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[ { "plaintext": "Wrigley Field is a Major League Baseball (MLB) stadium located on the North Side of Chicago, Illinois. It is the home of the Chicago Cubs, one of the city's two MLB franchises. It first opened in 1914 as Weeghman Park for Charles Weeghman's Chicago Whales of the Federal League, which folded after the 1915 baseball season. The Cubs played their first home game at the park on April 20, 1916, defeating the Cincinnati Reds 7–6 in 11 innings. Chewing gum magnate William Wrigley Jr. of the Wrigley Company acquired the Cubs in 1921. It was named Cubs Park from 1920 to 1926, before being renamed Wrigley Field in 1927.The current seating capacity is 41,649. It is actually the second stadium to be named Wrigley Field, as a Los Angeles ballpark with the same name opened in 1925. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 38776, 185604, 1265165, 6886, 6654, 5160559, 1277080, 243623, 4406577, 13934915, 12632617, 750350, 463687, 13935031, 13935017, 13970615, 13970637, 2153809, 491319 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 41 ], [ 48, 55 ], [ 71, 81 ], [ 85, 102 ], [ 126, 138 ], [ 223, 239 ], [ 242, 256 ], [ 264, 278 ], [ 303, 323 ], [ 388, 392 ], [ 408, 423 ], [ 463, 482 ], [ 490, 505 ], [ 527, 531 ], [ 561, 565 ], [ 569, 573 ], [ 613, 617 ], [ 630, 646 ], [ 722, 763 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the North Side community area of Lakeview in the Wrigleyville neighborhood, Wrigley Field is on an irregular block bounded by Clark and Addison streets to the west and south, and Waveland and Sheffield avenues to the north and east. Wrigley Field is nicknamed \"The Friendly Confines\", a phrase popularized by \"Mr. Cub\", Hall of Fame shortstop and first baseman Ernie Banks. The oldest park in the National League, it is the second-oldest in the majors after Fenway Park (1912), and the only remaining Federal League park. The park was designated a National Historic Landmark in 2020.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1265165, 359643, 359643, 8980751, 29530620, 4078, 355517, 64290, 11238, 404013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 32 ], [ 36, 44 ], [ 52, 64 ], [ 129, 134 ], [ 139, 146 ], [ 323, 335 ], [ 364, 375 ], [ 400, 415 ], [ 461, 472 ], [ 552, 578 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wrigley Field is known for its ivy-covered brick outfield wall, the unusual wind patterns off Lake Michigan, the iconic red marquee over the main entrance, the hand-turned scoreboard, its location in a primarily residential neighborhood with no parking lots and views from the rooftops behind the outfield, and for being the last Major League park to have lights installed for night games, in 1988. Between 1921 and 1970, it was also the home of the Chicago Bears of the National Football League, and was the home of the Chicago Cardinals (now the Arizona Cardinals) of the National Football League from 1931 to 1938. The elevation of its playing field is above sea level.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 17948, 13966179, 8773493, 8792569, 6611, 21211, 2102, 1765158, 62529 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 107 ], [ 393, 397 ], [ 407, 411 ], [ 416, 420 ], [ 450, 463 ], [ 471, 495 ], [ 548, 565 ], [ 622, 631 ], [ 663, 672 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Baseball executive Charles Weeghman hired his architect Zachary Taylor Davis to design the park, which was ready for baseball by the home opener on April 23, 1914. The original tenants, the Chicago Whales (also called the Chi-Feds), came in second in the Federal League rankings in 1914, and won the league championship in 1915.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5160559, 6893557, 1277080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 35 ], [ 56, 76 ], [ 190, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In late 1915, Weeghman's Federal League folded. The resourceful Weeghman formed a syndicate including the chewing gum manufacturer William Wrigley Jr. to buy the Chicago Cubs from Charles P. Taft for about $500,000. Weeghman immediately moved the Cubs from the dilapidated West Side Grounds to his two-year-old park.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 750350, 2698338, 1297534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 150 ], [ 180, 195 ], [ 273, 290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1918, Wrigley acquired the controlling interest in the club. In November 1926, he renamed the park Wrigley Field. In 1927, an upper deck was added, and in 1937, Bill Veeck, the son of the club president, planted ivy vines against the outfield walls after seeing the ivy planted at Perry Stadium, Indianapolis.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 666087, 1728138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 174 ], [ 284, 311 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Ricketts family aggressively pursued a Wrigley Field renovation since buying the team and the stadium in 2009. During the annual Cubs Convention in January 2013, the family revealed the 1060 Project, which called for a $575-million, privately funded rehabilitation of the stadium to be completed over the course of five years. The proposal was vast and included planned improvements to, among other things, the stadium's façade, infrastructure, restrooms, concourses, suites, press box, moving the bullpens and clubhouses, as well as the addition of restaurants, patio areas, batting tunnels, a jumbotron, and an adjacent hotel, plaza and office-retail complex.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18980603, 4028048, 508945, 2615606, 744460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 480, 489 ], [ 502, 509 ], [ 580, 595 ], [ 600, 609 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After months of negotiations between the team, local Alderman Tom Tunney, and then-Mayor Rahm Emanuel, the plan obtained the endorsements of both the city's Landmarks Commission and Plan Commission before receiving final approval by the Chicago City Council in July 2013. To help fund the project, the team planned to more than double the amount of advertising signage in and around the stadium to about , including additional signage to be placed beyond the outfield walls – a move that was opposed by many owners of the rooftop clubs surrounding the stadium, who worried that such signage would obstruct their sightlines. Before work on the project began, the team wanted the rooftop owners to agree not to pursue legal action challenging the construction and continued to negotiate privately with them – offering to reduce the size and number of signs to be built – in order to gain their assent. The team could not come to terms with the rooftop owners who had a lease agreement with the team until 2023 in exchange for paying 17% of the gross revenues. In May 2014, the Cubs announced they would pursue the original 2013 plan to modify the park. Over the course of the next three years, the Ricketts family began to purchase many of the rooftop locations.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 286925, 1265506, 310285, 412023, 12013336, 7424778, 772102, 514261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 61 ], [ 62, 72 ], [ 83, 88 ], [ 89, 101 ], [ 157, 177 ], [ 182, 197 ], [ 237, 257 ], [ 518, 535 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Phase one of the 1060 Project began on September 29, 2014. During the offseason, the bleachers in both outfields were expanded and the stadium's footprint was extended further onto both Waveland and Sheffield Avenues. A Jumbotron scoreboard was added to the left field bleachers, topped with a sign advertising Wintrust Financial, a Rosemont-based bank and a Cubs Legacy Partner; the \"W\" in Wintrust flashes after every Cubs win. A video scoreboard was also added in the right field bleachers, and the parking lots along Clark Street were excavated for underground players' locker rooms and lounges.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 914313, 744460, 49519463, 111049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 93 ], [ 221, 230 ], [ 312, 330 ], [ 334, 342 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the close of the extended 2015 season, work began on phase two of the project.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 43939715 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Exterior renovations of the park seek to restore design elements present before the 1960s. These details include ornamental muted-green grill-work and red terra cotta roofing.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 174241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Phase three of the 1060 Project was completed before the start of the 2017 season. The left and right field bullpens were relocated to enclosed areas under the bleachers, the brick walls were extended toward the field, and new seating was added in the vacated bullpen areas. A visiting team \"batting tunnel\" was also added. Partial façade replacement and concourse restoration was completed along Addison Street, along with structural improvements to the right field bleachers. The outfield turf was replaced just weeks before the start of the season. The Cubs Plaza building just to the west of Wrigley was finalized, and the \"Park at Wrigley\", the area above Cubs players dressing rooms, was in use for fans before and during games. Construction of Hotel Zachary along the west side of Clark Street was ongoing.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 51839225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The fourth phase of improvements began at the conclusion of the 2017 season. The dugouts were moved farther down the left and right field foul lines to make room for two of the four new luxury clubs. The seating area behind home plate was reconstructed to locate another of the new clubs. The final upper level club was planned for the 2019 season. The Hotel Zachary, just across Clark Street, was open for business in time for the Cubs' first home game on April 9, 2018.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 58290261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 336, 347 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Near the start of the renovations, the Ricketts applied for National Historic Landmark status for Wrigley Field in 2013. A similar plan had been successfully pursued by the owners of Fenway Park in Boston. To achieve landmark status, the renovations had to respect and reflect the historic character of the stadium. The benefit to the owners is that landmark status allows them to claim tax credits for the renovation. National landmark status was awarded in 2020, with the U.S. Secretary of the Interior commenting that \"the historical significance of Wrigley Field is interwoven into our nation's story and a key part of what has become America's beloved pastime for over a century\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 404013, 11238, 44004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 86 ], [ 183, 194 ], [ 474, 504 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On May 26, 2015, Cubs rookie third baseman Kris Bryant became the first to hit the new left field videoscreen with his home run. On October 13, the Cubs clinched a playoff series at home in Wrigley Field for the first time in franchise history, with a 6–4 victory in game four of the 2015 NLDS. After Anthony Rizzo hit what would be the game-winning and series-winning home run in the sixth inning, Kyle Schwarber's seventh inning home run ball landed on top of the right field scoreboard. The ball was left in place, encased in clear plexiglass to protect it from the elements, but was removed in 2016.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 39140062, 47602597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 54 ], [ 285, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 2014 season, the Cubs celebrated the centennial of Wrigley Field. Each decade was represented during ten homestands throughout the season. April 23, the 100th anniversary of the stadium's opening, saw the Cubs playing the Arizona Diamondbacks in a throwback game. Each team represented one of the teams which played in the inaugural game at the stadium. The Cubs wore the uniforms of the Chicago Whales (Federals), the original occupants of the stadium, and the Diamondbacks wore uniforms representing the Kansas City Packers, whom the Federals played on April 23, 1914.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 40674759, 47454439, 40675103, 3472649 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 22 ], [ 48, 58 ], [ 233, 253 ], [ 517, 536 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On July 14, 2022, the United States government filed a lawsuit against the Chicago Cubs, operator of the stadium, for alleged violations of the Americans with Disabilities Act, claiming that the stadium did not accommodate spectators with disabilities, primarily those in wheelchairs. The lawsuit states that, during recent renovations, the stadium operator removed the best wheelchair seating, failed to add wheelchair accessibility to premium club rooms, and stuck the wheelchair seats behind railings, which could obstruct the view of those in wheelchairs. The Chicago Cubs, however, released a statement, saying that \"Wrigley Field is now more accessible than it was in its 108-year history\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wrigley Field follows the jewel box ballpark design that was popular in the early part of the 20th century. The two recessed wall areas, or \"wells\", located both in left and right field, give those areas more length than if the wall were to follow the contour from center field. It is also in those wells, when cross winds are blowing, that balls have a habit of bouncing in all directions. In addition, there is a long chain-link fence strip running the entire length of the outfield wall, the base of which is about two feet down from the top of the wall and the top of which projects out at an angle, primarily used to keep fans from falling out of the bleacher area and onto the field of play, which is about seven to ten feet below the top of the wall. Called \"the Basket\" by players and fans alike, the rules of the field state that any ball landing within the basket is ruled a home run, making the distance to hit a home run in Wrigley Field actually shorter than the location of the outfield wall.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 1987995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ballpark is famous for its outfield walls which are covered by ivy. In the first weeks of the baseball season, the ivy has not leafed out, and all that is visible are the vines on which it grows. However, as the baseball season progresses further into spring, the ivy grows thick and green, disguising the hard brick surface of the outfield wall. In the autumn, generally during postseason, the ivy turns red. On April 7, 2013, Total Pro Sports named Wrigley Field the \"Best Place to Catch a Game in 2013\", owing the award primarily to its architecture and ivy-coated fields.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 2160160 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1937, the stadium was renovated and P. K. Wrigley discussed beautification with then-Cubs President William Veeck Sr., who suggested planting ivy on the outfield walls. The ivy was originally English ivy, but was later changed to Parthenocissus tricuspidata, commonly called Boston Ivy or Japanese Bittersweet, which can endure the harsh Chicago winters better than its English cousin. Cuttings from the ivy were sold by local vendors. The Cubs attempted to grow the ivy on the outside of Wrigley Field as well, but the plantings were often stolen, so the Cubs abandoned the plans.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 16096475, 5372245, 2160160 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 120 ], [ 195, 206 ], [ 233, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following a later change in MLB rules, which requires all outfield walls to be padded, Wrigley Field was grandfathered into the rules, meaning it is the only stadium in the league without padded walls because of the ivy. In 2004, the ivy was specifically included in Wrigley Field's Landmark Designation by the Chicago City Council. Although the ivy appears to \"pad\" the bricks, it is of little practical use in this regard. There have been occasions of fielders being injured when slamming into the wall while pursuing a fly ball.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 293951, 772102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 118 ], [ 311, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under the ground rules of Wrigley Field, if a baseball gets into the ivy and gets stuck, the batter is awarded a ground rule double. Outfielders often raise their arms up when the ball goes into the ivy, signaling to an umpire to go out and rule on the play. However, if the ball becomes dislodged or the fielder reaches into the vines to try and retrieve it, it is considered in play and the runners can advance.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 2867744, 1039434 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ], [ 113, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The distances from home plate to various points in the outfield have remained essentially unchanged since the bleachers were remodeled during the 1937 season. They were originally marked by wooden numbers cut from plywood, painted white, and placed in gaps where the ivy was not allowed to grow. Since the early 1980s, the numbers have been painted directly on the bricks, in yellow. Although the power-alley dimensions are relatively cozy, the foul lines are currently the deepest in the major leagues.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is to the notch in the wall just beyond the left field foul pole. The point where the bleacher wall begins to curve inward in left-center field, one of the two \"wells\", is an unmarked . The front part of the left-center \"well\" is the closest point in the outfield, about . The marked left-center field distance is . It is closer to true center field than its right-center counterpart is. True center field is unmarked and is about . The center field marker, which is to the right of true center field and in the middle of the quarter-circle defining the center field area, is and is the deepest point in the outfield. Right-center field is , the notch of the right-center \"well\" is an unmarked , and the right field foul line is . The backstop is listed in media sources as behind home plate. Although that distance is standard, the relatively small foul ground area in general gives an advantage to batters.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When Wrigley Field was constructed, the buildings along Waveland and Sheffield avenues gave spectators a view of what was going on inside the ballpark, but did not become popular spectator areas until the 1929 World Series. The 1938 World Series brought paying spectators to the rooftops, however, fans typically sat in lawn chairs and brought their own food and beverages. In the mid-1980s, rooftop owners began to organize more formally as businesses, seeking to extract more revenue by updating the rooftops with bleacher-style grandstands. The Sky Box on Sheffield opened in 1993, originally catering primarily to corporate groups. Today, it is complete with a two-tier roof deck, indoor clubhouse, fully staffed bars on three levels, and an elevator.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 1332332, 1332276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 205, 222 ], [ 228, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1998, the city started requiring rooftop owners to have a license and began to regulate the venues. In 2003, relations between rooftop owners and the Cubs worsened when the team put up a large screen to block the view of the rooftops, exemplifying what is known as a spite fence. The Cubs then sued most rooftop businesses that year, claiming they were stealing from the team's product and \"unjustly enriching themselves\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 6234915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 270, 281 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2004, the building owners agreed to share a portion of their proceeds with the Cubs. Rooftop owners were required to pay the team 17% of their gross revenue in an agreement lasting until 2023. The Cubs obtained permission from the city to expand the ballpark's own bleachers out over the sidewalks and do some additional construction on the open area of the property to the west, bordered by Clark and Waveland, and to close the remnant of Seminary Avenue that also existed on the property. The rooftop seats are now effectively part of the ballpark's seating area, although they are not included in the seating capacity figure.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In July 2016, former rooftop owner R. Marc Hamid was convicted on nine counts of mail fraud and illegal bank structuring. Hamid had been underreporting attendance at the Sky Box on Sheffield from 2008 to 2011, and covered up over $1 million in revenue while also avoiding hundreds of thousands of dollars in taxes and royalties that violated the agreement rooftop owners had with the Cubs. In January 2017, he was sentenced to 18 months in federal prison.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2013, the owners threatened suit when the team announced plans to renovate the stadium and potentially disrupt the sight lines. In May 2014, when the rooftop owners did not agree to a scaled down plan for renovations, the Cubs' owners announced their intentions to implement the original 2013 plan for renovations even if it meant battling the issue in court. Cubs owner Ricketts said Wrigley has \"the worst player facilities in Major League Baseball...I am saying it is the time to invest in Wrigley Field and do the things that our competitors do.\" By the end of the 2016 season, the Ricketts family had acquired ten of the rooftop locations, with a financial stake in an eleventh.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some of the rooftops became legendary in their own right. The Lakeview Baseball Club, which sits across Sheffield Avenue (right-field) from the stadium displayed a sign that read \"Eamus Catuli!\" (roughly Latin for \"Let's Go Cubs!\"—catuli translating to \"whelps\", the nearest Latin equivalent), flanked by a counter indicating the Cubs' long legacy of futility. The counter was labeled \"AC\" for \"Anno Catulorum\", or \"In the Year of the Cubs\". Prior to the team's 2016 championship, it read \"AC0871108\", with the first two digits indicating the number of years since the Cubs' last division championship as of the end of the previous season (2008), the next two digits indicating the number of years since the Cubs won the National League Pennant (1945), and the last three digits indicating the number of years since their last World Series win (). After winning the World Series in 2016, the sign was updated to \"AC0000000\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 13437050, 13971596, 23489161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 640, 644 ], [ 746, 750 ], [ 827, 839 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "41,688 – July 12, 2015 high mark after bleacher renovation", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 44006135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "42,411 – Games 3 & 4 of the 2015 NLDS", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "42,445 - Game 3 of the 2017 NLDS", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In April and May, the wind often comes off Lake Michigan (less than a mile to the east), with a northeast wind \"blowing in\" to knock down potential home runs and turn them into outs. In the summer, however, or on any warm, breezy day, the wind often comes from the south and the southwest, \"blowing out\" with the potential to turn normally harmless fly balls into home runs. A third variety is the cross-wind, which typically runs from the left field corner to the right field corner and causes all sorts of havoc. Depending on the direction of the wind, Wrigley can either be one of the friendliest parks in the major leagues for pitchers or among the worst. This makes Wrigley one of the most unpredictable parks in the Major Leagues. Many Cubs fans check their nearest flag before heading to the park on game days for an indication of what the game might be like. This is less of a factor for night games, however, because the wind does not blow as hard after the sun goes down.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 17948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the wind blowing in, pitchers can dominate and no-hitters have resulted. The last two by a Cubs pitcher occurred near the beginning and the end of the 1972 season, by Burt Hooton and Milt Pappas respectively. Not until Cole Hamels of the Philadelphia Phillies no-hit the Cubs in 2015 would another no-hitter be pitched at Wrigley. In the seventh inning of Ken Holtzman's first no-hitter, on August 19, 1969, Hank Aaron of the Atlanta Braves hit a ball that looked headed for the bleachers, but the wind caught it just enough for left fielder Billy Williams to leap up and snare it.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 329902, 1044391, 2699938, 5095439, 23741, 2054484, 14321, 2140, 644151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 61 ], [ 172, 183 ], [ 188, 199 ], [ 224, 235 ], [ 243, 264 ], [ 361, 373 ], [ 413, 423 ], [ 431, 445 ], [ 547, 561 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the wind blowing out, some true tape-measure home runs have been hit by well-muscled batters. Sammy Sosa and Dave \"Kong\" Kingman broke windows in the apartment buildings across Waveland Avenue several times, and Glenallen Hill put one on a rooftop. Batters have occasionally slugged it into, or to the side of, the first row or two of the \"upper deck\" of the center field bleachers. Sosa hit the roof of the center field camera booth on the fly during the 2003 NLCS against the Florida Marlins, some away. The longest blast was probably hit by Dave Kingman on a very windy day in 1976, while with the Mets. According to local legend, that day, Kingman launched a bomb that landed on the third porch roof on the east (center field) side of Kenmore Avenue some 550 feet away. No batter has ever hit the center field scoreboard, but it has been struck by a golf ball hit by Sam Snead using a two-iron.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 26920, 631145, 1823095, 2917505, 11278, 53186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 109 ], [ 114, 133 ], [ 217, 231 ], [ 461, 470 ], [ 483, 498 ], [ 877, 886 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The scoreboard was installed in 1937, when Bill Veeck installed the new bleachers. It has remained in place ever since, and has only seen minor technical and cosmetic modifications. The clock was added in 1941, and a fifth row of scores was added to each side in 1961, with a sixth by 1969. A set of light stands facing onto the scoreboard was added in 1988 with the introduction of night games. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Along with Fenway Park's scoreboard and Minute Maid Park, Oakland-Alameda County Coliseum and Oracle Park's out of town scoreboards, Wrigley is one of the last parks to maintain a hand-turned scoreboard. A number turner watches the score changes on a computer (a ticker tape machine was used in the past), and updates the scoreboard by manually replacing the numbers from within the scoreboard. The scoreboard is made of sheet steel. The numbers that are placed into the inning windows are also steel, painted forest green, and numbered with white numerals. The box for the game playing at Wrigley uses yellow numerals for the current inning. The clock, which sits at the top center of the scoreboard, has never lost time in its -year existence.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 11238, 281603, 332305, 361262, 538123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 22 ], [ 40, 56 ], [ 58, 89 ], [ 94, 105 ], [ 263, 274 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Standing over the clock are three flagpoles, one for each division in the National League. There are 15 flags, one for each National League team, and their order on the flagpoles reflects the current standings. The entrance to the scoreboard is a trap-door on the bottom. On the reverse of the scoreboard, visible from the CTA elevated trains, is a blue Cubs pennant in white outlined in red neon. The scoreboard was extensively rehabilitated for the 2010 season.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 64290, 416981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 89 ], [ 323, 326 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike the home of the Red Sox, the scoreboard at Wrigley is mounted above the centerfield bleachers, rather than at ground level, making it harder to hit during play. No players have hit the current scoreboard, although at least three have come close: Roberto Clemente to the left side on May 17, 1959; and Bill Nicholson and Eddie Mathews to the right on August 22, 1942,{{efn|Ever since 1989, a home run hit by Nicholson in 1948—later identified as the one hit on April 24 off the Cardinal's Al Brazle,—has been paired with Clemente's 1959 near miss. However, a recent study by Chicago historian Sam Pathy, documenting the longest home runs ever hit at Wrigley Field and drawing on a multitude of contemporaneous news stories, uncovered no evidence of this alleged proximity. Moreover, Nicholson himself, though apparently never consulted about the 1989 story, had been quoted as early as April 20, 1953—exactly 2 days before Mathews would make his own scoreboard bid—to the effect that the longest home run he'd ever hit had exited Wrigley Field \"over the flower pot in [sic] the center-field scoreboard\" and was given up by pitcher Luke Hamlin, a longtime Dodger whose final season in the National League, 1942, was spent with Pittsburgh (where he'd been sent as part of the package bringing Arky Vaughan to Brooklyn). According to Baseball Reference, and notwithstanding the Inquirer's parenthetical insertion of \"Brooklyn\" after Hamlin's name, Nicholson, in the course of his major league career, hit exactly two home runs off Hamlin, both occurring in the same game, on August 15, 1942. That being said, there's absolutely no indication in all the reporting on Nicholson's two home runs off Hamlin, plus the other he hit that day, that any one of them was particularly prodigious, much less that any of them actually escaped the 'Friendly Confines' altogether, near the scoreboard or otherwise. However, exactly one week later, Hamlin and his home run prowess were once again in the headlines, as Chicago walked off the lowly Reds when \"Nicholson crashed a home run into Sheffield Avenue.\"<ref>\"Cubs Outlast Reds\". San Bernardino Sun. August 23, 1942. Retrieved February 3, 2020. </ref>}} and April 22, 1953, respectively.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 25901, 1777344, 428557, 23408844, 6936933, 12923860, 24270, 841567, 13285522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 253, 269 ], [ 308, 322 ], [ 327, 340 ], [ 484, 494 ], [ 495, 504 ], [ 1138, 1149 ], [ 1233, 1243 ], [ 1298, 1310 ], [ 1338, 1356 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2010, the Cubs considered adding a video screen to the stadium, but the hand-turned scoreboard cannot be moved due to the park's landmark status, which also prohibits even simple facelifts, such as adding two more games on either side (there are 15 teams in both the National and American Leagues) of the 12-game, 24-team scoreboard (reflecting the MLB from 1969 to 1976), so up to three games (one NL, one AL and the interleague) each day cannot be posted. Those games may eventually be part of the auxiliary video board currently on the right field that may also be added in left field. Most Cubs players support the concept of a video board, and work on two additional scoreboards began at the end of the 2014 season.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On March 21, 2013, it was announced that Alderman Tom Tunney wanted to demolish the scoreboard to clear the view for nearby residents, who watch games from their rooftops. \"Demolishing the landmark old scoreboard has never been part of any plan discussed or envisioned by the Ricketts family,\" said Dennis Culloton, a spokesman for Cubs chairman Tom Ricketts. To date, there is a third generation scoreboard operator whose grandfather began working in the hand-turned scoreboard at its inception.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 286925, 1265506, 18980603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 49 ], [ 50, 60 ], [ 346, 358 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Directly over the main entrance to the stadium stands the most familiar icon of the exterior of the ballpark: a large, red, art deco-style marquee, with \"Wrigley Field, Home of Chicago Cubs\" painted in white. The marquee was installed around 1934, and was originally painted blue with changeable letters—similar to the scoreboard—to announce upcoming games. The marquee originally read \"Home of the Cubs\", which was replaced with \"Home of Chicago Cubs\" by 1939. In years when the Bears played there, the sign was changed appropriately during football season. On March 23, 1960, the Cubs repainted the sign red.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 1881, 2393519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 132 ], [ 139, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1982, a two-line announcement board was replaced with an electronic LED message board, and a backlit advertising panel was added below (this is now solid red). The marquee uses red neon lights at night, showing the familiar \"Wrigley Field\" in red, with the rest of the sign in darkness. A Budweiser Beer slogan was on the lower panel in the early 1980s, around the time when the team added the LED signage. Past and present owners of the park have used the marquee in some way as the park's trademark of sorts: the CTA Addison street platform that serves Wrigley Field uses an image of the marquee painted on walls to announce the destination. In November 2010, the marquee was painted purple with an Allstate Insurance logo for the Northwestern Wildcats, who played as the home team against the Illinois Fighting Illini in a Big Ten football game.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 4851, 416981, 797063, 5025856, 6200389, 78358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 292, 301 ], [ 518, 521 ], [ 704, 722 ], [ 736, 757 ], [ 799, 823 ], [ 829, 836 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2015, a Toyota emblem was placed on the lower panel just below the LED sign on the marquee; previously, the area was used for logos of transient corporate sponsors and team initiatives. Toyota, one of the team's \"legacy partners\", began displaying other signage in and around the park in 2016, including branding on all of its parking lots.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 30984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The marquee was temporarily removed and restored for the 2016 season, including new paint, a new LED display board, and new neon lights. The back of the sign was given a new green paint job as well, which can now be seen from inside the terrace level.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Cubs were a holdout against night games for decades, not installing lights at Wrigley until 1988, after baseball officials announced that the park would be prohibited from hosting any future postseason games without lights. Before then, all games at Wrigley were played during the day. Night games are still limited in number by agreement with the city council.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 1694145, 13966179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 42 ], [ 96, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1942, then-owner Philip K. Wrigley had planned to install lights, but they were scrapped for the World War II effort. On July 1, 1943, the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League's first midseason All-Star Game was played under temporary lights at Wrigley Field, between two teams composed of South Bend Blue Sox and Rockford Peaches players versus Kenosha Comets and Racine Belles players. It was also the first night game ever played in the ballpark.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 2054814, 32927, 594817, 6073860, 1759093, 7557270, 7556831 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 37 ], [ 100, 112 ], [ 142, 189 ], [ 304, 323 ], [ 328, 344 ], [ 360, 374 ], [ 379, 392 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1984 World Series was scheduled to start in the National League park, but the MLB actually had a contingency plan to instead start the Series at the American League park in the event that the Cubs won the NLCS against the San Diego Padres. This would have allowed the Wrigley Field-hosted (i.e. daytime) games to be held over the weekend; in return, only one night game (game 3 on Friday) would have been lost. Had the Cubs advanced to the Series instead of the Padres, the Detroit Tigers would have hosted games 1, 2, 6, and 7 (on Tuesday and Wednesday nights), while the Cubs would have hosted games 3, 4, and 5 (on Friday, Saturday and Sunday), with all three games in Chicago starting no later than 1:30p.m. CST. Since the Padres wound up winning the 1984 NLCS, these plans proved moot.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 1101643, 64290, 64777, 11800675, 5392000, 13877940, 13226865, 481638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ], [ 52, 67 ], [ 153, 168 ], [ 196, 200 ], [ 209, 213 ], [ 226, 242 ], [ 478, 492 ], [ 716, 719 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the late 1980s, Cubs management insisted that the team was in danger of leaving Wrigley if lights were not installed, and Major League Baseball threatened to make the Cubs play postseason \"home\" games at Busch Stadium in St. Louis. After 5,687 consecutive day games played by the Cubs at Wrigley, the lights were finally lit on August 8, 1988, for a game against the Philadelphia Phillies. However, that game was rained out after 3½ innings, and the first official night game took place the following evening against the New York Mets, whom the Cubs beat 6–4.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 98971, 14095936, 12169290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 207, 220 ], [ 370, 391 ], [ 524, 537 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wrigley Field's first tenant was the Federal League team, the Chicago Whales, from 1914 to 1915. It has served as the home baseball park for Major League Baseball's Chicago Cubs franchise since 1916.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Stadium usage", "target_page_ids": [ 243623, 1277080, 38776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 51 ], [ 62, 76 ], [ 141, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Chicago Bears of the National Football League played at Wrigley Field from 1921 to 1970 before relocating to Soldier Field. The team had transferred from Decatur, and retained the name \"Staleys\" for the 1921 season. They renamed themselves the Bears in order to identify with the baseball team, then a common practice in the NFL. Wrigley Field once held the record for the most NFL games played in a single stadium, with 365 regular season games, but this record was surpassed in 2003 by Giants Stadium in New Jersey, thanks to its dual-occupancy by the New York Giants and New York Jets. On September 14, 2003, the game played between the Jets and Miami Dolphins was the 366th regular season NFL game at Giants Stadium, breaking Wrigley's regular season record. The 50 seasons the Bears spent at Wrigley Field had been an NFL record until 2006, when Lambeau Field duplicated this feat by hosting the Green Bay Packers for a 50th season and broke it in 2007. Soldier Field also matched the accomplishment when the Bears played there for their 50th season in 2021.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Stadium usage", "target_page_ids": [ 6611, 21211, 509225, 3571179, 321352, 21648, 21757, 21721, 18766048, 149583, 12663, 4040359, 65771541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 25, 49 ], [ 113, 126 ], [ 190, 197 ], [ 492, 506 ], [ 510, 520 ], [ 558, 573 ], [ 578, 591 ], [ 653, 667 ], [ 855, 868 ], [ 905, 922 ], [ 957, 961 ], [ 1062, 1066 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Initially, the Bears worked with the stands that were there. Eventually, they acquired a large, portable bleacher section that spanned the right and center field areas and covered most of the existing bleacher seating and part of the right field corner seating. This \"East Stand\" raised Wrigley's football capacity to about 47,000, or a net gain of perhaps 9,000 seats over normal capacity. After the Bears left, this structure would live on for several years as the \"North Stand\" at Soldier Field, until it was replaced by permanent seating.