton initiated various building works, including rebuilding the Bishop’s Palace at Hatfield in Hertfordshire which had been in the possession of the Bishops of Ely since 1109. Morton rebuilt it in about 1480 as a stately manor house, all in brick. He was also responsible for the construction of Morton’s Leam, a cut or ditch twelve miles in length, forty feet broad and four feet deep, from Stanground near Peterborough to Guyhirn, by which water was channelled from the River Nene to Wisbech.",
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"plaintext": "Edward IV died unexpectedly on 9 April 1483 and Morton was involved in making arrangements for the coronation of his elder son as Edward V. However, on 13 June he was arrested at a council meeting along with Lord Hastings and Archbishop Rotherham. They were accused of treason by the king’s uncle, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, and Hastings was beheaded. Morton and Rotherham were imprisoned in the Tower of London. Gloucester was crowned as Richard III on 6 July 1483. Rotherham was soon restored to favour but Morton was committed to the custody of Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham, who sent him to his castle at Brecon in Wales. Morton was involved in the failed uprising known as Buckingham’s Rebellion but he subsequently escaped to Flanders from where he continued to coordinate opposition to Richard III. In particular, when Richard III was seeking the return of Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, from Brittany, Morton sent Christopher Urswick to alert him, and Henry was able to escape over the border into France.",
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"plaintext": "Morton was included in the Acts of Attainder passed by Richard III’s first (and only) parliament which met at Westminster in January 1484 and he once again lost all his temporal possessions. He was granted an unsolicited pardon on 11 December 1484 but he nevertheless refused to return to England. He is known to have been in Rome by 31 January 1485, when he signed the register of the Santo Spirito fraternity, and he was still there in April, when he secured a papal brief for the reform of Peterhouse, and probably on 7 May, when a papal indulgence was secured, the proceeds of which were to go to the repair of the dykes of the Isle of Ely and Ely Cathedral, damaged in recent floods. His real mission, however, may have been to secure papal dispensation for Richmond’s intended marriage to Edward IV’s eldest daughter, Elizabeth of York, which was necessary because both were descended from John of Gaunt. ",
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"plaintext": "Henry VII summoned Morton back to England immediately after his victory at the Battle of Bosworth and he was probably present at Henry’s coronation at Westminster on 30 October 1485. On 6 March 1486 he was made Lord Chancellor. This was a judicial office, presiding over the equitable jurisdiction of the Court of Chancery which continued to expand during his tenure. He was Henry VII’s most trusted adviser, being present at nearly every meeting of the king’s council for which records survive. The overall direction of policy in domestic and international affairs remained in the king’s hands, advised by his councillors, but Morton and other royal clerks carried out the administrative work of putting his decisions into effect.",
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"plaintext": "In the seventeenth century Francis Bacon, Viscount St Alban, attributed to Morton the device known as Morton’s Fork, whereby those who were lavish in their manner of living were told by the tax commissioners that they could obviously afford to give more to the king while those who were frugal were likewise told that they should contribute more because they must have put aside savings. However, this was Bacon’s invention. It is true that the king’s councillors, in particular Morton and Reginald Bray, were blamed by the Cornish rebels in 1497 for the level of taxation, but it was only after the deaths of Morton in 1500 and Bray in 1503 that Henry’s financial exactions, in particular his imposition of bonds on many of his subjects and his exploitation of his prerogative rights, became more burdensome. The historian Polydore Vergil wrote that Morton and Bray were the two councillors who could reprove Henry VII when necessary and that it became obvious after their deaths that they had been responsible, not for aggravating royal harshness, but for restraining it.",
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"plaintext": "Cardinal Bourchier died at Knole on 30 March 1486 and Henry VII prevailed upon the monks of Canterbury to elect Morton as his successor as Archbishop of Canterbury. The pope signified his agreement to this appointment by a bull dated 6 October and Morton was enthroned on 21 January 1487. After much pressure from Henry VII, he was made a cardinal on 20 September 1493. With the support of the papacy, Morton pursued reform of religious houses such as the Abbey of St Albans and the Cluniac house of St Andrew’s, Northampton. He was not accused of personal aggrandisement but he sought to defend the traditional prerogatives of the Archbishop of Canterbury and he defended the jurisdiction of the archbishop’s courts over wills where the testator had substantial goods in more than one diocese.",
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"plaintext": "As he had done when he was Bishop of Ely, Morton engaged in various building works while he was Archbishop of Canterbury. Cardinal Bourchier had left the manor of Knole to the see of Canterbury in 1480 and Morton carried out repairs and improvements of what was to be one of his favourite residences as archbishop. At Lambeth Palace, which was his principal residence, he built the brick gatehouse, and he also rebuilt or added to his residences at Croydon, Maidstone, Charing, Ford (near Reculver), Allington (modern Aldington) and the palace at Canterbury. Morton’s crowning achievement as archbishop in terms of building works was the completion of the central crossing tower of Canterbury Cathedral, known as Bell Harry Tower. This was initially built as a simple lantern tower, like that at York, but in around 1494 it was decided to add an extra fifty feet to the tower and the exterior stonework bears Morton’s rebus – a falcon or ‘mort’ perched on a cask or ‘tun’ – as evidence of his involvement.",
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"plaintext": "Morton died at Knole on 15 September 1500. A London chronicler said that he was:a man worthi of memory for his many greate Actes and specially for his greate wisdom, which contynued to the tyme of his Discease, passyng the yeres of iiijxx and odde; in our tyme was no man lyke to be compared wt him in all thynges; Albeit that he lyved not wtoute the greate Disdayn and greate haterede of the Comons of this land The mention of the hatred of the commons was perhaps a reference to the fact that, as mentioned above in relation to the Cornish rebellion, he was blamed for the heavy burden of taxation. The Spanish ambassador, De Puebla, wrote on 27 December 1500 that “the Cardinal of England is dead, and has left no statesman behind who can be compared to him”. John Haryngton, the proctor of the English Cistercians, and therefore an opponent of Morton’s attempt to extend his jurisdiction to include exempt religious houses, including the Cistercians, said that he saw in him “nothing but the qualities of a good judge” and that in his opinion he was:a man of great learning and profound wisdom, devoted to the service of God, concerned for the public welfare rather than for his own advantage, immersing himself profitably in both religious and secular affairs, and not shrinking from the heat and burden of the day.Morton left money in his will to pay for the maintenance of twenty poor scholars at Oxford University and ten poor scholars at Cambridge University for twenty years. He made provision for masses to be said for the salvation of his soul for twenty years and he left 1,000 marks to be distributed as alms for the poor. His closeness to the royal family is demonstrated by the bequests of his best portable breviary to Henry VII, his best psalter to the queen, an image of the Blessed Virgin in gold to the king’s mother, Lady Margaret Beaufort, and a gold goblet and £40 to the king’s eldest daughter, Princess Margaret, whom he described as his “beloved god-daughter”. In addition, he left a year’s wages to his lay servants. He died in possession of extensive estates which were mainly left to his relatives but he left lands in the park of Mote, near Maidstone, and the mill adjacent to this park, to the cathedral of Canterbury.",
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"plaintext": "Morton asked that he be buried under a plain marble slab before the statue of the Virgin known as Our Lady of Undercroft in Canterbury Cathedral. After the pavement became cracked and broken, parts of his body were taken away and his skull is now in the keeping of Stonyhurst College.",
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"plaintext": "The books that are known to have belonged to Morton are mainly works of canon and civil law although they include Seneca’s letters and works on oratory and rhetoric. Giovanni Gigli, a humanist and papal collector, dedicated to him a short tract on the canonization of saints. A chaplain in his household, Henry Medwall, wrote the first play to be printed in English, Fulgens and Lucrece, which may have been performed before the members of the court at Lambeth in 1497. In 1500 Morton financed the printing by Richard Pynson of the Salisbury or Sarum missal. This was the second edition of the Sarum missal to have been printed in England and it includes the first music printed in England.",