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Stadium usage", "target_page_ids": [ 509225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 484, 497 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The football field ran north-to-south, i.e. from left field to the foul side of first base. The remodeling of the bleachers made for a very tight fit for the gridiron. In fact, the corner of the south end zone was literally in the visiting baseball team's dugout, which was filled with pads for safety, and required a special ground rule that sliced off that corner of the end zone. The end zone was also shorter than the north, as the south end zone was eight yards, compared to the regulation ten yards. One corner of the north end line ran just inches short of the left field wall. There is a legend that Bears fullback Bronko Nagurski steamrolled through the line head down, and ran all the way through that end zone, smacking his leather-helmeted head on the bricks. He went back to the bench and told then-coach George Halas, \"That last guy gave me quite a lick!\" That kind of incident prompted the Bears to hang some padding in front of the wall.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Stadium usage", "target_page_ids": [ 87070, 634863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 623, 638 ], [ 818, 830 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Bears are second only to the Packers in total NFL championships, and all but one of those (their only Super Bowl championship) came during their tenure at Wrigley. After a half-century, they found themselves compelled to move as the NFL wanted every one of its stadiums to seat at least 50,000 as a result of the then-recent AFL–NFL merger. The Bears held one game at Dyche Stadium (now Ryan Field) on the Northwestern University campus in 1970, but otherwise continued at Wrigley until their transfer to the lakefront ended their five-decades run on the north side.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Stadium usage", "target_page_ids": [ 27718, 453767, 1873766, 174216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 116 ], [ 329, 343 ], [ 391, 401 ], [ 410, 433 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One remnant of the Bears' time at Wrigley was uncovered during the offseason rebuilding of the playing field between 2007 and 2008: the foundations for the goal posts. Five NFL championship games were played at Wrigley Field: 1933, 1937, 1941, 1943, and 1963. Coupled with the Chicago Bears, the Chicago Cardinals (now the Arizona Cardinals) of the NFL called Wrigley Field home from 1931 to 1938. Born on the South Side of Chicago, the Cardinals also played their home games at Normal Park, Comiskey Park, and Soldier Field.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Stadium usage", "target_page_ids": [ 7602246, 8630480, 7605178, 8635365, 28807463, 2102, 548086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 226, 230 ], [ 232, 236 ], [ 238, 242 ], [ 244, 248 ], [ 254, 258 ], [ 323, 340 ], [ 492, 505 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Northwestern Wildcats and the Illinois Fighting Illini played a college football game at Wrigley Field on November 20, 2010. It was the first football game at Wrigley Field since 1970, and the first collegiate football game there since 1938, when the DePaul Blue Demons played its regular games at Wrigley. The field used an east–west field configuration (third base to right field). In order to keep the playing field at regulation size, the safety clearances for each end zone to the walls in the field were considerably less than normal. In particular, the east (right field) end zone came under scrutiny as its end zone was wedged extremely close to the right field wall (as close as one foot in some areas), forcing the goal posts to be hung from the right field wall in order to fit. Despite extra padding provided in these locations, it was decided that all offensive plays for both teams play to the west end zone, where there was more safety clearance. The east end zone could still be used on defensive and special teams touchdowns, as well as defensive safeties; and, in fact, there was one interception run back for an eastbound touchdown. Big Ten Commissioner Jim Delany said that, as late as three days before the game, he had only been apprised that the situation wasn't \"anything other than tight\". When he had a chance to fully vet the situation, however, he concluded that the space surrounding the east end zone was smaller than the minimum of six feet stipulated in NCAA rules, and it would have been too great of a risk to allow offensive plays to be run toward that end zone. The Fighting Illini won the game 48-27, taking home the Land of Lincoln Trophy, which was introduced in 2009.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Stadium usage", "target_page_ids": [ 5025856, 6200389, 6771, 9791638, 78358, 8772750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 25 ], [ 34, 58 ], [ 68, 84 ], [ 255, 273 ], [ 1156, 1163 ], [ 1177, 1187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Northwestern football intends to return to Wrigley Field in 2022 and 2024. As a result of the 2017-18 redesign of the home (third base) dugout and its adjacent seating into removable modules, the playing field will accommodate a regulation size 120-yard football field that will run east-west. A Northwestern football game had also been scheduled for Wrigley in 2020, but was relocated to Northwestern's Ryan Field due to the COVID-19 pandemic. As a makeup, Northwestern relocated their 2021 home game against Purdue to Wrigley Field, which was held in November.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Stadium usage", "target_page_ids": [ 1873766, 62750956, 6160171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 404, 414 ], [ 426, 443 ], [ 510, 516 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Chicago Sting of the North American Soccer League (NASL) used Wrigley, along with Comiskey Park, for their home matches during the late 1970s and early 1980s. The Sting hosted the San Diego Sockers at Wrigley on August 25, 1979, when the Bears were using Soldier Field. Unlike the Bears' football layout, the soccer pitch ran east to west, from right field to the foul territory on the third base side. Soccer returned to Wrigley Field in July 2012, when Italian club A.S. Roma played Poland's Zaglebie Lubin in a friendly match.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Stadium usage", "target_page_ids": [ 1332984, 237757, 548086, 1083817, 16940807, 10568, 2358, 677663, 977090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 25, 60 ], [ 86, 99 ], [ 184, 201 ], [ 216, 231 ], [ 313, 319 ], [ 472, 481 ], [ 498, 512 ], [ 518, 532 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On January 1, 2009, the National Hockey League played its 2009 Winter Classic at Wrigley Field, pitting two \"Original Six\" teams – the host Chicago Blackhawks and the visiting Detroit Red Wings – in an outdoor ice hockey game. The rink ran across the field from first base to third base with second base being covered by roughly the center of the rink. The attendance for this game was 40,818. The Red Wings won 6–4.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Stadium usage", "target_page_ids": [ 21809, 18463659, 335180, 73126, 8795, 14790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 46 ], [ 58, 77 ], [ 109, 121 ], [ 140, 158 ], [ 176, 193 ], [ 210, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since 2005, Wrigley Field has been opened on a limited basis to popular concerts, but not without some controversy. Local neighborhood groups have expressed concerns about the impact of concert crowds and noise on the surrounding residential neighborhood, particularly in 2009, when three concerts were added to the schedule, one conflicting with an annual neighborhood festival.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Stadium usage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Wrigley Field shares its name with the Wrigley Company, as the park was named for its then-owner William Wrigley Jr., the company's CEO. As early as the 1920s, before the park became officially known as Wrigley Field, the scoreboard was topped by the elf-like \"Doublemint Twins\", posed as a pitcher and a batter. There were also ads painted on the bare right field wall early in the ballpark's history, prior to the 1923 remodeling, which put bleachers there. After that, the Doublemint elves were the only visible in-park advertising. The elves were removed permanently in 1937, when the bleachers and scoreboard were rebuilt. It would be about 44 years before in-park advertising would reappear.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Traditions and mainstays", "target_page_ids": [ 463687, 750350, 463109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 54 ], [ 97, 116 ], [ 261, 271 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ironically given the roots of its name, Wrigley Field had been a notable exception to the trend of selling corporate naming rights to sporting venues. The Tribune Company, the owners of the park from 1981 to 2009, chose not to rename the ballpark, utilizing other ways to bring in corporate sponsorship. During the mid-1980s, Anheuser-Busch placed Budweiser and Bud Light advertisements beneath the center field scoreboard. Bud Light became the sponsor of the rebuilt bleachers in 2006.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Traditions and mainstays", "target_page_ids": [ 623839, 368391, 310845, 4851, 25514525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 130 ], [ 155, 170 ], [ 326, 340 ], [ 348, 357 ], [ 362, 371 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the early 2000s, following the trend of many ballparks, a green-screen chroma key board was installed behind home plate in the line of sight of the center field camera to allow electronic \"rotating\" advertisements visible only to TV audiences. By 2006, the board was set up to allow advertisements to be both physical and electronic (they can be seen in both live and replay shots).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Traditions and mainstays", "target_page_ids": [ 46953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2007, the first on-field advertising appeared since the park's early days. Sporting goods firm Under Armour placed its logo on the double-doors between the ivy on the outfield wall in left-center and right-center fields. Advertisements were also placed in the dugouts, originally for Sears department stores, then Walter E. Smithe furniture and currently State Farm insurance.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Traditions and mainstays", "target_page_ids": [ 947442, 277858, 18104135, 810859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 110 ], [ 287, 292 ], [ 317, 333 ], [ 358, 368 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For 2008 and 2009, the Cubs worked out an agreement with the Chicago Board Options Exchange to allow the CBOE to auction some 70 box seat season tickets and award naming rights to them.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Traditions and mainstays", "target_page_ids": [ 1351813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For the 2009 season, the Cubs announced that the renovated restaurant space in the southeast corner of Wrigley Field, formerly known as the Friendly Confines Cafe, would be renamed the Captain Morgan Club.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Traditions and mainstays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On October 27, 2009, Thomas S. Ricketts officially took over 95% ownership of the Cubs and Wrigley Field, and 20% ownership of Comcast SportsNet Chicago. The Tribune retained 5% ownership. Ricketts, however, has expressed no interest in selling the naming rights to the park, preferring that it retain the name it has used since 1926.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Traditions and mainstays", "target_page_ids": [ 18980603, 12061335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 39 ], [ 127, 152 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Corporate sponsorship has not been limited to the park itself. Wrigley Field is famous for its view of the neighborhood buildings across Waveland and Sheffield Avenues. In addition to spectators standing or sitting on the apartment roofs, corporate sponsors have frequently taken advantage of those locations as well. In the earliest days of Weeghman Park, one building across Sheffield Avenue advertised a local hangout known as Bismarck Gardens (later called the Marigold Gardens after World War I). That same building has since advertised for the Torco Oil Company, Southwest Airlines, the Miller Brewing Company, and Gilbert's Craft Sausages.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Traditions and mainstays", "target_page_ids": [ 63032, 54178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 569, 587 ], [ 593, 615 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A building across from deep right-center field was topped by a neon sign for Baby Ruth candy beginning in the mid-1930s and running for some 40 years. That placement by the Chicago-based Curtiss Candy Company (which is now under Nestlé), coincidentally positioned in the line of sight of \"Babe Ruth's called shot\", proved fortuitous when games began to be televised in the 1940s—the sign was also in the line of sight of the ground level camera behind and to the left of home plate. The aging sign was eventually removed in the early 1970s.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Traditions and mainstays", "target_page_ids": [ 1018471, 1103083, 160227, 2026581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 86 ], [ 187, 208 ], [ 229, 235 ], [ 289, 312 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another long-standing venue for a sign is the sloping roof of a building behind left-center field. Unsuitable for the bleachers that now decorate many of those buildings, that building's angling roof has been painted in the form of a large billboard since at least the 1940s. In recent years, it has borne a bright-red Budweiser sign, and beginning in 2009, an advertisement for Horseshoe Casino. Other buildings have carried signs sponsoring beers, such as Old Style (when it was a Cubs broadcasting sponsor) and Miller, and also WGN-TV, which has telecast Cubs games since April 1948.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Traditions and mainstays", "target_page_ids": [ 189764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 531, 537 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In January 2013, the Ricketts family launched \"Legacy Partners\", a marketing effort to sell new advertising in and around the renovated Wrigley Field. In conjunction with the new \"W Partners\", the Cubs entered into 10-year agreements with its largest advertisers.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Traditions and mainstays", "target_page_ids": [ 44006135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " – Anheuser-Busch", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Traditions and mainstays", "target_page_ids": [ 310845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " – Under Armour", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Traditions and mainstays", "target_page_ids": [ 947442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " – ATI Physical Therapy, a national Sports Medicine and Rehabilitation organization", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Traditions and mainstays", "target_page_ids": [ 63078581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " – Wintrust Financial Corporation, a Chicago-based regional bank holding company", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Traditions and mainstays", "target_page_ids": [ 18448184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " – Sloan Valve", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Traditions and mainstays", "target_page_ids": [ 8457209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " – American Airlines", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Traditions and mainstays", "target_page_ids": [ 2386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " – Nuveen Investments", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Traditions and mainstays", "target_page_ids": [ 9026689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " – Advocate Health Care, the largest health care provider in Illinois.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Traditions and mainstays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " – Toyota Motor Corporation A permanent position just below the Clark and Addison marquee and other signage in and around the park and Wrigley Field parking lots.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Traditions and mainstays", "target_page_ids": [ 30984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " – PepsiCo", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Traditions and mainstays", "target_page_ids": [ 1213210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Beginning in the days of P.K. Wrigley and the 1937 bleacher/scoreboard reconstruction, a flag with either a \"W\" or an \"L\" has flown from atop the scoreboard masthead, indicating the day's result. In case of a doubleheader that is split, both flags are flown.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Traditions and mainstays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Past Cubs media guides show that the original flags were blue with a white \"W\" and white with a blue \"L\", the latter coincidentally suggesting \"surrender\". In 1978, blue and white lights were mounted atop the scoreboard, to further denote wins and losses.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Traditions and mainstays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The flags were replaced in the early 1980s, and the color schemes were reversed with the \"win flag\" being white with a blue W, and the \"loss flag\" the opposite. In 1982, the retired number of Ernie Banks was flying on a foul pole, as white with blue numbers, in 1987, the retired number of Billy Williams joined Banks, the two flags were positioned from the foul poles, Banks from left field, and Williams from right field. Later on, the team retired numbers for Ron Santo, Ryne Sandberg, Ferguson Jenkins and Greg Maddux, with Jenkins and Maddux both using the same number (31).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Traditions and mainstays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Keeping with tradition, fans are known to bring win flags to home and away games, and displaying them after a Cubs win. Flags are also sold at the ballpark. On April 24, 2008, the Cubs flew an extra white flag displaying \"10,000\" in blue, along with the win flag, as the 10,000th win in team history was achieved on the road the previous night. Alongside the tradition of the \"W\" and \"L\" flags, the song \"Go, Cubs, Go\" is sung after each home win (it was also sung by visiting Cubs fans in game 7 of the 2016 World Series at Progressive Field in Cleveland, where the Cubs clinched their first championship since 1908). Also, following the 2015 addition of the park's Daktronics video screens, the large \"W\" in the \"Wintrust\" logo on the left field video screen is kept on following Cubs' wins.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Traditions and mainstays", "target_page_ids": [ 19395882, 46779328, 329401, 6652, 1452647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 405, 417 ], [ 504, 521 ], [ 525, 542 ], [ 546, 555 ], [ 667, 677 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The tradition of singing \"Take Me Out to the Ball Game\" at Cubs home games began when Hall of Fame announcer Harry Caray arrived in 1982 (he had sung it the preceding seven years as a broadcaster for the White Sox), and has remained a Wrigley Field staple. After Caray's death, the tradition of a guest conductor began, with former baseball players, other sports stars, actors, and other celebrities invited to sing during the Seventh Inning Stretch. Among the best-known guests have been the actor Bill Murray, former Bears coach Mike Ditka, former Cubs second baseman Ryne Sandberg, former pitcher Mike Krukow, former longtime Cubs first baseman Mark Grace, former Houston Rockets star Tracy McGrady, Chicago Blackhawks forwards Jonathan Toews and Patrick Kane, Chicago Bears quarterback Jay Cutler, comedian Jay Leno, NASCAR driver Jeff Gordon, singers Ozzy Osbourne and Eddie Vedder, former Chicago lead singer Peter Cetera, boxer and actor Mr. T, actor and lifelong Cub fan Gary Sinise, actors Tom Arnold, James Belushi, Bill Murray, WWE wrestler/Chicago native CM Punk, Vince Vaughn, actress Melissa McCarthy, and Illinois-native country music singer Brett Eldredge.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Traditions and mainstays", "target_page_ids": [ 30689, 267676, 5945, 102994, 297288, 303018, 2117339, 328087, 72885, 503978, 5616697, 8636786, 3357322, 16506, 21114, 18600829, 85406, 154247, 168876, 1047208, 19019, 524276, 448514, 430546, 102994, 62676, 1656784, 666910, 1022352, 29068895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 54 ], [ 109, 120 ], [ 204, 213 ], [ 499, 510 ], [ 531, 541 ], [ 570, 583 ], [ 600, 611 ], [ 648, 658 ], [ 667, 682 ], [ 688, 701 ], [ 731, 745 ], [ 750, 762 ], [ 790, 800 ], [ 811, 819 ], [ 821, 827 ], [ 835, 846 ], [ 856, 869 ], [ 874, 886 ], [ 895, 902 ], [ 915, 927 ], [ 945, 950 ], [ 979, 990 ], [ 999, 1009 ], [ 1011, 1024 ], [ 1026, 1037 ], [ 1039, 1042 ], [ 1067, 1074 ], [ 1076, 1088 ], [ 1098, 1114 ], [ 1157, 1171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wrigley Field was the first Major League ballpark to introduce live organ music on April 26, 1941. The stadium's first organist was Ray Nelson. As of July 2019, organist Gary Pressy, holds the record for 2,653 consecutive games played; never having missed a day's work in 33 years. Today, most major league ballparks have replaced the traditional live organist with canned music programmed by a DJ. Pressy says: \"I don't think it's a dying art, especially at Wrigley Field ... The team respects tradition.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Traditions and mainstays", "target_page_ids": [ 152778, 61433873, 8683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 73 ], [ 170, 181 ], [ 395, 397 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 2016 postseason, someone wrote a message in chalk on the outer brick wall of the stadium along Waveland and Sheffield avenues. This started a chain reaction and more fans began to write their own messages on the wall. The messages were anything from words of support expressed towards the team or just a name. Chalk covered a majority of the wall, to point where fans had to bring step ladders in order to reach upper spaces for their message. The Cubs themselves encouraged the event by supplying chalk and adding extra security. The event gained both local and national attention, receiving coverage from Fox Sports and The Boston Globe.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Traditions and mainstays", "target_page_ids": [ 5598366, 30068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 618, 628 ], [ 633, 649 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wrigley Field had a brief cameo in the 1980 film The Blues Brothers, starring John Belushi and Dan Aykroyd as Jake and Elwood Blues. In the film, Elwood lists 1060 W. Addison as his fake home address on his Illinois driver's license, tricking the police and later the Illinois Nazis listening on police radio into heading for Wrigley Field. The 1984 film The Natural, starring Robert Redford, had a scene set at Wrigley but was actually filmed at All-High Stadium in Buffalo, New York. All other baseball action scenes in that movie were shot in Buffalo, at the since-demolished War Memorial Stadium.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 4558294, 16384, 49650, 1187127, 61982, 6744279, 3985, 757264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 67 ], [ 78, 90 ], [ 95, 106 ], [ 355, 366 ], [ 377, 391 ], [ 447, 463 ], [ 467, 484 ], [ 579, 599 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During Cubs games, fans will often stand outside the park on Waveland Avenue, waiting for home run balls hit over the wall and out of the park. However, as a tradition, Cubs fans inside and sometimes even outside the park will promptly throw any home run ball hit by an opposing player back onto the field of play, a ritual depicted in the 1977 stage play Bleacher Bums and in the 1993 film Rookie of the Year.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 6493031, 1811116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 356, 369 ], [ 391, 409 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ballpark was featured in a scene in the 1986 film Ferris Bueller's Day Off, where the outside marquee read \"Save Ferris\". The director, John Hughes, originally wanted to film at Comiskey Park (he was a White Sox fan) but the team was out of town during filming. The 2006 film The Break-Up used Wrigley Field as the setting for its opening scene. An early 1990s film about Babe Ruth had the obligatory scene in Wrigley Field about the \"called shot\" (the ballpark also doubled as Yankee Stadium for the film). A scoreboard similar to the one existing in 1932 was used, atop an ivy wall (though that did not exist until later in the decade).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 88326, 102467, 2385928, 10272267, 40019, 1332346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 78 ], [ 140, 151 ], [ 280, 292 ], [ 353, 385 ], [ 482, 496 ], [ 556, 560 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ballpark was used for the establishing tryouts scene in A League of Their Own (1992). This film was a Hollywood account of the 1940s women's baseball league which Cubs owner P.K. Wrigley championed during World War II. Garry Marshall (older brother of the film's director Penny Marshall) has a cameo as \"Walter Harvey\", Wrigley's fictional alter ego. The sign behind the scoreboard was temporarily redone to read \"Harvey Field\", and filming was split between Wrigley and Cantigny Park near Wheaton, Illinois.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 543433, 543262, 458216, 111136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 81 ], [ 223, 237 ], [ 276, 290 ], [ 494, 511 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many television series have made featured scenes set in Wrigley Field, including ER, Crime Story, Chicago Hope, Prison Break, Perfect Strangers, My Boys, Chicago Fire and Mike & Molly. Also, the animated comedy Family Guy featured a scene at Wrigley Field that parodied the Steve Bartman incident. In an episode of The Simpsons titled \"He Loves to Fly and He D'ohs\", upon arriving in Chicago, Homer walks past a number of famous Chicago landmarks, including Wrigley Field, followed by a generic-looking stadium bearing the name \"Wherever the White Sox play\". In 2007, the band Nine Inch Nails created a promotional audio skit, which involved Wrigley Field being the target of disgruntled war veteran's terrorist attack.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 177153, 1687832, 217785, 2005448, 1485652, 8159707, 35771113, 27383779, 187586, 343136, 29838, 11124904, 64072, 71966, 30636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 83 ], [ 85, 96 ], [ 98, 110 ], [ 112, 124 ], [ 126, 143 ], [ 145, 152 ], [ 154, 166 ], [ 171, 183 ], [ 211, 221 ], [ 274, 296 ], [ 315, 327 ], [ 336, 364 ], [ 393, 398 ], [ 577, 592 ], [ 702, 711 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The late-1970s comedy stage play Bleacher Bums was set in the right field bleachers at Wrigley. The video of the play was also set on a stage, with bleachers suggesting Wrigley's layout, rather than in the actual ballpark's bleachers. The tradition of throwing opposition home run balls back was explained by Dennis Franz's character: \"If someone hands you some garbage, you have to throw it back at them!\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 6493031, 704976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 46 ], [ 309, 321 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the cartoon series Biker Mice from Mars, the eponymous main characters hide out in the scoreboard of the stadium, which is named Quigley Field.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 770236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A dog park in the Wrightwood Neighbors section of Lincoln Park is named Wiggly Field (1997).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 421987, 29535347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 62 ], [ 72, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The stadium was also featured on the popular Travel Channel television show Great Hotels, starring Samantha Brown. She attended a game during a visit to Chicago.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 925632, 2210745, 1627524 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 59 ], [ 76, 88 ], [ 99, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chicago folk singer Steve Goodman featured Wrigley Field as the setting for his popular Cubs lament \"A Dying Cub Fan's Last Request\", extolling both the trials of the Cubs and the place Wrigley Field holds in Cub fans' hearts. After his death from leukemia, Goodman's ashes were scattered at Wrigley Field as described in the lyrics.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 40232, 65501698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 33 ], [ 101, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Statler Brothers' 1981 song \"Don't Wait On Me\" referred to a then-implausible situation: \"When the lights go on at Wrigley Field\". However, after lights were installed, the line was changed to \"When they put a dome on Wrigley Field\" for their 1989 Live-Sold Out album.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1024007, 40224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ], [ 150, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A few brief shots of Wrigley Field appear in the 1949 movie It Happens Every Spring. It is also seen on the History Channel's show Life After People.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 5212120, 748853, 15266451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 83 ], [ 108, 123 ], [ 131, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The stadium made a brief appearance in the open for the first episode of The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien, with Conan rushing through the turnstiles while running from New York (where his previous show, Late Night with Conan O'Brien, was taped) to Los Angeles (where his new show was taped, until his role as host ended on January 22, 2010) and then running onto the field while being chased by Cubs security. The route O'Brien takes is somewhat misleading, as he is shown running south on Michigan Avenue past the Tribune Tower before arriving at Wrigley Field, which is well north of the Tribune Tower.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 16774115, 174688, 503172, 70730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 108 ], [ 206, 235 ], [ 493, 508 ], [ 518, 531 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the movie Day of Destruction, a terrorist turns off all the electricity at the stadium for a few minutes to demonstrate how hackers could penetrate city electrical systems.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An overgrown Wrigley Field is shown in the new television series Revolution (2012).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In episode 9 of season 3 of The Man in the High Castle (2015), Wrigley Field makes a short appearance as the home of a fictional soccer team called the Chicago Norsemen who, according to a banner, were \"1963 Annual Soccer Champions\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 45111069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wrigley Field was the site of the final task of The Amazing Race 29 finale, where one team member was guided by their partner communicating to them from the press box via a one-way radio to place numbers on the hand-turned scoreboard that corresponded to their team's final placement at the end of each of the previous eleven episodes, before searching the stadium's seats for their final clue.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 49965547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the Sonic Youth live album Smart Bar Chicago 85 the band introduce the final song, 'Making The Nature Scene', as being about 'Tripping on Acid at Wrigley Field'.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 28309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2020 film, Greenland, Wrigley Field is shown still standing despite being severely damaged amidst the ruins of Chicago after the collision of an interstellar comet that collided with Earth.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 62265900, 9228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 27 ], [ 190, 195 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wesley Willis, an outsider musician and Chicago folk artist, had a track titled \"Wrigley Field\" on his album Greatest Hits Vol. 3, which he played with his band 'The Dragnews'.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 304829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Chicago \"L\" Red Line stop at is less than one block east of Wrigley Field; the stadium was originally built for proximity to the \"L\" tracks. As Addison is frequently crowded after games, many fans use , the next station to the north, and still less than a mile from the stadium.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Accessibility and transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 412649, 503155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 15 ], [ 16, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Additionally, Purple Line Express trains stop at Sheridan before weekday night games in order to provide an additional connection for passengers traveling from Evanston, Skokie and northern Chicago. After weekday night games, northbound Purple Line passengers are told to board at Sheridan, while southbound passengers are told to board at Addison.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Accessibility and transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 503654, 101753, 111053 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 33 ], [ 160, 168 ], [ 170, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the conclusion of games, the scoreboard operator raises to the top of the center field scoreboard either a white flag with a blue \"W\" to signify a Cubs victory or a blue flag with a white \"L\" for a loss. This is done to show the outcome of the game to passengers on passing \"L\" trains, and also to anyone passing by the park. The basic flag color was once the exact opposite of the colors used today (the rationale being that white is the traditional color for surrender). In addition to rail service, the CTA provides several bus routes which service Wrigley. CTA bus routes , and all provide access to the ballpark. Pace also operates the from Woodfield Mall in Schaumburg and the from Yorktown Shopping Center in Lombard. Biking to the field is also a popular alternative. As Halsted, Addison, and Clark streets all have designated biking lanes, getting to the field via bicycle is a widely used way to avoid hectic pre- and postgame traffic; Wrigley Field offers a complimentary bike check program to accommodate for them. Cyclists may check their bikes up to 2 hours before games at the bike racks off of Waveland Ave, and may pick up their bikes up to one hour after games end.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Accessibility and transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 2214085, 8632598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 464, 473 ], [ 564, 578 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Parking in the area remains scarce, but that does not seem to bother fans who want to come to this baseball mecca, which drew over three million fans from 2004 until 2011, averaging to a near-sellout every day of the season, even with many weekday afternoon games. The little parking that is available around the park can go for as much as $100 per space. To partially alleviate this problem, the Cubs sponsor a parking shuttle service from the nearby DeVry University campus at Belmont and Western as part of their agreement with local neighborhood groups. This was not available during the last World Series prior to 2016, in 1945 against the Detroit Tigers, so cars parked as much as a mile away on residential streets and fans walked to Wrigley Field.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Accessibility and transportation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2001, a series of commemorative postage stamps on the subject of baseball parks was issued by the U.S. Postal Service. Most of them were engravings taken from old colorized postcards, including the illustration of Wrigley Field. In the case of Wrigley, the famous scoreboard was sliced off, presumably to hide the original postcard's banner containing the park's name. It may also be observed that the original black-and-white aerial photo, from the 1945 World Series, was taken from nearly the identical spot as the photo of the 1935 Series, allowing a comparison before and after the 1937 alterations to the bleachers. The stamp and its sources also provide a rare look at the center field bleachers filled with spectators, a practice which was later discontinued due to the risk to batters, who might lose the flight of a pitch amidst the white shirts. This led to the development of darker backgrounds to the pitcher's mounds.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Commemorative stamps", "target_page_ids": [ 5481163 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 890, 908 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "History of Wrigley Field", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21151238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of events at Wrigley Field", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22411415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A Day at the Park, by William Hartel", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ballparks of North America, by Michael Benson", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cubs Journal, by John Snyder", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Green Cathedrals, by Philip J. Lowry", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Wrigleyville: A Magical History Tour of the Chicago Cubs, by Peter Golenbock", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Wrigley Field: The Long Life and Contentious Times of the Friendly Confines'', by Stuart Shea", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Top 10 Ballparks of 2008 by Devin Pratt", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Stadium site on MLB.com", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Restore Wrigley Field", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Wrigley Field facts, figures, photos and more", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Wrigley Field News ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Zachary Taylor Davis", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1060 Project ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sanborn map showing future site of the ballpark, 1894", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Wrigley_Field", "1914_establishments_in_Illinois", "American_football_venues_in_Chicago", "Baseball_venues_in_Chicago", "Boxing_venues_in_Chicago", "Chicago_Bears_stadiums", "Chicago_Cardinals_stadiums", "Chicago_Cubs_stadiums", "Chicago_Landmarks", "Chicago_Sting_sports_facilities", "College_football_venues", "Defunct_National_Football_League_venues", "Defunct_soccer_venues_in_the_United_States", "DePaul_Blue_Demons_football", "Ice_hockey_venues_in_Chicago", "Jewel_Box_parks", "Major_League_Baseball_venues", "National_Historic_Landmarks_in_Illinois", "North_American_Soccer_League_(1968–1984)_stadiums", "North_Side,_Chicago", "Outdoor_ice_hockey_venues_in_the_United_States", "Soccer_venues_in_Chicago", "Sports_venues_completed_in_1914", "Sports_venues_in_Chicago", "Tourist_attractions_in_Chicago", "Wrigley_Company" ]