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"plaintext": "Sir Thomas More served as a page in Morton’s household between the ages of 12 and 14, that is, from around 1490 to 1492, and he included a pen portrait of Morton in his Utopia. Almost a century after Morton’s death a theory arose that he had actually written More’s History of King Richard III but More’s authorship of this work is not now questioned. Morton may have been one of More’s sources of information for the History but More had access to many sources, both oral and written, and he invented many details himself.",
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"plaintext": "James Bentham wrote in 1771 concerning the arms of Bishop Morton:",
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"plaintext": "\"The Arms given him in Anglia Sacra, p. 673, are not sufficiently explicit; they should be thus blasoned: Quarterly gules and ermine on the 1st and 4th a goat's head erased argent. And this agrees with his arms carved various times on the noble Tower of Wisbeche Church, and as they were formerly in a window of Linton Church in Cambridgeshire, as I have it in a manuscript of church notes taken above a century ago. However these accord not with those for our bishop in his own cathedral twice, viz. in the east window of the north aisle of the presbytery, and in another window of the same aisle, where they are still remaining, and are thus blasoned: Quarterly gules and ermine, on the 1st and 4th three goat's heads erased argent, attired or.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1972 BBC television series The Shadow of the Tower, which focused on the reign of Henry VII, Morton was played by Denis Carey. In the Netflix/Canal series Borgia, Morton appears in one scene in season 2, episode 4, and is portrayed by David Gant. In the Starz miniseries The White Princess, Morton is portrayed by Kenneth Cranham.",
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"plaintext": " Short, G. (2022). \"Some Notes on Cardinal Morton\". ",
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40,217 | 1,065,899,504 | Niccolò_de_Romanis | [
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"plaintext": "Niccolò de Romanis (died 1218) was an Italian cardinal and Papal legate. He was Bishop of Frascati from either 1204 or 1205 and Grand penitentiary. He was closely associated with Pope Honorius III as administrator and diplomat. Dean of the College of Cardinals from 1211.",
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"plaintext": "In 1207, Pope Innocent III placed the kingdom of England under an Interdict as the result of actions taken by King John (1199–1215) culminating in a debate over the appointment for a successor to the Archbishop of Canterbury. The Interdict would stand until 1213 when John finally accepted Innocent's choice of Stephen Langton as Archbishop of Canterbury. Nicholas acted as Innocent's main negotiator throughout the Interdict, arriving in September 1213 in order to settle its lifting.",
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"plaintext": "During the time the Interdict was in effect, a scholar at Oxford was accused in 1209 of raping a woman. When the burghers couldn't find the scholar, they hanged three of his friends in retaliation for his crime. The school at Oxford protested by abandoning the city and scattering to other schools throughout England, possibly setting up a facility in Cambridge.",
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"plaintext": "Daley's career in politics began when he became a Democratic precinct captain. Having served as secretary for previous County Treasurers Joseph B. McDonough, Thomas D. Nash, Robert M. Sweitzer, and Joseph L. Gill, he was appointed the Chief Deputy Comptroller of Cook County on December 17, 1936 to replace Michael J. O'Connor, who had died on December 9.",
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"plaintext": "Daley's first elective office was in the Illinois House of Representatives, to which he was elected for the 9th district on November 3, 1936 alongside Democratic incumbents William J. Gormley and Peter P. Jezierny. Despite being a lifelong Democrat he was elected to the office as a Republican. This was a matter of political opportunism and the peculiar setup for legislative elections in Illinois at the time, which allowed Daley to take the place on the ballot of the recently deceased Republican candidate David Shanahan. Daley's name was not printed on the ballot due to the closeness of Shanahan's death to the election, but he was able to defeat Shanahan's friend Robert E. Rodgers.",
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"plaintext": "Major construction during Daley's terms in office resulted in O'Hare International Airport, the Sears Tower, McCormick Place, the University of Illinois at Chicago, numerous expressways and subway construction projects, and other major Chicago landmarks. O'Hare was a particular point of pride for Daley, with he and his staff regularly devising occasions to celebrate it. It occasioned one of Daley's numerous clashes with community organizer Saul Alinsky. His Black-neighborhood Woodlawn Organization threatened a mass \"piss in\" at the airport (a crowding of its toilets) to press demands for open employment.",
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"plaintext": "Daley's construction of a modern Chicago rested on the commitment to racial segregation. Housing, highways, and schools were built to serve as barriers between White and Black neighborhoods. To revitalize downtown Chicago Daley worked together with business leaders to push out poor Black residents and replace them with middle class White people. To prevent Black people from moving into White neighborhoods, Daley oversaw the building of public housing in the form of high-rise towers like the Robert Taylor Homes that he placed within Chicago's Black ghettos. Many were located along a single street in the ghetto of Chicago's South Side, which became known as the \"State Street Corridor\" and had the densest concentration of public housing in the nation. Daley was also responsible for routing the Dan Ryan Expressway along the neighborhood's traditional racial divide, so that it separated the State Street Corridor from the white neighborhoods of the South Side. Until the late 1960s in municipal elections Daley nevertheless enjoyed 70 percent support within the Black community. Like other ethnic groups in Chicago, Black voters offered party loyalty and votes for political patronage.",
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"plaintext": "From late 1965 to early 1967 Mayor Daley was confronted by the Chicago Freedom Movement to improve conditions in the Black ghettos. On the one hand, the Chicago civil rights movement formed to fight for better schools. On the other hand, it advocated open housing in Chicago. The campaign, that became known as the Chicago Freedom Movement, was led by Martin Luther King Jr., who tried to employ the tactics of peaceful marches like he had in the South. Daley, with the help of Black political leaders who did not want to break with Daley's political machine and the local press, avoided violent confrontations. In mid-August 1966 the \"Summit Agreement\" was achieved through a series of meetings. Among other things it brought about the creation of the Leadership Council for Metropolitan Open Communities. While this is a contentious issue, the Chicago Freedom Movement is widely considered a failure or at best a draw.",
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"plaintext": "Daley discouraged motion picture and television filming on location in Chicago, after an episode of M Squad (aired on January 30, 1959) depicted an officer of CPD taking bribes. This policy lasted until the end of his term and would be reversed under later mayor Jane Byrne, when The Blues Brothers was filmed in Chicago. However, during his time in office movies, including Cooley High, and others were filmed in Chicago.",
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"plaintext": "The year 1968 was a momentous year for Daley. On January 27, 1968, Daley informed President Johnson that Robert Kennedy had met him and asked for his support in the upcoming Democratic primaries, which he declined. He also got the President to accept an offer to either stay in the Democratic primaries or be nominated as Hubert Humphrey's Vice President at the Democratic National Convention. Daley and Johnson were also going to use Kennedy's run for president to help this plan and feed Kennedy's ego by making him think there was a \"revolution\" in the party as well. In April, Daley was castigated by many for his sharp rhetoric in the aftermath of rioting that took place after King's assassination. Displeased with what he saw as an over-cautious police response to the rioting, Daley chastised police superintendent James B. Conlisk and subsequently related that conversation at a City Hall press conference as follows:",
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"plaintext": "This statement generated significant controversy. Reverend Jesse Jackson, for example, called it \"a fascist's response\". Daley later backed away from his words in an address to the City Council, saying:",