[ "Weeghman Park", "The Friendly Confines of...", "Wrigley" ]

[ { "plaintext": "George IV (George Augustus Frederick; 12 August 1762 – 26 June 1830) was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and King of Hanover from the death of his father, King George III, on 29 January 1820, until his own death ten years later. At the time of his accession to the throne, he was acting as Prince Regent, having done so since 5 February 1811, during his father's final mental illness.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2811078, 2596461, 42029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 128 ], [ 133, 148 ], [ 179, 194 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "George IV was the eldest child of King GeorgeIII and Queen Charlotte. He led an extravagant lifestyle that contributed to the fashions of the Regency era. He was a patron of new forms of leisure, style and taste. He commissioned John Nash to build the Royal Pavilion in Brighton and remodel Buckingham Palace, and commissioned Jeffry Wyatville to rebuild Windsor Castle. George's charm and culture earned him the title \"the first gentleman of England\", but his dissolute way of life and poor relationships with his parents and his wife, Caroline of Brunswick, earned him the contempt of the people and dimmed the prestige of the monarchy. He excluded Caroline from his coronation and asked the government to introduce the unpopular Pains and Penalties Bill in an unsuccessful attempt to divorce her.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 209351, 154908, 102566, 101181, 49796, 3969, 30859473, 4689517, 48913, 63653494, 1212103 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 68 ], [ 142, 153 ], [ 229, 238 ], [ 252, 266 ], [ 270, 278 ], [ 291, 308 ], [ 327, 343 ], [ 355, 369 ], [ 537, 558 ], [ 665, 679 ], [ 732, 756 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite presiding over the British Empire's emergence as a global hegemon, his rule was tarnished by scandal and financial extravagance. His ministers found his behaviour selfish, unreliable and irresponsible, and he was strongly influenced by favourites. During most of George's regency and reign, Lord Liverpool controlled the government as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. Liverpool's government presided over Britain's ultimate victory over Napoleon and negotiated a peace settlement with the French. After Liverpool's retirement, George IV was forced to accept Catholic emancipation despite opposing it. His only legitimate child, Princess Charlotte, predeceased him in 1817, so he was succeeded by his younger brother, King William IV.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 167411, 232878, 24150, 524948, 194316, 43271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 73 ], [ 299, 313 ], [ 343, 379 ], [ 571, 592 ], [ 641, 659 ], [ 730, 745 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "George was born at St James's Palace, London, on 12 August 1762, the first child of King George III and Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. As the eldest son of a British sovereign, he automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay at birth; he was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester a few days later. On 18 September of the same year, he was baptised by Thomas Secker, Archbishop of Canterbury. His godparents were his maternal uncle Adolphus Frederick IV, Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (for whom the Lord Chamberlain, William Cavendish, 4th Duke of Devonshire, stood proxy); his paternal grand-uncle Prince William, Duke of Cumberland; and his grandmother Augusta, Dowager Princess of Wales. George was a talented student, and quickly learned to speak French, German and Italian, in addition to his native English.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 347356, 42029, 209351, 79941, 224282, 46204, 253675, 157927, 2345, 9114377, 318753, 233795, 140782, 181210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 36 ], [ 84, 99 ], [ 104, 137 ], [ 205, 221 ], [ 226, 242 ], [ 268, 283 ], [ 288, 303 ], [ 375, 388 ], [ 390, 414 ], [ 455, 506 ], [ 521, 537 ], [ 539, 580 ], [ 621, 655 ], [ 677, 711 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the age of 18 the Prince of Wales was given a separate establishment, and in dramatic contrast to his prosaic, scandal-free father, threw himself with zest into a life of dissipation and wild extravagance involving heavy drinking and numerous mistresses and escapades. He was a witty conversationalist, drunk or sober, and showed good, but grossly expensive, taste in decorating his palace. The Prince of Wales turned 21 in 1783, and obtained a grant of £60,000 (equivalent to £ today) from Parliament and an annual income of £50,000 (equivalent to £ today) from his father. It was far too little for his wants – his stables alone cost £31,000 a year. He then established his residence in Carlton House, where he lived a profligate life. Animosity developed between the prince and his father, who desired more frugal behaviour on the part of the heir apparent. The King, a political conservative, was also alienated by the prince's adherence to Charles James Fox and other radically inclined politicians.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 1608584, 213047, 142125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 692, 705 ], [ 849, 862 ], [ 948, 965 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soon after he reached the age of 21, the prince became infatuated with Maria Fitzherbert. She was a commoner (though granddaughter of a baronet), six years his elder, twice widowed, and a Roman Catholic. Nevertheless, the prince was determined to marry her. This was in spite of the Act of Settlement 1701, which barred the spouse of a Catholic from succeeding to the throne, and the Royal Marriages Act 1772, which prohibited his marriage without the King's consent.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 194311, 2070, 238573 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 88 ], [ 283, 305 ], [ 384, 408 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nevertheless, the couple went through a marriage ceremony on 15 December 1785 at her house in Park Street, Mayfair. Legally the union was void, as the King's consent was not granted (and never even requested). However, Fitzherbert believed that she was the prince's canonical and true wife, holding the law of the Church to be superior to the law of the State. For political reasons, the union remained secret and Fitzherbert promised not to reveal it.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 94167, 6469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 114 ], [ 266, 275 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The prince was plunged into debt by his exorbitant lifestyle. His father refused to assist him, forcing him to quit Carlton House and live at Fitzherbert's residence. In 1787, the prince's political allies proposed to relieve his debts with a parliamentary grant. The prince's relationship with Fitzherbert was suspected, and revelation of the illegal marriage would have scandalised the nation and doomed any parliamentary proposal to aid him. Acting on the prince's authority, the Whig leader Charles James Fox declared that the story was a calumny. Fitzherbert was not pleased with the public denial of the marriage in such vehement terms and contemplated severing her ties to the prince. He appeased her by asking another Whig, Richard Brinsley Sheridan, to restate Fox's forceful declaration in more careful words. Parliament, meanwhile, granted the prince £161,000 (equivalent to £ today) to pay his debts and £60,000 (equivalent to £ today) for improvements to Carlton House.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 12152878, 43729, 162371 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 344, 360 ], [ 483, 487 ], [ 732, 757 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the summer of 1788 the King's mental health deteriorated, possibly as the result of the hereditary disease porphyria. He was nonetheless able to discharge some of his duties and to declare Parliament prorogued from 25 September to 20 November. During the prorogation he became deranged, posing a threat to his own life, and when Parliament reconvened in November, the King could not deliver the customary speech from the throne during the State Opening of Parliament. Parliament found itself in an untenable position: according to long-established law it could not proceed to any business until the delivery of the King's Speech at a State Opening.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Regency crisis of 1788", "target_page_ids": [ 82978, 225024, 358694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 119 ], [ 408, 430 ], [ 442, 469 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although arguably barred from doing so, Parliament began debating a regency. In the House of Commons, Charles James Fox declared his opinion that the Prince of Wales was automatically entitled to exercise sovereignty during the King's incapacity. A contrasting opinion was held by the prime minister, William Pitt the Younger, who argued that, in the absence of a statute to the contrary, the right to choose a regent belonged to Parliament alone. He even stated that, without parliamentary authority \"the Prince of Wales had no more right... to assume the government, than any other individual subject of the country.\" Though disagreeing on the principle underlying a regency, Pitt agreed with Fox that the Prince of Wales would be the most convenient choice for a regent.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Regency crisis of 1788", "target_page_ids": [ 79451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 301, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Prince of Wales—though offended by Pitt's boldness—did not lend his full support to Fox's approach. The Prince of Wales's brother, Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany, declared that George would not attempt to exercise any power without previously obtaining the consent of Parliament. Following the passage of preliminary resolutions Pitt outlined a formal plan for the regency, suggesting that the powers of the Prince of Wales be greatly limited. Among other things, the Prince of Wales would not be able either to sell the King's property or to grant a peerage to anyone other than a child of the King. The Prince of Wales denounced Pitt's scheme, declaring it a \"project for producing weakness, disorder, and insecurity in every branch of the administration of affairs.\" In the interests of the nation, both factions agreed to compromise.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Regency crisis of 1788", "target_page_ids": [ 209348, 58254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 176 ], [ 566, 573 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A significant technical impediment to any Regency Bill involved the lack of a speech from the throne, which was necessary before Parliament could proceed to any debates or votes. The speech was normally delivered by the King, but could also be delivered by royal representatives known as Lords Commissioners; but no document could empower the Lords Commissioners to act unless the Great Seal of the Realm was affixed to it. The seal could not be legally affixed without the prior authorisation of the sovereign. Pitt and his fellow ministers ignored the last requirement and instructed the Lord Chancellor to affix the Great Seal without the King's consent, as the act of affixing the Great Seal in itself gave legal force to the bill. This legal fiction was denounced by Edmund Burke as \"forgery, fraud\", a \"glaring falsehood\", and as a \"palpable absurdity\". The Duke of York and Albany described the plan as \"unconstitutional and illegal.\" Nevertheless, others in Parliament felt that such a scheme was necessary to preserve an effective government. Consequently, on 3 February 1789, more than two months after it had convened, Parliament was formally opened by an \"illegal\" group of Lords Commissioners. The Regency Bill was introduced, but before it could be passed the King recovered. The King declared retroactively that the instrument authorising the Lords Commissioners to act was valid.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Regency crisis of 1788", "target_page_ids": [ 377950, 847582, 226197, 258949, 10030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 288, 307 ], [ 381, 404 ], [ 590, 605 ], [ 741, 754 ], [ 772, 784 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Prince of Wales's debts continued to climb, and his father refused to aid him unless he married his cousin Princess Caroline of Brunswick. In 1795, the prince acquiesced; and they were married on 8 April 1795 at the Chapel Royal, St James's Palace. The marriage, however, was disastrous; each party was unsuited to the other. The two were formally separated after the birth of their only child, Princess Charlotte, in 1796, and remained separated thereafter. The Prince remained attached to Maria Fitzherbert for the rest of his life, despite several periods of estrangement.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Marriage and mistresses", "target_page_ids": [ 48913, 990744, 347356, 194316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 141 ], [ 220, 232 ], [ 234, 251 ], [ 399, 417 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "George's mistresses included Mary Robinson, an actress whom he paid to leave the stage; Grace Elliott, the divorced wife of a physician; and Frances Villiers, Countess of Jersey, who dominated his life for some years. In later life, George's mistresses were the Marchioness of Hertford and the Marchioness Conyngham.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Marriage and mistresses", "target_page_ids": [ 551790, 1267344, 3628211, 11566856, 11567460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 42 ], [ 88, 101 ], [ 141, 177 ], [ 262, 285 ], [ 294, 315 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "George was rumoured to have fathered several illegitimate children. James Ord (born 1786)—who moved to the United States and became a Jesuit priest—was reportedly his son by Fitzherbert. Late in life, George told a friend that he had a son who was a naval officer in the West Indies, whose identity has been tentatively established as Captain Henry A. F. Hervey (1786–1824), reportedly George's child by the songwriter Lady Anne Lindsay (later Barnard), a daughter of James Lindsay, 5th Earl of Balcarres. Other reported children include Major George Seymour Crole, the son of theatre manager's daughter Eliza Crole; William Hampshire, the son of publican's daughter Sarah Brown; and Charles \"Beau\" Candy, the son of a Frenchwoman with that surname. Anthony Camp, Director of Research at the Society of Genealogists, has dismissed the claims that George IV was the father of Ord, Hervey, Hampshire and Candy, as fictitious.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Marriage and mistresses", "target_page_ids": [ 156951, 25093836, 118382, 55942711, 1120771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 419, 436 ], [ 468, 504 ], [ 647, 655 ], [ 750, 762 ], [ 792, 815 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The problem of the Prince of Wales's debts, which amounted to the extraordinary sum of £630,000 in 1795 (equivalent to £ today), was solved (at least temporarily) by Parliament. Being unwilling to make an outright grant to relieve these debts, it provided him an additional sum of £65,000 (equivalent to £ today) per annum. In 1803, a further £60,000 (equivalent to £ today) was added, and George's debts as at 1795 were finally cleared in 1806, although the debts he had incurred since 1795 remained.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Marriage and mistresses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1804, a dispute arose over the custody of Princess Charlotte, which led to her being placed in the care of the King. It also led to a Parliamentary Commission of Enquiry into Princess Caroline's conduct after the Prince of Wales accused her of having an illegitimate son. The investigation cleared Caroline of the charge but still revealed her behaviour to have been extraordinarily indiscreet.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Marriage and mistresses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In late 1810, the King's mental health once again broke down, following the death of his youngest daughter, Princess Amelia. Parliament agreed to follow the precedent of 1788; without the King's consent, the Lord Chancellor affixed the Great Seal of the Realm to letters patent naming Lords Commissioners. The letters patent lacked the Royal Sign Manual, but were sealed by request of resolutions passed by both Houses of Parliament. The Lords Commissioners appointed by the letters patent, in the name of the King, then signified the granting of Royal Assent to a bill that became the Regency Act 1811. Parliament restricted some of the powers of the Prince Regent (as the Prince of Wales became known). The constraints expired one year after the passage of the Act. The Prince of Wales became Prince Regent on 5 February 1811.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Regency", "target_page_ids": [ 604721, 238216, 2696374, 153067, 1150036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 123 ], [ 263, 277 ], [ 336, 353 ], [ 547, 559 ], [ 586, 602 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Regent let his ministers take full charge of government affairs, playing a far smaller role than his father. The principle that the prime minister was the person supported by a majority in the House of Commons, whether the king personally favoured him or not, became established. His governments, with little help from the Regent, presided over British policy. One of the most important political conflicts facing the country concerned Catholic emancipation, the movement to relieve Roman Catholics of various political disabilities. The Tories, led by Prime Minister Spencer Perceval, were opposed to Catholic emancipation, while the Whigs supported it. At the beginning of the Regency, the Prince of Wales was expected to support the Whig leader, Lord Grenville. He did not, however, immediately put Grenville and the Whigs into office. Influenced by his mother, he claimed that a sudden dismissal of the Tory government would exact too great a toll on the health of the King (a steadfast supporter of the Tories), thereby eliminating any chance of a recovery.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Regency", "target_page_ids": [ 524948, 232875, 232769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 440, 461 ], [ 572, 588 ], [ 753, 767 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1812, when it appeared highly unlikely that the King would recover, the Prince of Wales again failed to appoint a new Whig administration. Instead, he asked the Whigs to join the existing ministry under Perceval. The Whigs, however, refused to co-operate because of disagreements over Catholic emancipation. Grudgingly, the Prince of Wales allowed Perceval to continue as Prime Minister.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Regency", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 11 May 1812, Perceval was assassinated by John Bellingham. The Prince Regent was prepared to reappoint all the members of the Perceval ministry under a new leader. The House of Commons formally declared its desire for a \"strong and efficient administration\", so the Prince Regent then offered leadership of the government to Lord Wellesley and afterwards to Lord Moira. He doomed the attempts of both to failure, however, by forcing each to construct an all-party ministry at a time when neither party wished to share power with the other. Possibly using the failure of the two peers as a pretext, the Prince Regent immediately reappointed the Perceval administration, with Lord Liverpool as Prime Minister.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Regency", "target_page_ids": [ 34525690, 573652, 304142, 611469, 232878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 41 ], [ 45, 60 ], [ 328, 342 ], [ 361, 371 ], [ 677, 691 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Tories, unlike Whigs such as Lord Grey, sought to continue the vigorous prosecution of the war in Continental Europe against the powerful and aggressive Emperor of the French, Napoleon I. An anti-French alliance, which included Russia, Prussia, Austria, Britain and several smaller countries, defeated Napoleon in 1814. In the subsequent Congress of Vienna, it was decided that the Electorate of Hanover, a state that had shared a monarch with Britain since 1714, would be raised to the Kingdom of Hanover. Napoleon returned from exile in 1815, but was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo by the Duke of Wellington, brother of Lord Wellesley.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Regency", "target_page_ids": [ 232264, 69880, 371248, 44628, 2809117, 821998, 4356, 8474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 42 ], [ 180, 190 ], [ 240, 247 ], [ 342, 360 ], [ 386, 407 ], [ 491, 509 ], [ 573, 591 ], [ 595, 617 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During this period George took an active interest in matters of style and taste, and his associates such as the dandy Beau Brummell and the architect John Nash created the Regency style. In London Nash designed the Regency terraces of Regent's Park and Regent Street. George took up the new idea of the seaside spa and had the Brighton Pavilion developed as a fantastical seaside palace, adapted by Nash in the \"Indian Gothic\" style inspired loosely by the Taj Mahal, with extravagant \"Indian\" and \"Chinese\" interiors.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Regency", "target_page_ids": [ 194308, 102566, 478270, 254092, 229189, 101181, 82976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 131 ], [ 150, 159 ], [ 172, 185 ], [ 235, 248 ], [ 253, 266 ], [ 327, 344 ], [ 457, 466 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When George III died in 1820, the Prince Regent, then aged 57, ascended the throne as George IV, with no real change in his powers. By the time of his accession, he was obese and possibly addicted to laudanum.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 42030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 200, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "George IV's relationship with his wife Caroline had deteriorated by the time of his accession. They had lived separately since 1796, and both were having affairs. In 1814, Caroline left the United Kingdom for continental Europe, but she chose to return for her husband's coronation, and to publicly assert her rights as queen consort. However, he refused to recognise Caroline as Queen, and commanded British ambassadors to ensure that monarchs in foreign courts did the same. By royal command, Caroline's name was omitted from the Book of Common Prayer, the liturgy of the Church of England.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 402120, 170435, 4953, 86364, 5955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 271, 281 ], [ 320, 333 ], [ 532, 553 ], [ 559, 566 ], [ 574, 591 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The King sought a divorce, but his advisors suggested that any divorce proceedings might involve the publication of details relating to the King's own adulterous relationships. Therefore, he requested and ensured the introduction of the Pains and Penalties Bill, under which Parliament could have imposed legal penalties without a trial in a court of law. The bill would have annulled the marriage and stripped Caroline of the title of Queen. The bill proved extremely unpopular with the public, and was withdrawn from Parliament. George decided, nonetheless, to exclude his wife from his coronation at Westminster Abbey, on 19 July 1821. Caroline fell ill that day and died on 7 August; during her final illness she often stated that she thought she had been poisoned.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 1212103, 43245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 237, 261 ], [ 603, 620 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "George's coronation was a magnificent and expensive affair, costing about £243,000 (approximately £ in ; for comparison, his father's coronation had only cost about £10,000). Despite the enormous cost, it was a popular event. In 1821 the King became the first monarch to pay a state visit to Ireland since Richard II of England. The following year he visited Edinburgh for \"one and twenty daft days\". His visit to Scotland, organised by Sir Walter Scott, was the first by a reigning monarch since the mid-17th century.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 63653494, 46531, 9602, 1045777, 27884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 306, 327 ], [ 359, 368 ], [ 405, 422 ], [ 441, 453 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "George spent most of his later reign in seclusion at Windsor Castle, but he continued to intervene in politics. At first it was believed that he would support Catholic emancipation, as he had proposed a Catholic Emancipation Bill for Ireland in 1797, but his anti-Catholic views became clear in 1813 when he privately canvassed against the ultimately defeated Catholic Relief Bill of 1813. By 1824 he was denouncing Catholic emancipation in public. Having taken the coronation oath on his accession, George now argued that he had sworn to uphold the Protestant faith, and could not support any pro-Catholic measures. The influence of the Crown was so great, and the will of the Tories under Prime Minister Liverpool so strong, that Catholic emancipation seemed hopeless. In 1827, however, Liverpool retired, to be replaced by the pro-emancipation Tory George Canning. When Canning entered office, the King, hitherto content with privately instructing his ministers on the Catholic Question, thought it fit to make a public declaration to the effect that his sentiments on the question were those of his revered father, George III.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 4689517, 524948, 197229 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 67 ], [ 159, 180 ], [ 852, 866 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Canning's views on the Catholic Question were not well received by the most conservative Tories, including the Duke of Wellington. As a result, the ministry was forced to include Whigs. Canning died later in that year, leaving Lord Goderich to lead the tenuous Tory–Whig coalition. Goderich left office in 1828, to be succeeded by Wellington, who had by that time accepted that the denial of some measure of relief to Roman Catholics was politically untenable. George was never as friendly with Wellington as he had been with Canning and chose to annoy the Duke by pretending to have fought at Waterloo disguised as a German general. With great difficulty Wellington obtained the King's consent to the introduction of a Catholic Relief Bill on 29 January 1829. Under pressure from his fanatically anti-Catholic brother, Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, the King withdrew his approval and in protest the Cabinet resigned en masse on 4 March. The next day the King, now under intense political pressure, reluctantly agreed to the Bill and the ministry remained in power. Royal Assent was finally granted to the Catholic Relief Act on 13 April.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 232879, 266617, 153067, 2296306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 227, 240 ], [ 820, 855 ], [ 1073, 1085 ], [ 1113, 1132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "George's heavy drinking and indulgent lifestyle had taken their toll on his health by the late 1820s. While still Prince of Wales, he had become obese through his huge banquets and copious consumption of alcohol, making him the target of ridicule on the rare occasions that he appeared in public; by 1797 his weight had reached . By 1824, his corset was made for a waist of . He had gout, arteriosclerosis, peripheral edema (\"dropsy\"), and possibly porphyria. In his last years, he spent whole days in bed and had acute and serious spasms of breathlessness.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Declining health and death", "target_page_ids": [ 55584, 188288, 70426, 82978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 383, 387 ], [ 389, 405 ], [ 407, 423 ], [ 449, 458 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "George's last years were marked by increasing physical and mental decay and withdrawal from public affairs. Privately, a senior aide to the King confided to his diary: \"A more contemptible, cowardly, selfish, unfeeling dog does not exist... There have been good and wise kings but not many of them... and this I believe to be one of the worst.\" By December 1828, like his father, George was almost completely blind from cataracts, and had such severe gout in his right hand and arm that he could no longer sign documents. In mid-1829, David Wilkie reported the King \"was wasting away frightfully day after day\", and had become so obese that he looked \"like a great sausage stuffed into the covering\". The King took laudanum to counteract severe bladder pains, which left him in a drugged and mentally impaired state for days on end. He underwent surgery to remove a cataract in September 1829, by which time he was regularly taking over 100 drops of laudanum before state occasions.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Declining health and death", "target_page_ids": [ 88931, 225143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 420, 429 ], [ 535, 547 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the spring of 1830, George's imminent end was apparent. Now largely confined to his bedchambers, having completely lost sight in one eye and describing himself \"as blind as a beetle\", he was forced to approve legislation with a stamp of his signature in the presence of witnesses. His weight was recorded to be . Attacks of breathlessness due to dropsy forced him to sleep upright in a chair, and doctors frequently tapped his abdomen in order to drain excess fluid. Despite his obvious decline, George was admired for clinging doggedly to life. His will to live and still-prodigious appetite astonished observers; in April 1830, the Duke of Wellington wrote that the King had consumed for breakfast \"a Pidgeon and Beef Steak Pye... Three parts of a bottle of Mozelle, a Glass of Dry Champagne, two Glasses of Port [and] a Glass of Brandy\", followed by a large dose of laudanum. Writing to Maria Fitzherbert in June, the King's doctor, Sir Henry Halford, noted \"His Majesty's constitution is a gigantic one, and his elasticity under the most severe pressure exceeds what I have ever witnessed in thirty-eight years' experience.\" Though George had been under Halford's care since the time of the Regency, the doctor's social ambitions and perceived lack of competence were strongly criticised, with The Lancet labelling Halford's bulletins on the King's health as \"utterly and entirely destitute of information\", subsequently characterising Halford's treatment of George, which involved administering both opium and laudanum as sedatives, as appearing to lack sense or direction.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Declining health and death", "target_page_ids": [ 13168994, 21937232, 463899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 763, 770 ], [ 943, 956 ], [ 1301, 1311 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "George dictated his will in May and became very devout in his final months, confessing to an archdeacon that he repented of his dissolute life, but hoped mercy would be shown to him as he had always tried to do the best for his subjects. By June, he was unable to lie down, and received the Sacrament on 14 June in the presence of Lady Conyngham, Halford, and a clergyman. While Halford only informed the Cabinet on 24 June that \"the King's cough continues with considerable expectoration\", he privately told his wife that \"things are coming to a conclusion... I shall be released about Monday.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Declining health and death", "target_page_ids": [ 2348 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 291, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At about three in the morning of 26 June 1830 at Windsor Castle, George awoke and passed a bowel movement – \"a large evacuation mix'd with blood\". He then sent for Halford, allegedly calling to his servants \"Sir Henry! Sir Henry! Fetch him; this is death!\" Accounts of George's final moments and last words vary. According to Halford, following his arrival and that of Sir William Knighton, the King's \"lips grew livid, and he dropped his head on the page's shoulder... I was up the stairs in five minutes, and he died but eight minutes afterwards.\" Other accounts state the King placed his hands on his stomach and said \"Surely, this must be death\", or that he called out \"Good God, what is this?\", clasped his page's hand, and said \"my boy, this is death\". George died at 3:15a.m. An autopsy conducted by his physicians revealed George had died from upper gastrointestinal bleeding resulting from the rupture of a blood vessel in his stomach. A large tumour \"the size of an orange\" was found attached to his bladder; his heart was enlarged, had heavily calcified valves and was surrounded by a large fat deposit.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Declining health and death", "target_page_ids": [ 540176, 15656504, 3643502, 540100, 1033288, 1236730, 85385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 144 ], [ 296, 306 ], [ 373, 389 ], [ 852, 883 ], [ 903, 943 ], [ 953, 959 ], [ 1047, 1071 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The King was buried in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, on 15 July.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Declining health and death", "target_page_ids": [ 23910568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "George's only legitimate child, Charlotte, had died from post-partum complications in 1817, after delivering a stillborn son. George III's second son, Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany, had died childless in 1827, so the throne passed to the third son of George III, Prince William, Duke of Clarence, who reigned as William IV.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1812471, 43271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 82 ], [ 324, 334 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "George was described as the \"First Gentleman of England\" on account of his style and manners. He was bright, clever, and knowledgeable, but his laziness and gluttony led him to squander much of his talent. The Times wrote that he would always prefer \"a girl and a bottle to politics and a sermon\".", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Regency period saw a shift in fashion that was largely determined by George. After political opponents put a tax on wig powder, he abandoned wearing a powdered wig in favour of natural hair. He wore darker colours than had been previously fashionable as they helped to disguise his size, favoured pantaloons and trousers over knee breeches because they were looser, and popularised a high collar with neck cloth because it hid his double chin. His visit to Scotland in 1822 led to the revival, if not the creation, of Scottish tartan dress as it is known today.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 24166884, 349252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 130 ], [ 531, 537 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the political crisis caused by Catholic emancipation, the Duke of Wellington said that George was \"the worst man he ever fell in with his whole life, the most selfish, the most false, the most ill-natured, the most entirely without one redeeming quality\". However, his eulogy delivered in the House of Lords called George \"the most accomplished man of his age\" and praised his knowledge and talent. Wellington's true feelings were probably somewhere between these two extremes; as he said later, George was \"a magnificent patron of the arts... the most extraordinary compound of talent, wit, buffoonery, obstinacy, and good feeling—in short a medley of the most opposite qualities, with a great preponderance of good—that I ever saw in any character in my life.\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 13658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 300, 314 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Upon George's death, The Times captured elite opinion succinctly: \"There never was an individual less regretted by his fellow-creatures than this deceased king. What eye has wept for him? What heart has heaved one throb of unmercenary sorrow?... If he ever had a friend – a devoted friend in any rank of life – we protest that the name of him or her never reached us\".", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 39127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are many statues of George IV, a large number of which were erected during his reign. In the United Kingdom, they include a bronze statue of him on horseback by Sir Francis Chantrey in Trafalgar Square.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 4169, 223061, 62107 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 136 ], [ 167, 187 ], [ 191, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Edinburgh, \"George IV Bridge\" is a main street linking the Old Town High Street to the north over the ravine of the Cowgate, designed by the architect Thomas Hamilton in 1829 and completed in 1835. King's Cross, now a major transport hub sitting on the border of Camden and Islington in north London, takes its name from a short-lived monument erected to George IV in the early 1830s. A square and a neighbouring park in St Luke's, Islington, are also named after George IV.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 9602, 8433082, 156714, 1670832, 1191201, 87679, 26598633, 93893, 54223449, 46252632, 46252228, 3841662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 12 ], [ 15, 31 ], [ 71, 82 ], [ 119, 126 ], [ 154, 169 ], [ 201, 213 ], [ 266, 272 ], [ 277, 286 ], [ 326, 346 ], [ 390, 396 ], [ 416, 420 ], [ 424, 444 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At birth, he was also entitled to the dignities Prince of Great Britain and Ireland, Electoral Prince of Brunswick-Lüneburg and Duke of Rothesay. Under the Act of Parliament that instituted the regency, the prince's formal title as regent was \"Regent of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland\".", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Titles, styles, honours, and arms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 26 December 1765: Royal Knight of the Garter", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Titles, styles, honours, and arms", "target_page_ids": [ 73259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 21 November 1783: Privy Counsellor", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Titles, styles, honours, and arms", "target_page_ids": [ 24451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 26 January 1789: Fellow of the Royal Society", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Titles, styles, honours, and arms", "target_page_ids": [ 510795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2 May 1810: Doctor of Civil Law, University of Oxford", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Titles, styles, honours, and arms", "target_page_ids": [ 3281512, 31797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 32 ], [ 34, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 28 April 1818: Founder of the Most Distinguished Order of St Michael and St George", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Titles, styles, honours, and arms", "target_page_ids": [ 341078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " : 28 April 1815: Founder of the Royal Hanoverian Guelphic Order", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Titles, styles, honours, and arms", "target_page_ids": [ 2423225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " :", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Titles, styles, honours, and arms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 25 November 1813: Knight of St. Andrew", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Titles, styles, honours, and arms", "target_page_ids": [ 430928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 20 April 1814: Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Titles, styles, honours, and arms", "target_page_ids": [ 5334137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kingdom of Prussia: 11 April 1814: Knight of the Black Eagle", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Titles, styles, honours, and arms", "target_page_ids": [ 242701, 1816295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 20 ], [ 37, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kingdom of France: 20 April 1814: Knight of the Holy Spirit", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Titles, styles, honours, and arms", "target_page_ids": [ 62244, 2871316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 19 ], [ 36, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Spain: 5 July 1814: Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Titles, styles, honours, and arms", "target_page_ids": [ 2019562, 5363627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 7 ], [ 22, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kingdom of Portugal: 7 April 1815: Grand Cross of the Sash of the Three Orders", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Titles, styles, honours, and arms", "target_page_ids": [ 4160235, 52845756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 21 ], [ 37, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " :", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Titles, styles, honours, and arms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 8 June 1815: Knight of the Golden Fleece", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Titles, styles, honours, and arms", "target_page_ids": [ 1530392 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1819: Grand Cross of St. Stephen", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Titles, styles, honours, and arms", "target_page_ids": [ 10250941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " : 4 July 1815: Knight of the Elephant", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Titles, styles, honours, and arms", "target_page_ids": [ 1684193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " :", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Titles, styles, honours, and arms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1816: Knight of St. Januarius", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Titles, styles, honours, and arms", "target_page_ids": [ 4002922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1816: Grand Cross of St. Ferdinand and Merit", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Titles, styles, honours, and arms", "target_page_ids": [ 10537693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " : 27 November 1818: Grand Cross of the Military William Order", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Titles, styles, honours, and arms", "target_page_ids": [ 1006089 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " : 1826: Knight of St. Hubert", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Titles, styles, honours, and arms", "target_page_ids": [ 25885825 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1782: Colonel, British Army", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Titles, styles, honours, and arms", "target_page_ids": [ 4887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1796–1820: Colonel of the 10th Light Dragoons", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Titles, styles, honours, and arms", "target_page_ids": [ 4093474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "George's coat of arms as the Prince of Wales was the royal arms (with an inescutcheon of Gules plain in the Hanoverian quarter), differenced by a label of three points Argent. The arms included the royal crest and supporters but with the single arched coronet of his rank, all charged on the shoulder with a similar label. His arms followed the change in the royal arms in 1801, when the Hanoverian quarter became an inescutcheon and the French quarter was dropped altogether. The 1816 alteration did not affect him as it only applied to the arms of the King.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Titles, styles, honours, and arms", "target_page_ids": [ 58712831, 220541, 827735, 105251, 2569394, 30047935, 105249, 867055, 204713, 566083, 1647835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 44 ], [ 53, 63 ], [ 73, 85 ], [ 89, 94 ], [ 119, 126 ], [ 129, 151 ], [ 168, 174 ], [ 204, 209 ], [ 214, 223 ], [ 252, 259 ], [ 316, 321 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As king, his arms were those of his two kingdoms, the United Kingdom and Hanover, superimposed: Quarterly, I and IV Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland); overall an escutcheon tierced in pall reversed (for Hanover), I Gules two lions passant guardant Or (for Brunswick), II Or a semy of hearts Gules a lion rampant Azure (for Lüneburg), III Gules a horse courant Argent (for Westphalia), overall an inescutcheon Gules charged with the crown of Charlemagne Or, the whole escutcheon surmounted by a crown.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Titles, styles, honours, and arms", "target_page_ids": [ 18544577, 3052280, 1095461, 304587, 18544577, 26893917, 2685396, 1716116, 369979, 370768, 18544577, 12069206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 150 ], [ 154, 158 ], [ 159, 161 ], [ 163, 174 ], [ 190, 197 ], [ 207, 222 ], [ 250, 262 ], [ 302, 313 ], [ 338, 362 ], [ 441, 445 ], [ 517, 524 ], [ 533, 547 ] ] } ]

[ "George_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom", "1762_births", "1830_deaths", "18th-century_British_people", "19th-century_British_monarchs", "19th-century_viceregal_rulers", "Monarchs_of_the_United_Kingdom", "Kings_of_Hanover", "Princes_of_Wales", "Princes_of_Great_Britain", "Princes_of_the_United_Kingdom", "Hanoverian_princes", "Crown_Princes_of_Hanover", "Dukes_of_Cornwall", "Dukes_of_Rothesay", "High_Stewards_of_Scotland", "Monarchs_of_the_Isle_of_Man", "British_princes", "Regents", "Heirs_to_the_British_throne", "Regency_London", "People_associated_with_King's_College_London", "10th_Royal_Hussars_officers", "Grand_Masters_of_the_Premier_Grand_Lodge_of_England", "Freemasons_of_the_Premier_Grand_Lodge_of_England", "Owners_of_Epsom_Derby_winners", "Burials_at_St_George's_Chapel,_Windsor_Castle", "Blind_royalty_and_nobility", "Deaths_from_gastrointestinal_hemorrhage", "Members_of_the_Privy_Council_of_Great_Britain", "Knights_of_the_Garter", "Knights_of_the_Golden_Fleece_of_Austria", "Grand_Crosses_of_the_Order_of_Saint_Stephen_of_Hungary", "Knights_Grand_Cross_of_the_Military_Order_of_William", "Grand_Crosses_of_the_Order_of_Christ_(Portugal)", "Grand_Crosses_of_the_Order_of_Aviz", "Grand_Crosses_of_the_Order_of_Saint_James_of_the_Sword", "Children_of_George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom" ]

[ "George Augustus Frederick", "George Augustus Frederick Hanover", "George Hanover", "George Augustus Frederick king of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and king of Hanove", "Georg August Friedrich king of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and king of Hanover", "George IV", "Prince of Wales George IV", "Prince of Wales George", "First Gentleman of Europe", "King George IV" ]

[ { "plaintext": "A rocket sled is a test platform that slides along a set of rails, propelled by rockets. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As its name implies, a rocket sled does not use wheels. Instead, it has sliding pads, called \"slippers\", which are curved around the head of the rails to prevent the sled from flying off the track. The rail cross-section profile is that of a Vignoles rail, commonly used for railroads. Wheels cannot be used on rocket sleds as the high velocities experienced will result in the wheels spinning to pieces due to extreme centrifugal forces.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 10822838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 244, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A rocket sled holds the land-based speed record for a vehicle, at Mach 8.5.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A rocket sled is reported to have been used in the closing days of World WarII by the Germans to launch a winged A4b strategic rocket from a tunnel on March 16, 1945.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 1812292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rocket sleds were used extensively early in the Cold War to accelerate equipment considered too experimental (hazardous) for testing directly in piloted aircraft. The equipment to be tested under high acceleration or high airspeed conditions was installed along with appropriate instrumentation, data recording and telemetry equipment on the sled. The sled was then accelerated according to the experiment's design requirements for data collection along a length of isolated, precisely level and straight test track.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 325329, 47403, 46256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 56 ], [ 280, 295 ], [ 316, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Testing ejection seat systems and technology prior to their use in experimental or operational aircraft was a common application of the rocket sled at Holloman Air Force Base. Perhaps the most famous, the tracks at Edwards Air Force Base were used to test missiles, supersonic ejection seats, aircraft shapes and the effects of acceleration and deceleration on humans. The rocket sled track at Edwards Air Force Base was dismantled and used to extend the track at Holloman Air Force Base, taking it to almost 10 miles (16 km) in length.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 388794, 1092369, 107530, 388794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 21 ], [ 151, 174 ], [ 216, 238 ], [ 278, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unmanned rocket sleds continue to be used to test missile components without requiring costly live missile launches. A world speed record of Mach 8.5 (6,416mph / 10,325km/h) was achieved by a four-stage rocket sled at Holloman Air Force Base on April 30, 2003, the highest speed ever attained by a land vehicle.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 3054357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Murphy's law first received public attention during a press conference about rocket sled testing.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 47635 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Land speed record for railed vehicles", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3054357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Land speed record", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 166557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of vehicle speed records", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16343705 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rocket sled launch", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 23441092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Holloman High Speed Test Track", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sandia Sled Tracks ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Redstone Technical Test Center Test Area 1", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Langford Lodge Martin Baker Track", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "New Mexico Tech EMRTC Sled Track", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Improbable Research", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Airmen \"Crash\" on Rocket Sled, March 1950, Popular Science large article", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Rocketry" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The archeology in Algeria is rich in prehistoric memorials of human occupation. Algeria contains many Roman remains and is rich in monuments of Saracenic art.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Algeria has many megalithic remains, of which nearly every known kind has been found in the country. Numerous flints of palaeolithic type have been discovered, notably at Tlemcen and Kolea. Near Djelfa, in the Great Atlas, and at Mechra-Sfa (\"ford of the flat stones\"), a peninsula in the valley of the river Mina not far from Tiaret, are vast numbers of megalithic monuments.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Megalithic remains", "target_page_ids": [ 22860, 515053, 11622272, 1738883, 22492414, 2243530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 132 ], [ 171, 178 ], [ 183, 188 ], [ 195, 201 ], [ 309, 313 ], [ 327, 333 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Notable among the prehistoric cultures of the area is the Capsian culture, whose shell-mounds are found throughout the north.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Megalithic remains", "target_page_ids": [ 1103453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Madghacen is a monument similar to the Qabr-er-Rumia, but older. It was built around 150 B.C. as the burial place of the Numidian kings, and is situated southwest of Constantine. The form is that of a truncated cone, placed on a cylindrical base, in diameter. It is high. The columns encircling the cylindrical portion are stunted and much broader at the base than the top; the capitals are Doric. Many of the columns, 60 in number, have been much damaged. When the sepulchral chamber was opened in 1873 by Bauchetet, a French engineer officer, clear evidence was found that at some remote period the tomb had been rifled and an attempt made to destroy it by fire.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Famous sites", "target_page_ids": [ 17337377, 468607 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 167, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Qabr-er-Rumia-- best known by its French name, Tombeau de la Chrétienne (grave of the Christian lady), tradition making it the burial-place of Florinda, la Cava Rumía, the beautiful and unfortunate daughter of Count Julian—is near Kolea, and is known to be the tomb of the Mauretanian king Juba II and of his wife Cleopatra Selene, daughter of Mark Antony and Cleopatra, queen of Egypt. It is built on a hill above the sea. A circular stone building surmounted by a pyramid rests on a lower platform, square.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Famous sites", "target_page_ids": [ 54006686, 30865523, 75434, 74699, 2015577, 19960, 60827, 8087628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 170 ], [ 214, 226 ], [ 277, 287 ], [ 294, 301 ], [ 318, 334 ], [ 348, 359 ], [ 364, 373 ], [ 384, 389 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Originally the monument was about in height, but it has been wantonly damaged. Its height is now : the cylindrical portion , the pyramid The base, in diameter, is ornamented with 60 engaged Ionic columns. The capitals of the columns have disappeared, but their design is preserved among the drawings of James Bruce, the African traveller.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Famous sites", "target_page_ids": [ 85429, 937057, 5334607 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 194, 199 ], [ 308, 319 ], [ 325, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the centre of the tomb are two vaulted chambers, reached by a spiral passage or gallery , about the same height, and . The sepulchral chambers are separated by a short passage, and are cut off from the gallery by stone doors made of a single slab which can be moved up and down by levers, like a portcullis. The larger of the two chambers is long by broad and high. The other chamber is somewhat smaller.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Famous sites", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The tomb was previously looted, probably in search of treasure. In 1555, Salah Rais, pasha of Algiers, set men to work to pull it down, but the records say that the attempt was given up because big black wasps came from under the stones and stung them to death. At the end of the 18th century, Baba Mahommed tried in vain to batter down the tomb with artillery. In 1866 it was explored by order of the emperor Napoleon III, the work being carried out by Adrien Berbrugger and Oscar Maccarthy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Famous sites", "target_page_ids": [ 11085516, 1644, 62581, 2436643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 84 ], [ 95, 102 ], [ 412, 424 ], [ 456, 473 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Jedars (Arabic \"walls\" or \"buildings\") is the name given to a number of sepulchral monuments placed on hill-tops. A rectangular or square podium is in each case surmounted by a pyramid. The tombs date from the 5th to the 7th century of the Christian era, and lie in two distinct groups between Tiaret and Frenda. Frenda, which has largely preserved its old Berber character, has numerous dolmens and prehistoric rock sculptures close by.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Famous sites", "target_page_ids": [ 31483013, 2243530, 30018487, 48132, 8608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ], [ 298, 304 ], [ 309, 315 ], [ 361, 367 ], [ 392, 399 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tassili n'Ajjer is a national park in the Sahara desert, located on a vast plateau in south-east Algeria, covering an area of over . It has one of the most important groupings of prehistoric cave art in the world, and was inducted into UNESCO's World Heritage Site list in 1982.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Famous sites", "target_page_ids": [ 325363, 358, 21786641, 44940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 48 ], [ 97, 104 ], [ 237, 243 ], [ 246, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tassili n'Ajjer is known in the New Age culture for its Fungoid rock art, the primitive yet elaborate drawings of psychedelic mushrooms that hints on a shamanic consumption of those plants by the native people of this land.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Famous sites", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Lambessa", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Famous sites", "target_page_ids": [ 22458998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tebessa", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Famous sites", "target_page_ids": [ 3972595 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tipasa", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Famous sites", "target_page_ids": [ 3968427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Timgad (the Pompeii of Africa)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Famous sites", "target_page_ids": [ 428994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thubursicum (Thubursicum): Well-preserved Roman theater", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Famous sites", "target_page_ids": [ 5324194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Beni Hammad Fort (contains second oldest minaret in the country)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Famous sites", "target_page_ids": [ 3356259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2009, when the Place des Martyrs in Algiers was closed to build the subway station, Algerian and French archeologists found a 5th-century (Christian) basilica below layers of concrete.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Recent discoveries", "target_page_ids": [ 1644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In November 2018, archeologists in Algeria announced the discovery, on the site of Ain Boucherit near Sétif, of what seems to be stone tools (similar to Oldowans) and cut animal bones dated back to 2.4 million years old. This discovery turned Ain Boucherit into the oldest human site known today, and shook the theory of East Africa being the cradle of humanity.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Recent discoveries", "target_page_ids": [ 3968595, 445567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 107 ], [ 153, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prehistory of Central North Africa", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 292370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ] ] } ]