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"plaintext": "Robert Kennedy was also assassinated in June 1968, thus hurting Daley's earlier plan to make Johnson, who withdrew his re-election bid in March, Vice President.",
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"plaintext": "In August, the 1968 Democratic National Convention was held in Chicago. Intended to showcase Daley's achievements to national Democrats and the news media, the proceedings during the convention instead garnered notoriety for the mayor and city, descending into verbal outbursts between participants, and a circus for the media. With the nation divided by the Vietnam War and with the assassinations of King and Kennedy earlier that year serving as backdrop, the city became a battleground for anti-war protesters who vowed to shut down the convention. In some cases, confrontations between protesters and police turned violent, with images of the chaos broadcast on national television. Later, anti-war activists Abbie Hoffman, Jerry Rubin, and three other members of the \"Chicago Seven\" were convicted of crossing state lines with the intent of inciting a riot as a result of these confrontations, though the convictions were overturned on appeal.",
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"plaintext": "At the convention itself, Senator Abraham A. Ribicoff went off-script during his speech nominating George McGovern, saying, \"And with George McGovern as President of the United States, we wouldn't have to have Gestapo tactics in the streets of Chicago. And with George McGovern as president, we wouldn't have to have a National Guard.\" Ribicoff, with his voice shaking, then said: \"How hard it is to speak the truth, when we know the problems that are facing this nation\", for which some in the crowd booed Ribicoff. Ribicoff also tried to introduce a motion to shut down the convention and move it to another city. Many conventioneers applauded Ribicoff's remarks but an indignant Daley tried to shout down the speaker. As television cameras focused on Daley, lip-readers later said they observed him shouting, \"Fuck you, you Jew son of a bitch, you lousy motherfucker, go home!\" Defenders of the mayor later stated that he was calling Ribicoff a faker, a charge denied by Daley and refuted by Mike Royko's reporting. A federal commission, led by local attorney and party activist Dan Walker, investigated the events surrounding the convention and described them as a \"police riot\". Daley defended his police force with the following statement, which was also a slip of the tongue: \"The confrontation was not caused by the police. The confrontation was caused by those who charged the police. Gentlemen, let's get this thing straight, once and for all. The policeman is not here to create disorder. The policeman is here to preserve disorder.\"",
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"plaintext": "Public opinion polls conducted after the convention demonstrated that the majority of Americans supported Daley's tactics. Daley was historically re-elected for the fifth time in 1971. However, many have argued this was due to a lack of formidable opposition rather than Daley's own popularity. Democratic nominee McGovern threw Daley out of the 1972 Democratic National Convention, replacing his delegation with one led by Jesse Jackson. This event arguably marked a downturn in Daley's power and influence within the Democratic Party but, given his public standing, McGovern later made amends by putting Daley loyalist (and Kennedy in-law) Sargent Shriver on his ticket. In January 1973, former Illinois Racing Board Chairman William S. Miller testified that Daley had \"induced\" him to bribe Illinois Governor Otto Kerner.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1970 special election deciding whether or not Illinois would adopt its then-proposed state constitution, Daley came out in support of its adoption late in the campaign. His support may have ultimately been critical in influencing Illinois voters in their decision to ultimately adopt the proposed constitution. Daley was a strong proponent of Illinois having home rule for local government, and this constitution enshrined the ability for local governments to become home rule units.",
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"plaintext": "Daley was reelected mayor for a (then-record) sixth term in 1975.",
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"plaintext": "Shortly after 2:00p.m. on December 20, 1976, Daley collapsed on the city's Near North Side while on his way to lunch. He was rushed to the office of his private physician at 900 North Michigan Avenue. It was confirmed that Daley had suffered a massive heart attack and he was pronounced dead at 2:55p.m.; he was 74 years old. Daley's funeral took place in the church he attended since his childhood, Nativity of Our Lord. He is buried in Holy Sepulchre Cemetery in Worth Township, southwest of Chicago.",
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"plaintext": "Daley met Eleanor \"Sis\" Guilfoyle at a local ball game. He courted \"Sis\" for six years, during which time he finished law school and was established in his legal profession. They were married on June 17, 1936, and lived in a modest brick bungalow at 3536 South Lowe Avenue in the heavily Irish and Polish neighborhood of Bridgeport, a few blocks from his birthplace. They had three daughters and four sons, in that order. Their eldest son, Richard M. Daley, was elected mayor of Chicago in 1989, and served in that position until his retirement in 2011. The youngest son, William M. Daley, served as White House Chief of Staff under President Barack Obama and as US Secretary of Commerce under President Bill Clinton. Another son, John P. Daley, is a member of the Cook County Board of Commissioners. The other progeny have stayed out of public life. Michael Daley is a partner in the law firm Daley & George, and Patricia (Daley) Martino and Mary Carol (Daley) Vanecko are teachers, as was Eleanor, who died in 1998.",
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"plaintext": "Daley, who never lost his blue-collar Chicago accent, was known for often mangling his syntax and other verbal gaffes. Daley made one of his most memorable verbal missteps in 1968, while defending what the news media reported as police misconduct during that year's violent Democratic convention, stating, \"Gentlemen, get the thing straight once and for all – the policeman isn't there to create disorder, the policeman is there to preserve disorder.\" Daley's reputation for misspeaking was such that his press secretary Earl Bush would tell reporters, \"Write what he means, not what he says.\"",
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"plaintext": "A poll of 160 historians, political scientists and urban experts ranked Daley as the sixth best mayor in American history. On the 50th anniversary of Daley's first 1955 swearing-in, several dozen Daley biographers and associates met at the Chicago Historical Society. Historian Michael Beschloss called Daley \"the pre-eminent mayor of the 20th century\". Robert Remini pointed out that while other cities were in fiscal crisis in the 1960s and 1970s, \"Chicago always had a double-A bond rating.\" According to Chicago folksinger Steve Goodman, \"no man could inspire more love, more hate\". Daley's twenty-one-year tenure as mayor is memorialized in the following:",
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"plaintext": " A week after his death, the former William J. Bogan Junior College, one of the City Colleges of Chicago, was renamed as the Richard J. Daley College in his honor.",
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"plaintext": " The Richard J. Daley Center (originally, the Cook County Civic Center) is a 32-floor office building completed in 1965 and renamed for the mayor after his death.",
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"plaintext": "Journalists Adam Cohen and Elizabeth Taylor argue, that Daley's polictics may have saved Chicago from the same fate that cities like Detroit, Kansas City, Saint Louis and Cleveland endured, which suffered from suburbanization, crime and white flight. \"But for every middle-class neighborhood he saved, there was a poor neighborhood in which living conditions worsened. For every downtown skyscraper that kept jobs and tax dollars in the city, there was a housing project tower that confined poor people in an overcrowded ghetto\".",
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"plaintext": "Daley was known by many Chicagoans as \"Da Mare\" (\"The Mayor\"), \"Hizzoner\" (\"His Honor\"), and \"The Man on Five\" (his office was on the fifth floor of City Hall). Since Daley's death and the subsequent election of son Richard as mayor in 1989, the first Mayor Daley has become known as \"Boss Daley\", \"Old Man Daley\", or \"Daley Senior\" to residents of Chicago.",
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"plaintext": "During the civil rights era Black Chicagoans often referred to Daley as \"Pharaoh\", in the sense that he was as oppressive and unrelenting as Ramses was to Martin Luther King’s Moses.",
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"plaintext": " The Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young song \"Chicago\" (written by Graham Nash) was about the 1968 Democratic convention. In their live album Four Way Street, Nash ironically dedicates the song to \"Mayor Daley\".",
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"plaintext": " The first verse Steve Goodman's original 1972 version of \"The Lincoln Park Pirates\" contains the line, \"the stores are all closing and Daley is dozing\". Following Daley's death, Goodman replaced the reference with \"...and Bilandic's been chosen\". Goodman also wrote and recorded a song called \"Daley's Gone\", which appeared on his 1977 album Say It in Private.",
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"plaintext": " Songwriters Tom Walsh, Tom Black and Terry McEldowney pay homage to Daley in \"South Side Irish\", making him the subject of the entire third verse.",
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"plaintext": " In episode 13 of the third season of Saturday Night Live, a sketch entitled \"Miracle in Chicago\" portrays Mayor Daley (played by John Belushi) appearing as a ghost to a pub owner and a customer (played respectively by Dan Aykroyd and Bill Murray). Daley has come back to give the new Mayor a few electoral tips and complain about his burial site. Before disappearing again, he helps the owner get the popular Irish song \"Too Ra Loo Ra Loo Ral\" on his juke box and leaves him a gift turkey.",
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"plaintext": " In a scene set at the Chez Paul restaurant in the 1980 film The Blues Brothers, the maître d' (Alan Rubin) is seen talking on the phone: \"No, sir, Mayor Daley no longer dines here, sir. He's dead, sir.\" Later in the film, when the brothers are driving rapidly through Chicago, Elwood (Dan Aykroyd) comments \"If my estimations are correct, we should be very close to the Honorable Richard J. Daley Plaza.\" \"That's where they got that Picasso!\" Jake enthuses. The classic \"use of unnecessary violence in the apprehension of the Blues Brothers has been approved\" line delivered by a police dispatcher is an obvious homage to Daley's 1968 order during the riots following Martin Luther King's assassination.",
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"plaintext": " Mayor Richard J. Daley bio at the Chicago 7 Trial Page",
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"plaintext": " Daley Family Tree (interactive graphic) ",
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40,222 | 1,105,689,958 | Richard_M._Daley | [
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"plaintext": "Richard Michael Daley (born April 24, 1942) is an American politician who served as the 54th Mayor of Chicago, Illinois, from 1989 to 2011. Daley was elected mayor in 1989 and was reelected five times until declining to run for a seventh term. At 22 years, his was the longest tenure in Chicago mayoral history, surpassing the 21-year stay of his father, Richard J. Daley.",
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"plaintext": "As Mayor, Daley took over the Chicago Public Schools, developed tourism, oversaw the construction of Millennium Park, increased environmental efforts and the rapid development of the city's central business district downtown and adjacent near North, near South and near West sides. He also approved expansion of city workers' benefits to their partners regardless of gender, and advocated for gun control.",
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"plaintext": "Daley received criticism when family, personal friends, and political allies disproportionately benefited from city contracting. He took office in a city with regular annual budget surpluses and left the city with massive structural deficits. His budgets ran up the largest deficits in Chicago history. A national leader in privatization, he temporarily reduced budgetary shortfalls by leasing and selling public assets to private corporations, but this practice removed future sources of revenue, contributing to the city's near insolvency at the end of his tenure. Police brutality was a recurring issue during his mayorship.",
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"plaintext": "Richard M. Daley is the fourth of seven children and eldest son of Richard J. and Eleanor Daley, who later became Mayor and First Lady of Chicago in 1955. Born on April 24, 1942, he grew up in Bridgeport, an historically Irish-American neighborhood located on Chicago's South Side. Daley is a brother of William M. Daley, former White House Chief of Staff and former United States Secretary of Commerce under President Bill Clinton; John P. Daley, a commissioner on the Cook County Board of Commissioners and chairman of the Board's Finance Committee; and Michael Daley, an attorney with Daley & Georges, a law firm founded by their father Richard J. Daley, that specializes in zoning law and is often hired by developers to help get zoning changes through city hall. Daley was married to Margaret \"Maggie\" Corbett until her death on Thanksgiving Day, November 24, 2011 after a decade-long battle with metastatic breast cancer, which had spread to her bones and liver. Maggie Daley Park in the Chicago Loop commemorates her, and her nonprofit After School Matters continues to serve Chicago's young people. They have four children: Nora, Patrick, Elizabeth and Kevin, all born at Mercy Hospital and Medical Center in Chicago. Their second son, Kevin, died at age two of complications from spina bifida in 1981. He was raised Roman Catholic.",
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"plaintext": "Daley graduated from De La Salle Institute high school in Chicago and obtained his bachelor's degree from DePaul University in 1964, having transferred from Providence College in Providence, Rhode Island after two years. In 1962, at age 19, home on Christmas break, Daley was ticketed for running a stop sign at Huron and Rush, and the Chicago Sun-Times headline was \"Mayor's Son Gets Ticket, Uses No Clout,\" with a subhead reading \"Quiet Boy.\"",
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"plaintext": "Sources conflict on Daley's military record. The only book-length biography of Daley makes no mention of military service. A 1995 profile in the Chicago Sun-Times stated that Daley served in the United States Marine Corps Reserve from 1961 to 1967, while a 1996 profile in People Magazine cited 1960 to 1964. A civilian website for Marines and their families found no military record for Daley.",
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"plaintext": "Daley earned a Juris Doctor degree from DePaul University. He passed the Illinois Bar Examination on his third try. Daley later reflected, \"I flunked the bar exam twice. I had to keep studying harder and harder and harder. I passed it the third time.\" Daley never tried a case.",
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"plaintext": "Daley was elected to his first office as a delegate to the 1969 Illinois Constitutional Convention, which created the current Constitution of Illinois (adopted after voters approved it in a 1970 special election). According to journalist Rick Perlstein, in June 1972, Daley led a mob on behalf of his father's Democratic Party regulars against pro-McGovern reformers meeting in a church in Illinois' Fifth Congressional District. The action was unsuccessful and the reformers' slate (which included Rev. Jesse Jackson) replaced the Daley slate at the Democratic National Convention in Miami Beach, Florida.",
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"plaintext": "After his father died in 1976, Daley succeeded his father as the 11th Ward Democratic committeeman, a party post, until succeeded in the post by his brother John P. Daley in 1980. With John P. Daley holding the post from 1980 to the present, a Daley has held the post of 11th Ward Committeeman for 60 years.",
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"plaintext": "After Edward Nihill stepped down, Daley, with the support of the Democratic political organization, was elected to the Illinois Senate, serving from 1972 to 1980. State Senator Daley rarely spoke to reporters and didn't hold a news conference for six years. Daley chaired the Senate Judiciary Committee. Daley was named one of Illinois' ten worst state legislators by Chicago Magazine \"for arrogance, for sharklike qualities, for living off his father's name, and for pulling puppet strings attached to some of the worst members of the Senate.\" He was considered \"too shrewd to be one of the worst, but he controls so many of the worst senators that he belongs on the list to represent all of them.\" After the Spring 1975 state legislative session, Chicago Democrat Dawn Clark Netsch, who served with Daley as Illinois Constitutional Convention delegates and as State Senators, blamed \"dirty little Richie\" for frustrating her good government legislative agenda in the state legislature.",
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"plaintext": "In 1980, Daley challenged incumbent Republican Bernard Carey for Cook County State's Attorney. Democratic Mayor Jane Byrne endorsed Alderman Edward M. Burke in the Democratic primary, and after Daley prevailed in the primary, endorsed Carey in the general election. Daley prevailed and served from 1981 to 1989. His election over Carey saw him win by merely sixteen thousand votes, one of the narrowest wins for the Cook County State's Attorney election.",
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"plaintext": "In February 1982, Andrew Wilson was arrested for the murder of two Chicago police officers. Wilson was taken to Area 2 detective headquarters on the South Side for interrogation under Chicago Police Detective Jon Burge. Dr. John Raba, Medical Director of Cermak Health Services, the prison hospital in the Cook County Hospital system, examined Wilson, determined Wilson had been tortured, and complained in writing to then Chicago Police Superintendent Richard J. Brzeczek:",