[ "Archaeology_of_Algeria", "Prehistoric_Africa" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Algeria comprises square kilometers of land, more than 80% of which is desert, in North Africa, between Morocco and Tunisia. It is the largest country in Africa. Its Arabic name, Al Jazair (the islands), is believed to derive from the rocky islands along the coastline of the Mediterranean Sea. The northern portion, an area of mountains, valleys, and plateaus between the Mediterranean and the Sahara Desert, forms an integral part of the section of North Africa known as the Maghreb. This area includes Morocco, Tunisia, and the northwestern portion of Libya known historically as Tripolitania.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 358, 21714, 19291, 30188, 19006, 325363, 346014, 30188, 17633, 664792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 83, 95 ], [ 105, 112 ], [ 117, 124 ], [ 277, 294 ], [ 396, 409 ], [ 478, 485 ], [ 515, 522 ], [ 556, 561 ], [ 584, 596 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Land boundaries:Total: Border countries: Libya , Mali , Mauritania , Morocco , Niger , Tunisia , Western Sahara .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Size and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [ 17633, 19127, 18778516, 19291, 21373, 30188, 33220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 46 ], [ 49, 53 ], [ 56, 66 ], [ 69, 76 ], [ 79, 84 ], [ 87, 94 ], [ 97, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Area – comparative: slightly larger than the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Saudi Arabia", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Size and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [ 76762, 349303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 77 ], [ 82, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Coastline: ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Size and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Maritime claims: Territorial sea: , contiguous zone: ; exclusive fishing zone: ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Size and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The fertile Tell is the country's heartland, containing most of its cities and population. Made up of hills and plains of the narrow coastal region, the several Tell Atlas mountain ranges, and the intermediate valleys and basins, the Tell extends eastward from the Moroccan border to the mountains of the Grande Kabylie and the Bejaia Plain on the east. Its eastern terminus is the Soummam River.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geographic regions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The best agricultural areas are the gentle hills extending 100 kilometers westward from Algiers; the Mitidja Plain, which was a malarial swamp before being cleared by the French; and the Bejaia Plain. The alluvial soils in these areas permitted the French to establish magnificent vineyards and citrus groves. By contrast, in the great valley of the Chelif River and other interior valleys and basins, aridity and excessive summer heat have limited the development of agriculture. The Grande Kabylie is a zone of impoverished small farm villages tucked into convoluted mountains.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geographic regions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Stretching from the Moroccan border the Tell Atlas, including the Djebel Babor formation, is the dominant northwestern mountain range. Stretching more than 600 kilometers eastward from the Moroccan border, the high plateau area (often referred to by the French name Hautes Plaines or Hauts Plateaux) consist of undulating, steppe-like plains lying between the Tell and Saharan Atlas ranges. The elevation averages between in elevation in the west, dropping to in the east. The climate is so dry that these plains are sometimes thought of as part of the Sahara. The plateau area is covered by alluvial debris formed when the mountains eroded. An occasional ridge projects through the alluvial cover to interrupt the monotony of the landscape.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geographic regions", "target_page_ids": [ 5662083, 21242375, 43568794, 1235562, 325363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 50 ], [ 66, 78 ], [ 266, 280 ], [ 369, 382 ], [ 555, 561 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Higher and more continuous than the Tell Atlas, the Sahara Atlas range is formed of three massifs: the Ksour Range near the Moroccan border, the Amour Range, and the Ouled-Naïl Range south of Algiers. The mountains, which receive more rainfall than those of the High Plateaus, include some good grazing land. Watercourses on the southern slopes of these massifs disappear into the desert but supply the wells of numerous oases along the northern edge of the desert, of which Biskra, Laghouat, and Béchar are the most prominent.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geographic regions", "target_page_ids": [ 39433945, 39425182, 43619613, 1644, 22205, 1738833, 5284282, 3968322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 114 ], [ 145, 156 ], [ 166, 182 ], [ 192, 199 ], [ 421, 426 ], [ 475, 481 ], [ 483, 491 ], [ 497, 503 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eastern Algeria consists of a massif area extensively dissected into mountains, plains, and basins. It differs from the western portion of the country in that its prominent topographic features do not parallel the coast. In its southern sector, the steep cliffs and long ridges of the Aurès Mountains create an almost impenetrable refuge that has played an important part in the history of the Maghrib since Roman times. Near the northern coast, the Petite Kabylie Mountains are separated from the Grande Kabylie range at the eastward limits of the Tell by the Soummam River. The coast is predominantly mountainous in the far eastern part of the country, but limited plains provide hinterlands for the port cities of Bejaïa, Skikda, and Annaba. In the interior of the region, extensive high plains mark the region around Sétif and Constantine; these plains were developed during the French colonial period as the principal centers of grain cultivation. Near Constantine, salt marshes offer seasonal grazing grounds to seminomadic sheep herders.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geographic regions", "target_page_ids": [ 275972, 1235560, 521555, 3968595, 468607 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 36 ], [ 285, 300 ], [ 408, 413 ], [ 821, 826 ], [ 831, 842 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Algerian portion of the Sahara extends south of the Saharan Atlas for to the Niger and Mali frontiers. The desert is an otherworldly place, scarcely considered an integral part of the country. Far from being covered wholly by sweeps of sand, however, it is a region of great diversity. Immense areas of sand dunes called areg (sing., erg) occupy about one-quarter of the territory. The largest such region is the Grand Erg Oriental (Great Eastern Erg), where enormous dunes high are spaced about apart. Much of the remainder of the desert is covered by rocky platforms called humud (sing., hamada), and almost the entire southeastern quarter is taken up by the high, complex mass of the Ahaggar and Tassili n'Ajjer highlands, some parts of which reach more than . Surrounding the Ahaggar are sandstone plateaus, cut into deep gorges by ancient rivers, and to the west a desert of pebbles stretches to the Mali frontier.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geographic regions", "target_page_ids": [ 12857449, 1184685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 418, 436 ], [ 706, 721 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The desert consists of readily distinguishable northern and southern sectors, the northern sector extending southward a little less than half the distance to the Niger and Mali frontiers. The north, less arid than the south, supports most of the few persons who live in the region and contains most of the desert's oases. Sand dunes are the most prominent features of this area's topography, but between the desert areas of the Grand Erg Oriental and the Grand Erg Occidental (Great Western Erg) and extending north to the Atlas Saharien are plateaus, including the Tademaït and a complex limestone structure called the M'zab where the Mozabite Berbers have settled. The southern zone of the Sahara is almost totally arid and is inhabited only by the Tuareg nomads and, recently, by oil camp workers. Barren rock predominates, but in some parts of Ahaggar and Tassili n'Ajjer alluvial deposits permit garden farming.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geographic regions", "target_page_ids": [ 21373, 19127, 8315161, 43543931, 3133837, 1951607, 48132, 103054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 162, 167 ], [ 172, 176 ], [ 455, 475 ], [ 566, 574 ], [ 620, 625 ], [ 636, 644 ], [ 645, 652 ], [ 751, 757 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Northern Algeria is in the temperate zone and enjoys a mild, Mediterranean climate. It lies within approximately the same latitudes as southern California and has somewhat similar climatic conditions. Its broken topography, however, provides sharp local contrasts in both prevailing temperatures and incidence of rainfall. Year-to-year variations in climatic conditions are also common. This area, the most inhabited in Algeria, is commonly referred to as the Tell.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Climate and hydrology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the Tell, temperatures in summer average between and in winter drop to . Winters are not cold, but the humidity is high and houses are seldom adequately heated. In eastern Algeria, the average temperatures are somewhat lower, and on the steppes of the High Plateaus winter temperatures hover only a few degrees above freezing. A prominent feature of the climate in this region is the sirocco, a dusty, choking south wind blowing off the desert, sometimes at gale force. This wind also occasionally reaches into the coastal Tell.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Climate and hydrology", "target_page_ids": [ 471607 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 388, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Algeria only a relatively small corner of the Sahara lies across the Tropic of Cancer in the torrid zone, but even in winter, midday desert temperatures can be very hot. After sunset, however, the clear, dry air permits rapid loss of heat, and the nights are cool to chilly. Enormous daily ranges in temperature are recorded.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Climate and hydrology", "target_page_ids": [ 325363, 66676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 55 ], [ 72, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rainfall is fairly abundant along the coastal part of the Tell, ranging from annually, the amount of precipitation increasing from west to east. Precipitation is heaviest in the northern part of eastern Algeria, where it reaches as much as in some years. Farther inland the rainfall is less plentiful. Prevailing winds that are easterly and northeasterly in summer change to westerly and northerly in winter and carry with them a general increase in precipitation from September to December, a decrease in the late winter and spring months, and a near absence of rainfall during the summer months.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Climate and hydrology", "target_page_ids": [ 786064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 304, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Clearing of land for agricultural use and cutting of timber over the centuries have severely reduced the once bountiful forest wealth. Forest fires have also taken their toll. In the higher and wetter portions of the Tell Atlas, cork oak and Aleppo pine grow in thick soils. At lower levels on thinner soils, drought-resistant shrubs predominate. The grapevine is indigenous to the coastal lowlands, and grasses and scrub cover the High Plateaus. On the Saharan Atlas, little survives of the once extensive forests of Atlas cedar that have been exploited for fuel and timber since antiquity.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Terrain", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The forest reserves in Algeria were severely reduced during the colonial period. In 1967 it was calculated that the country's forested area extended over no more than of terrain, of which were overgrown with brushwood and scrub. By contrast, woodlands in 1830 had covered . In the mid-1970s, however, the government embarked on a vast reforestation program to help control erosion, which was estimated to affect of arable land annually. Among projects was one to create a barrage vert (green barrier) more or less following the ridge line of the Saharan Atlas and extending from Morocco to the Tunisian frontier in a zone long and up to wide.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Terrain", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The barrage vert consists principally of Aleppo pine, a species that can thrive in areas of scanty rainfall. It is designed to restore a damaged ecological balance and to halt the northern encroachment of the Sahara. By the early 1980s, the desert had already penetrated the hilly gap between the Saharan Atlas and the Aurès Mountains as far as the town of Bou Saâda, a point well within the High Plateaus region. The barrage vert project was ended in the late 1980s because of lack of funds.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Terrain", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Algeria had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.22/10, ranking it 106th globally out of 172 countries.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Terrain", "target_page_ids": [ 66119232 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, phosphates, uranium, lead, zinc", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Terrain", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Natural hazards: mountainous areas subject to severe earthquakes; mudslides and floods in rainy season", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Terrain", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Environment – current issues: air pollution in major cities; soil erosion from overgrazing and other poor farming practices; desertification; dumping of raw sewage, petroleum refining wastes, and other industrial effluents is leading to the pollution of rivers and coastal waters; Mediterranean Sea, in particular, becoming polluted from oil wastes, soil erosion, and fertilizer runoff; inadequate supplies of potable water", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Terrain", "target_page_ids": [ 59416, 8104 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 73 ], [ 125, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Environment – international agreements:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Terrain", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Climate Change-Paris Agreement, Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Nuclear Test Ban", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Terrain", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Algeria has a number of protected areas including National Parks and nature reserves. An example of such a protected area is the Djebel Babor Nature Reserve within the Djebel Babor Mountains; the Djebel Babor is also one of the few relict habitats for the endangered Barbary macaque, Macaca sylvanus.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Protected areas", "target_page_ids": [ 21241373, 21242375, 20110668, 478474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 156 ], [ 168, 190 ], [ 256, 266 ], [ 267, 282 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The national parks in Algeria are: Ahaggar, Belezma, Chréa, Djurdjura, El Kala, Gouraya, Tassili n'Ajjer, Taza, Théniet El Had, and Tlemcen.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Protected areas", "target_page_ids": [ 552593, 14512789, 14512417, 14243069, 14242781, 14512562, 1184685, 14512288, 14512696, 14242661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 42 ], [ 44, 51 ], [ 53, 58 ], [ 60, 69 ], [ 71, 78 ], [ 80, 87 ], [ 89, 104 ], [ 106, 110 ], [ 112, 126 ], [ 132, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Elevation extremes:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Extreme points", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lowest point: Chott Melrhir: ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Extreme points", "target_page_ids": [ 6246992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Highest point: Mount Tahat: ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Extreme points", "target_page_ids": [ 3902727 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Extreme points", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Northernmost point – Cap Takouch, Annaba Province or Cap Bougaroûn, Skikda province", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Extreme points", "target_page_ids": [ 179458, 64780429, 1492672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 50 ], [ 54, 67 ], [ 69, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Easternmost point – the tripoint with Niger and Libya, Djanet Province", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Extreme points", "target_page_ids": [ 1595467, 21373, 17633, 63749097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 33 ], [ 39, 44 ], [ 49, 54 ], [ 56, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Southernmost point – unnamed location on the border with Mali east of the Malian village of In-Abalen, Adrar Province", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Extreme points", "target_page_ids": [ 19127, 1061774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 62 ], [ 104, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Westernmost point – the western section of the border with Morocco/Western Sahara, Tindouf Province (Note: Algeria does not have a westernmost point, the border being formed by a line of longitude)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Extreme points", "target_page_ids": [ 19291, 33220, 625041, 17617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 67 ], [ 68, 82 ], [ 84, 100 ], [ 188, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of cities in Algeria", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 157065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Teffedest Mountains", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22442245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] } ]

[ "Geography_of_Algeria" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Politics of Algeria takes place in a framework of a constitutional semi-presidential republic, whereby the President of Algeria is head of state while the Prime Minister of Algeria is the head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament, the People's National Assembly and the Council of the Nation. A legacy of Algeria's bloody War of Independence from France (where an estimated 1.5 million Algerians were killed) is a powerful military and security apparatus that put a high value on secrecy. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 210282, 25536, 380664, 13456, 410270, 37570, 10263, 44421, 12229, 2806769, 4102597, 82430, 57600, 5187521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 84 ], [ 85, 93 ], [ 107, 127 ], [ 131, 144 ], [ 155, 180 ], [ 188, 206 ], [ 208, 223 ], [ 256, 273 ], [ 296, 306 ], [ 348, 374 ], [ 383, 404 ], [ 435, 454 ], [ 536, 544 ], [ 549, 567 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since 1988, parties other than the ruling FLN have been allowed and multiparty elections have been held, but freedom of political speech, protest and assembly is circumscribed, and the 2014 presidential election was boycotted by major opposition parties. Algeria has been called a \"controlled democracy\", or a state where the military and \"a select group\" of unelected civilians—reportedly known to Algerians as \"le pouvoir\" (\"the power\")—make major decisions, such as who should be president.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 403406, 41101034, 358, 57600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 45 ], [ 185, 211 ], [ 255, 262 ], [ 326, 334 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the early 1990s, a shift from a socialist to a free market economy has been ongoing with official support.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 48852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The civil war resulted in more than 100,000 deaths since 1991. However, Algerians believe that the national death count was close to 3,000,000. Although the security situation in the country has greatly improved, addressing the underlying issues which brought about the political turmoil of the 1990s remains the government's major task. The government officially lifted the state of emergency declared in 1999.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1526860, 298608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 13 ], [ 376, 394 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under the 1976 Constitution (as modified 1979, and amended in 1988, 1989, and 1996) Algeria is a multi-party state. All parties must be approved by the Ministry of the Interior. To date, Algeria has had more than 40 legal political parties. According to the Constitution, no political association may be formed if it is \"based on differences in religion, language, race, gender, or region.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Constitution", "target_page_ids": [ 2124919 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While many sources agree that the real power in Algeria is not held by its constitutional organs, they differ as to who/what does. According to the Economist magazine, the military is the primary powerbroker, along with \"a select group\" of unelected civilians. These \"décideurs\" are reportedly known to Algerians as \"le pouvoir\" (\"the power\"), make major decisions, including who should be president. Adam Nossiter of the New York Times states \"Algerian politics is still dominated\" by men from the ruling party, the FLN. Moroccan-Italian journalist Anna Mahjar-Barducci, writing in Haaretz, insists the FLN \"is a group of apparatchiks constantly fighting each other when they're not tending to the businesses ... with which they have rewarded themselves from their positions of power\". According to Mahjar-Barducci, real power is held by \"the military's Department of Intelligence and Security (DRS).\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Informal power", "target_page_ids": [ 50449, 57600, 30680, 403406, 64878, 10387660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 158 ], [ 173, 181 ], [ 424, 438 ], [ 519, 522 ], [ 586, 593 ], [ 858, 897 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The head of state is the President of the republic, who is elected to a 5-year term, renewable once (changed by the 2008 Constitution to an infinite mandate but reinstated in 2016). Algeria has universal suffrage. The President is the head of the Council of Ministers and of the High Security Council. He appoints the Prime Minister who also is the head of government. The Prime Minister appoints the Council of Ministers.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Executive branch", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|President", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Executive branch", "target_page_ids": [ 380664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|Abdelmadjid Tebboune", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Executive branch", "target_page_ids": [ 54133968 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|Independent", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Executive branch", "target_page_ids": [ 2172378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|19 December 2019", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Executive branch", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Executive branch", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|Prime Minister", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Executive branch", "target_page_ids": [ 410270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|Aymen Benabderrahmane", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Executive branch", "target_page_ids": [ 68092011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|Independent", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Executive branch", "target_page_ids": [ 2172378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|30 June 2021", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Executive branch", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|}", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Executive branch", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The People's National Assembly has less power relative to the executive branch than many parliaments and has been described as \"rubber-stamping\" laws proposed by the president.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Parliament of Algeria", "target_page_ids": [ 2806769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of 2012 there were 462 seats in parliament. In the May 2012 election the government reported a 42.9% turnout, though the BBC reported that correspondents saw \"only a trickle of voters\" at polling places. In that election 44 political parties participated with the ruling National Liberation Front winning more than any other group—220 seats—and an alliance of moderate Islamists coming in second with 66 seats. The Islamists disputed the results.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Parliament of Algeria", "target_page_ids": [ 403406 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 274, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In keeping with its amended Constitution, the Algerian Government espouses participatory democracy and free-market competition. The government has stated that it will continue to open the political process and encourage the creation of political institutions. More than 40 political parties, representing a wide segment of the population, are currently active in Algerian national politics. The most recent legislative election was 2012. President Bouteflika pledged to restructure the state as part of his overall reform efforts. However, no specifics are yet available as to how such reforms would affect political structures and the political process itself.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Political parties and elections", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2002 elections, there were 17,951,127 eligible voters, and 8,288,536 of them actually voted which made a turn out of 46.17%. Out of the ballots cast, there were 867,669 void ballots according to the Interior ministry and 7,420,867 which went to the various candidates.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Political parties and elections", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The most recent legislative election now is the 2017 one:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Political parties and elections", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Algeria is divided into 58 wilaya (province) headed by walis (governors) who report to the Minister of Interior. Each wilaya is further divided into daïras, themselves divided in communes. The wilayas and communes are each governed by an elected assembly.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Administrative divisions", "target_page_ids": [ 412352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Algeria has more than 30 daily newspapers published in French and Arabic, with a total publication run of more than 1.5 million copies. Although relatively free to write as they choose, in 2001, the government amended the penal code provisions relating to defamation and slander, a step widely viewed as an effort to rein in the press. Government monopoly of newsprint and advertising is seen as another means to influence the press, although it has permitted newspapers to create their own printing distribution networks.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "See also List of Algerian newspapers.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 16569168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Population growth and associated problems—unemployment and underemployment, inability of social services to keep pace with rapid urban migration, inadequate industrial management and productivity, a decaying infrastructure—continue to plague Algerian society. Increases in the production and prices of oil and gas over the past decade have led to a budgetary surplus of close to $20 billion. The government began an economic reform program in 1993 which focuses on macroeconomic stability and structural reform. These reforms are aimed at liberalizing the economy, making Algeria competitive in the global market, and meeting the needs of the Algerian people.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Future concerns", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "AU, ABEDA, AfDB, AFESD, AL, AMF, AMU, ECA, FAO, G-15, G-19, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, International Maritime Organization, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, INTOSAI, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, MONUC, NAM, OAPEC, OAS (observer), OIC, OPCW, OPEC, OSCE (partner), UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNWTO, UPU, WCL, WCO, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO (applicant)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "International organization participation", "target_page_ids": [ 10634933, 22138060, 3910102, 3577911, 52625, 12570835, 2155836, 566409, 11107, 1748521, 1748544, 213948, 14984, 36751, 14985, 36760, 15487, 36755, 400014, 36834, 36754, 15487, 14871, 14987, 15251, 14986, 36531, 15516, 14338129, 21054908, 15147, 36893, 14934, 14836, 1015555, 68702564, 2080053, 22788, 47725, 36832, 166346, 22796, 31769, 36587, 21786641, 31964, 32315, 34121, 31713, 1392118, 140594, 33583, 33294, 33584, 33873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 2 ], [ 4, 9 ], [ 11, 15 ], [ 17, 22 ], [ 24, 26 ], [ 28, 31 ], [ 33, 36 ], [ 38, 41 ], [ 43, 46 ], [ 48, 52 ], [ 60, 64 ], [ 66, 70 ], [ 72, 76 ], [ 78, 82 ], [ 84, 88 ], [ 90, 95 ], [ 97, 101 ], [ 103, 106 ], [ 108, 111 ], [ 113, 117 ], [ 119, 122 ], [ 124, 129 ], [ 131, 134 ], [ 136, 139 ], [ 141, 144 ], [ 146, 181 ], [ 183, 191 ], [ 193, 201 ], [ 203, 211 ], [ 213, 220 ], [ 222, 225 ], [ 227, 230 ], [ 243, 246 ], [ 248, 251 ], [ 253, 258 ], [ 260, 263 ], [ 265, 270 ], [ 272, 275 ], [ 288, 291 ], [ 293, 297 ], [ 299, 303 ], [ 305, 309 ], [ 321, 323 ], [ 325, 331 ], [ 333, 339 ], [ 341, 346 ], [ 348, 353 ], [ 355, 360 ], [ 362, 365 ], [ 367, 370 ], [ 372, 375 ], [ 377, 380 ], [ 382, 386 ], [ 388, 391 ], [ 393, 396 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2010–2011 Algerian protests", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 30406724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Censorship in Algeria", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9409641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ministry of Justice (Algeria)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31837045 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Government Palace (Algiers)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 70055598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "El Mouradia Palace", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 70005949 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] } ]

[ "Politics_of_Algeria" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Steven Benjamin Goodman (July 25, 1948 – September 20, 1984) was an American folk and country singer-songwriter from Chicago. He wrote the song \"City of New Orleans,\" which was recorded by Arlo Guthrie and many others including John Denver, The Highwaymen, and Judy Collins; in 1985, it received a Grammy award for best country song, as performed by Willie Nelson. Goodman had a small but dedicated group of fans for his albums and concerts during his lifetime. His most frequently sung song is the Chicago Cubs anthem, \"Go Cubs Go\". Goodman died of leukemia in September 1984.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 10623, 5247, 6886, 3283018, 3273, 58586, 4541136, 168241, 188391, 6654, 19395882, 18539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 81 ], [ 87, 94 ], [ 118, 125 ], [ 146, 165 ], [ 190, 202 ], [ 229, 240 ], [ 242, 256 ], [ 262, 274 ], [ 299, 305 ], [ 500, 512 ], [ 522, 532 ], [ 551, 559 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Born on Chicago's North Side to a middle-class Jewish family, Goodman began writing and performing songs as a teenager, after his family had moved to the near north suburbs. He graduated from Maine East High School in Park Ridge, Illinois, in 1965, where he was a classmate of Hillary Clinton. Before that, however, he began his public singing career by leading the junior choir at Temple Beth Israel in Albany Park. In the fall of 1965, he entered the University of Illinois and pledged the Sigma Alpha Mu fraternity, where he, Ron Banyon, and Steve Hartmann formed a popular rock cover band, \"The Juicy Fruits\". He left college after one year to pursue his musical career. In the early spring of 1967, Goodman went to New York, staying for a month in a Greenwich Village brownstone across the street from the Cafe Wha?, where Goodman performed regularly during his brief stay there.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 6137171, 25955086, 1400803, 111037, 5043192, 384695, 5535499, 2626688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 46 ], [ 47, 50 ], [ 192, 214 ], [ 218, 238 ], [ 277, 292 ], [ 454, 476 ], [ 493, 507 ], [ 814, 823 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Returning to Chicago, he intended to restart his education. In 1968 Goodman began performing at the Earl of Old Town and The Dangling Conversation coffeehouse in Chicago and attracted a following. By 1969, Goodman was a regular performer in Chicago, while attending Lake Forest College. During this time Goodman supported himself by singing advertising jingles. He dropped out of school again to pursue his musical dream full-time after discovering, in 1969, the cause of his continuous fatigue was actually leukemia, the disease that was present during the entirety of his recording career, until his death in 1984.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 3099108, 10477265, 18539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 116 ], [ 266, 285 ], [ 508, 516 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 1969 he met Nancy Pruter (sister of R&B writer Robert Pruter), who was attending college while supporting herself as a waitress. They were married in February 1970. Though he experienced periods of remission, Goodman never felt that he was living on anything other than borrowed time, and some critics, listeners and friends have said that his music reflects this sentiment. His wife Nancy, writing in the liner notes to the posthumous collection No Big Surprise, characterized him this way:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 26168, 47130450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 52 ], [ 60, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Basically, Steve was exactly who he appeared to be: an ambitious, well-adjusted man from a loving, middle-class Jewish home in the Chicago suburbs, whose life and talent were directed by the physical pain and time constraints of a fatal disease which he kept at bay, at times, seemingly by willpower alone . . . Steve wanted to live as normal a life as possible, only he had to live it as fast as he could . . . He extracted meaning from the mundane.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Goodman's songs first appeared on Gathering at The Earl of Old Town, an album produced by Chicago record company Dunwich in 1971. As a close friend of Earl Pionke, the owner of the folk music bar, Goodman performed at The Earl dozens of times, including customary New Year's Eve concerts. He also remained closely involved with Chicago's Old Town School of Folk Music, where he had met and mentored his good friend, John Prine.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical career", "target_page_ids": [ 973595, 2204153, 292822 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 120 ], [ 340, 369 ], [ 418, 428 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later in 1971, Goodman was playing at a Chicago bar called the Quiet Knight as the opening act for Kris Kristofferson. Impressed with Goodman, Kristofferson introduced him to Paul Anka, who brought Goodman to New York to record some demos.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical career", "target_page_ids": [ 168094, 100691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 117 ], [ 176, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These resulted in Goodman signing a contract with Buddah Records.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical career", "target_page_ids": [ 950503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All this time, Goodman had been busy writing many of his most enduring songs, and this avid songwriting would lead to an important break for him. While at the Quiet Knight, Goodman saw Arlo Guthrie and asked him to sit and let him play a song for him. Guthrie grudgingly agreed on the condition that Goodman buy him a beer first; Guthrie would then listen to Goodman for as long as it took Guthrie to drink the beer. Goodman played \"City of New Orleans\", which Guthrie liked enough that he asked to record it.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical career", "target_page_ids": [ 3273, 3283018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 186, 198 ], [ 435, 454 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Guthrie's version of Goodman's song became a Top-20 hit in 1972 and provided Goodman with enough financial and artistic success to make his music a full-time career. The song, about the Illinois Central's City of New Orleans train, would become an American standard, covered by such musicians as Johnny Cash, Judy Collins, Chet Atkins, Lynn Anderson, and Willie Nelson, whose recorded version earned Goodman a posthumous Grammy Award for Best Country Song in 1985. A French translation of the song, \"Salut Les Amoureux\", was recorded by Joe Dassin in 1973. A Dutch singer, Gerard Cox, heard the French version while on holiday and translated it into Dutch, titled \"'t Is Weer Voorbij Die Mooie Zomer\" (\"And again that beautiful summer has come to an end\"). It reached number one on the Dutch Top 40 in December 1973 and has become a classic which is still played on Dutch radio. A Hebrew version of the song \"Shalom Lach Eretz Nehederet\" was sung by famous Israeli singer Yehoram Gaon in 1977 and became an immediate hit. Lyrically, the French, Dutch and Hebrew versions bear no resemblance to Goodman's original lyrics. According to Goodman, the song was inspired by a train trip he and his wife took from Chicago to Mattoon, Illinois. According to the liner notes on the Steve Goodman anthology No Big Surprise, \"City of New Orleans\" was written while on the campaign trail with Senator Edmund Muskie.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical career", "target_page_ids": [ 498214, 8373743, 11983070, 168241, 7756, 517154, 149709, 44635, 208072, 188391, 237443, 26139147, 110937, 307962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 206, 225 ], [ 258, 266 ], [ 297, 308 ], [ 310, 322 ], [ 324, 335 ], [ 337, 350 ], [ 356, 369 ], [ 422, 434 ], [ 439, 456 ], [ 460, 464 ], [ 538, 548 ], [ 574, 584 ], [ 1219, 1236 ], [ 1390, 1403 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1974, singer David Allan Coe achieved considerable success on the country charts with Goodman's and John Prine's \"You Never Even Called Me by My Name\", a song which good-naturedly spoofed stereotypical country music lyrics. Prine refused to take a songwriter's credit for the song, although Goodman bought Prine a jukebox as a gift from his publishing royalties. Goodman's name is mentioned in Coe's recording of the song, in a spoken epilogue in which Goodman and Coe discuss the merits of \"the perfect country and western song.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical career", "target_page_ids": [ 168267, 25181656, 77882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 31 ], [ 117, 152 ], [ 317, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Goodman's success as a recording artist was more limited. Although he was known in folk circles as an excellent and influential songwriter, his albums received more critical than commercial success. One of Goodman's biggest hits was a song he didn't write: \"The Dutchman\", written by Michael Peter Smith. He reached a wider audience as the opening act for Steve Martin while Martin was at the height of his stand-up popularity.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical career", "target_page_ids": [ 1842607, 1833246 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 260, 272 ], [ 286, 305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the mid and late seventies, Goodman became a regular guest on Easter Day on Vin Scelsa's radio show in New York City. Scelsa's personal recordings of these sessions eventually led to an album of selections from these appearances, The Easter Tapes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical career", "target_page_ids": [ 9325, 3810409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 79 ], [ 83, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1977, Goodman performed on Tom Paxton's live album New Songs From the Briarpatch (Vanguard Records), which contained some of Paxton's topical songs of the 1970s, including \"Talking Watergate\" and \"White Bones of Allende\", as well as a song dedicated to Mississippi John Hurt entitled \"Did You Hear John Hurt?\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical career", "target_page_ids": [ 1263740, 20215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 40 ], [ 256, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the fall of 1979, Goodman was hired to write and perform a series of topical songs for National Public Radio. Although Goodman and Jethro Burns recorded eleven songs for the series, only five of them, \"The Ballad of Flight 191\" about a plane crash, \"Daley's Gone\", \"Unemployed\", \"The Twentieth Century is Almost Over\", and \"The Election Year Rag\", were used on the air before the series was cancelled.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical career", "target_page_ids": [ 29697232, 3344344, 246673, 246673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 115 ], [ 139, 151 ], [ 224, 234 ], [ 244, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Goodman wrote and performed many humorous songs about Chicago, including three about the Chicago Cubs: \"A Dying Cub Fan's Last Request\", \"When the Cubs Go Marching In\" and \"Go, Cubs, Go\" (which has frequently been played on Cubs broadcasts and at Wrigley Field after Cubs wins). He wrote \"Go, Cubs, Go\" out of spite after then GM Dallas Green called \"A Dying Cub Fan's Last Request\" too depressing. The Cubs songs grew out of his fanatical devotion to the team, which included many clubhouse and on-field visits with Cubs players. He wrote other songs about Chicago, including \"The Lincoln Park Pirates\", about the notorious Lincoln Towing Service, and \"Daley's Gone\", about Mayor Richard J. Daley. Another comic highlight is \"Vegematic\", about a man who falls asleep while watching late-night TV and dreams he ordered many products that he saw on infomercials. He could also write serious songs, most notably \"My Old Man\", a tribute to Goodman's father, Bud Goodman, a used-car salesman and World War II veteran.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical career", "target_page_ids": [ 6654, 65501698, 19395882, 1922402, 12773856, 40221, 303043, 32927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 101 ], [ 104, 134 ], [ 173, 185 ], [ 330, 342 ], [ 625, 647 ], [ 681, 697 ], [ 849, 861 ], [ 993, 1005 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Goodman won his second Grammy, for Best Contemporary Folk Album, in 1988 for Unfinished Business, a posthumous album on his Red Pajamas Records label.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical career", "target_page_ids": [ 470429, 384588, 20590754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 63 ], [ 68, 72 ], [ 124, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many fans become aware of Goodman's work through other artists such as Jimmy Buffett. Buffett has recorded several of Goodman's songs, including \"Banana Republics\", \"Door Number Three\" and \"Woman Goin' Crazy on Caroline Street\". Jackie DeShannon covered Goodman's \"Would You Like to Learn to Dance\" on her 1972 album, Jackie.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical career", "target_page_ids": [ 166768, 328330, 46317147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 84 ], [ 229, 245 ], [ 318, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On September 20, 1984, Goodman died of leukemia at the University of Washington Medical Center in Seattle, Washington. He had anointed himself with the tongue-in-cheek nickname \"Cool Hand Leuk\" (other nicknames included \"Chicago Shorty\" and \"The Little Prince\") during his illness. He was 36 years old.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 18539, 791420, 11388236, 161897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 47 ], [ 55, 94 ], [ 98, 117 ], [ 178, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Four days after Goodman's death, the Chicago Cubs clinched the National League East division title for the first time ever, earning them their first post-season appearance since 1945, three years before Goodman's birth. Eight days later, on October 2, the Cubs played their first post-season game since Game 7 of the 1945 World Series. Goodman had been asked to sing \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" before it; Jimmy Buffett filled in, and dedicated the song to Goodman. Since the late 2000s, at the conclusion of every home game win, the Cubs play (and fans sing) \"Go, Cubs, Go\", a song Goodman wrote for his beloved team.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 6654, 2456294, 557954, 31064, 19395882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 49 ], [ 63, 83 ], [ 317, 334 ], [ 368, 392 ], [ 560, 572 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In April 1988, some of Goodman's ashes were scattered at Wrigley Field, the home of the Chicago Cubs.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 40224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Goodman's posthumously released album, Santa Ana Winds, included a tribute to the recently deceased Carl Martin, \"You Better Get It While You Can (The Ballad of Carl Martin),\" celebrating the joy both found in their music, and a refrain of, \"From the cradle to the crypt, Is a mighty short trip. So you better get it while you can\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 69890771, 32390986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 54 ], [ 100, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Goodman was survived by his wife and three daughters.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2006, Goodman's daughter, Rosanna, issued My Old Man, an album of a variety of artists covering her father's songs.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 16754068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Interest in Goodman's career had a resurgence in 2007 with the publication of a biography by Clay Eals, Facing the Music. The same year, the Chicago Cubs began playing Goodman's 1984 song \"Go, Cubs, Go\" after each home game win. When the Cubs made it to the playoffs, interest in the song and Goodman resulted in several newspaper articles about Goodman. Illinois Lieutenant Governor Pat Quinn declared October 5, 2007, Steve Goodman Day in the state. In 2010, Illinois Representative Mike Quigley introduced a bill renaming the Lakeview post office on Irving Park Road in honor of Goodman. The bill was signed by President Barack Obama on August 3, 2010.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 6654, 1616093, 1616219, 5895960, 534366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 155 ], [ 357, 385 ], [ 386, 395 ], [ 487, 499 ], [ 626, 638 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eals, Clay. Steve Goodman: Facing the Music. ECW Press, 2007. .", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Official site", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Steve Goodman: Facing the Music Biography by Clay Eals, May 2007", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Steve Goodman on Discogs", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1948_births", "1984_deaths", "American_folk_singers", "Deaths_from_cancer_in_Washington_(state)", "Deaths_from_leukemia", "Folk_musicians_from_Chicago", "Grammy_Award_winners", "Jewish_American_musicians", "Jewish_American_songwriters", "Lake_Forest_College_alumni", "Old_Town_School_of_Folk_musicians", "Singers_from_Chicago", "Chicago_Cubs", "20th-century_American_singers", "American_male_singer-songwriters", "Jewish_folk_singers", "20th-century_American_male_singers", "Country_musicians_from_Illinois", "20th-century_American_Jews", "Singer-songwriters_from_Illinois" ]