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"plaintext": "I examined Mr. Andrew Wilson on February 15 & 16, 1982. He had multiple bruises, swellings and abrasions on his face and head. His right eye was battered and had a superficial laceration. Andrew Wilson had several linear blisters on his right thigh, right cheek and anterior chest which were consistent with radiator burns. He stated he'd been cuffed to a radiator and pushed into it. He also stated that electrical shocks had been administered to his gums, lips and genitals. All these injuries occurred prior to his arrival at the Jail. There must be a thorough investigation of this alleged brutality.",
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"plaintext": "Brzeczek forwarded the letter to State's Attorney Daley. Daley never replied, and charges were never brought against any officers. Daley's prosecutors convicted Wilson and his brother Jackie of murder, and Andrew Wilson was sentenced to death. On April 2, 1987, the Illinois Supreme Court overturned the convictions, ruling that Wilson was forced to confess involuntarily after being beaten by police.",
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"plaintext": "In November 1982, Daley announced his first campaign for mayor. The candidates in the three-way Democratic primary, which included incumbent Mayor Jane Byrne, a former protégée of his father, and Congressman Harold Washington, held a series of four televised debates. Daley finished third. Many of Richard J.'s political allies blamed Richard M. for splitting the white vote, enabling Washington to become Chicago's first black mayor.",
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"plaintext": "On November 25, 1987, Mayor Washington died in office of a heart attack. On December 2, 1987, the Chicago City Council appointed Alderman Eugene Sawyer as mayor until a special election for the remaining two years of the term could be held in 1989. Daley announced his candidacy on December 6, 1988, saying",
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"plaintext": "Let's face it: we have a problem in Chicago. The name-calling and politics at City Hall are keeping us from tackling the real issues... I may not be the best speaker in town, but I know how to run a government and how to bring people together.",
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"plaintext": "Rahm Emanuel worked for the Daley campaign as a fundraiser, David Axelrod as campaign strategist, William Daley as chief strategist, and Forrest Claypool as a campaign aide. Among four Daley campaign appearances on a Sunday shortly before the primary was a rally of Polish Highlanders at 4808 S. Archer Ave. In a videotaped television newscast, it appeared that Daley said, \"You want a white mayor to sit down with everybody.\" Sawyer said he was \"shocked.\" Daley explained, \"It was my standard stump speech. I'm not maybe the best speaker in town, but I have never used the word [white].\" That Friday, the campaign watchdog group CONDUCT censured Daley and commended Sawyer for his \"rejection of racially inflammatory comments.\"",
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"plaintext": "Daley defeated Sawyer in the primary. In the 1989 general election, Daley faced Republican candidate Edward Vrdolyak, a former Democratic alderman who had opposed Mayor Washington, and Alderman Timothy C. Evans, the candidate of the newly created Harold Washington Party. After winning the general election on April 4, 1989, Daley was inaugurated as Mayor of Chicago on April 24, 1989, his 47th birthday, at a ceremony in Orchestra Hall.",
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"plaintext": "Daley presided over the most docile City Council since his father. One of the new mayor's first acts was to appropriate the City Council's power to approve city contracts, a right aldermen exercised under former Mayors Washington and Sawyer. Daley's first budget proposal, the 1990 budget, included $3 billion in spending, $50 million more than 1989, featured a $25 million reduction in the property tax levy, extended Mayor Sawyer's hiring freeze, piloted recycling, and privatized the city's tow truck fleet. Daley became the first Chicago Mayor to lead Chicago's Gay and Lesbian Pride Parade, at the 20th annual parade on Sunday, June 26, 1989. On August 22, 1990, Daley told reporters that \"people are getting hurt in drive-by shoot-a-longs.\" In December 1990, Amnesty International issued a report \"Allegations of Police Torture in Chicago, Illinois\" calling for a full inquiry into allegations that some Chicago police officers tortured criminal suspects between 1972 and 1984.",
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"plaintext": "On April 2, 1991, Daley was reelected to a second term (his first full, four-year term), with 70.7% of the vote, over African American civil rights attorney and Appellate Judge R. Eugene Pincham. Questioned about the city's rising homicide rate on September 10, 1991, Daley said \"The more killing and homicides you have, the more havoc it prevents.\"",
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"plaintext": "On the weekend of March 1–2, 1992, Daley and his wife arranged for 16-year-old son Patrick to stay with relatives while they attended a family event in New York. Patrick told the relatives he was staying with friends, drove his father's new sports utility vehicle to the Daley second home in Grand Beach, Michigan and threw a party Saturday night without parental consent or adult supervision. Someone asked two Filipino and two white youths to leave, racial epithets were exchanged, and a fistfight broke out. Patrick retrieved Richard J. Daley's shotgun from the house and gave it to his cousin, who was aged 17. A youth was seriously injured when a juvenile struck him in the head with a baseball bat. On Monday a sobbing Mayor Daley read a statement at a City Hall press conference, pausing repeatedly as he tried to maintain his composure,",
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"plaintext": "I am very disappointed, as any parent would be, after his son held a party in their home while his parents were away. I am more deeply distressed for the welfare of the young man who was injured in this fight.",
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"plaintext": "Patrick pleaded guilty to misdemeanor charges of furnishing alcohol to minors and disturbing the peace and was sentenced to six months' probation, 50 hours of community service in Grand Beach, fined $1,950 and ordered to pay restitution to his parents for property damage. His cousin pleaded guilty to aiming a firearm without malice and was fined $1,235. Sixteen other youths were charged with juvenile and adult offenses. The injured youth recovered.",
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"plaintext": "Daley took control of the Chicago Public School system in 1995 and appointed Paul Vallas. When Vallas left the post to run for governor, Daley chose the relatively obscure Arne Duncan, who later became the U.S. Secretary of Education under Barack Obama, to lead the district. On March 19, 1997, the Chicago City Council adopted the Domestic Partners Ordinance, which made employee benefits available to same-sex partners of City employees. Daley said it was an issue of fairness.",
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"plaintext": "The first major public corruption scandal of Daley's tenure as mayor involved the circumstances of the resignation of his City Council floor leader, Alderman Patrick Huels, in October 1997. Daley, Huels, and another close friend Michael Tadin grew up within two blocks on S. Emerald Avenue in Bridgeport. Huels attended De La Salle Institute, the same high school attended by Daley, his father, and Michael Bilandic. Huels worked for the city's Public Works Department as a laborer and tree trimmer, then as an administrative assistant in the Environment Department, and then as a City Council investigator. He answered phones for the 11th Ward Democratic organization, and was its secretary for several years. When Mayor Richard J. Daley died, 11th Ward Alderman Bilandic was named acting mayor, and Huels, then 26, replaced Bilandic as alderman. Huels chaired the council's Transportation Committee and became Mayor Richard M. Daley's floor leader. In the summer of 2007, in reaction to ongoing indictments and convictions of aldermen, Daley and Huels shepherded a package of ethics reforms through city council. Huels owned a security firm, SDI Security, Inc. along with his wife and his brother, a Chicago police lieutenant. In the mid-1990s, the firm had about 390 full-time employees and was grossing $7 million a year. Huels was president and a director, and Council Finance Committee Chairman Alderman Edward M. Burke (14th) was secretary. Huels and Burke authorized $633,971 in legal consulting fees from their respective Council committees to attorney Michael A. Pedicone, a long-time officer of SDI. In March 1995 the Internal Revenue Service placed a lien on SDI for $326,951 and in June 1996 for $997,382 for failing to pay payroll taxes, including money withheld from its employees' pay checks.",