[ "Steven Benjamin Goodman" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Madness are an English ska band from Camden Town, North London, who formed in 1976. One of the most prominent bands of the late 1970s and early 1980s two-tone ska revival, they continue to perform with six of the seven members of their original line-up. Madness's most successful period was from 1980 to 1986, when the band's songs spent a total of 214 weeks on the UK Singles Chart. (UB40 shared the same number of weeks, the largest for any British group in the decade, but over a longer period.)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 27176, 95813, 209255, 3349146, 252451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 26 ], [ 37, 48 ], [ 150, 158 ], [ 366, 382 ], [ 385, 389 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Madness have had 15 singles reach the UK top ten, including \"One Step Beyond\", \"Baggy Trousers\" and \"It Must Be Love\", one UK number-one single \"House of Fun\" and two number ones in Ireland, \"House of Fun\" and \"Wings of a Dove\". \"Our House\" was their biggest US hit, reaching number 7 on the Billboard Hot 100. In 2000, the band received the Ivor Novello Award from the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors for Outstanding Song Collection.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7094187, 7427098, 7255316, 6794526, 7661225, 5170154, 423161, 5571776, 24259022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 76 ], [ 80, 94 ], [ 101, 116 ], [ 145, 157 ], [ 211, 226 ], [ 230, 239 ], [ 292, 309 ], [ 342, 360 ], [ 370, 423 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The core of the band formed as the North London Invaders in 1976, and included Mike Barson (Monsieur Barso) on keyboards and vocals, Chris Foreman (Chrissy Boy) on guitar and Lee Thompson (Kix) on saxophone and vocals. They later recruited John Hasler on drums and Cathal Smyth (better known as Chas Smash) on bass guitar. Later in the year, they were joined by lead vocalist Dikran Tulaine.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 2406179, 2406182, 4128008, 4127860, 48099433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 90 ], [ 133, 146 ], [ 175, 187 ], [ 295, 305 ], [ 376, 390 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This six-piece line-up lasted until part-way through 1977, when Graham McPherson (better known as Suggs) took over the lead vocals after seeing the band perform in a friend's garden. Tulaine went on to be an actor under the name Dikran Tulaine. Smyth, who left after an argument with Barson, was replaced by Gavin Rodgers, Barson's girlfriend's brother. McPherson was kicked out of the band for too often choosing to watch Chelsea instead of rehearsing. Thompson left the band after Barson criticised his saxophone playing.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 1830541, 7473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 103 ], [ 423, 430 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 1978, the band had allowed McPherson to return as a vocalist after he had filled in temporarily for Hasler (who had taken over vocals when McPherson was removed). Thompson returned after patching things up with Barson. Drummer Dan Woodgate (Woody) and bass player Mark Bedford (Bedders) also joined the band, replacing Garry Dovey and Rodgers, respectively. After briefly changing their name to Morris and the Minors, the band renamed itself as Madness in 1979, paying homage to one of their favourite songs by ska/reggae artist Prince Buster. The band remained a sextet until late 1979 when Chas Smash rejoined and officially became the seventh member of Madness as a backing vocalist and dancer.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 2406191, 2406185, 27176, 25520, 422932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 230, 242 ], [ 267, 279 ], [ 514, 517 ], [ 518, 524 ], [ 532, 545 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During 1979, the band began to attract a live following in London, being regulars at the Dublin Castle in Camden Town. The band's first commercial recording was the Lee Thompson composition \"The Prince\". The song, like the band's name, paid homage to their idol, Prince Buster. The song was released through 2 Tone Records, the label of The Specials founder Jerry Dammers. The song was a surprise hit, peaking in the UK music charts at number 16. Madness toured with fellow 2 Tone bands the Specials and the Selecter, before recording their debut album.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 45185828, 7778432, 422932, 975145, 175015, 301688, 209255, 419322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 102 ], [ 191, 201 ], [ 263, 276 ], [ 308, 322 ], [ 337, 349 ], [ 358, 371 ], [ 474, 480 ], [ 504, 516 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "That debut album, One Step Beyond... was released by Stiff Records. The album included a re-recording of \"The Prince\" and its B-side \"Madness\", and the band's second and third singles: \"One Step Beyond\" and \"My Girl\". The title song was a cover of the B-side of the 1960s Prince Buster hit \"Al Capone\". The One Step Beyond... album stayed in the British charts for 78 weeks, peaking at number 2. Smyth performed on the album but was not an official member of the band at the time or the album's recording or release. He would formally join Madness a few weeks after One Step Beyond... was issued in October 1979.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 30864155, 53727, 7094187, 7451768, 156541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 36 ], [ 53, 66 ], [ 186, 201 ], [ 208, 215 ], [ 252, 258 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the release of \"My Girl\", the band felt that they had exhausted the material from One Step Beyond..., and did not want to release any more singles from the album. However, Dave Robinson, head of Stiff Records, disagreed. Eventually, a compromise was made, and the band decided to release an EP featuring one album track and three new tracks. The result was the Work Rest and Play EP, which was headlined by the song \"Night Boat to Cairo\", from the One Step Beyond album. The EP reached number 6 in the UK Singles Chart.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 67891662, 11841059, 7081162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 178, 191 ], [ 367, 385 ], [ 423, 442 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1980, the band's second album, Absolutely reached number 2 in the UK Albums Chart. Absolutely spawned some of the band's biggest hits, most notably \"Baggy Trousers\", which peaked at number 3 in the UK Singles Chart. \"Embarrassment\" reached number 4 in the charts, and the instrumental song \"The Return of the Los Palmas 7\" climbed to number 7. Although the album reviews were generally less enthusiastic than those of One Step Beyond..., they were mostly positive. Robert Christgau gave the album a favourable B− grade, but Rolling Stone awarded the album just one out of five stars. Rolling Stone was particularly scathing of the ska revival in general, stating that \"The Specials wasn't very good\" and Madness were simply \"the Blues Brothers with English accents\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 1914469, 2465857, 7427098, 8298702, 9055453, 556641, 25441, 209255, 464814, 100927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 44 ], [ 69, 84 ], [ 152, 166 ], [ 220, 233 ], [ 294, 324 ], [ 468, 484 ], [ 527, 540 ], [ 634, 645 ], [ 672, 684 ], [ 728, 746 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A drama-documentary film entitled Take It or Leave It was released in 1981, featuring the band members playing themselves in a re-creation of their early days to the then-current period. Live recordings of Madness performances as well as those by other 2 Tone bands were used in the 1981 documentary film and soundtrack album Dance Craze.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 13776894, 5984530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 53 ], [ 326, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1981, the band's third studio album, 7, reached number 5 in the UK Albums Chart and contained three hit singles: \"Grey Day\" (no. 4, April 1981), \"Shut Up\" (no. 7, September 1981), and \"Cardiac Arrest\" (no. 14, February 1982). In an article in 1979, Chris Foreman explained that the band's music would move with the times, and change styles as time goes on. This was shown to be the case, as unlike the two ska-filled, fast-paced albums that preceded it, 7 was something of a change in direction. Suggs' vocal performance changed significantly, and his strong accent from the previous albums had been watered down. The album strayed from the ska-influenced sound of One Step Beyond... and Absolutely and moved towards a pop sound; a trend that continued with subsequent albums.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 1971955, 8336716, 8372118, 8408018, 2406182, 1830541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 41 ], [ 117, 125 ], [ 149, 156 ], [ 188, 202 ], [ 252, 265 ], [ 499, 505 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Near the end of 1981, Madness released one of their most recognised songs: a cover of Labi Siffre's 1971 hit \"It Must Be Love\". The song climbed to number 4 in the UK, and in 1983, the song peaked at number 33 in the US charts. In 1982, Madness released their only number 1 hit to date, \"House of Fun\", which they played live on the 1980s series The Young Ones, and also reached number 1 in the album charts with their first compilation, Complete Madness.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 1035724, 7255316, 6794526, 181274, 7501583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 97 ], [ 110, 125 ], [ 288, 300 ], [ 346, 360 ], [ 438, 454 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In November 1982, they released their fourth studio album, The Rise & Fall, which was well received in the UK, but did not get an American release. Instead, many of its songs were included on the US compilation Madness, including \"Our House\", which was their most internationally successful single to date. \"Our House\" reached number 5 in the UK music charts and number 7 in the US charts; it was also performed live on The Young Ones. Many reviewers compared The Rise & Fall to The Kinks' Village Green Preservation Society, and it is at times retrospectively considered a concept album. The album also featured \"Primrose Hill\", which was more similar to The Beatles song \"Strawberry Fields Forever\", containing similar psychedelic imagery and a layered arrangement.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 3751777, 7664130, 5170154, 3158351, 1227054, 7527, 29812, 143174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 74 ], [ 211, 218 ], [ 231, 240 ], [ 479, 488 ], [ 490, 524 ], [ 574, 587 ], [ 656, 667 ], [ 674, 699 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1983, their single \"Wings of a Dove\" peaked at number 2 in the UK charts, followed by \"The Sun and the Rain\" (no. 5, November 1983). Their following album, Keep Moving, peaked at number 6 in the UK Albums Chart, and two singles from that album reached the top 20 in the UK Singles Chart. The album received some good reviews, with Rolling Stone magazine giving the album four out of five stars, applauding the band's changing sound. This was an improvement as the last album reviewed by the magazine, Absolutely, was heavily criticised.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 7661225, 7661296, 3762423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 38 ], [ 90, 110 ], [ 159, 170 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 5 October 1983 the band were rehearsing and discussing a possible television series, which was being written for them by Ben Elton and Richard Curtis. Barson then informed the band that he would not be able to take part, as he was tired of the music business and wanted to spend more time with his wife. They had recently relocated to Amsterdam. Barson agreed to finish recording the album Keep Moving; he left after playing for the last time with the band at the Lyceum Ballroom on 21 December 1983. After leaving the band James Mackie took Barson's place appearing with Madness on the US television show Saturday Night Live on 14 April 1984. After leaving the band, Barson returned to the UK for the filming of two music videos as he had played on the tracks, \"Michael Caine\" and \"One Better Day\". He officially left the band in June 1984, following the release of \"One Better Day\", however finished live performance with the band in 1983, Paul Carrack took Barson's place whilst the band toured America in early 1984. The six remaining members left Stiff Records and formed their own label, Zarjazz Records, which was a sub-label of Virgin Records.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 52279, 149506, 763013, 8737755, 11886702, 11886702, 505973, 53727, 6597861, 93767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 133 ], [ 138, 152 ], [ 609, 628 ], [ 766, 779 ], [ 786, 800 ], [ 871, 885 ], [ 945, 957 ], [ 1055, 1068 ], [ 1097, 1112 ], [ 1139, 1153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1985, the label released the band's sixth album, Mad Not Mad. Barson's keyboard parts were filled by synthesisers and Steve Nieve joined the band to take his place. In later years, frontman Suggs described the album as a \"polished turd\". The album reached number 16 in the UK charts, which was the band's lowest position on the album charts to date. Despite the poor chart showing, the album was listed as number 55 in NMEs \"All Time 100 Albums\". The singles for the album fared even worse, with \"Yesterday's Men\" peaking at number 18 in the UK charts. The subsequent singles, \"Uncle Sam\" and \"Sweetest Girl\", failed to make the top 20, which was a first for Madness singles.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 3787262, 2178309, 1830541, 156699, 11950456, 11895090, 11950653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 63 ], [ 121, 132 ], [ 193, 198 ], [ 422, 425 ], [ 500, 515 ], [ 581, 590 ], [ 597, 610 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The band then attempted to record a new album, and 11 demo tracks were recorded. However, musical differences arose between the band members. The untitled album went unreleased, and in September 1986, the band announced that they were to split. Barson rejoined the band for a farewell single, \"(Waiting For) The Ghost Train\", but did not appear in the music video. The band officially split following the release of the single, which reached a high of number 18 in the UK. In 1988, four members of the band– Suggs, Chas Smash, Lee Thompson and Chris Foreman– continued under the name The Madness. After one self-titled album and two singles that failed to make the top 40, the band split.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 51201004, 8337733, 4127860, 2406182, 3795374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 160 ], [ 294, 323 ], [ 515, 525 ], [ 544, 557 ], [ 607, 618 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Towards the end of 1991, \"It Must Be Love\" was re-released and eventually reached number 6 in the UK Singles Chart in February 1992. Following that, the singles compilation Divine Madness was released and peaked at number 1 in the album charts. Madness then announced plans for a reunion concert, Madstock!, which was held at Finsbury Park, London on 8 and 9 August of that year. The original line-up reunited, performing together for the first time since Barson left the band in 1984. Over 75,000 fans attended the weekend festival, and the dancing of the crowd caused some nearby tower blocks to shake perceptibly as they resonated with the frequency of the music.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 1976515, 7487450, 171732, 41660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 173, 187 ], [ 297, 306 ], [ 326, 339 ], [ 624, 633 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the Finsbury Park comeback, a live album was released, and the associated single, \"The Harder They Come\" (a cover of Jimmy Cliff's 1973 song) reached number 44 in the UK, with the album reaching number 22.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 20627346, 177220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 109 ], [ 123, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The band continued to reunite for annual UK Christmas season tours and held three more Madstock! festivals; in 1994, 1996 and 1998. Also in 1998, Madness returned to America for their first tour there since 1984. The live album Universal Madness was recorded at the Universal Amphitheatre in L.A. and released the following year. In 1999, Madness released their first studio album since 1986, entitled Wonderful. The album reached number 17 in the UK Albums Chart, and the lead single, \"Lovestruck\", gave the band their first new top 10 hit in the UK since 1983. Neither of the two subsequent singles from the album, \"Johnny The Horse\" and \"Drip Fed Fred\", entered the top 40 of the UK chart.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 7695393, 1728708, 3808376, 10309612, 12039021, 12421000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 228, 245 ], [ 266, 288 ], [ 402, 411 ], [ 487, 497 ], [ 618, 634 ], [ 641, 654 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 28 October 2002 to 16 August 2003, a musical based on Madness songs, Our House, ran at the Cambridge Theatre in London. Madness played a role in the executive production of the show, and Suggs played a role in the production for a period, playing the central character's father. It won an Olivier Award for best new musical of 2003, and the performance was released on DVD on 1 November 2004. There was also a previous musical based on Madness songs, One Step Beyond!, written by Alan Gilbey. The musical had a brief run at the Theatre Royal Stratford East in 1993 and a run at Putney Arts Theatre, London in 2012.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 6770343, 1563411, 16432264, 1423546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 83 ], [ 96, 113 ], [ 294, 307 ], [ 533, 561 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2004, the band played a series of low-key concerts as The Dangermen, performing covers of classic reggae and ska songs. A lot of the songs were those played by the band when they were first forming, and the band performed the songs as a celebration of their 25th anniversary.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This led to the release of the album The Dangermen Sessions Vol. 1 on V2 Records in August 2005. During the sessions which produced the album, in mid-2005, guitarist Chris Foreman announced his departure, citing \"the petty, time consuming bollocks that goes on in the band\" as his reason for leaving. The band completed the album without him, and on release, it peaked at no. 11 in the UK Albums Chart, which was the band's highest studio album chart position in 21 years. Although two singles were released, neither was a major success in the UK. The more successful of the two, \"Shame & Scandal\", reached number 38, but was more successful in France where it peaked at number 12. \"Girl Why Don't You?\" did not chart and the band left the V2 record label shortly after. At this time, Kevin Burdette joined as the band's guitarist for live appearances and also appeared in the videos for both \"Sorry\" and \"NW5\" in early 2007.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 3811533, 11459062, 11467103 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 66 ], [ 581, 596 ], [ 683, 702 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The six remaining original members of Madness began working on their first original album in seven years.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In March 2007, the non-LP single \"Sorry\" was released on the band's own record label Lucky 7 Records, peaking in the UK charts at number 23. The single included a version featuring UK hip hop artists Sway DaSafo and Baby Blue.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 10304270, 22457299, 18945847, 2891370, 26301644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 40 ], [ 85, 100 ], [ 184, 191 ], [ 200, 211 ], [ 216, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The new Madness song \"NW5\" (then still titled \"NW5 (I Would Give You Everything)\") and a re-recorded version of \"It Must Be Love\" were featured in the German film Neues vom Wixxer. The two songs were released in Germany as a double A-Side, and both of them were turned into music videos, which– besides members of the film's cast– featured Suggs, Chas Smash, Woody and stand-in guitarist Burdette. A re-recorded version of \"NW5\" was released as a single on 14 January 2008 in the UK reaching no. 24– this recording featured original Madness guitarist Chris Foreman, who had rejoined the band in time for the 2006 Christmas tour but had not participated in the original recording of the song.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 15088150, 156541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 25 ], [ 225, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 2008, Madness played the majority of their new album The Liberty of Norton Folgate at London's Hackney Empire for three nights. The Hackney Empire performances were recorded and sold to fans on USB wristbands as they left the show. Madness played two dates in December 2008, firstly in Manchester on 18 December, and secondly a return gig to The O2 in London on the 19th.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 17482094, 6440812 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 90 ], [ 103, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December 2008 the band also announced that for their thirtieth anniversary in 2009, they would be staging a fifth Madstock Festival in London's Victoria Park on 17 July, 11 years after the last Madstock concert. It was originally rumoured that the newly reformed The Specials would make an appearance after finishing their reunion tour. However, this did not occur, although original Specials keyboardist Jerry Dammers– who was not part of the reunion line-up– was announced as a support act with The Spatial AKA Orchestra shortly before the festival. Dammers supported Madness again during their 2009 Christmas tour when he opened each night with a DJ set.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 175015, 22967691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 266, 278 ], [ 500, 525 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Through late March and early April 2009, the band played a series of festival and separate headlining dates across Australia. The lead-up single from their latest album, entitled \"Dust Devil\", was released on 11 May on Lucky 7 Records. Alfie Allen and Jaime Winstone co-starred in the music video. The single charted at No.64 on the UK Singles Chart and at No.1 on the UK Independent charts on 17 May 2009.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 22456372, 6124854, 4331409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 179, 190 ], [ 236, 247 ], [ 252, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The new album, entitled The Liberty of Norton Folgate, was released a week later, on 18 May 2009. It charted at No.5 in the UK Albums Chart. The band continued to play various festivals, including Pinkpop, Splendour, and Glastonbury. On 27 September 2009, the band also played a free concert on a closed-off Regent Street in association with Absolute Radio.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 17482094, 292403, 28164612, 79026, 229189, 571843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 53 ], [ 197, 204 ], [ 206, 215 ], [ 221, 232 ], [ 308, 321 ], [ 342, 356 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 28 August, Madness played the Rock en Seine festival near Paris, on the same night where Oasis brothers Noel and Liam Gallagher engaged in a physical altercation, resulting in the split of the band. As Oasis cancelled their headlining slot, Madness, even though having played earlier in the evening, were asked to replace them. They accepted the invitation and both of their sets during the festival were said to have been well received.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 5731714, 161515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 46 ], [ 92, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As in previous years, the band embarked on a Christmas tour of the UK (also playing one concert in Dublin), playing at various medium-sized venues. Mark Bedford took a break from the band and was replaced by Graham Bush for the tour.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 8504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some members of the band appeared in Catherine Tate's Nan's Christmas Carol. They first posed as carol singers, then played \"Baggy Trousers\" over the credits. On 18 January 2010, Madness released a fourth single, \"Forever Young\", from The Liberty of Norton Folgate. The single failed to chart.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 1655114, 26556671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 51 ], [ 214, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During an interview with RTÉ 2fm radio host Dave Fanning on 24 May 2010, drummer Daniel Woodgate stated that the members of the band were in the final stages of preparing songs for the follow-up to The Liberty of Norton Folgate. The band hoped to be able to start recording the album later on in 2010.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 623136, 2978636, 2406191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 32 ], [ 44, 56 ], [ 81, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 2010, Madness were awarded the Idol Award at the Q Awards in London. Guitarist Chris Foreman stated in his acceptance speech that Madness were recording a new album.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 10980551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Madness toured the UK throughout November and December 2010 with their final show at London's Earl's Court, where they played a new song from their upcoming album. However, two concerts, in Hull and Sheffield, were cancelled due to heavy snowfall, although they were later rescheduled for 5 and 6 February 2011 respectively.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 355091, 56474, 88885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 106 ], [ 190, 194 ], [ 199, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 2011, the band performed at Meltdown Festival at the Royal Festival Hall, curated by inspiration Ray Davies, who also introduced the band on stage. The concert served as the premiere of three new songs– \"1978\", \"Can't Keep a Good Thing Down\" and \"Death of a Rude Boy\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 2584667, 392195, 83316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 44 ], [ 61, 80 ], [ 105, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The summer of 2012 saw two notable performances. In June, the band performed at the Queen's Diamond Jubilee concert at Buckingham Palace. The band performed \"Our House\" and \"It Must Be Love\" from the roof of the palace with accompanying animations projected onto the palace front. In August, the band was the first to perform at the closing ceremony of the London Olympic Games. Departed bass player Bedford rejoined the band for both performances. In August 2012, Madness released \"Death of a Rude Boy\" as a free teaser track from their new album. Madness' 10th studio album Oui Oui Si Si Ja Ja Da Da was released on 29 October 2012 and entered the UK Albums Chart at no.10. In January 2013 the album re-entered the chart at no. 16 on the back of the airplay success of the single \"Never Knew Your Name\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 25249479, 3969, 36229610, 2176142, 37006449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 107 ], [ 119, 136 ], [ 333, 349 ], [ 357, 377 ], [ 576, 601 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the start of 2013, Bedford increased his performances with the band building to his full-time return to the group, which meant a close to the four years Graham Bush had spent with the band.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 22 March 2013, the band performed outside the BBC Television Centre in a live broadcast for BBC Four. This was followed by Goodbye Television Centre, a celebration of 50 years of the television centre, marking the closure of the building and the last show to be broadcast from it. Following that the band was the closing act to the new year celebration of 2014 in Dublin, Ireland.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 670465, 345439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 70 ], [ 95, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 22 March 2014, Suggs confirmed that Madness were writing a new album which he stated \"the band plan to record in the summer and release by the end of 2014\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In October 2014, Cathal Smyth, aka Chas Smash, left Madness to pursue a solo career. His solo album, A Comfortable Man, was released on 11 May 2015. Although Smyth's departure was characterized at the time as a 'break' to concentrate on his solo career and not necessarily a permanent departure, Smyth has not rejoined Madness in the years since the break was announced. Madness has continued as a six-piece.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 58039875 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In February 2015, the band announced the Grandslam tour, taking in 20 outdoor venues.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The band announced their new album Can't Touch Us Now in May 2016. In support of the album, the band played the Pyramid Stage at the Glastonbury Festival in June. Lead single \"Mr. Apples\" was accompanied by a scripted video (first one since 2009) and A-listed by BBC Radio 2. The song \"Herbert\" was released as a taster accompanied by an animation video. Further singles \"Can't Touch Us Now\" and \"Another Version of Me\" were also playlisted by BBC Radio 2. The album itself entered the UK Albums Chart at number 5 in November 2016. The band finished the year on a UK arena tour in December.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 51344225, 79026, 79026, 33719859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 53 ], [ 112, 125 ], [ 133, 153 ], [ 263, 274 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Throughout 2017, the band played at several festivals and concerts worldwide including mainland Europe, Asia, and Australia. In April their first Australian gig at the Fremantle Arts Centre in Western Australia sold out, necessitating a second gig the following night. In August, the band hosted their own \"House of Common Festival\" for the second year on Clapham Common. This was the band's only London gig of the year.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 577650 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 358, 372 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2018, the band embarked on a summer tour of stately homes in the UK before a Christmas arena tour in December. Madness performed on New Year's Eve through to New Year's Day at \"Madness Rocks Big Ben Live\". The entire performance was shown on BBC One before and after that year's fireworks.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 212157 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 245, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March 2019, Madness announced the release of their group autobiography, Before We Was We: Madness By Madness, to be released in hardback that October. The book includes commentary from all seven members telling the story of their early days and childhoods up until their breakthrough as a group. In May 2021, the book was adapted as a three-part TV documentary on AMC, with the first part free on BT's YouTube channel.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 44171537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 367, 370 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The band celebrated 40 years since their first LP release with several special live appearances throughout 2019. The band performed at their own \"House of Common\" festival in August and held a special concert with a full orchestra at Kenwood House. In November they played at Electric Ballroom in Camden; forty years to the day since one of their first appearances there. The performance was broadcast on Sky Arts in 2020. The band saw the year out with three concerts at The Roundhouse.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 1709000, 256817, 2811894, 886315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 234, 247 ], [ 276, 293 ], [ 405, 413 ], [ 472, 486 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December 2019, the band released a new single, \"Bullingdon Boys (Don't Get Bullied by the Bully Boys)\". The NME described the song as a 'barbed swipe at Boris Johnson and his Eton cohorts'.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 156699, 19065069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 114 ], [ 156, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In April 2021, following some special videos created during the COVID-19 pandemic, Madness announced their first global live stream, titled \"The Get Up!\", to be held the next month. It featured live music and comedy from the group and Charlie Higson, pre-recorded at the London Palladium. During the live stream, the band was accompanied by Roland Gift and Paul Weller and had a cameo by Queen Elizabeth II, played by Mike Barson. They announced their 2021 tour, The Ladykillers Tour, the next day, to be held alongside Squeeze.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 62750956, 838355, 243023, 657671, 343475, 12153654, 2406179, 66788 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 81 ], [ 235, 249 ], [ 271, 287 ], [ 341, 352 ], [ 357, 368 ], [ 388, 406 ], [ 418, 429 ], [ 520, 527 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Fink Brothers were a short-lived alter ego created by Madness members Suggs and Chas Smash, working under the aliases Angel and Ratty Fink, using characters from the science fiction comic 2000 AD.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Associated acts", "target_page_ids": [ 1830541, 4127860, 35835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 79 ], [ 84, 94 ], [ 192, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Single", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Associated acts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Madness was a line-up of Madness without Mark Bedford, Daniel Woodgate and Mike Barson, active between 1988 and 1989. Formed by Suggs, Chas Smash, Lee Thompson and Chris Foreman in 1988, they distinguished this line-up from the previous Madness line-up only by adding the word \"The\" to the band's name. The band had held a competition to find a new name on Radio 1. They decided on 'The Wasp Factory' after the Iain Banks novel, but that name had already been taken by another band.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Associated acts", "target_page_ids": [ 14858 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 415, 425 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The album is notable for featuring guest performers including Jerry Dammers, John Hasler and Earl Falconer. It is also the first album produced by the band themselves under the alias 'The Three Eyes'.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Associated acts", "target_page_ids": [ 301688, 7971199, 252451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 75 ], [ 77, 88 ], [ 93, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Guinness Book of British Hit Singles and many online discographies consider this band to be the same as \"Madness\". Several of the songs on the album (\"4BF\", \"Be Good Boy\", \"Gabriels Horn\", \"In Wonder\") were reworked songs from the cancelled 1986 Madness album and had been performed live or demoed in 1986 before the band split. Lee Thompson and Chris Foreman also alluded to this view on their album Crunch!, which was dedicated to \"the good ship Madness and all who sailed in her (1979 to 1989)\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Associated acts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Album", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Associated acts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1988: The Madness", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Associated acts", "target_page_ids": [ 3795374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Singles", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Associated acts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Nutty Boys were Lee Thompson and Chris Foreman of Madness. The name \"The Nutty Boys\" was actually the name of their album, while the new band was called \"Crunch!\". The posters for their first concert mistakenly listed the band as \"The Nutty Boys\" instead of \"Crunch!\", and the name stuck. While the members of the band Madness were nicknamed \"The Nutty Boys\" as a whole, this section lists only the work released by Thompson and Foreman under \"The Nutty Boys\" name in the early 1990s.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Associated acts", "target_page_ids": [ 4128008, 2406182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 32 ], [ 37, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Single", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Associated acts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Album", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Associated acts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1990: Crunch!", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Associated acts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Crunch! were also Lee Thompson and Chris Foreman. At this point, the band formally corrected the earlier mistake and officially adopted their original name of \"Crunch\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Associated acts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Single", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Associated acts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Madness collaborated with Elvis Costello in 1983 on a version of their song \"Tomorrow's (Just Another Day)\". It was released as a bonus track to the 12\" copy of the single. In later years, Barson stated that Costello's \"Watching the Detectives\" was the main influence on the song \"My Girl\". For Wonderful in 1999, Ian Dury laid down vocals on the track \"Drip Fed Fred\" which was released as the last single from the album. It was Dury's last recording before his death. Ill health prevented Dury from actively promoting the single, although he did appear on the National Lottery Show, for a later performance on TFI Friday, the song was reworked to incorporate Phill Jupitus on vocals. Live, Madness have collaborated with artists including UB40 and Prince Buster, notably at their first Madstock concert. They have also played live frequently with members of the other 2 Tone bands including The Specials. In May 2008, Suggs and Carl performed live with Pet Shop Boys at London's Heaven collaborating on a new arrangement of \"My Girl\", as part of a tribute evening to their former minder Dainton 'The Bear' Connell, called Can You Bear It?. A few days afterwards, Pet Shop Boys posted their own version of the track on their official website.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Collaborations", "target_page_ids": [ 10510, 11253499, 18192171, 43492, 12421000, 2042605, 407342, 252451, 422932, 51641, 4634014, 31750762, 51641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 40 ], [ 77, 106 ], [ 220, 243 ], [ 314, 322 ], [ 354, 367 ], [ 612, 622 ], [ 661, 674 ], [ 741, 745 ], [ 750, 763 ], [ 955, 968 ], [ 981, 987 ], [ 1089, 1115 ], [ 1165, 1178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In late 2010, the band collaborated in the Cage Against The Machine project, in which numerous artists performed John Cage's 4′33″ for a charity single intended to prevent the winner of The X Factor claiming the Christmas Number 1. The title refers to the previous year's successful campaign to get Rage Against the Machine's \"Killing in the Name\" to chart above X Factor winner Joe McElderry.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Collaborations", "target_page_ids": [ 65954, 438953, 1250986, 14724189, 80027, 2290598, 24594884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 122 ], [ 125, 130 ], [ 137, 151 ], [ 186, 198 ], [ 299, 323 ], [ 327, 346 ], [ 379, 392 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frequent themes in Madness' songs included childhood memories (e.g., \"Baggy Trousers\", and \"Our House\") and petty crime (e.g., \"Shut Up\", and \"Deceives the Eye\"). Although Madness were seen by some as somewhat of a humorous band with catchy, bouncy songs, many of their songs took a darker tone (such as the singles \"Grey Day\" and \"Tomorrow's (Just Another Day)\") and they sometimes tackled what were, at the time, controversial issues in their lyrics. \"Embarrassment\" (from the Absolutely album) was written by Lee Thompson, and reflected the unfolding turmoil following the news that his teenage sister had become pregnant and was carrying a black man's child. Madness discussed animal testing in the song \"Tomorrow's Dream\". The band criticised the National Health Service in \"Mrs. Hutchinson\", which told the story of a woman who, after several misdiagnoses and mistreatment, became terminally ill. The story was based on the experiences of Mike Barson's mother. Madness' final single prior to disbanding, \"(Waiting For) The Ghost Train\", commented on apartheid in South Africa.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Lyrical themes", "target_page_ids": [ 7427098, 5170154, 8372118, 8336716, 11253499, 175596, 16462572, 8337733, 2200527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 84 ], [ 92, 101 ], [ 128, 135 ], [ 317, 325 ], [ 332, 361 ], [ 681, 695 ], [ 752, 775 ], [ 1011, 1040 ], [ 1056, 1081 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The band's first notable musical award came in 1983 when Chris Foreman and Cathal Smyth won an Ivor Novello Award for Best Song for the international hit \"Our House\". Madness received another Ivor Novello Award 17 years later for an \"Outstanding Song Collection\". In 2005, they were awarded the MOJO \"Hall of Fame\" Award, notably for being \"an artist's artist\". In 2007, a campaign took place by fans of Madness for the band to be awarded a Brit Award. Many fans and critics feel they have been overlooked over their past 30 years in the music industry. In July 2009, Madness were awarded the 'Silver Clef' Icon Award. In September 2010, Madness were awarded the 'Idol Award' at the 2010 Q Awards in London.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards", "target_page_ids": [ 5571776, 20604402, 362662, 10980551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 113 ], [ 295, 299 ], [ 441, 451 ], [ 688, 696 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Members of the classic line-up are listed in bold.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Current members", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chris Foreman– guitar ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [ 2406182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mike Barson– keyboards, piano ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [ 2406179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lee Thompson– saxophone, percussion, vocals ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [ 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"section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [ 18461050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mike Kearsey– trombone ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Terry Edwards– saxophone, trumpet ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [ 10915982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Steve Turner– saxophone ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " John \"Segs\" Jennings– guitar ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [ 1097071 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kevin Burdett– guitar ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Graham Bush– bass ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Joe Auckland– trumpet ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Steve Hamilton– saxophone ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Paul Fisher– trombone ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mez Clough– percussion , drums ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Neil Waters– trumpet ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Paul Burton– trombone ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Members of North London Invaders only (band changed name to \"Madness\" in 1979)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " John Hasler– drums , vocals ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dikran Tulaine– vocals ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [ 48099433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gavin Rodgers– bass ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Garry Dovey– drums ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " One Step Beyond... 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(2014)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Tours", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Grandslam Madness (2015)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Tours", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Can't Touch Us Now (2016)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Tours", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Stately Madness (2018)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Tours", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Sound of Madness (2018)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Tours", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Madness XL (2018–2019)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Tours", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Ladykillers Tour (2021)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Tours", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Madness in America (2023)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Tours", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "MIS Online, fan based website since 1999", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Guardian interview", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Madness_(band)", "Musical_groups_established_in_1976", "Musical_groups_disestablished_in_1986", "Musical_groups_reestablished_in_1992", "Musical_groups_from_the_London_Borough_of_Camden", "Second-wave_ska_groups", "English_new_wave_musical_groups", "Ivor_Novello_Award_winners", "2_Tone_Records_artists", "Stiff_Records_artists", "V2_Records_artists", "Yep_Roc_Records_artists", "English_ska_musical_groups", "1976_establishments_in_England", "Articles_which_contain_graphical_timelines", "Suggs_(singer)", "Second_British_Invasion_artists" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "A magnetic mirror, known as a magnetic trap (магнитный захват) in Russia and briefly as a pyrotron in the US, is a type of magnetic confinement device used in fusion power to trap high temperature plasma using magnetic fields. The mirror was one of the earliest major approaches to fusion power, along with the stellarator and z-pinch machines.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1690634, 55017, 25916521, 36563, 29591, 1019222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 150 ], [ 159, 171 ], [ 197, 203 ], [ 210, 224 ], [ 311, 322 ], [ 327, 334 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a classic magnetic mirror, a configuration of electromagnets is used to create an area with an increasing density of magnetic field lines at either end of the confinement area. Particles approaching the ends experience an increasing force that eventually causes them to reverse direction and return to the confinement area. This mirror effect will only occur for particles within a limited range of velocities and angles of approach, those outside the limits will escape, making mirrors inherently \"leaky\".", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 92377, 36563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 62 ], [ 120, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An analysis of early fusion devices by Edward Teller pointed out that the basic mirror concept is inherently unstable. In 1960, Soviet researchers introduced a new \"minimum-B\" configuration to address this, which was then modified by UK researchers into the \"baseball coil\" and by the US to \"yin-yang magnet\" layout. Each of these introductions led to further increases in performance, damping out various instabilities, but requiring ever-larger magnet systems. The tandem mirror concept, developed in the US and Russia at about the same time, offered a way to make energy-positive machines without requiring enormous magnets and power input.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 37782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the late 1970s, many of the design problems were considered solved, and Lawrence Livermore Laboratory began the design of the Mirror Fusion Test Facility (MFTF) based on these concepts. The machine was completed in 1986, but by this time, experiments on the smaller Tandem Mirror Experiment revealed new problems. In a round of budget cuts, MFTF was mothballed, and eventually scrapped. A fusion reactor concept called the Bumpy torus made use of a series of magnetic mirrors joined in a ring. It was investigated at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory until 1986. The mirror approach has since seen less development, in favor of the tokamak, but mirror research continues today in countries like Japan and Russia.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 39039, 6657114, 39948045, 33602881, 38147, 31439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 104 ], [ 129, 156 ], [ 269, 293 ], [ 426, 437 ], [ 524, 553 ], [ 635, 642 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The concept of magnetic-mirror plasma confinement was proposed in the early-1950s independently by Gersh Budker at the Kurchatov Institute, Russia and Richard F. Post at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in the US.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 30875518, 2810116, 29232025, 39039 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 111 ], [ 119, 138 ], [ 151, 166 ], [ 174, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the formation of Project Sherwood in 1951, Post began the development of a small device to test the mirror configuration. This consisted of a linear pyrex tube with magnets around the outside. The magnets were arranged in two sets, one set of small magnets spaced evenly along the length of the tube, and another pair of much larger magnets at either end. In 1952 they were able to demonstrate that plasma within the tube was confined for much longer times when the mirror magnets at the end were turned on. At the time, he referred to this device as the \"pyrotron\", but this name did not catch on.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1810990, 320056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 38 ], [ 154, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a now-famous talk on fusion in 1954, Edward Teller noted that any device with convex magnetic field lines would likely be unstable, a problem today known as the flute instability. The mirror has precisely such a configuration; the magnetic field was highly convex at the ends where the field strength increased. This led to serious concern by Post, but over the next year, his team could find no sign of these problems. In October 1955 he went so far as to state that \"it is now becoming clear that in the case of the mirror machine at least these calculations do not apply in detail.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 37782, 53193155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 53 ], [ 164, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Russia, the first small-scale mirror (\"probkotron\") was built in 1959 at the Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics in Novosibirsk, Russia. They immediately saw the problem Teller had warned about. This led to something of a mystery, as the US teams under Post continued to lack any evidence of such problems. In 1960, Post and Marshall Rosenbluth published a report \"providing evidence for the existence of a stability confined plasma... where the simplest hydromagnetic theory predicts instability.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1215337, 63065, 3742070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 115 ], [ 119, 130 ], [ 328, 347 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At a meeting on plasma physics in Saltzberg in 1961, the Soviet delegation presented considerable data showing the instability, while the US teams continued to show none. An offhand question by Lev Artsimovich settled the matter; when he asked if the charts being produced from the instruments in the US machines were adjusted for a well-known delay in the output of the detectors being used, it suddenly became clear that the apparent 1ms stability was, in fact, a 1ms delay in the measurements. Artsimovich went so far as to claim \"we now do not have a single experimental fact indicating long and stable confinement of plasma with hot ions within a simple magnetic mirror geometry.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 56033715, 1030266 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 43 ], [ 194, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The issue of the potential instabilities had been considered in the field for some time and a number of possible solutions had been introduced. These generally worked by changing the shape of the magnetic field so it was concave everywhere, the so-called \"minimum-B\" configuration.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At the same 1961 meeting, Mikhail Ioffe introduced data from a minimum-B experiment. His design used a series of six additional current-carrying bars in the interior of an otherwise typical mirror to bend the plasma into the shape of a twisted bow-tie to produce a minimum-B configuration. They demonstrated that this greatly improved the confinement times to the order of milliseconds. Today this arrangement is known as \"Ioffe bars\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 68645547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A group at the Culham Centre for Fusion Energy noted that Ioffe's arrangement could be improved by combining the original rings and the bars into a single new arrangement similar to the seam on a tennis ball. This concept was picked up in the US where it was renamed after the stitching on a baseball. These \"baseball coils\" had the great advantage that they left the internal volume of the reactor open, allowing easy access for diagnostic instruments. On the downside, the size of the magnet in comparison to the volume of plasma was inconvenient and required very powerful magnets. Post later introduced a further improvement, the \"yin-yang coils\", which used two C-shaped magnets to produce the same field configuration, but in a smaller volume.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 33311378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the US, major changes to the fusion program were underway. Robert Hirsch and his assistant Stephen O. Dean were excited by the huge performance advance seen in the Soviet tokamaks, which suggested power production was now a real possibility. Hirsch began to change the program from one he derided as a series of uncoordinated science experiments into a planned effort to ultimately reach breakeven. As part of this change, he began to demand that the current systems demonstrate real progress or they would be cancelled. The bumpy torus, levitron and Astron were all abandoned, not without a fight.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3426044, 46637003, 31439, 1686779, 33602881, 1027654, 33596365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 75 ], [ 94, 109 ], [ 174, 181 ], [ 391, 400 ], [ 528, 539 ], [ 541, 549 ], [ 554, 560 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dean met with Livermore's team and made it clear that Astron would likely be cut, and mirrors had to improve or face cutting as well, which would have left the lab with no major fusion projects. In December 1972, Dean met with the mirror team and made a series of demands; their systems would have to demonstrate an nT value of 1012, compared to the current best number on 2XII of 8x109. After considerable concern from the researchers that this would be impossible, Dean backed off to 1011 being demonstrated by the end of 1975.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Although 2XII was nowhere near the level needed by Dean's demands, it was nevertheless extremely successful in demonstrating that the yin-yang arrangement was workable and suppressed the major instabilities seen in earlier mirrors. But as experiments continued through 1973, the results were not improving as expected. Plans emerged to brute-force the performance through the addition of neutral-beam injection to quickly raise the temperature in an effort to reach Dean's conditions. The result was 2XIIB, the B for \"beams\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5664494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 388, 410 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While 2XIIB was being set up, in November 1974, Fowler received a letter from Ioffe containing a series of photographs of oscilloscope traces with no other explanation. Fowler realized they demonstrated that injecting warm plasma during the run improved confinement. This appeared to be due to a long-expected by so-far unseen instability known as \"drift-cyclotron loss-cone\", or DCLC. Ioffe's photographs demonstrated that DCLC was being seen in Soviet reactors and that warm plasma appeared to stabilize it.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 15361791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2XIIB reactor started real experiments in 1975, and significant DCLC was immediately seen. Annoyingly, the effect grew stronger as they improved the operating conditions with better vacuum and cleaning of the interior. Fowler recognized the performance was identical to that of Ioffe's photographs, and 2XIIB was modified to inject warm plasma during the center of the run. When the results were seen, they were described as \"sunlight was breaking through the clouds and there was the chance that everything would be all right.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In July 1975, the 2XIIB team presented their results for nT at 7x1010, an order of magnitude better than 2XII and close enough to Dean's requirements. By this time, the Princeton Large Torus had come online and was setting record after record, prompting Hirsch to begin planning for even larger machines for the early 1980s with the explicit goal of hitting breakeven, or Q=1. This became known as the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR), whose goal was to run on deuterium-tritium fuel and reach Q=1, while future machines would be Q>10.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 48754942, 1686779, 1417600, 8524, 31306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 169, 190 ], [ 358, 367 ], [ 402, 429 ], [ 463, 472 ], [ 473, 480 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the latest results on 2XIIB, it appeared that a larger yin-yang design would also improve performance. However, calculations showed it would only reach Q=0.03. Even the most developed versions of the basic concept, with leakage at the absolute lower limit allowed by theory, could only reach Q=1.2. This made these designs largely useless for power production, and Hirsch demanded that this be improved if the program were to continue. This problem became known as \"Q-enhancement\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In March 1976, the Livermore team decided to organize a working group on the topic of Q-enhancement at the October 1976 international fusion meeting in Germany. Over the July 4th weekend, Fowler and Post came up with the idea of the tandem mirror, a system consisting of two mirrors at either end of a large chamber that held large amounts fusion fuel at lower magnetic pressure. They returned to LLNL on Monday to find the idea had been developed independently by a staff physicist, Grant Logan. They brought further developed versions of these ideas to Germany to find a Soviet researcher proposing exactly the same solution.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Upon their return from the meeting, Dean met with the team and decided to shut down the Baseball II system and direct its funding to a tandem mirror project. This emerged as the Tandem Mirror Experiment, or TMX. The final design was presented and approved in January 1977. Construction of what was then the largest experiment at Livermore was completed by October 1978. By July 1979, experiments were demonstrating that TMX was operating as expected.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 39948045 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 178, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Even before the tandem mirror concept emerged, what was by this time the Department of Energy had agreed to fund the construction of a much larger mirror known as the Mirror Fusion Test Facility, or MFTF. At the time, the plan for MFTF was to simply be the largest yin-yang magnet anyone could figure out how to build. With the success of the TMX concept, the design was modified to become MFTF-B, using two of the largest yin-yang magnets anyone could figure out how to build in an enormous tandem configuration. The goal was to meet Q=5. Through late 1978 when the teams began to actually consider the steps in scaling up the TMX, it became clear that it simply would not hit the required goals. In January 1979, Fowler stopped the work, stating that some improvement would have to be found.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 28079897, 6657114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 93 ], [ 167, 194 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During experiments on the TMX, it was found to everyone's surprise that the law introduced by Lyman Spitzer in the 1950s was not holding; in TMX at least, electrons on any single magnetic line were found to be in a wide variety of speeds, which was entirely unexpected. Further work by John Clauser demonstrated that this was due to the warm plasma injection used to suppress DCLC. Logan took these results and used them to come up with an entirely new way to confine the plasma; with the careful arrangement of these electrons, one could produce a region with a large number of \"cool\" electrons that would attract the positively charged ions. Dave Baldwin then demonstrated this could be enhanced through the neutral beams. Fowler referred to the result as a \"thermal barrier\", as the hotter fuel was repelled from these regions. It appeared it could maintain confinement using much less energy than the pure TMX concept.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 383032, 9476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 107 ], [ 155, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This result suggested that MFTF would not just meet an arbitrary Q=5, but make it a real competitor to the tokamaks, which were promising much higher Q values. Fowler began the design of another version of MFTF, still called MFTF-B, based on the thermal barrier concept. the lab decided they should begin construction, lacking any experimental evidence that the concept worked, in order to get a competitive machine out around the same time as TFTR. While this huge machine was being built, TMX would be modified to test the concept.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 28 January 1980, Fowler and his team presented their results to the DOE. Demonstrating that TMX had worked, and armed with additional data from the Soviets as well as computer simulations, they presented a plan to begin construction on a $226 million MFTF while upgrading TMX to add the thermal barriers in the $14 million TMX-U. The proposal was accepted and construction on both systems began, with TMX shutting down in September 1980 for conversion.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "TMX-U began experiments in July 1982, by which time parts of Boeing 747-sized MFTF were being installed at Building 431. However, as they attempted to raise the density of the plasma to values that would be needed for MFTF, they found that plasma escaping from the central tank overwhelmed the thermal barriers. There was no obvious reason to believe the same would not occur on the MFTF. If the rates seen in TMX-U were typical, there was no way MFTF would come remotely close to its Q goals.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4614 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Construction on MFTF, already budgeted, continued and the system was declared officially complete on 21 February 1986, at a final price of $372 million. While thanking the team for their contributions in building the system, the new director of the DOE, John Clarke, also announced that there would be no funding to run it. Clarke later lamented that the decision to cancel the project was very difficult, \"It would have been so much easier if I had a technical failure to point to.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It sat unused for several years on the off chance that operational funding would be provided. It never was, and the machine was ultimately scrapped in 1987. The DOE also cut funding for most other mirror programs as well.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Magnetic mirror research continued in Russia, one modern example is the Gas Dynamic Trap, an experimental fusion machine used at the Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics in Akademgorodok, Russia. This machine has achieved a 0.6 beta ratio for 5E-3 seconds, at a low temperature of 1 KeV.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 49442097, 1215337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 88 ], [ 133, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The concept had a number of technical challenges including maintaining the non-Maxwellian velocity distribution. This meant that instead of many high energy ions hitting one another, the ion energy spread out into a bell curve. The ions then thermalized, leaving most of the material too cold to fuse. Collisions also scattered the charged particles so much that they could not be contained. Lastly, velocity space instabilities contributed to the escape of the plasma.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 25916521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 462, 468 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Magnetic mirrors play an important role in other types of magnetic fusion energy devices such as tokamaks, where the toroidal magnetic field is stronger on the inboard side than on the outboard side. The resulting effects are known as neoclassical. Magnetic mirrors also occur in nature. Electrons and ions in the magnetosphere, for example, will bounce back and forth between the stronger fields at the poles, leading to the Van Allen radiation belts.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1690634, 31439, 12700262, 20479, 59953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 80 ], [ 97, 104 ], [ 117, 125 ], [ 314, 327 ], [ 426, 450 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mirror effect can be shown mathematically. Assume adiabatic invariance of the magnetic moment, i.e. that the particle's magnetic moment and total energy do not change. Adiabatic invariance is lost when a particle occupies a null point or zone of no magnetic field. The magnetic moment can be expressed as:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical derivation", "target_page_ids": [ 1440776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is assumed that μ will remain constant while the particle moves into the denser magnetic field. Mathematically, for this to happen the velocity perpendicular to the magnetic field must also rise. Meanwhile the total energy of the particle can be expressed as:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical derivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In regions with no electric field, if the total energy remains constant then the velocity parallel to the magnetic field must drop. If it can go negative then there is a motion repelling the particle from the dense fields.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical derivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Magnetic mirrors themselves have a mirror ratio this is expressed mathematically as:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical derivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At the same time, particles within the mirror have a pitch angle. This is the angle between the particles' velocity vector and the magnetic field vector. Surprisingly, the particles with the small pitch angle can escape the mirror. These particles are said to be in the loss cone. The reflected particles meet the following criteria:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical derivation", "target_page_ids": [ 3879454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Where is the particle velocity perpendicular to the magnetic field and is the particle speed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical derivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This result was surprising because it was expected that heavier and faster particles, or those with less electric charge, would be harder to reflect. It was also expected that a smaller magnetic field would reflect fewer particles. However, the gyroradius in those circumstances is also larger, so that the radial component of the magnetic field seen by the particle is also larger. It is true that the minimum volume and magnetic energy is larger for the case of fast particles and weak fields, but the mirror ratio required remains the same.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical derivation", "target_page_ids": [ 4729841 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 245, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The properties of magnetic mirrors can be derived using the adiabatic invariance of magnetic flux under changes in magnetic field strength. As the field gets stronger, the velocity increases proportionally to the square root of B, and the kinetic energy is proportional to B. This can be thought of as an effective potential binding the particle.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Adiabatic invariance", "target_page_ids": [ 1440776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A magnetic bottle is two magnetic mirrors placed close together. For example, two parallel coils separated by a small distance, carrying the same current in the same direction will produce a magnetic bottle between them. Unlike the full mirror machine which typically had many large rings of current surrounding the middle of the magnetic field, the bottle typically has just two rings of current. Particles near either end of the bottle experience a magnetic force towards the center of the region; particles with appropriate speeds spiral repeatedly from one end of the region to the other and back. Magnetic bottles can be used to temporarily trap charged particles. It is easier to trap electrons than ions, because electrons are so much lighter. This technique is used to confine the high energy of plasma in fusion experiments.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Magnetic bottles", "target_page_ids": [ 9476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 691, 699 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a similar way, the Earth's non-uniform magnetic field traps charged particles coming from the sun in doughnut shaped regions around the earth called the Van Allen radiation belts, which were discovered in 1958 using data obtained by instruments aboard the Explorer 1 satellite.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Magnetic bottles", "target_page_ids": [ 59953, 61536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 180 ], [ 259, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If one of the poles in the magnetic bottle is reversed, it becomes a biconic cusp, which can also hold charged particles. Biconic cusps were first studied by Harold Grad at the Courant Institute, studies reveal the presence of different types of particles inside a biconic cusp. The most well supported cusp approach is the Compact Fusion Reactor which was supported by Lockheed-Martin starting in 2007.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Biconic cusps", "target_page_ids": [ 39521700, 39523702, 1617601, 38785187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 81 ], [ 158, 169 ], [ 177, 194 ], [ 325, 347 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of plasma (physics) articles", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 33820413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Polywell", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8151109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnetic mirror point", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10065120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lecture Notes from Richard Fitzpatrick", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Magnetic_mirrors", "Soviet_inventions" ]

[ "magnetic trap" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Emma of Normandy (referred to as Ælfgifu in royal documents; c. 984 – 6 March 1052) was a Norman-born noblewoman who became the English, Danish, and Norwegian queen through her marriages to the Anglo-Saxon king Æthelred the Unready and the Danish prince Cnut the Great. The daughter of the Norman ruler Richard the Fearless and Gunnor, she was Queen of the English during her marriage to King Æthelred from 1002 to 1016, except during a brief interruption in 1013–14 when the Danish king Sweyn Forkbeard occupied the English throne. Æthelred died in 1016, and Emma remarried to Sweyn's son Cnut. As Cnut's wife, she was Queen of England from their marriage in 1017, Queen of Denmark from 1018, and Queen of Norway from 1028 until Cnut died in 1035.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2800814, 14909875, 12418234, 10180215, 10083, 40501, 912351, 7442447, 40406 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 96 ], [ 128, 135 ], [ 137, 143 ], [ 149, 164 ], [ 211, 231 ], [ 254, 268 ], [ 303, 323 ], [ 328, 334 ], [ 488, 503 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After her husbands' deaths, Emma remained in the public eye and continued to participate actively in politics during the reigns of her sons by each husband, Edward the Confessor and Harthacnut. In 1035, when her second husband Cnut died and was succeeded by their son Harthacnut, who was in Denmark at the time, Emma was designated to act as his regent until his return, which she did in rivalry with Harold Harefoot. Emma is the central figure within the Encomium Emmae Reginae, a critical source for the history of early-11th-century English politics. As Catherine Karkov notes, Emma is one of the most visually represented early medieval queens.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 40243, 40259, 40261, 5065970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 177 ], [ 182, 192 ], [ 401, 416 ], [ 456, 478 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In an attempt to pacify Normandy, King Æthelred of England married Emma in 1002. Similarly Richard II, Duke of Normandy hoped to improve relations with the English in wake of recent conflict and a failed kidnapping attempt against him by Æthelred. Viking raids on England were often based in Normandy in the late 10th century, and for Æthelred this marriage was intended to unite against the Viking threat. Upon their marriage, Emma was given the Anglo-Saxon name of Ælfgifu, which was used for formal and official matters, and became Queen of England. She received properties of her own in Winchester, Rutland, Devonshire, Suffolk and Oxfordshire, as well as the city of Exeter.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Marriage to Æthelred II", "target_page_ids": [ 21724, 10083, 460785, 770720, 43412, 23571693, 8166, 27886, 53518, 36614585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 32 ], [ 39, 58 ], [ 91, 119 ], [ 467, 474 ], [ 591, 601 ], [ 603, 610 ], [ 612, 617 ], [ 624, 631 ], [ 636, 647 ], [ 672, 678 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Æthelred and Emma had two sons, Edward the Confessor and Alfred Ætheling, and a daughter, Goda of England (or Godgifu).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Marriage to Æthelred II", "target_page_ids": [ 40243, 6201270, 1221362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 52 ], [ 57, 72 ], [ 90, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When King Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark invaded and conquered England in 1013, Emma and her children were sent to Normandy, where Æthelred joined soon after. They returned to England after Sweyn's death in 1014.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Marriage to Æthelred II", "target_page_ids": [ 40406 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Emma and Æthelred's marriage ended with Æthelred's death in London in 1016. Æthelred's oldest son from his first marriage, Æthelstan, had been heir apparent until his death in June 1014. Emma's sons had been ranked after all of the sons from Æthelred's first wife, the eldest surviving of whom was Edmund Ironside. Emma made an attempt to get her older son, Edward, recognised as heir. Although this movement was supported by Æthelred's chief advisor, Eadric Streona, it was opposed by Edmund Ironside, Æthelred's third-oldest son, and his allies, who eventually revolted against his father.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Marriage to Æthelred II", "target_page_ids": [ 6200859, 47092, 1750167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 132 ], [ 298, 313 ], [ 452, 466 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1015, Cnut, the son of Sweyn Forkbeard, invaded England. He was held out of London until the deaths of Æthelred and Edmund in April and November 1016, respectively. Queen Emma attempted to maintain Anglo-Saxon control of London until her marriage to Cnut was arranged. Some scholars believe that the marriage saved her sons' lives, as Cnut tried to rid himself of rival claimants, but spared their lives.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Marriage to Æthelred II", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cnut gained control of most of England after he defeated Edmund Ironside on 18 October 1016, at the Battle of Assandun, after which they agreed to divide the kingdom, Edmund taking Wessex and Cnut the rest of the country. Edmund died shortly afterwards on 30 November, and Cnut became the king of all England. At the time of their marriage in 1017, Emma's sons from her marriage to Æthelred were sent to live in Normandy under the tutelage of her brother. At this time Emma became Queen of England, and later of Denmark and Norway.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Marriage to Cnut", "target_page_ids": [ 6464529 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Encomium Emmae Reginae suggests in its second book that Emma and Cnut's marriage, though begun as a political strategy, became an affectionate marriage.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Marriage to Cnut", "target_page_ids": [ 5065970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During their marriage, Emma and Cnut had a son, Harthacnut, and a daughter, Gunhilda.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Marriage to Cnut", "target_page_ids": [ 40259, 9950248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 58 ], [ 76, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During her two marriages Emma had 5 children:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Issue", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Edward the Confessor c. 1003 – 5 January 1066, died without issue", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Issue", "target_page_ids": [ 40243 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Goda of England c.1004 – c.1049", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Issue", "target_page_ids": [ 1221362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alfred the Noble c. 1005–1036", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Issue", "target_page_ids": [ 6201270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Harthacnut", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Issue", "target_page_ids": [ 40259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gunhilda of Denmark", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Issue", "target_page_ids": [ 9950248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1036, Alfred Aetheling and Edward the Confessor, Emma's sons by Æthelred, returned to England from their exile in Normandy in order to visit their mother. During their time in England they were supposed to be protected by Harthacnut. However, Harthacnut was involved with his kingdom in Denmark. Alfred was captured and blinded by holding a hot iron to his eyes. He later died from his wounds.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Conspiracy regarding the death of Alfred", "target_page_ids": [ 6201270, 40243 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 25 ], [ 30, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edward escaped the attack, and returned to Normandy. He returned after his place on the throne had been secured.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Conspiracy regarding the death of Alfred", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Encomium Emmae Reginae places the blame of Alfred's capture, torture and murder completely on Harold Harefoot, thinking he intended to rid himself of two more potential claimants to the English throne by killing Edward and Alfred. Some scholars make the argument that it could have been Godwin, Earl of Wessex, who was traveling with Alfred and Edward as their protector in passage.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Conspiracy regarding the death of Alfred", "target_page_ids": [ 5065970, 40261, 40149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ], [ 94, 109 ], [ 287, 309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harthacnut, Emma and Cnut's son, assembled a fleet to invade England in 1039, and when Harold died in March 1040 he was invited to became king. He crossed to England with his fleet and Emma. He was criticised by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for his heavy taxation to pay for the fleet and for having Harold's body disinterred and thrown into a ditch. In 1041 he invited his half-brother Edward the Confessor to England. The Enconium says that Edward was sworn in as king, which probably means that he was recognised as heir as Harthacnut knew that he did not have long live. He may have been persuaded to make the invitation by Emma, who would have been keen to preserve her position by ensuring that England was still ruled by a son of hers.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Harthacnut's reign", "target_page_ids": [ 24222749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 216, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After her death in 1052, Emma was interred alongside Cnut and Harthacnut in the Old Minster, Winchester, before being transferred to the new cathedral built after the Norman Conquest. During the English Civil War (1642–1651), their remains were disinterred and scattered about the Cathedral floor by parliamentary forces.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Death and burial", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As Pauline Stafford noted, Emma is the \"first of the early medieval queens\" to be depicted through contemporary portraiture. To that end, Emma is the central figure within the Encomium Emmae Reginae (incorrectly titled Gesta Cnutonis Regis during the later Middle Ages) a critical source for the study of English succession in the 11th century. During the reign of Æthelred, Emma most likely served as little more than a figurehead a physical embodiment of the treaty between the English and her Norman father. However, her influence increased considerably under Cnut. Until 1043, writes Stafford, Emma \"was the richest woman in England ... and held extensive lands in the East Midlands and Wessex.\" Emma's authority was not simply tied to landholdings—which fluctuated greatly from 1036 to 1043—she also wielded significant sway over the ecclesiastical offices of England.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Queenship", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Encomium is divided into three parts, the first of which deals with Sweyn Forkbeard and his conquest of England. The second focuses on Cnut and relates the defeat of \"Princes\" Æthelred (never named) and Edmund, Cnut's marriage to Emma (again, without mentioning she had been the wife of Æthelred), and Cnut's kingship. The third address the events after Cnut's death; Emma's involvement in the seizing of the royal treasury, and the treachery of Earl Godwin. It begins by addressing Emma, \"May our Lord Jesus Christ preserve you, O Queen, who excel all those of your sex in the amiability of your way of life.\" Emma is \"the most distinguished woman of her time for delightful beauty and wisdom.\"", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "The Encomium Emmæ Reginae or Gesta Cnutonis Regis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This flattery, writes Elizabeth M. Tyler, is \"part of a deliberate attempt to intervene, on Emma's behalf, in the politics of the Anglo-Danish court,\" a connotation which an 11th-century audience would have understood. This proves to be a direct contrast to earlier evaluations of the text, such as the introduction to the 1998 reprint of Alistair Campbell's 1949 edition in which Simon Keynes remarks: ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "The Encomium Emmæ Reginae or Gesta Cnutonis Regis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Felice Lifshitz, in her seminal study of the Encomium comments:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "The Encomium Emmæ Reginae or Gesta Cnutonis Regis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Prior to May 2008 only one copy of the Encomium was believed to exist. However, a late-14th-century manuscript, the Courtenay Compendium, was discovered in the Devon Record Office, where it had languished since the 1960s. According to a report by the UK Arts Council, \"The most significant item [within the text] for British history is the Encomium Emma Reginae ... It is highly probable that the present manuscript represents the most complete witness to the revised version of the Encomium\". The manuscript was put up for auction in December 2008, and purchased for £600,000 (5.2 million Danish kroner) on behalf of the Royal Library, Denmark. Unlike the Liber Vitae, the compendium does not contain any images of Emma.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "The Encomium Emmæ Reginae or Gesta Cnutonis Regis", "target_page_ids": [ 4234021, 34282122, 457346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 136 ], [ 160, 179 ], [ 622, 644 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The [[New Minster Liber Vitae|New Minster Liber Vitae]], currently housed in the British Library, was completed in 1030, shortly before Cnut's death in 1035. The frontispiece depicts \"King Cnut and Queen Emma presenting a cross to the altar of New Minster, Winchester.\" Stafford in her visual exegesis of the portrait states, \"it is not clear whether we should read it as a representation of a powerful woman or a powerless one.\" In one portrait, each facet of Emma's role as sovereign is displayed; that of a dutiful wife and influential queen.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "The Encomium Emmæ Reginae or Gesta Cnutonis Regis", "target_page_ids": [ 18934361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It has been suggested that the poem Semiramis, possibly written in 1017 by Warner of Rouen at the court of Emma's brother, Richard, Duke of Normandy, and dedicated to her brother, Archbishop Robert, is a contemporary satire ridiculing Emma's relation with Cnut.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "The Encomium Emmæ Reginae or Gesta Cnutonis Regis", "target_page_ids": [ 147275, 67907761, 460785, 3015836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 45 ], [ 75, 90 ], [ 123, 148 ], [ 191, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Emma is also depicted in a number of later medieval texts, such as the 13th-century Life of Edward the Confessor (Cambridge University Library MS. Ee.3.59) and a 14th-century roll Genealogy of the English Kings, Genealogical Chronicle of the English Kings.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "The Encomium Emmæ Reginae or Gesta Cnutonis Regis", "target_page_ids": [ 239428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Emma and her sons Edward and Alfred are characters in the anonymous Elizabethan play Edmund Ironside, sometimes considered an early work by William Shakespeare.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "The Encomium Emmæ Reginae or Gesta Cnutonis Regis", "target_page_ids": [ 5261255, 32897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 100 ], [ 140, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Ordeal of Queen Emma by Fire at Winchester is a legend that seems to have originated in the 13th century. Queen Emma was accused of unchastity with Bishop Ælfwine of Winchester. In order to prove her innocence, she was obliged to undergo the ordeal of walking over nine red-hot ploughshares placed on the pavement of the nave of Winchester Cathedral. Two bishops conducted the barefoot queen to the line of red-hot ploughshares. She walked over the red-hot ploughshares, but, having sought the protection of St Swithun, whose shrine is at Winchester, felt neither the naked iron nor the fire. William Blake did an illustration of the event.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "The Ordeal of Queen Emma", "target_page_ids": [ 13117936, 1527720, 125132, 157174, 33175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 181 ], [ 283, 295 ], [ 334, 354 ], [ 513, 523 ], [ 598, 611 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Emma of Normandy is the main character in Patricia Bracewell's Emma of Normandy trilogy. The first book is Shadow on the Crown (published in 2013 by Viking/Penguin in the U.S. and Harper/Collins in the UK). This was followed by The Price of Blood (published by Viking in 2015) and The Steel Beneath the Silk (published by Bellastoria Press in March 2021). Laura Berlin plays Emma of Normandy in the 2022 Netflix docufiction series Valhalla.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 38795962, 62542610, 175537, 16184732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 60 ], [ 356, 368 ], [ 404, 411 ], [ 412, 423 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gameson, Richard. L’Angleterre et La Flandre Aux Xe et XIe Siècles : Le Témoignage Des Manuscrits. Actes des congrès de la Société des historiens médiévistes de l’enseignement supérieur public 32.1 (2001): 165–206.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Howard, Ian, (2005) Harold II: a Throne-Worthy King. Essay included in King Harold II and the Bayeux Tapestry, pages 35–52. Boydell Press: ", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Monk of St Omer (1949) Encomium Emmae Reginae; ed. Alistair Campbell. (Camden 3rd series; no. 72.) London: Royal Historical Society (Reissued by Cambridge U. P. 1998 with suppl. introd. by Simon Keynes )", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Patterson, Robert. The Haskins Society Journal Studies in Medieval History Continuum, 2003. Print.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "See also Encomium Emmae (for the Encomium Emmae Reginae or Gesta Cnutonis Regis'' in honour of Queen Emma)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 5065970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 23 ] ] } ]

[ "980s_births", "1052_deaths", "11th-century_Danish_people", "11th-century_Danish_women", "11th-century_English_people", "11th-century_English_women", "11th-century_Norman_women", "11th-century_Normans", "11th-century_Norwegian_people", "11th-century_Norwegian_women", "11th-century_women_rulers", "Anglo-Saxon_royal_consorts", "Burials_at_Winchester_Cathedral", "Cnut_the_Great", "Danish_royal_consorts", "English_royal_consorts", "House_of_Knýtlinga", "House_of_Normandy", "House_of_Wessex", "Norman_women", "Norwegian_royal_consorts", "Remarried_royal_consorts", "Year_of_birth_uncertain" ]

[ "Emma", "Emma de Normandie" ]

[ { "plaintext": "George Herbert Putnam (September 20, 1861 – August 14, 1955) was an American librarian. He was the eighth (and also the longest-serving) Librarian of Congress from 1899 to 1939. He implemented his vision of a universal collection with strengths in many languages, especially from Europe and Latin America.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 473498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "George Herbert Putnam was born in New York City at 107 East Seventeenth Street, the sixth son and tenth child of Victorine and George Palmer Putnam. The father, one-time collector of internal revenue in New York by appointment of Abraham Lincoln, was the founder of a well-known publishing house, known previously as the Putnam Publishing house, but now known as G. P. Putnam's Sons.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 645042, 765204, 2193132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 47 ], [ 127, 147 ], [ 363, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1886, Herbert Putnam married Charlotte Elizabeth Munroe of Cambridge, Massachusetts, and together they had two daughters, Shirley and Brenda Putnam. Brenda Putnam grew up to become a celebrated sculptor in the early 20th century, highly known for her \"children, cherubs, and garden ornaments.\" Throughout Herbert Putnam's career, he was described by his colleagues as maintaining \"an impenetrable dignity…formal manner, invariable gracious and cordial, covered shyness and a deep reserve. He had few intimates, even among his closest colleagues, but he was fond of good company and good conversation\" as well being \"painfully modest, a family man who had an unreciprocated view of his staff as family.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 25882158, 159239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 150 ], [ 265, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He died at his home in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, on August 14, 1955.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 116673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After graduating magna cum laude from Harvard University in 1883, Putnam spent the following year at Columbia University Law School. Eventually, however, his interest in administrative work led him to the Minneapolis Athenaeum where he served as librarian in 1887, until it merged into the Minneapolis Public Library in 1888. Putnam was elected city librarian of the Minneapolis Public Library at that time and served while simultaneously being admitted to the Minnesota bar of Law. According to the Honorable Lawrence Lewis of Colorado at a Tribute for Putnam in 1939, Putnam at this time \"modernized antiquated methods, revised the charging records of books on loan, inaugurated a new system of cataloging and classification, opened the alcoves to readers, [and] insisted that 'there are two great problems of library management – one to get the books for the readers, the other to get the readers to the books.'\" During this time he developed the Putnam Classification System (based in part on work by John Edmands), which would influence his later design of the Library of Congress Classification system.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early career", "target_page_ids": [ 493992, 18426501, 265179, 31526951, 855220, 46893841, 2558403, 18327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 32 ], [ 38, 56 ], [ 101, 131 ], [ 205, 226 ], [ 290, 316 ], [ 950, 978 ], [ 1005, 1017 ], [ 1066, 1100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1891, Putnam resigned his Minneapolis post due to his mother-in-law's ill health and promptly returned to Boston to be near her. Putnam \"was admitted to the Suffolk bar, and practiced law in Boston until the 18th of February 1895\" when he was appointed Librarian of the Boston Public Library. During his tenure at the Boston Public Library \"there were 9 branches and 12 delivery stations. At the end of his four years, there were 10 branches, 5 minor branches, called 'reading rooms,' and 56 deposit stations…the library grew from a total of 610,375 volumes at the close of 1894 to 716,050 at the close of 1898.\" Another contribution made by Putnam towards the Boston Public Library was the addition of a room devoted to juveniles, \"believed to have been the first room wholly devoted to the service of children in any of the larger libraries of the country.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early career", "target_page_ids": [ 6097240, 76201, 24437894, 83622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 40 ], [ 160, 167 ], [ 194, 200 ], [ 273, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the ALA’s leading witness during the 1896 Congressional Joint Committee on the Library, Putnam was able to successfully lobby Congress to greatly expand the role of the Library of Congress. This restructuring and expansion of the Library became effective on July 1, 1897. Putnam's activities with the American Library Association led him to join with Justin Winsor and Melvil Dewey as official delegates to the International Conference of Librarians in London in 1897. When Winsor died shortly thereafter, Putnam served the remainder of his term as President of the ALA. When John Russell Young died in January 1899, President William McKinley requested Congress to appoint Putnam. He was officially confirmed December 12, 1899.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Library of Congress", "target_page_ids": [ 491690, 749697, 81898, 727750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 304, 332 ], [ 354, 367 ], [ 372, 384 ], [ 579, 597 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Upon the confirmation of Putnam to his appointed duty of Librarian of Congress, one daunting task Putnam faced from the onset was the sheer volume of materials that had to be reorganized for the newly opened Thomas Jefferson Building – the newly appointed library for the Library of Congress. However, Putnam was well aware of what needed to be done. \"In October 1899 Putnam requested a $190,000 increase in the budget for fiscal 1901. If Congress consented, the 1899 LC budget would nearly double and that for 1900 would be increased by 60 percent. Declaring that the collections were deficient in many respects, [Putnam] asked for $50,000 to purchase new material, more than twice the 1899 appropriation. In summation, the first task of Putnam's administration was to organize all materials of the Library of Congress so they may be used efficiently by the public.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Library of Congress", "target_page_ids": [ 3613626, 1380503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 208, 233 ], [ 692, 705 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Putnam's request was granted by the United States Congress, and thus an appropriation bill was passed on April 17, 1900. Although Putnam's administration would need time in order to collect, organize, and disseminate all of the material within the Library of Congress' collection, the task was completed with enormous success. \"By 1924 the first objective had been won with – ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Library of Congress", "target_page_ids": [ 31756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1) All spaces in the building duly differentiated and equipped for specialized, as well as general, uses. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Library of Congress", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2) The specialized material installed in appropriate cases. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Library of Congress", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "3) A scheme of classification, systematic and elastic, with an appropriate nomenclature. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Library of Congress", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "4) Adoption of processes of cataloging, including forms of entry, now standardized for American libraries. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Library of Congress", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "5) Actual application of the classification and cataloging to a large portion of the collection of printed books.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Library of Congress", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Putnam during this time also introduced a new system of classifying books that continues to this day, known as the Library of Congress Classification. He also established an interlibrary loan system, and expanded the Library of Congress's role and relationships with other libraries, through the provision of centralized services. He was elected an Associate Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1902, and elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1907.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Library of Congress", "target_page_ids": [ 18327, 170447, 391882, 1821883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 149 ], [ 174, 191 ], [ 373, 410 ], [ 448, 476 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 1916, \"former LC staff member Elizabeth West, director of the Carnegie Library of San Antonio, Texas, suggested to Putnam that the Library of Congress cooperate with other libraries to send books to American soldiers.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Library of Congress", "target_page_ids": [ 497231, 53848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 86 ], [ 90, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Initially, Putnam was not interested in the wholesale distribution of books to American troops simply due to the lack of interest. However, when attention arose that the British War Library Service in London were performing similar duties to their troops, measures were quickly devised by Putnam, the ALA, and Congress to enact such a program to the American military branches. \"Aided by a grant of $320,000 from the Carnegie Corporation, the War Service built thirty-six libraries, completing the majority by February 1918. But with so much invested in buildings, little money remained for books or administration…Putnam took the matter up directly with the War Department and obtained assurances that the government would provide utilities. He appealed to ALA members to donate books and volunteer for service, and by June 1918 the association had purchased 300,000 books, sent 1,349,000 gift books to camps, and distributed 500,000 magazines.\" In the time after World War I, the services of the Library of Congress towards the war effort provided a new outlook for the American public on the possibilities of what a successful library could accomplish. In other words, the contributions made by the Library of Congress in that time gave \"librarians 'a new conception of what a truly national library could be' and added one more item 'to the long list of benefits for which American libraries have to thank the Library and the Librarian, of Congress.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Library of Congress", "target_page_ids": [ 1964018, 4764461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 417, 437 ], [ 965, 976 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Herbert Putnam's administration as Librarian of Congress lasted for forty years, from 1899 until 1939. It was clear Putnam was not willing to withdraw completely from the world of librarianship, stating: \"I would willingly surrender the administration, if that course would serve the interest of the library and I could feel assured as to my successor.\" Putnam provided the suggestion of \"Librarian Emeritus\" be developed as his new official title, with an honorarium of one-half of his original salary. On October 1, 1939, Putnam retired as the 8th Librarian of Congress with that title, and he \"continued to contribute to the Library, keeping regular office hours for the next 15 years.\" He was awarded Honorary Membership in the American Library Association in 1940.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Retirement", "target_page_ids": [ 18933569, 491690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 180, 193 ], [ 732, 760 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Herbert Putnam was succeeded in 1939 by Archibald MacLeish, who served from 1939 until 1944.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Retirement", "target_page_ids": [ 473146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bronze Gallery. (1998–2010, January 1). Brenda Putnam. Retrieved February 1, 2011, from Bronze Gallery: 19th and 20th Century Bronze: ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Knowlton, J. D. (Ed.). (2005). Herbert Putnam: A 1903 Trip to Europe. Lanham, Maryland, USA: The Scarecrow Press, Inc.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Lewis, H. L. (1939). A Tribute to Dr. Herbert Putnam. Washington: United States Government.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rosenberg, Jane Aiken. (1993) The Nation's Great Library: Herbert Putnam and the Library of Congress, 1899–1939 (University of Illinois Press, 1993), the major scholarly biography", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1861_births", "1955_deaths", "People_from_Falmouth,_Massachusetts", "People_from_Minneapolis", "People_from_Washington,_D.C.", "Presidents_of_the_American_Library_Association", "Columbia_Law_School_alumni", "Harvard_University_alumni", "Librarians_of_Congress", "Massachusetts_lawyers", "Fellows_of_the_American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences", "Knights_of_the_Order_of_the_Polar_Star", "Members_of_the_American_Antiquarian_Society", "Librarians_of_the_Boston_Public_Library", "Minneapolis_Public_Library" ]