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"plaintext": "In 1970, after high school, Tadin went to work for Marina Cartage; within a decade, he owned the company, and over the next 15 years expanded it from 20 trucks to 150. Between 1992 and 1997, the city paid Marina Cartage and another Tadin company $49 million for supplying the city with snow removal and other heavy equipment and operators. Tadin earned millions of dollars by buying land cheaply, then leasing or selling it to the city. Marina Cartage used Huels' SDI Security services since 1992. In 1995, with Huels' support, the City Council approved a tax reduction which halved the assessment on a new $4.5 million headquarters and trucking terminal for Marina Cartage at 4450 S. Morgan in Huels' ward, a tax savings of as much as $80,000 per year. In 1996, with Huels' support, the City Council approved a $1.1 million direct grant for the construction of the facility. Weeks later, Tadin created a new company which was used to originate a $1.25 million bailout loan to SDI. Daley said Huels \"did the right thing resigning\" and claimed no knowledge of Huels' business dealings. \"I don't get into people's private lives. I am not into that,\" Daley said. Daley announced an executive order and new ethics legislation, saying:",
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"plaintext": "The goal of this executive order is to help address questions about favoritism in city contracting by preventing conflicts of interest, or even the appearance of such conflicts.... There should be a level playing field, where no one has an advantage—or a disadvantage—in obtaining city contracts, simply because they know me or anyone else in government.... Under the steps I'm taking today and recommending to the City Council, the public can easily learn everything there is to know about a city contract: who is involved, who will benefit and whether the city is paying a fair price. I and every other city official must be prepared to defend every contract on its merits.",
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"plaintext": "On February 23, 1999, Daley won reelection to a fourth term with 68.9 percent of the vote over challenger U.S. Congressman Bobby Rush. In August 1999, prompted by police excessive-force incidents in Chicago, New York and other cities, the U.S. affiliate of Amnesty International issued a report \"Race, Rights & Brutality: Portraits of Abuse in the USA,\" that called on federal officials to better document excessive-force cases and to pursue prosecutions of the officers involved. In October 1999, the organization issued a report \"Summary of Amnesty International's concerns on police abuse in Chicago\" which expressed concerns including improper interrogation tactics, excessive force, shootings of unarmed suspects, and the detention and interrogation of children.",
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"plaintext": "The Duff family formed a janitorial services company, Windy City Maintenance Inc., one month after Daley's inauguration. Bruce DuMont, president of the Museum of Broadcast Communications, said that Daley recommended that Dumont's wife Kathy Osterman, then director of the Mayor's Office of Special Events, award city contracts to Duff family companies. Daley denied steering contracts to the Duffs, and said he would \"look into\" the allegations, while stopping short of promising to do so, saying \"I don't promise. That's the wrong word to use. You know... promising, promising. We do look into it, yes.\" In September 2003, a federal investigation led to indictments of Patricia Green Duff, her sons John M. Duff and James Duff, and others on charges they won nearly $100 million in city contracts through the city's set-aside program by misrepresenting their companies as women- and minority-owned. John M. Duff pleaded guilty to 33 counts of racketeering, fraud and other charges on January 10, 2004. A 1978 state law designed by Illinois Democrats gave the Mayor the power to appoint to fill vacancies in the City Council rather than holding special elections, and by 2002 more than a third of the council's 50 aldermen were initially appointed by Daley. The Council became even more of a rubber stamp than in Richard J. Daley's terms. In the 18 months from January 12, 2000 to June 6, 2001, only 13 votes in the council were divided, less than one a month. 32 aldermen supported the mayor 90-100% of the time and another 14 80-89% of the time.",
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"plaintext": "On February 26, 2003, Daley took 78.5% of the vote to prevail over challenger Reverend Paul Jakes Jr. Daley endorsed same-sex marriage, saying on February 18, 2004, he would have \"no problem\" with Cook County issuing marriage licenses to gay couples. Time magazine in its April 25, 2005 issue named Daley as the best out of five mayors of large cities in the United States, and characterized Daley as having \"imperial\" style and power. In May 2006, in Geneva, Switzerland the United Nations Committee Against Torture released a report which noted the \"limited investigation and lack of prosecution\" into allegations of torture in Areas 2 and 3 of the Chicago Police Department and called on American authorities to \"promptly, thoroughly and impartially\" investigate the allegations, and provide the committee with more information. Daley was inducted into the Chicago Gay and Lesbian Hall of Fame in 2006 as a Friend of the Community.",
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"plaintext": "A long-standing agreement between the city and state required the city to maintain and operate Meigs Field, a small, downtown, lakefront airport on Northerly Island used by general aviation aircraft and helicopters, until 2011 or turn it over to the state. On September 12, 1996, the City Council approved Daley's plan to convert the airport into a park, and the state began planning to take over operation of the airport. Fresh off a 2003 re-election mandate, one of Daley's first major acts was ordering the demolition of Meigs Field. On Sunday, March 30, 2003, shortly before midnight, transport trucks carrying construction equipment moved onto Meigs with Chicago Police escort. By early Monday morning, city crews excavated six large X's into the only runway. The city's 50 aldermen, Illinois Governor Rod Blagojevich, the Federal Aviation Administration and the Department of Homeland Security were not consulted on the plan. The demolition of the runway trapped planes. In the days following, many of those aircraft were able to take off using the taxiway.",
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"plaintext": "\"To do this any other way would have been needlessly contentious,\" Daley explained at a news conference Monday morning. Daley argued that the airport was a threat to Chicago's high-rise cityscape and its high-profile skyscrapers, such as the Sears Tower and the John Hancock Center. Daley criticized the Federal Aviation Administration, saying \"Now, think of that; Mickey and Minnie have it. I mean, I can't believe that. They get it first before we get it?\", referring to the post-9/11 air space restrictions in place over Orlando, Florida. \"The signature act of Richard Daley's 22 years in office was the midnight bulldozing of Meigs Field,\" according to Chicago Tribune columnist Eric Zorn. \"He ruined Meigs because he wanted to, because he could,\" Chicago Tribune columnist John Kass wrote of Daley. \"The issue is Daley's increasingly authoritarian style that brooks no disagreements, legal challenges, negotiations, compromise or any of that messy give-and-take normally associated with democratic government,\" the Chicago Tribune editorialized. The Federal Aviation Administration cited the city for failure to comply with federal law requiring thirty-day advance notice to the FAA of plans for an airport closure. The city was fined $33,000, the maximum allowable. The city paid the fine and repaid $1 million in misspent federal airport development grants. Daley defended his actions by claiming that the airport was abandoned, in spite of the fact that the Chicago Fire Department had several helicopters based on the field at the time, in addition to the dozens of private aircraft left stranded.",
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"plaintext": "The $40 million-a-year Hired Truck program was the biggest scandal of Daley's first 15 years as mayor. The Hired Truck Program hired private truck companies to do city work. A six-month investigation by the Chicago Sun-Times resulted in a three-day series of articles in January 2004 that revealed some participating companies were being paid for doing little or no work, had American Mafia connections or were tied to city employees, or paid bribes to get into the program. Between 1996 and 2004, companies in the Hired Truck Program gave more than $800,000 in campaign contributions to various politicians, including Daley, House Speaker Michael Madigan, and Governor Rod Blagojevich; Daley received at least $108,575 and his brother John Daley and his ward organization more than $47,500.",
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"plaintext": "Mark Gyrion, Daley's second cousin, was a superintendent of garages for the city's Water Management Department, and among his duties was deciding when City-owned trucks should be sold for scrap. Gyrion's mother-in-law's firm, Jacz Transportation, participated in the Hired Truck Program, receiving about $1 million between 1998 and 2004. Jacz Transportation bought a truck three days after the city sold it to a Franklin Park dealership and then leased it back to the city. Gyrion was accused of failing to disclose his mother-in-law's role in the Hired Truck Program and the transfer of the truck. Gyrion was fired and Jacz Transportation was one of 13 truck companies suspended from the Hired Truck program. About 35% of the 70 firms in the program were suspended or referred to the city's Inspector General. The program was overhauled in 2004, and phased out in 2005.",
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"plaintext": "On July 5, 2006, Robert Sorich, formally, director of the Mayor's Office of Intergovernmental Affairs and, informally, Daley's patronage chief, and Timothy McCarthy, Sorich's aide, were each convicted on two counts of mail fraud connected to rigging blue-collar city jobs and promotions. Sorich's best friend, former Streets and Sanitation official Patrick Slattery was convicted of one count of mail fraud. A former Streets and Sanitation managing deputy commissioner was found guilty of lying to federal agents about political hiring. Sorich, McCarthy and Slattery lived in the Bridgeport neighborhood in 11th Ward, the Daley family's home neighborhood and ward. \"I've never known them to be anything but hard working, and I feel for them at this difficult time,\" Daley said. \"It is fair criticism to say I should have exercised greater oversight to ensure that every worker the city hired, regardless of who recommended them, was qualified and that proper procedures were always followed,\" Daley admitted a few days later. Weeks later, David Axelrod, a Democratic political consultant whose clients included Daley, defended patronage in an op-ed in the Chicago Tribune.",
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"plaintext": "Mayor Daley's son Patrick R. Daley was an MBA student at the University of Chicago Graduate School of Business working as an unpaid intern at Cardinal Growth, a Chicago venture capital firm, when he profited from two Cardinal Growth ventures formed to win city contracts while concealing his role. Patrick's cousin, and Mayor Daley's nephew, is Robert G. Vanecko. In June 2003, Patrick and Vanecko formed a Delaware company, MSS Investors LLC, and invested $65,000 each. MSS Investors LLC in turn purchased a 5% stake in Municipal Sewer Services, a Cardinal Growth venture. Patrick and Vanecko failed to disclose their ownership stake in Municipal Sewer Services as required by city ethics ordinances. Brunt Brothers Transfer Inc. was one of the largest black-owned contractors in the Hired Truck program. Municipal Sewer Services partnered with Brunt Brothers Transfer Inc. in their bid for City sewer-inspection contracts. Five months after Patrick and Vanecko became owners, Municipal Sewer Services' city contract was extended by $3 million, the first of two no-bid contract extensions, totaled an additional 23 months and $4 million. Patrick and Vanecko cashed out their initial investment after about a year as the federal investigation into the Hired Truck program advanced. Patrick and Vanecko got a $13,114 \"tax distribution\" in December 2004. Patrick, then 29 and a recent University of Chicago MBA graduate, enlisted in the US Army. The day after the Mayor's son's and nephew's hidden involvement in the city contract was disclosed by the Chicago Sun-Times, Daley spoke at a Chicago police recruit graduation ceremony, then left for Fort Bragg, North Carolina to see his son deployed. Before departing, Mayor Daley read a statement to reporters, his voice cracking, fighting back tears,",
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"plaintext": "I did not know about [Patrick's] involvement in this company. As an adult, he made that decision. It was a lapse in judgement for him to get involved with this company. I wish he hadn't done it. I know the expectations for elected officials, their families, are very high—rightfully so—especially for me.... Patrick is a very good son. I love him. Maggie and I are very proud of him. I hope you respect I have nothing more to say on this.",
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"plaintext": "Mayor Daley also said he didn't know if there were other city contracts involving the younger Daley. The city's Inspector General and federal authorities began investigations in December 2007. Patrick and Vanecko hired criminal defense attorneys. Municipal Sewer Services LLC folded in April 2008. In January 2011, Anthony Duffy, the president of Municipal Sewer Services, was charged with three counts of mail fraud in conjunction with minority-contracting and Jesse Brunt and his company, Brunt Brothers Transfer Inc., were indicted on three counts of mail fraud. Patrick and Vanecko were not charged.",
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"plaintext": "In 2005, Concourse Communications, another Cardinal Growth venture, signed a city contract for airport Wi-Fi service at city-owned O'Hare and Midway airports. For years, the Daley administration maintained that Patrick had no financial stake in the deal. Concourse disclosed its investors to the city, as required, but Patrick was not reported. Patrick lined up investors for Concourse. On June 27, 2006, nine months after Concourse signed the contract, Concourse was sold at a 33% profit to Boingo Wireless Inc. for $45 million. On June 30, 2006, Patrick received the first of five payments totaling $708,999. On December 3, 2007, shortly after Patrick received the last of those payments, Mayor Daley's press secretary, Jacquelyn Heard said Patrick Daley \"has no financial interest with the Wi-Fi contract at O'Hare.\" The Chicago Sun-Times editorialized, \"...the conflict of interest was blatant.\"",
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"plaintext": " In 2003, an operating company included over 80 investors, including some of Mayor Daley's friends and neighbors won, under controversial circumstances, a lucrative contract to operate the Park Grill, the only restaurant in the new Millennium Park. In 2005 Daley criticized the deal, saying that the city wanted to renegotiate the pact. The Chicago Sun-Times dubbed the Park Grill the \"Clout Cafe\" and included the contract award process in a year-end review of 2005 Daley administration scandals. The contract was never renegotiated, and after Daley announced he would not seek a seventh term, the owners of the Park Grill sought to sell. Deposed in August 2013 in Mayor Rahm Emanuel's administration's lawsuit to renegotiate the contract, former Mayor Daley responded \"I don't recall\" 139 times.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2006, Skyway Concession Company, a joint venture between the Australian Macquarie Infrastructure Group and Spanish Cintra Concesiones de Infraestructuras de Transporte S.A., paid the City $1.83 billion for rights to operate the Chicago Skyway and collect tolls for 99 years. The deal was the first of its kind in the U.S. In December 2006, Morgan Stanley paid Chicago $563 million for a 99-year lease of the city's parking garages. \"I'm the one who started talking about leasing public assets. No other city has done this in America,\" Daley recalled in 2009. Pulitzer Prize-winning commentator George F. Will wrote of the deals in The Washington Post,",
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"plaintext": "Unfortunately, Daley's theory—that it can be better to get a sum X immediately, rather than getting over many years a sum Y that is substantially larger than X—assumes something that cannot be assumed. It assumes that governments will prudently husband sudden surges of revenue from the lease or sale of assets.",
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"plaintext": "On February 6, 2008, the Chicago City Council approved, by a 41–6 vote, an increase in the city's real estate transfer tax to fund the Chicago Transit Authority. Presiding over the meeting, Daley harshly chastized the dissenting aldermen. On March 15, 2010, Daley appointed two aldermen on the same day, bringing to 19 the number of alderman initially appointed by Daley.",
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"plaintext": "In September 2008, Chicago accepted a $2.52 billion bid on a 99-year lease of Midway International Airport to a group of private investors, but the deal fell through due to the collapse of credit markets during the 2008–2012 global recession. In 2008, as Chicago struggled to close a growing budget deficit, the city agreed to a 75-year, $1.16 billion deal to lease its parking meter system to an operating company created by Morgan Stanley. Daley said the \"agreement is very good news for the taxpayers of Chicago because it will provide more than $1 billion in net proceeds that can be used during this very difficult economy.\" The agreement quadrupled rates, in the first year alone, while the hours which people have to pay for parking were broadened from 9 a.m. – 6 p.m. to 8 a.m. – 9 p.m., and from Monday through Saturday to every day of the week. Additionally, the city agreed to compensate the new owners for loss of revenue any time any road with parking meters is closed by the city for anything from maintenance work to street festivals. In three years, the proceeds from the lease were all but spent.",
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"plaintext": "In 2007, Daley entered into ten-year contracts with the city's labor unions to preclude labor unrest as Chicago launched a bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics. For months in 2009, Daley promoted the economic benefits of the proposal to the city and its corporate community. Many thought the games would be a capstone of Daley's career. On October 2, 2009, in a major disappointment for Daley, Chicago was the first of four finalists to be eliminated during selection ceremonies in Copenhagen. According to a March 2011 report from the city's Office of the Inspector General,",