[ "George Herbert Putnam" ]

[ { "plaintext": "A geosynchronous orbit (sometimes abbreviated GSO) is an Earth-centered orbit with an orbital period that matches Earth's rotation on its axis, 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds (one sidereal day). The synchronization of rotation and orbital period means that, for an observer on Earth's surface, an object in geosynchronous orbit returns to exactly the same position in the sky after a period of one sidereal day. Over the course of a day, the object's position in the sky may remain still or trace out a path, typically in a figure-8 form, whose precise characteristics depend on the orbit's inclination and eccentricity. A circular geosynchronous orbit has a constant altitude of .", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 22498, 143696, 4396171, 48837, 82379, 56440, 1099413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 77 ], [ 86, 100 ], [ 114, 130 ], [ 185, 197 ], [ 514, 542 ], [ 596, 607 ], [ 612, 624 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A special case of geosynchronous orbit is the geostationary orbit, which is a circular geosynchronous orbit in Earth's equatorial plane with both inclination and eccentricity equal to 0. A satellite in a geostationary orbit remains in the same position in the sky to observers on the surface.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 41210, 153681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 65 ], [ 119, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Communications satellites are often given geostationary or close to geostationary orbits so that the satellite antennas that communicate with them do not have to move, but can be pointed permanently at the fixed location in the sky where the satellite appears.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 45207, 192615 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ], [ 101, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1929, Herman Potočnik described both geosynchronous orbits in general and the special case of the geostationary Earth orbit in particular as useful orbits for space stations. The first appearance of a geosynchronous orbit in popular literature was in October 1942, in the first Venus Equilateral story by George O. Smith, but Smith did not go into details. British science fiction author Arthur C. Clarke popularised and expanded the concept in a 1945 paper entitled Extra-Terrestrial Relays – Can Rocket Stations Give Worldwide Radio Coverage?, published in Wireless World magazine. Clarke acknowledged the connection in his introduction to The Complete Venus Equilateral. The orbit, which Clarke first described as useful for broadcast and relay communications satellites, is sometimes called the Clarke Orbit. Similarly, the collection of artificial satellites in this orbit is known as the Clarke Belt.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 86634, 50896, 22498, 6958163, 384038, 26787, 18598148, 24053883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 24 ], [ 162, 175 ], [ 219, 224 ], [ 281, 298 ], [ 308, 323 ], [ 368, 383 ], [ 391, 407 ], [ 562, 576 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In technical terminology, the geosynchronous orbits are often referred to as geostationary if they are roughly over the equator, but the terms are used somewhat interchangeably. Specifically, geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO) may be a synonym for geosynchronous equatorial orbit, or geostationary Earth orbit.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7520339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 261, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first geosynchronous satellite was designed by Harold Rosen while he was working at Hughes Aircraft in 1959. Inspired by Sputnik 1, he wanted to use a geostationary (geosynchronous equatorial) satellite to globalise communications. Telecommunications between the US and Europe was then possible between just 136 people at a time, and reliant on high frequency radios and an undersea cable.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 10150062, 335475, 28484, 178937, 45206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 63 ], [ 88, 103 ], [ 125, 134 ], [ 349, 363 ], [ 378, 392 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Conventional wisdom at the time was that it would require too much rocket power to place a satellite in a geosynchronous orbit and it would not survive long enough to justify the expense, so early efforts were put towards constellations of satellites in low or medium Earth orbit. The first of these were the passive Echo balloon satellites in 1960, followed by Telstar 1 in 1962. Although these projects had difficulties with signal strength and tracking that could be solved through geosynchronous satellites, the concept was seen as impractical, so Hughes often withheld funds and support.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 26301, 47568, 6696241, 948738, 425262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 73 ], [ 254, 257 ], [ 261, 267 ], [ 317, 340 ], [ 362, 371 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 1961, Rosen and his team had produced a cylindrical prototype with a diameter of , height of , weighing ; it was light, and small, enough to be placed into orbit by then-available rocketry, was spin stabilised and used dipole antennas producing a pancake-shaped waveform. In August 1961, they were contracted to begin building the working satellite. They lost Syncom 1 to electronics failure, but Syncom 2 was successfully placed into a geosynchronous orbit in 1963. Although its inclined orbit still required moving antennas, it was able to relay TV transmissions, and allowed for US President John F. Kennedy to phone Nigerian prime minister Abubakar Tafawa Balewa from a ship on August 23, 1963.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2306393, 92138, 345848, 5119376, 674763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 197, 212 ], [ 365, 373 ], [ 485, 499 ], [ 600, 615 ], [ 649, 671 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Today there are hundreds of geosynchronous satellites providing remote sensing, navigation and communications.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Although most populated land locations on the planet now have terrestrial communications facilities (microwave, fiber-optic), which often have latency and bandwidth advantages, and telephone access covering 96% of the population and internet access 90% as of 2018, some rural and remote areas in developed countries are still reliant on satellite communications.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 20097, 3372377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 110 ], [ 112, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A geostationary equatorial orbit (GEO) is a circular geosynchronous orbit in the plane of the Earth's equator with a radius of approximately (measured from the center of the Earth). A satellite in such an orbit is at an altitude of approximately above mean sea level. It maintains the same position relative to the Earth's surface. If one could see a satellite in geostationary orbit, it would appear to hover at the same point in the sky, i.e., not exhibit diurnal motion, while the Sun, Moon, and stars would traverse the skies behind it. Such orbits are useful for telecommunications satellites.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 142348, 45207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 460, 474 ], [ 570, 598 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A perfectly stable geostationary orbit is an ideal that can only be approximated. In practice the satellite drifts out of this orbit because of perturbations such as the solar wind, radiation pressure, variations in the Earth's gravitational field, and the gravitational effect of the Moon and Sun, and thrusters are used to maintain the orbit in a process known as station-keeping.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 28538, 43709, 38579, 19331, 26751, 979306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 180 ], [ 182, 200 ], [ 257, 270 ], [ 285, 289 ], [ 294, 297 ], [ 366, 381 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eventually, without the use of thrusters, the orbit will become inclined, oscillating between 0° and 15° every 55 years. At the end of the satellite's lifetime, when fuel approaches depletion, satellite operators may decide to omit these expensive manoeuvres to correct inclination and only control eccentricity. This prolongs the life-time of the satellite as it consumes less fuel over time, but the satellite can then only be used by ground antennas capable of following the N-S movement.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Geostationary satellites will also tend to drift around one of two stable longitudes of 75° and 255° without station keeping.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Many objects in geosynchronous orbits have eccentric and/or inclined orbits. Eccentricity makes the orbit elliptical and appear to oscillate E-W in the sky from the viewpoint of a ground station, while inclination tilts the orbit compared to the equator and makes it appear to oscillate N-S from a groundstation. These effects combine to form an analemma (figure-8).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 82379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 346, 354 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Satellites in elliptical/eccentric orbits must be tracked by steerable ground stations.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 1042310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Tundra orbit is an eccentric Russian geosynchronous orbit, which allows the satellite to spend most of its time dwelling over one high latitude location. It sits at an inclination of 63.4°, which is a frozen orbit, which reduces the need for stationkeeping. At least two satellites are needed to provide continuous coverage over an area. It was used by the Sirius XM Satellite Radio to improve signal strength in the northern US and Canada.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 31516478, 979306, 9603757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 205, 217 ], [ 246, 260 ], [ 361, 386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS) is a four-satellite system that operates in a geosynchronous orbit at an inclination of 42° and a 0.075 eccentricity. Each satellite dwells over Japan, allowing signals to reach receivers in urban canyons then passes quickly over Australia.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 3613493, 15573, 3760229 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 33 ], [ 186, 191 ], [ 232, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Geosynchronous satellites are launched to the east into a prograde orbit that matches the rotation rate of the equator. The smallest inclination that a satellite can be launched into is that of the launch site's latitude, so launching the satellite from close to the equator limits the amount of inclination change needed later. Additionally, launching from close to the equator allows the speed of the Earth's rotation to give the satellite a boost. A launch site should have water or deserts to the east, so any failed rockets do not fall on a populated area.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Launch", "target_page_ids": [ 979374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 296, 314 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most launch vehicles place geosynchronous satellites directly into a geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO), an elliptical orbit with an apogee at GSO height and a low perigee. On-board satellite propulsion is then used to raise the perigee, circularise and reach GSO.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Launch", "target_page_ids": [ 1306157, 178282, 88213, 88213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 19 ], [ 69, 98 ], [ 134, 140 ], [ 165, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Once in a viable geostationary orbit, spacecraft can change their longitudinal position by adjusting their semi-major axis such that the new period is shorter or longer than a sidereal day, in order to effect an apparent \"drift\" Eastward or Westward, respectively. Once at the desired longitude, the spacecraft's period is restored to geosynchronous.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Launch", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A statite is a hypothetical satellite that uses radiation pressure from the sun against a solar sail to modify its orbit.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Proposed orbits", "target_page_ids": [ 29417, 43709, 29420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 9 ], [ 48, 66 ], [ 90, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It would hold its location over the dark side of the Earth at a latitude of approximately 30 degrees. It would return to the same spot in the sky every 24 hours from an Earth-based viewer's perspective, so be functionally similar to a geosynchronous orbit.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Proposed orbits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A further form of geosynchronous orbit is the theoretical space elevator. When one end is attached to the ground, for altitudes below the geostationary belt the elevator maintains a shorter orbital period than by gravity alone.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Proposed orbits", "target_page_ids": [ 29192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Geosynchronous satellites require some station keeping to keep their position, and once they run out of thruster fuel and are no longer useful they are moved into a higher graveyard orbit. It is not feasible to deorbit geosynchronous satellites as it would take far more fuel than slightly elevating the orbit, and atmospheric drag is negligible, giving GSOs lifetimes of thousands of years.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Retired satellites", "target_page_ids": [ 979306, 1244926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 54 ], [ 172, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The retirement process is becoming increasingly regulated and satellites must have a 90% chance of moving over 200km above the geostationary belt at end of life.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Retired satellites", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Space debris in geosynchronous orbits typically has a lower collision speed than at LEO since most GSO satellites orbit in the same plane, altitude and speed; however, the presence of satellites in eccentric orbits allows for collisions at up to 4km/s. Although a collision is comparatively unlikely, GSO satellites have a limited ability to avoid any debris.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Retired satellites", "target_page_ids": [ 1099413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Debris less than 10cm in diameter cannot be seen from the Earth, making it difficult to assess their prevalence.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Retired satellites", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Despite efforts to reduce risk, spacecraft collisions have occurred. The European Space Agency telecom satellite Olympus-1 was struck by a meteoroid on August 11, 1993 and eventually moved to a graveyard orbit, and in 2006 the Russian Express-AM11 communications satellite was struck by an unknown object and rendered inoperable, although its engineers had enough contact time with the satellite to send it into a graveyard orbit. In 2017 both AMC-9 and Telkom-1 broke apart from an unknown cause.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Retired satellites", "target_page_ids": [ 10363, 32457315, 63793, 1244926, 7105106, 51218802, 67528686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 94 ], [ 113, 122 ], [ 139, 148 ], [ 194, 209 ], [ 235, 247 ], [ 444, 449 ], [ 454, 462 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A geosynchronous orbit has the following properties:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Period: 1436 minutes (one sidereal day)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 48837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Semi-major axis: 42,164km", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 23409699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All geosynchronous orbits have an orbital period equal to exactly one sidereal day. This means that the satellite will return to the same point above the Earth's surface every (sidereal) day, regardless of other orbital properties. This orbital period, T, is directly related to the semi-major axis of the orbit through the formula:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " is the length of the orbit's semi-major axis", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " is the standard gravitational parameter of the central body", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 996808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A geosynchronous orbit can have any inclination.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Satellites commonly have an inclination of zero, ensuring that the orbit remains over the equator at all times, making it stationary with respect to latitude from the point of view of a ground observer (and in the ECEF reference frame).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 5644032 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 214, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another popular inclinations is 63.4° for a Tundra orbit, which ensures that the orbit's argument of perigee doesn't change over time.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 975450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the special case of a geostationary orbit, the ground track of a satellite is a single point on the equator. In the general case of a geosynchronous orbit with a non-zero inclination or eccentricity, the ground track is a more or less distorted figure-eight, returning to the same places once per sidereal day.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 10261692, 20611356, 56440, 1099413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 62 ], [ 103, 110 ], [ 174, 185 ], [ 189, 201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Geostationary orbit", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Geosynchronous satellite", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11869902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Graveyard orbit", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1244926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " High Earth orbit", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2932854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of orbits", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9622293 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of satellites in geosynchronous orbit", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1040128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Low Earth orbit", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 47568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medium Earth orbit", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6696241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Molniya orbit", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 616351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Subsynchronous orbit", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4362140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Supersynchronous orbit", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4362108 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Synchronous orbit", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41770 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Satellites currently in Geosynchronous Orbit, list updated daily", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Science@NASA – Geosynchronous Orbit", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " NASA – Planetary Orbits", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Science Presse data on Geosynchronous Orbits (including historical data and launch statistics)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Orbital Mechanics (Rocket and Space Technology)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Earth_orbits", "Satellite_broadcasting", "Satellites_in_geosynchronous_orbit" ]

[ "GSO" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Edward the Confessor ( 1003– 5 January 1066) was one of the last Anglo-Saxon English kings. Usually considered the last king of the House of Wessex, he ruled from 1042 to 1066.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 37780, 160904, 579745 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 76 ], [ 77, 90 ], [ 132, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edward was the son of Æthelred the Unready and Emma of Normandy. He succeeded Cnut the Great's son– and his own half-brother– Harthacnut. He restored the rule of the House of Wessex after the period of Danish rule since Cnut conquered England in 1016. When Edward died in 1066, he was succeeded by his wife's brother Harold Godwinson, who was defeated and killed in the same year by the Normans under William the Conqueror at the Battle of Hastings. Edward's young great-nephew Edgar the Ætheling of the House of Wessex was proclaimed king after the Battle of Hastings in 1066 but was never crowned and was peacefully deposed after about eight weeks.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 10083, 40236, 40501, 40259, 40148, 21476352, 33917, 44667, 54218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 42 ], [ 47, 63 ], [ 78, 92 ], [ 126, 136 ], [ 317, 333 ], [ 387, 394 ], [ 401, 422 ], [ 430, 448 ], [ 478, 496 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historians disagree about Edward's fairly long 24-year reign. His nickname reflects the traditional image of him as unworldly and pious. Confessor reflects his reputation as a saint who did not suffer martyrdom as opposed to his uncle, King Edward the Martyr. Some portray Edward the Confessor's reign as leading to the disintegration of royal power in England and the advance in power of the House of Godwin, because of the infighting that began after his death with no heirs to the throne. Biographers Frank Barlow and Peter Rex, on the other hand, portray Edward as a successful king, one who was energetic, resourceful and sometimes ruthless; they argue that the Norman conquest shortly after his death tarnished his image. However, Richard Mortimer argues that the return of the Godwins from exile in 1052 \"meant the effective end of his exercise of power\", citing Edward's reduced activity as implying \"a withdrawal from affairs\".", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 17501477, 28436, 48588, 47382, 17219559, 15020590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 146 ], [ 176, 181 ], [ 201, 207 ], [ 241, 258 ], [ 393, 408 ], [ 504, 516 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "About a century later, in 1161, Pope Alexander III canonised the king. Edward was one of England's national saints until King Edward III adopted Saint George (George of Lydda) as the national patron saint in about 1350. Saint Edward's feast day is 13 October, celebrated by both the Church of England and the Catholic Church.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23793, 6097, 46377, 29010, 180283, 5955, 606848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 50 ], [ 51, 60 ], [ 121, 136 ], [ 145, 157 ], [ 235, 244 ], [ 283, 300 ], [ 309, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edward was the seventh son of Æthelred the Unready, and the first by his second wife, Emma of Normandy. Edward was born between 1003 and 1005 in Islip, Oxfordshire, and is first recorded as a 'witness' to two charters in 1005. He had one full brother, Alfred, and a sister, Godgifu. In charters he was always listed behind his older half-brothers, showing that he ranked beneath them.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years and exile", "target_page_ids": [ 10083, 40236, 2265184, 6201270, 1221362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 50 ], [ 86, 102 ], [ 145, 163 ], [ 252, 258 ], [ 274, 281 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During his childhood, England was the target of Viking raids and invasions under Sweyn Forkbeard and his son, Cnut. Following Sweyn's seizure of the throne in 1013, Emma fled to Normandy, followed by Edward and Alfred, and then by Æthelred. Sweyn died in February 1014, and leading Englishmen invited Æthelred back on condition that he promised to rule 'more justly' than before. Æthelred agreed, sending Edward back with his ambassadors. Æthelred died in April 1016, and he was succeeded by Edward's older half-brother Edmund Ironside, who carried on the fight against Sweyn's son, Cnut. According to Scandinavian tradition, Edward fought alongside Edmund; as Edward was at most thirteen years old at the time, the story is disputed. Edmund died in November 1016, and Cnut became undisputed king. Edward then again went into exile with his brother and sister; in 1017 his mother married Cnut. In the same year, Cnut had Edward's last surviving elder half-brother, Eadwig, executed.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years and exile", "target_page_ids": [ 32610, 40406, 21724, 47092, 6200974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 54 ], [ 81, 96 ], [ 178, 186 ], [ 520, 535 ], [ 965, 971 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edward spent a quarter of a century in exile, probably mainly in Normandy, although there is no evidence of his location until the early 1030s. He probably received support from his sister Godgifu, who married Drogo of Mantes, count of Vexin in about 1024. In the early 1030s, Edward witnessed four charters in Normandy, signing two of them as king of England. According to William of Jumièges, the Norman chronicler, Robert I, Duke of Normandy attempted an invasion of England to place Edward on the throne in about 1034 but it was blown off course to Jersey. He also received support for his claim to the throne from several continental abbots, particularly Robert, abbot of the Norman abbey of Jumièges, who later became Edward's Archbishop of Canterbury. Edward was said to have developed an intense personal piety during this period, but modern historians regard this as a product of the later medieval campaign for his canonisation. In Frank Barlow's view \"in his lifestyle would seem to have been that of a typical member of the rustic nobility\". He appeared to have a slim prospect of acceding to the English throne during this period, and his ambitious mother was more interested in supporting Harthacnut, her son by Cnut.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years and exile", "target_page_ids": [ 3555934, 1302931, 3096849, 266033, 15693, 153661, 5081336 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 210, 225 ], [ 236, 241 ], [ 374, 393 ], [ 418, 444 ], [ 553, 559 ], [ 660, 666 ], [ 681, 705 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cnut died in 1035, and Harthacnut succeeded him as king of Denmark. It is unclear whether he intended to keep England as well, but he was too busy defending his position in Denmark to come to England to assert his claim to the throne. It was therefore decided that his elder half-brother Harold Harefoot should act as regent, while Emma held Wessex on Harthacnut's behalf. In 1036, Edward and his brother Alfred separately came to England. Emma later claimed that they came in response to a letter forged by Harold inviting them to visit her, but historians believe that she probably did invite them in an effort to counter Harold's growing popularity. Alfred was captured by Godwin, Earl of Wessex who turned him over to Harold Harefoot. He had Alfred blinded by forcing red-hot pokers into his eyes to make him unsuitable for kingship, and Alfred died soon after as a result of his wounds. The murder is thought to be the source of much of Edward's hatred for Godwin and one of the primary reasons for Godwin's banishment in autumn 1051. Edward is said to have fought a successful skirmish near Southampton, and then retreated back to Normandy. He thus showed his prudence, but he had some reputation as a soldier in Normandy and Scandinavia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years and exile", "target_page_ids": [ 76972, 40261, 40149, 7920751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 66 ], [ 288, 303 ], [ 676, 698 ], [ 1097, 1108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1037, Harold was accepted as king, and the following year he expelled Emma, who retreated to Bruges. She then summoned Edward and demanded his help for Harthacnut, but he refused as he had no resources to launch an invasion, and disclaimed any interest for himself in the throne. Harthacnut, his position in Denmark now secure, planned an invasion, but Harold died in 1040, and Harthacnut was able to cross unopposed, with his mother, to take the English throne.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years and exile", "target_page_ids": [ 38334190 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1041, Harthacnut invited Edward back to England, probably as heir because he knew he had not long to live. The 12th-century Quadripartitus, in an account regarded as convincing by historian John Maddicott, states that he was recalled by the intervention of Bishop Ælfwine of Winchester and Earl Godwin. Edward met \"the thegns of all England\" at Hursteshever, probably modern Hurst Spit opposite the Isle of Wight. There he was received as king in return for his oath that he would continue the laws of Cnut. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle Edward was sworn in as king alongside Harthacnut, but a diploma issued by Harthacnut in 1042 describes him as the king's brother.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years and exile", "target_page_ids": [ 24185503, 514143, 13117936, 334438, 49013642, 15102, 24222749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 141 ], [ 193, 207 ], [ 267, 288 ], [ 322, 327 ], [ 378, 388 ], [ 402, 415 ], [ 528, 549 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following Harthacnut's death on 8 June 1042, Godwin, the most powerful of the English earls, supported Edward, who succeeded to the throne. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle describes the popularity he enjoyed at his accession– \"before he [Harthacnut] was buried, all the people chose Edward as king in London.\" Edward was crowned at the cathedral of Winchester, the royal seat of the West Saxons, on 3 April 1043.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early reign", "target_page_ids": [ 125132, 33658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 326, 353 ], [ 377, 388 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edward complained that his mother had \"done less for him than he wanted before he became king, and also afterwards\". In November 1043, he rode to Winchester with his three leading earls, Leofric of Mercia, Godwin and Siward of Northumbria, to deprive her of her property, possibly because she was holding on to treasure which belonged to the king. Her adviser, Stigand, was deprived of his bishopric of Elmham in East Anglia. However, both were soon restored to favour. Emma died in 1052.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early reign", "target_page_ids": [ 957758, 1945901, 145875, 1095462, 46379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 187, 204 ], [ 217, 238 ], [ 361, 368 ], [ 403, 409 ], [ 413, 424 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edward's position when he came to the throne was weak. Effective rule required keeping on terms with the three leading earls, but loyalty to the ancient house of Wessex had been eroded by the period of Danish rule, and only Leofric was descended from a family which had served Æthelred. Siward was probably Danish, and although Godwin was English, he was one of Cnut's new men, married to Cnut's former sister-in-law. However, in his early years, Edward restored the traditional strong monarchy, showing himself, in Frank Barlow's view, \"a vigorous and ambitious man, a true son of the impetuous Æthelred and the formidable Emma.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early reign", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1043, Godwin's eldest son Sweyn was appointed to an earldom in the south-west midlands, and on 23 January 1045 Edward married Godwin's daughter Edith. Soon afterwards, her brother Harold and her Danish cousin Beorn Estrithson were also given earldoms in southern England. Godwin and his family now ruled subordinately all of Southern England. However, in 1047 Sweyn was banished for abducting the abbess of Leominster. In 1049, he returned to try to regain his earldom, but this was said to have been opposed by Harold and Beorn, probably because they had been given Sweyn's land in his absence. Sweyn murdered his cousin Beorn and went again into exile, and Edward's nephew Ralph was given Beorn's earldom, but the following year Sweyn's father was able to secure his reinstatement.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early reign", "target_page_ids": [ 2700505, 1348309, 40148, 44082879, 17219559, 714729, 335128, 3561565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 34 ], [ 147, 152 ], [ 183, 189 ], [ 212, 228 ], [ 286, 296 ], [ 328, 344 ], [ 410, 420 ], [ 678, 683 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The wealth of Edward's lands exceeded that of the greatest earls, but they were scattered among the southern earldoms. He had no personal power base, and it seems he did not attempt to build one. In 1050–51 he even paid off the fourteen foreign ships which constituted his standing navy and abolished the tax raised to pay for it. However, in ecclesiastical and foreign affairs he was able to follow his own policy. King Magnus I of Norway aspired to the English throne, and in 1045 and 1046, fearing an invasion, Edward took command of the fleet at Sandwich. Beorn's elder brother, Sweyn II of Denmark \"submitted himself to Edward as a son\", hoping for his help in his battle with Magnus for control of Denmark, but in 1047 Edward rejected Godwin's demand that he send aid to Sweyn, and it was only Magnus's death in October that saved England from attack and allowed Sweyn to take the Danish throne.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early reign", "target_page_ids": [ 66279, 82438, 272717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 421, 439 ], [ 550, 558 ], [ 583, 602 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern historians reject the traditional view that Edward mainly employed Norman favourites, but he did have foreigners in his household, including a few Normans, who became unpopular. Chief among them was Robert, abbot of the Norman abbey of Jumièges, who had known Edward from the 1030s and came to England with him in 1041, becoming bishop of London in 1043. According to the Vita Edwardi, he became \"always the most powerful confidential adviser to the king\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early reign", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In ecclesiastical appointments, Edward and his advisers showed a bias against candidates with local connections, and when the clergy and monks of Canterbury elected a relative of Godwin as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1051, Edward rejected him and appointed Robert of Jumièges, who claimed that Godwin was in illegal possession of some archepiscopal estates. In September 1051, Edward was visited by his brother-in-law, Godgifu's second husband, Eustace II of Boulogne. His men caused an affray in Dover, and Edward ordered Godwin as earl of Kent to punish the town's burgesses, but he took their side and refused. Edward seized the chance to bring his over-mighty earl to heel. Archbishop Robert accused Godwin of plotting to kill the king, just as he had killed his brother Alfred in 1036, while Leofric and Siward supported the king and called up their vassals. Sweyn and Harold called up their own vassals, but neither side wanted a fight, and Godwin and Sweyn appear to have each given a son as hostage, who were sent to Normandy. The Godwins' position disintegrated as their men were not willing to fight the king. When Stigand, who was acting as an intermediary, conveyed the king's jest that Godwin could have his peace if he could restore Alfred and his companions alive and well, Godwin and his sons fled, going to Flanders and Ireland. Edward repudiated Edith and sent her to a nunnery, perhaps because she was childless, and Archbishop Robert urged her divorce.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Crisis of 1051–52", "target_page_ids": [ 48274, 2345, 78823, 40419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 156 ], [ 189, 213 ], [ 445, 467 ], [ 497, 502 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sweyn went on pilgrimage to Jerusalem (dying on his way back), but Godwin and his other sons returned, with an army following a year later, and received considerable support, while Leofric and Siward failed to support the king. Both sides were concerned that a civil war would leave the country open to foreign invasion. The king was furious, but he was forced to give way and restore Godwin and Harold to their earldoms, while Robert of Jumièges and other Frenchmen fled, fearing Godwin's vengeance. Edith was restored as queen, and Stigand, who had again acted as an intermediary between the two sides in the crisis, was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury in Robert's place. Stigand retained his existing bishopric of Winchester, and his pluralism was a continuing source of dispute with the pope.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Crisis of 1051–52", "target_page_ids": [ 145875 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 534, 541 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Until the mid-1050s Edward was able to structure his earldoms so as to prevent the Godwins from becoming dominant. Godwin died in 1053, and although Harold succeeded to his earldom of Wessex, none of his other brothers were earls at this date. His house was then weaker than it had been since Edward's succession, but a succession of deaths from 1055 to 1057 completely changed the control of earldoms. In 1055, Siward died, but his son was considered too young to command Northumbria, and Harold's brother, Tostig, was appointed. In 1057, Leofric and Ralph died, and Leofric's son Ælfgar succeeded as Earl of Mercia, while Harold's brother Gyrth succeeded Ælfgar as Earl of East Anglia. The fourth surviving Godwin brother, Leofwine, was given an earldom in the south-east carved out of Harold's territory, and Harold received Ralph's territory in compensation. Thus by 1057, the Godwin brothers controlled all of England subordinately apart from Mercia. It is not known whether Edward approved of this transformation or whether he had to accept it, but from this time he seems to have begun to withdraw from active politics, devoting himself to hunting, which he pursued each day after attending church.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Later reign", "target_page_ids": [ 36717, 92892, 2311241, 2700473, 2700497, 38769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 473, 484 ], [ 508, 514 ], [ 582, 588 ], [ 641, 646 ], [ 725, 733 ], [ 948, 954 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1050s, Edward pursued an aggressive and generally successful policy in dealing with Scotland and Wales. Malcolm Canmore was an exile at Edward's court after his father, Duncan I, was killed in battle in 1040, against men led by Macbeth who seized the Scottish throne. In 1054, Edward sent Siward to invade Scotland. He defeated Macbeth, and Malcolm, who had accompanied the expedition, gained control of southern Scotland. By 1058, Malcolm had killed Macbeth in battle and had taken the Scottish throne. In 1059, he visited Edward, but in 1061, he started raiding Northumbria with the aim of adding it to his territory.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Later reign", "target_page_ids": [ 26994, 69894, 20892, 147982, 20604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 99 ], [ 104, 109 ], [ 111, 126 ], [ 176, 184 ], [ 235, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1053, Edward ordered the assassination of the south Welsh prince Rhys ap Rhydderch in reprisal for a raid on England, and Rhys's head was delivered to him. In 1055, Gruffydd ap Llywelyn established himself as the ruler of Wales, and allied himself with Ælfgar of Mercia, who had been outlawed for treason. They defeated Earl Ralph at Hereford, and Harold had to collect forces from nearly all of England to drive the invaders back into Wales. Peace was concluded with the reinstatement of Ælfgar, who was able to succeed as Earl of Mercia on his father's death in 1057. Gruffydd swore an oath to be a faithful under-king of Edward. Ælfgar likely died in 1062, and his young son Edwin was allowed to succeed as Earl of Mercia, but Harold then launched a surprise attack on Gruffydd. He escaped, but when Harold and Tostig attacked again the following year, he retreated and was killed by Welsh enemies. Edward and Harold were then able to impose vassalage on some Welsh princes.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Later reign", "target_page_ids": [ 21397815, 84083, 2311609, 268717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 85 ], [ 168, 188 ], [ 681, 686 ], [ 948, 954 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In October 1065, Harold's brother, Tostig, Earl of Northumbria, was hunting with the king when his thegns in Northumbria rebelled against his rule, which they claimed was oppressive, and killed some 200 of his followers. They nominated Morcar, the brother of Edwin of Mercia, as earl and invited the brothers to join them in marching south. They met Harold at Northampton, and Tostig accused Harold before the king of conspiring with the rebels. Tostig seems to have been a favourite with the king and queen, who demanded that the revolt be suppressed, but neither Harold nor anyone else would fight to support Tostig.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Later reign", "target_page_ids": [ 334438, 2197259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 104 ], [ 236, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edward was forced to submit to his banishment, and the humiliation may have caused a series of strokes which led to his death. He was too weak to attend the consecration of his new church at Westminster, which had been substantially completed in 1065, on 28 December.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Later reign", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Edward probably entrusted the kingdom to Harold and Edith shortly before he died on 5 January 1066. On 6 January he was buried in Westminster Abbey, and Harold was crowned on the same day.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Later reign", "target_page_ids": [ 43245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Starting as early as William of Malmesbury in the early 12th century, historians have puzzled over Edward's intentions for the succession. One school of thought supports the Norman case that Edward always intended William the Conqueror to be his heir, accepting the medieval claim that Edward had already decided to be celibate before he married, but most historians believe that he hoped to have an heir by Edith at least until his quarrel with Godwin in 1051. William may have visited Edward during Godwin's exile, and he is thought to have promised William the succession at this time, but historians disagree on how seriously he meant the promise, and whether he later changed his mind.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Succession", "target_page_ids": [ 158000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edmund Ironside's son, Edward the Exile, had the best claim to be considered Edward's heir. He had been taken as a young child to Hungary, and in 1054 Bishop Ealdred of Worcester visited the Holy Roman Emperor, Henry III to secure his return, probably with a view to becoming Edward's heir. The exile returned to England in 1057 with his family but died almost immediately. His son Edgar, who was then about 6 years old, was brought up at the English court. He was given the designation Ætheling, meaning throneworthy, which may mean that Edward considered making him his heir, and he was briefly declared king after Harold's death in 1066. However, Edgar was absent from witness lists of Edward's diplomas, and there is no evidence in the Domesday Book that he was a substantial landowner, which suggests that he was marginalised at the end of Edward's reign.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Succession", "target_page_ids": [ 196180, 879716, 1583, 50853, 27485485, 54218, 662596, 47752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 39 ], [ 130, 137 ], [ 151, 178 ], [ 191, 209 ], [ 211, 220 ], [ 382, 387 ], [ 487, 495 ], [ 740, 753 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the mid-1050s, Edward seems to have withdrawn from affairs as he became increasingly dependent on the Godwins, and he may have become reconciled to the idea that one of them would succeed him. The Normans claimed that Edward sent Harold to Normandy in about 1064 to confirm the promise of the succession to William. The strongest evidence comes from a Norman apologist, William of Poitiers. According to his account, shortly before the Battle of Hastings, Harold sent William an envoy who admitted that Edward had promised the throne to William but argued that this was over-ridden by his deathbed promise to Harold. In reply, William did not dispute the deathbed promise but argued that Edward's prior promise to him took precedence. In Stephen Baxter's view, Edward's \"handling of the succession issue was dangerously indecisive, and contributed to one of the greatest catastrophes to which the English have ever succumbed.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Succession", "target_page_ids": [ 252427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 376, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edward's Norman sympathies are most clearly seen in the major building project of his reign, Westminster Abbey, the first Norman Romanesque church in England. This was commenced between 1042 and 1052 as a royal burial church, consecrated on 28 December 1065, completed after his death in about 1090, and demolished in 1245 to make way for Henry III's new building, which still stands. It was very similar to Jumièges Abbey, which was built at the same time. Robert of Jumièges must have been closely involved in both buildings, although it is not clear which is the original and which the copy. Edward does not appear to have been interested in books and associated arts, but his abbey played a vital role in the development of English Romanesque architecture, showing that he was an innovative and generous patron of the church.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Westminster Abbey", "target_page_ids": [ 43245, 52686, 5081336 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 110 ], [ 129, 139 ], [ 408, 422 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edward the Confessor was the only king of England to be canonized by the pope, but he was part of a tradition of (uncanonised) Anglo-Saxon royal saints, such as Eadburh of Winchester, a daughter of Edward the Elder, Edith of Wilton, a daughter of Edgar the Peaceful, and the boy-king Edward the Martyr. With his proneness to fits of rage and his love of hunting, Edward the Confessor is regarded by most historians as an unlikely saint, and his canonisation as political, although some argue that his cult started so early that it must have had something credible to build on.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Veneration", "target_page_ids": [ 17501477, 113544, 10209822, 2536386, 47399, 47382 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ], [ 161, 182 ], [ 198, 214 ], [ 216, 231 ], [ 247, 265 ], [ 284, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edward displayed a worldly attitude in his church appointments. When he appointed Robert of Jumièges as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1051, he chose the leading craftsman Spearhafoc to replace Robert as Bishop of London. Robert refused to consecrate him, saying that the pope had forbidden it, but Spearhafoc occupied the bishopric for several months with Edward's support. After the Godwins fled the country, Edward expelled Spearhafoc, who fled with a large store of gold and gems which he had been given to make Edward a crown. Stigand was the first archbishop of Canterbury not to be a monk in almost a hundred years, and he was said to have been excommunicated by several popes because he held Canterbury and Winchester in plurality. Several bishops sought consecration abroad because of the irregularity of Stigand's position. Edward usually preferred clerks to monks for the most important and richest bishoprics, and he probably accepted gifts from candidates for bishoprics and abbacies. However, his appointments were generally respectable. When Odda of Deerhurst died without heirs in 1056, Edward seized lands which Odda had granted to Pershore Abbey and gave them to his Westminster foundation; historian Ann Williams observes that \"the Confessor did not in the 11th century have the saintly reputation which he later enjoyed, largely through the efforts of the Westminster monks themselves\".", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Veneration", "target_page_ids": [ 2768855, 3254731, 14290392, 106529, 21684654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 169, 179 ], [ 201, 217 ], [ 1054, 1071 ], [ 1146, 1160 ], [ 1216, 1228 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After 1066, there was a subdued cult of Edward as a saint, possibly discouraged by the early Norman abbots of Westminster, which gradually increased in the early 12th century. Osbert of Clare, the prior of Westminster Abbey, then started to campaign for Edward's canonisation, aiming to increase the wealth and power of the Abbey. By 1138, he had converted the Vita Ædwardi Regis, the life of Edward commissioned by his widow, into a conventional saint's life. He seized on an ambiguous passage which might have meant that their marriage was chaste, perhaps to give the idea that Edith's childlessness was not her fault, to claim that Edward had been celibate. In 1139, Osbert went to Rome to petition for Edward's canonisation with the support of King Stephen, but he lacked the full support of the English hierarchy and Stephen had quarrelled with the church, so Pope Innocent II postponed a decision, declaring that Osbert lacked sufficient testimonials of Edward's holiness.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Veneration", "target_page_ids": [ 20625190, 23532537, 28953, 24428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 191 ], [ 361, 379 ], [ 748, 760 ], [ 865, 881 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1159, there was a disputed election to the papacy, and Henry II's support helped to secure the recognition of Pope Alexander III. In 1160, a new abbot of Westminster, Laurence, seized the opportunity to renew Edward's claim. This time, it had the full support of the king and the English hierarchy, and a grateful pope issued the bull of canonisation on 7 February 1161, the result of a conjunction of the interests of Westminster Abbey, King Henry II and Pope Alexander III. He was called 'Confessor' as the name for someone who was believed to have lived a saintly life but was not a martyr. In the 1230s, King Henry III became attached to the cult of Saint Edward, and he commissioned a new life, by Matthew Paris. Henry also constructed a grand new tomb for Edward in a rebuilt Westminster Abbey in 1269. Henry III also named his eldest son after Edward.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Veneration", "target_page_ids": [ 19404123, 26042562, 46591, 142738, 46373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 52 ], [ 58, 66 ], [ 616, 625 ], [ 706, 719 ], [ 837, 847 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Until about 1350, Edmund the Martyr, Gregory the Great, and Edward the Confessor were regarded as English national saints, but Edward III preferred the more war-like figure of Saint George, and in 1348 he established the Order of the Garter with Saint George as its patron. At Windsor Castle, its chapel of Saint Edward the Confessor was re-dedicated to Saint George, who was acclaimed in 1351 as patron of the English race. Edward was a less popular saint for many, but he was important to the Norman dynasty, which claimed to be the successor of Edward as the last legitimate Anglo-Saxon king.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Veneration", "target_page_ids": [ 153259, 36768, 73259, 4689517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 35 ], [ 37, 54 ], [ 221, 240 ], [ 277, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The shrine of Saint Edward the Confessor in Westminster Abbey remains where it was after the final translation of his body to a chapel east of the sanctuary on 13 October 1269 by Henry III. The day of his translation, 13 October (his first translation had also been on that date in 1163), is an optional feast day in the Catholic Church of England and Wales, and the Church of England's calendar of saints designates it as a Lesser Festival. Each October the abbey holds a week of festivities and prayer in his honour. Edward is also regarded as a patron saint of difficult marriages. For some time the abbey had claimed that it possessed a set of coronation regalia that Edward had left for use in all future coronations. Following Edward's canonisation, these were regarded as holy relics, and thereafter they were used at all English coronations from the 13th century until the destruction of the regalia by Oliver Cromwell in 1649. After the Stuart Restoration in 1660, the monarch had replicas of the destroyed regalia made for use in future coronations; these are still in use as part of the Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom for modern coronations of British monarchs, and one of the replicas, that of St Edward's Crown, is still a major symbol of the British monarchy.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Veneration", "target_page_ids": [ 22554, 5955, 4476440, 7163717, 68055, 1403809, 226651, 22413, 70804, 400649, 402120, 401198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 218, 228 ], [ 367, 384 ], [ 387, 405 ], [ 425, 440 ], [ 548, 560 ], [ 659, 666 ], [ 779, 790 ], [ 911, 926 ], [ 946, 964 ], [ 1098, 1132 ], [ 1144, 1175 ], [ 1210, 1227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Vita Ædwardi Regis states \"[H]e was a very proper figure of a man – of outstanding height, and distinguished by his milky white hair and beard, full face and rosy cheeks, thin white hands, and long translucent fingers; in all the rest of his body he was an unblemished royal person. Pleasant, but always dignified, he walked with eyes downcast, most graciously affable to one and all. If some cause aroused his temper, he seemed as terrible as a lion, but he never revealed his anger by railing.\" This, as the historian Richard Mortimer notes, 'contains obvious elements of the ideal king, expressed in flattering terms – tall and distinguished, affable, dignified and just.'", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Appearance and character", "target_page_ids": [ 23532537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edward was allegedly not above accepting bribes. According to the Ramsey Liber Benefactorum, the monastery's abbot decided that it would be dangerous to publicly contest a claim brought by \"a certain powerful man\", but he claimed he was able to procure a favourable judgment by giving Edward twenty marks in gold and his wife five marks.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Appearance and character", "target_page_ids": [ 151256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Játvarðar Saga, Icelandic saga about the king", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22060629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " St Edward's Crown", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 401198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " St Edward's Sapphire", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18524346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, tr. Michael Swanton, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. 2nd ed. London, 2000.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 24222749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aelred of Rievaulx, Life of St. Edward the Confessor, translated Fr. Jerome Bertram (first English translation) St. Austin Press ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 737039 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "O'Brien, Bruce R.: God's peace and king's peace : the laws of Edward the Confessor, Philadelphia, Pa. : University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999, ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Waltham Chronicle ed. and trans. Leslie Watkiss and Marjorie Chibnall, Oxford Medieval Texts, OUP, 1994", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " William of Malmesbury, The History of the English Kings, i, ed.and trans. R.A.B. Mynors, R.M.Thomson and M.Winterbottom, Oxford Medieval Texts, OUP 1998", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 158000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Westminster Abbey: Edward the Confessor and Edith", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Steven Muhlberger's 'Edward the Confessor and his earls'", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "BBC History: Edward the Confessor", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "BBC News: Ancient royal tomb is uncovered", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Life of St Edward the Confessor, Cambridge Digital Library", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1000s_births", "1066_deaths", "11th-century_Christian_saints", "11th-century_English_monarchs", "Anglo-Normans", "Anglo-Saxon_saints", "Burials_at_Westminster_Abbey", "Christian_royal_saints", "House_of_Wessex", "Incorrupt_saints", "Monarchs_of_England_before_1066", "Norman_conquest_of_England", "People_from_Cherwell_District", "Roman_Catholic_royal_saints", "Anglican_saints" ]