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"plaintext": "By signing a 10-year (contract) with the Teamsters (and with over 30 other unions representing city employees), the current administration and City Council unduly hamstrung not only the current management of city government, but the next six years of management as well, a period that extends well beyond the elected terms of the incoming administration and City Council.",
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"plaintext": "\"If it was up to me, no one except law enforcement officers would own a handgun. But I understand that's impractical,\" Daley told attendees at a conference of gun control advocates in Washington, D.C. in 1998, during his third term. Daley was a member of the Mayors Against Illegal Guns Coalition, an organization formed in 2006 and co-chaired by New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg and Boston Mayor Thomas Menino. On January 17, 2006, during Daley's fifth term, at a joint press conference with Illinois Governor Rod Blagojevich calling for a statewide ban on semi-automatic assault weapons, Daley said, \"If we are really to make the progress that we want, we have to keep the most dangerous weapons that are right here off of our streets.\"",
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"plaintext": "The US Supreme Court took up McDonald v. Chicago, 561 U.S. 3025, 130 S.Ct. 3020 (2010), which challenged handgun bans in the Chicago and in the neighboring suburb of Oak Park. In May 2010, Daley held a press conference to address gun control and a pending possible adverse decision in McDonald v. Chicago. After Mick Dumke, a reporter for the Chicago Reader, questioned the effectiveness of the city's handgun ban, Daley picked up a rifle with a bayonet from a display table of confiscated weapons and told him, \"If I put this up your butt, you'll find out how effective it is. Let me put a round up your, you know.\" The remark was voted \"the stoopidest thing that Mayor Richard Daley the Younger has ever said\" in an online poll by the Chicago Tribune.",
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"plaintext": "On June 28, 2010, the US Supreme Court held, in a 5–4 decision in McDonald v. Chicago, that the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution was incorporated under the Fourteenth Amendment, thus protecting the right of an individual to \"keep and bear arms\" from local governments, and all but declared Mayor Jane Byrne's 1982 handgun ban unconstitutional. That afternoon, at a press conference concerning the gun ban, Daley said,",
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"plaintext": "We'll publicly propose a new ordinance very soon... As a city we must continue to stand up... and fight for a ban on assault weapons... as well as a crackdown on gun shops... We are a country of laws not a nation of guns.",
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"plaintext": "Daley called a special meeting of the city council for four days later, and the Council approved a gun control ordinance revised to include city firearms licenses.",
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"plaintext": "Daley came into office in a city with revenue-generating assets, manageable debt and flush pension funds, but he left behind a city with a structural deficit that Mayor-elect Rahm Emanuel estimated at $1.2 billion when under-funded pension funds were included. The Daley administration's expenditures exceeded revenues by hundreds of millions of dollars a year. In August 2010, Fitch Ratings downgraded the city's bond credit rating, citing the administration's use of reserve funds for general operating expenses and under-funding of its pension funds, and noted that the city faced rising fixed operating costs yet lacked plans for new revenue. Wall Street analysts noted that the Daley administration began drawing on the city's reserves as early as 2006, before the 2008–2012 global recession. \"While there had been sound economic growth in years prior to 2008, there were still sizable fund balance drawdowns in both 2006 and 2007,\" Fitch wrote. The city's budgets continued to increase even after the recession began, to more than $6 billion a year, and, when under-funded city employee pension funds were included, the city's annual deficit exceeded $1 billion. In January 2011, Moody's Investors Service downgraded to a \"negative\" outlook some of the revenue bonds issued for the $15 billion O'Hare Modernization Program and related infrastructure projects, citing the city's plan to postpone repayment of interest and principal on some construction bonds.",
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"plaintext": "In his annual budget address in City Council Chambers on October 15, 2008, Daley proposed a 2009 budget totaling $5.97 billion, including not filling 1,350 vacancies on the 38,000 employee city payroll and $150 million in new revenue from a then-obscure parking meter lease deal to help erase a $469 million budget shortfall. The Daley administration employed an in-house staff of more than 50 public relations officers across City departments at a cost of $4.7 million, and millions more on seven private public relations firms. \"It's worth it\", Daley said. On the first day of City Council hearings on Daley's 2009 budget proposal, several aldermen questioned the administration's public relations spending. On November 4, 2008, Jacquelyn Heard, the mayor's press secretary, said the city would halt spending on 10 public relations contracts that could have paid as much as $5 million each.",
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"plaintext": "In his annual budget address on October 21, 2009, Daley projected a deficit for 2009 of more than $520 million. Daley proposed a 2010 budget totaling $6.14 billion, including spending $370 million from the $1.15 billion proceeds from the parking meter lease. In his annual budget address on October 13, 2010, Daley projected a deficit for 2010 of $655 million, the largest in city history. Daley proposed a 2011 budget totaling $6.15 billion, including spending all but $76 million of what remained of the parking meter lease proceeds, and received a standing ovation from aldermen.",
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"plaintext": "Daley's approval rating was at an all-time low of 35% by late 2009. On September 7, 2010, Daley announced that he would not seek a seventh term. \"I've always believed that every person, especially public officials, must understand when it's time to move on. For me, that time is now,\" Daley said. On December 26, 2010, Daley surpassed his father as Chicago's longest-serving mayor. Daley chaired his final city council meeting on Wednesday morning, May 11, 2011. His term ended on May 16, 2011, and he was succeeded by Rahm Emanuel.",
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"plaintext": "Daley was supported by Chicago's traditionally Republican business community. He came under criticism for focusing city resources on the development of businesses downtown, the North, Near South, and Near West Sides, while neglecting neighborhoods in the other areas of the city; in particular the needs of low-income residents. According to Chicago Tribune columnist Steve Chapman, \"Daley lasted 22 years in office partly because he resolved to ingratiate himself with black Chicagoans. He appointed blacks to high positions, stressed his commitment to provide services to all neighborhoods, tore down public housing projects, and pushed reform of the minority-dominated public schools.\" Daley focused on Chicago as a tourist destination as opposed to a manufacturing base, improved and expanded parkland, added flower planters along many primary streets, and oversaw the creation of Millennium Park on what had previously been an abandoned train yard. He spearheaded the conversion of Navy Pier into a popular tourist destination. Daley supported immigration reform, and green building initiatives, for which he was presented with an Honor Award from the National Building Museum in 2009 as a \"visionary in sustainability.\" Chicago avoided some of the most severe economic contractions of other Midwest cities along the Great Lakes such as Detroit and Cleveland.",
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"plaintext": "Days after leaving office, the University of Chicago appointed Daley a \"distinguished senior fellow\" at the Harris School of Public Policy. The five-year, part-time appointment includes responsibility for coordinating a guest lecture series. Weeks after leaving office, Daley joined the international law firm Katten Muchin Rosenman LLP, one of the law firms to which he had awarded no-bid legal work as mayor. Katten Muchin Rosenman LLP had negotiated the city's much-criticized long-term lease of its parking meters, parking garages, and the Chicago Skyway. Daley joined an exclusive speakers bureau, the Harry Walker Agency, that pays tens of thousands of dollars an appearance. Daley joined the board of directors of The Coca-Cola Company. Daley is a managing principal of Tur Partners LLC, an investment firm, where Daley's son, Patrick Daley, is a principal. The National Law Journal included Daley in its 2013 list of \"The 100 Most Influential Lawyers in America,\" based on \"his political connections — the best in Chicago.\"",
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"plaintext": " Mayor Daley Backgrounder: Our Best Stories About Richard M. Daley, From His Rise to Power Until Now at Chicago Magazine",
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Subsets and Splits