[ "Ēadƿeard se Andettere", "Saint Edward the Confessor", "King of England Edward", "Eduard der Bekenner", "Saint Edward 'the Confessor', King of England" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Halotolerance is the adaptation of living organisms to conditions of high salinity. Halotolerant species tend to live in areas such as hypersaline lakes, coastal dunes, saline deserts, salt marshes, and inland salt seas and springs. Halophiles are organisms that live in highly saline environments, and require the salinity to survive, while halotolerant organisms (belonging to different domains of life) can grow under saline conditions, but do not require elevated concentrations of salt for growth. Halophytes are salt-tolerant higher plants. Halotolerant microorganisms are of considerable biotechnological interest.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18952443, 19653842, 26985, 20783500, 7890, 18955999, 265062, 18842323, 316612, 14204, 26985, 62603, 40465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 31 ], [ 42, 50 ], [ 74, 82 ], [ 135, 151 ], [ 154, 167 ], [ 176, 182 ], [ 185, 195 ], [ 215, 218 ], [ 224, 230 ], [ 233, 242 ], [ 315, 323 ], [ 389, 396 ], [ 503, 512 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fields of scientific research relevant to halotolerance include biochemistry, molecular biology, cell biology, physiology, ecology, and genetics.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 3954, 19200, 6339, 23597, 9630, 12266 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 76 ], [ 78, 95 ], [ 97, 109 ], [ 111, 121 ], [ 123, 130 ], [ 136, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An understanding of halotolerance can be applicable to areas such as arid-zone agriculture, xeriscaping, aquaculture (of fish or algae), bioproduction of desirable compounds (such as phycobiliproteins or carotenoids) using seawater to support growth, or remediation of salt-affected soils. In addition, many environmental stressors involve or induce osmotic changes, so knowledge gained about halotolerance can also be relevant to understanding tolerance to extremes in moisture or temperature.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 647987, 18952530, 1634, 3532367, 294943, 406260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 90 ], [ 92, 103 ], [ 105, 116 ], [ 183, 199 ], [ 204, 214 ], [ 254, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Goals of studying halotolerance include increasing the agricultural productivity of lands affected by soil salination or where only saline water is available. Conventional agricultural species could be made more halotolerant by gene transfer from naturally halotolerant species (by conventional breeding or genetic engineering) or by applying treatments developed from an understanding of the mechanisms of halotolerance. In addition, naturally halotolerant plants or microorganisms could be developed into useful agricultural crops or fermentation organisms.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 64599, 200646, 12383, 627, 6073894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 117 ], [ 295, 303 ], [ 307, 326 ], [ 514, 526 ], [ 536, 548 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tolerance of high salt conditions can be obtained through several routes. High levels of salt entering the plant can trigger ionic imbalances which cause complications in respiration and photosynthesis, leading to reduced rates of growth, injury and death in severe cases. To be considered tolerant of saline conditions, the protoplast must show methods of balancing the toxic and osmotic effects of the increased salt concentrations. Halophytic vascular plants can survive on soils with salt concentrations around 6%, or up to 20% in extreme cases. Tolerance of such conditions is reached through the use of stress proteins and compatible cytoplasm osmotic solutes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cellular functions in halophytes", "target_page_ids": [ 964229, 18600440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 325, 335 ], [ 381, 388 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To exist in such conditions, halophytes tend to be subject to the uptake of high levels of salt into their cells, and this is often required to maintain an osmotic potential lower than that of the soil to ensure water uptake. High salt concentrations within the cell can be damaging to sensitive organelles such as the chloroplast, so sequestration of salt is seen. Under this action, salt is stored within the vacuole to protect such delicate areas. If high salt concentrations are seen within the vacuole, a high concentration gradient will be established between the vacuole and the cytoplasm, leading to high levels of energy investment to maintain this state. Therefore, the accumulation of compatible cytoplasmic osmotic solutes can be seen to prevent this situation from occurring. Amino acids such as proline accumulate in halophytic Brassica species, quaternary ammonium bases such as Glycine Betaine and sugars have been shown to act in this role within halophytic members of Chenopodiaceae and members of Asteraceae show the buildup of cyclites and soluble sugars. The buildup of these compounds allow for the balancing of the osmotic effect while preventing the establishment of toxic concentrations of salt or requiring the maintenance of high concentration gradients.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cellular functions in halophytes", "target_page_ids": [ 32347, 1207, 106355, 247216, 956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 411, 418 ], [ 789, 799 ], [ 842, 850 ], [ 986, 1000 ], [ 1016, 1026 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The extent of halotolerance varies widely amongst different species of bacteria. A number of cyanobacteria are halotolerant; an example location of occurrence for such cyanobacteria is in the Makgadikgadi Pans, a large hypersaline lake in Botswana.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bacterial halotolerance", "target_page_ids": [ 129618, 3733682, 20783500, 3464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 106 ], [ 192, 209 ], [ 219, 235 ], [ 239, 247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fungi from habitats with high concentration of salt are mostly halotolerant (i.e. they do not require salt for growth) and not halophilic. Halophilic fungi are a rare exception. Halotolerant fungi constitute a relatively large and constant part of hypersaline environment communities, such as those in the solar salterns. Well studied examples include the yeast Debaryomyces hansenii and black yeasts Aureobasidium pullulans and Hortaea werneckii. The latter can grow in media without salt, as well as in almost saturated NaCl solutions. To emphasize this unusually wide adaptability, some authors describe H. werneckii as \"extremely halotolerant\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Fungal halotolerance", "target_page_ids": [ 19178965, 3790249, 42584258, 37828533, 11127553, 17320614, 80207, 12486885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 306, 320 ], [ 362, 383 ], [ 388, 399 ], [ 401, 424 ], [ 429, 446 ], [ 522, 526 ], [ 571, 583 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Halophil", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Environmental_microbiology", "Geomicrobiology", "Microbial_growth_and_nutrition" ]

[ "salt tolerance" ]

[ { "plaintext": "A pulsed inductive thruster (PIT) is a form of ion thruster, used in spacecraft propulsion. It is a plasma propulsion engine using perpendicular electric and magnetic fields to accelerate a propellant with no electrode.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 37839, 28506, 4707045, 41092, 36563, 265044, 10008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 59 ], [ 69, 90 ], [ 100, 124 ], [ 145, 153 ], [ 158, 172 ], [ 190, 200 ], [ 209, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A nozzle releases a puff of gas which spreads across a flat spiraling induction coil of wire about 1 meter across. A bank of capacitors releases a pulse of high voltage electric current of tens of kilovolts lasting 10 microseconds into the coil, generating a radial magnetic field. This induces a circular electrical field in the gas, ionizing it and causing charged particles (free electrons and ions) to revolve in the opposite direction as the original pulse of current. Because the motion of this induced current flow is perpendicular to the magnetic field, the plasma is accelerated out into space by the Lorentz force at a high exhaust velocity (10 to 100km/s).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 316824, 250708, 33498, 4932111, 1205325, 6207, 65888, 59611, 352541, 9476, 18963787, 25916521, 18631 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 8 ], [ 70, 84 ], [ 88, 92 ], [ 125, 134 ], [ 156, 168 ], [ 169, 185 ], [ 287, 294 ], [ 335, 343 ], [ 359, 375 ], [ 383, 392 ], [ 397, 400 ], [ 566, 572 ], [ 610, 623 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike an electrostatic ion thruster which uses an electric field to accelerate only one species (positive ions), a PIT uses the Lorentz body force acting upon all charged particles within a quasi-neutral plasma. Unlike most other ion and plasma thrusters, it also requires no electrodes (which are susceptible to erosion) and its power can be scaled up simply by increasing the number of pulses per second. A 1-megawatt system would pulse 200 times per second.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Advantages", "target_page_ids": [ 1424917, 41092, 241761, 10008, 21347693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 36 ], [ 51, 65 ], [ 89, 96 ], [ 277, 286 ], [ 412, 420 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pulsed inductive thrusters can maintain constant specific impulse and thrust efficiency over a wide range of input power levels by adjusting the pulse rate to maintain a constant discharge energy per pulse. It has demonstrated efficiency greater than 50%.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Advantages", "target_page_ids": [ 40250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pulsed inductive thrusters can use a wide range of gases as a propellant, such as water, hydrazine, ammonia, argon, xenon... Due to this ability, it has been suggested to use PITs for Martian missions: an orbiter could refuel by scooping CO2 from the atmosphere of Mars, compressing the gas and liquefying it into storage tanks for the return journey or another interplanetary mission, whilst orbiting the planet.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Advantages", "target_page_ids": [ 33306, 69955, 1365, 896, 34139, 14640471, 5906, 4548379, 4723661, 15111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 87 ], [ 89, 98 ], [ 100, 107 ], [ 109, 114 ], [ 116, 121 ], [ 184, 191 ], [ 238, 241 ], [ 251, 269 ], [ 314, 326 ], [ 362, 384 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Early development began with fundamental proof-of-concept studies performed in the mid-1960s. NASA conducts experiments on this device since the early 1980s.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Developments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "NGST (Northrop Grumman Space Technology), as a contractor for NASA, built several experimental PITs.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Developments", "target_page_ids": [ 216886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Research efforts during the first period (1965–1973) were aimed at understanding the structure of an inductive current sheet and evaluating different concepts for propellant injection and preionization.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Developments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the second period (1979–1988), the focus shifted more towards developing a true propulsion system and increasing the performance of the base design through incremental design changes, with the build of Mk I and Mk IV prototypes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Developments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The third period (1991-today) began with the introduction of a new PIT thruster design known as the Mk V. It evolved into the Mk VI, developed to reproduce Mk V single-shot tests, which completely characterize thruster performance. It uses an improved coil of hollow copper tube construction and an improved propellant valve, but is electrically identical to the Mk V, using the same capacitors and switches. The Mk VII (early 2000s) has the same geometry as Mk VI, but is designed for high pulse frequency and long-duration firing with a liquid-cooled coil, longer-life capacitors, and fast, high-power solid-state switches. The goal for Mk VII is to demonstrate up to 50 pulses per second at the rated efficiency and impulse bit at 200kW of input power in a single thruster. Mk VII design is the base for the most recent NuPIT (Nuclear-electric PIT).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Developments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The PIT has obtained relatively high performance in the laboratory environment, but it still requires additional advancements in switching technology and energy storage before becoming practical for high-power in-space applications, with the need for a nuclear-based onboard power source.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Developments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "FARAD, which stands for Faraday accelerator with radio-frequency assisted discharge, is a lower-power alternative to the PIT that has the potential for space operation using current technologies.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Developments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the PIT, both propellant ionization and acceleration are performed by the HV pulse of current in the induction coil, while FARAD uses a separate inductive RF discharge to preionize the propellant before it is accelerated by the current pulse. This preionization allows FARAD to operate at much", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Developments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "lower discharge energies than the PIT (100 joules per pulse vs 4 kilojoules per pulse) and allows for a reduction in the thruster's size.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Developments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Ion_engines", "Magnetic_propulsion_devices" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket (VASIMR) is an electrothermal thruster under development for possible use in spacecraft propulsion. It uses radio waves to ionize and heat an inert propellant, forming a plasma, then a magnetic field to confine and accelerate the expanding plasma, generating thrust. It is a plasma propulsion engine, one of several types of spacecraft electric propulsion systems.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 28506, 98132, 59611, 17633222, 30873089, 36563, 25916521, 37892, 4707045, 6650279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 149 ], [ 159, 169 ], [ 174, 180 ], [ 193, 198 ], [ 199, 209 ], [ 236, 250 ], [ 291, 297 ], [ 310, 316 ], [ 326, 350 ], [ 387, 406 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The VASIMR method for heating plasma was originally developed during nuclear fusion research. VASIMR is intended to bridge the gap between high thrust, low specific impulse chemical rockets and low thrust, high specific impulse electric propulsion, but has not yet demonstrated high thrust. The VASIMR concept originated in 1977 with former NASA astronaut Franklin Chang Díaz, who has been developing the technology ever since.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25916521, 21544, 40250, 262135, 470578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 36 ], [ 69, 83 ], [ 156, 172 ], [ 173, 188 ], [ 356, 375 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "VASIMR is a type of electrothermal plasma thruster/electrothermal magnetoplasma thruster. In these engines, a neutral, inert propellant is ionized and heated using radio waves. The resulting plasma is then accelerated with magnetic fields to generate thrust. Other related electrically powered spacecraft propulsion concepts are the electrodeless plasma thruster, the microwave arcjet rocket, and the pulsed inductive thruster. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design and operation", "target_page_ids": [ 6650279, 3831024, 37836, 40247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 273, 315 ], [ 333, 362 ], [ 378, 391 ], [ 401, 426 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The propellant, a neutral gas such as argon or xenon, is injected into a hollow cylinder surfaced with electromagnets. On entering the engine, the gas is first heated to a \"cold plasma\" by a helicon RF antenna/coupler that bombards the gas with electromagnetic energy, at a frequency of 10 to 50 MHz, stripping electrons off the propellant atoms and producing a plasma of ions and free electrons. By varying the amount of RF heating energy and plasma, VASIMR is claimed to be capable of generating either low-thrust, high–specific impulse exhaust or relatively high-thrust, low–specific impulse exhaust. The second phase of the engine is a strong solenoid-configuration electromagnet that channels the ionized plasma, acting as a convergent-divergent nozzle like the physical nozzle in conventional rocket engines.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design and operation", "target_page_ids": [ 896, 34139, 42852, 14121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 43 ], [ 47, 52 ], [ 274, 283 ], [ 296, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A second coupler, known as the Ion Cyclotron Heating (ICH) section, emits electromagnetic waves in resonance with the orbits of ions and electrons as they travel through the engine. Resonance is achieved through a reduction of the magnetic field in this portion of the engine that slows the orbital motion of the plasma particles. This section further heats the plasma to greater than —about 173 times the temperature of the Sun's surface.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design and operation", "target_page_ids": [ 26751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 425, 428 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The path of ions and electrons through the engine approximates lines parallel to the engine walls; however, the particles actually orbit those lines while traveling linearly through the engine. The final, diverging, section of the engine contains an expanding magnetic field that ejects the ions and electrons from the engine at velocities as great as .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design and operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In contrast to the typical cyclotron resonance heating processes, VASIMR ions are immediately ejected from the magnetic nozzle before they achieve thermalized distribution. Based on novel theoretical work in 2004 by Alexey V. Arefiev and Boris N. Breizman of University of Texas at Austin, virtually all of the energy in the ion cyclotron wave is uniformly transferred to ionized plasma in a single-pass cyclotron absorption process. This allows for ions to leave the magnetic nozzle with a very narrow energy distribution, and for significantly simplified and compact magnet arrangement in the engine.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design and operation", "target_page_ids": [ 5321190, 1996117, 32031, 44585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 46 ], [ 147, 171 ], [ 259, 288 ], [ 329, 338 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "VASIMR does not use electrodes; instead, it magnetically shields plasma from most hardware parts, thus eliminating electrode erosion, a major source of wear in ion engines. Compared to traditional rocket engines with very complex plumbing, high performance valves, actuators and turbopumps, VASIMR has almost no moving parts (apart from minor ones, like gas valves), maximizing long term durability.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design and operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to Ad Astra as of 2015, the VX-200 engine requires 200kW electrical power to produce of thrust, or 40kW/N. In contrast, the conventional NEXT ion thruster produces 0.327 N with only 7.7kW, or 24kW/N. Electrically speaking, NEXT is almost twice as efficient, and successfully completed a 48,000 hours (5.5 years) test in December 2009.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design and operation", "target_page_ids": [ 35788567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "New problems also emerge with VASIMR, such as interaction with strong magnetic fields and thermal management. The inefficiency with which VASIMR operates generates substantial waste heat that needs to be channeled away without creating thermal overload and thermal stress. The superconducting electromagnets necessary to contain hot plasma generate tesla-range magnetic fields that can cause problems with other onboard devices and produce unwanted torque by interaction with the magnetosphere. To counter this latter effect, two thruster units can be packaged with magnetic fields oriented in opposite directions, making a net zero-torque magnetic quadrupole.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design and operation", "target_page_ids": [ 5163454, 461227, 935979, 20479, 1470637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 186 ], [ 277, 307 ], [ 349, 354 ], [ 480, 493 ], [ 649, 659 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first VASIMR experiment was conducted at Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1983. Important refinements were introduced in the 1990s, including the use of the helicon plasma source, which replaced the plasma gun originally envisioned and its electrodes, adding to durability and long life.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Research and development", "target_page_ids": [ 18879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of 2010, Ad Astra Rocket Company (AARC) was responsible for VASIMR development, signing the first Space Act Agreement on 23 June 2005 to privatize VASIMR technology. Franklin Chang Díaz is Ad Astra's chairman and CEO, and the company had a testing facility in Liberia, Costa Rica on the campus of Earth University.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Research and development", "target_page_ids": [ 16872546, 26039958, 470578, 795809, 22704565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 35 ], [ 101, 120 ], [ 169, 188 ], [ 263, 282 ], [ 300, 316 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1998, the first helicon plasma experiment was performed at the ASPL. VASIMR experiment 10 (VX-10) in 1998 achieved a helicon RF plasma discharge of up to 10kW and VX-25 in 2002 of up to 25kW. By 2005 progress at ASPL included full and efficient plasma production and acceleration of the plasma ions with the 50kW, thrust VX-50. Published data on the 50kW VX-50 showed the electrical efficiency to be 59% based on a 90% coupling efficiency and a 65% ion speed boosting efficiency.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Research and development", "target_page_ids": [ 177571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 100 kilowatt VASIMR experiment was successfully running by 2007 and demonstrated efficient plasma production with an ionization cost below 100eV. VX-100 plasma output tripled the prior record of the VX-50.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Research and development", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The VX-100 was expected to have an ion speed boosting efficiency of 80%, but could not achieve this efficiency due to losses from the conversion of DC electric current to radio frequency power and the auxiliary equipment for the superconducting magnet. In contrast, 2009 state-of-the-art, proven ion engine designs such as NASA's High Power Electric Propulsion (HiPEP) operated at 80% total thruster/PPU energy efficiency.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Research and development", "target_page_ids": [ 3201172, 19757640 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 330, 360 ], [ 400, 403 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 24 October 2008, the company announced in a press release that the helicon plasma generation component of the 200kW VX-200 engine had reached operational status. The key enabling technology, solid-state DC-RF power-processing, reached 98% efficiency. The helicon discharge used 30kW of radio waves to turn argon gas into plasma. The remaining 170kW of power was allocated for acceleration of plasma in the second part of the engine, via ion cyclotron resonance heating.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Research and development", "target_page_ids": [ 3683672, 896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 77 ], [ 309, 314 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Based on data from VX-100 testing, it was expected that, if room temperature superconductors are ever discovered, the VX-200 engine would have a system efficiency of 60–65% and a potential thrust level of 5N. Optimal specific impulse appeared to be around 5,000s using low cost argon propellant. One of the remaining untested issues was whether the hot plasma actually detached from the rocket. Another issue was waste heat management. About 60% of input energy became useful kinetic energy. Much of the remaining 40% is secondary ionizations from plasma crossing magnetic field lines and exhaust divergence. A significant portion of that 40% was waste heat (see energy conversion efficiency). Managing and rejecting that waste heat is critical.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Research and development", "target_page_ids": [ 40250, 7005062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 217, 233 ], [ 663, 691 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between April and September 2009, 200kW tests were performed on the VX-200 prototype with 2 tesla superconducting magnets that are powered separately and not accounted for in any \"efficiency\" calculations. During November 2010, long duration, full power firing tests were performed, reaching steady state operation for 25 seconds and validating basic design characteristics.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Research and development", "target_page_ids": [ 935979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Results presented in January 2011 confirmed that the design point for optimal efficiency on the VX-200 is 50km/s exhaust velocity, or an I of 5000s. The 200kW VX-200 had executed more than 10,000 engine firings with argon propellant at full power by 2013, demonstrating greater than 70% thruster efficiency relative to RF power input.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Research and development", "target_page_ids": [ 40250, 896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 138 ], [ 216, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March 2015, Ad Astra announced a $10 million award from NASA to advance the technology readiness of the next version of the VASIMR engine, the VX-200SS to meet the needs of deep space missions. The SS in the name stands for \"steady state\", as a goal of the long duration test is to demonstrate continuous operation at thermal steady state.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Research and development", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In August 2016, Ad Astra announced completion of the milestones for the first year of its 3-year contract with NASA. This allowed for first high-power plasma firings of the engines, with a stated goal to reach 100hr and 100kW by mid-2018. In August 2017, the company reported completing its Year 2 milestones for the VASIMR electric plasma rocket engine. NASA gave approval for Ad Astra to proceed with Year 3 after reviewing completion of a 10-hour cumulative test of the VX-200SS engine at 100kW. It appears as though the planned 200kW design is being run at 100kW for reasons that are not mentioned in the press release. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Research and development", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In August 2019, Ad Astra announced the successful completion of tests of a new generation radio-frequency (RF) Power Processing Unit (PPU) for the VASIMR engine, built by Aethera Technologies Ltd. of Canada. Ad Astra declared a power of 120 kW and >97% electrical-to-RF power efficiency, and that, at 52kg, the new RF PPU is about 10x lighter than the PPUs of competing electric thrusters (power-to-weight ratio: 2.31kW/kg)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Research and development", "target_page_ids": [ 42852, 21347693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 109 ], [ 241, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 2021, Ad Astra announced the completion of a record-breaking test for the engine, running it for 28 hours at a power level of 82.5kW. A second test, conducted from July 12 to 16, successfully ran the engine for 88 hours at a power level of 80kW. Ad Astra anticipates conducting 100kW power level tests in the second half of 2021.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Research and development", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "VASIMR has a comparatively poor thrust-to-weight ratio, and requires an ambient vacuum.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Potential applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Proposed applications for VASIMR such as the rapid transportation of people to Mars would require a very high power, low mass energy source, ten times more efficient than a nuclear reactor (see nuclear electric rocket). In 2010 NASA Administrator Charles Bolden said that VASIMR technology could be the breakthrough technology that would reduce the travel time on a Mars mission from 2.5 years to 5 months. However this claim has not been repeated in the last decade.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Potential applications", "target_page_ids": [ 37843, 502762 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 194, 217 ], [ 247, 261 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In August 2008, Tim Glover, Ad Astra director of development, publicly stated that the first expected application of VASIMR engine is \"hauling things [non-human cargo] from low-Earth orbit to low-lunar orbit\" supporting NASA's return to Moon efforts.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Potential applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In order to conduct an imagined crewed trip to Mars in 39 days, the VASIMR would require an electrical power level far beyond anything currently possible.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Potential applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On top of that, any power generation technology will produce waste heat. The necessary 200 megawatt reactor \"with a power-to-mass density of 1,000 watts per kilogram\" (Díaz quote) would require extremely efficient radiators to avoid the need for \"football-field sized radiators\" (Zubrin quote).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Potential applications", "target_page_ids": [ 21347693, 21347693, 16619, 470578, 25894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 99 ], [ 147, 151 ], [ 157, 165 ], [ 168, 172 ], [ 280, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Comparison of orbital rocket engines", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 34153797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Electric propulsion", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Helicon Double Layer Thruster", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3421848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnetoplasmadynamic thruster", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 37840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nano-particle field extraction thruster", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24730139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pulsed plasma thruster", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 37841 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Space fission reactors", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Project Prometheus", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 641264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Safe Affordable Fission Engine", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21678860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Systems for Nuclear Auxiliary Power", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5230467 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " TOPAZ nuclear reactor", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10654783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Plasma Rocket\" (Video). Brink. Science. December 18, 2008.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 21680349, 2014830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 30 ], [ 32, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " NASA documents", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Technical Paper: Rapid Mars Transits with Exhaust-Modulated Plasma Propulsion (PDF)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Variable-Specific-Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket (Tech Brief)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Advanced Space Propulsion Laboratory: VASIMR ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Propulsion Systems of the Future", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Emerging_technologies", "Magnetic_propulsion_devices", "Plasma_physics", "Rocket_propulsion", "Ion_engines" ]

[ "VASIMR" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Various Mongolian writing systems have been devised for the Mongolian language over the centuries, and from a variety of scripts. The oldest and native script, called simply the Mongolian script, has been the predominant script during most of Mongolian history, and is still in active use today in the Inner Mongolia region of China and has de facto use in Mongolia. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 154909, 12024724, 55064, 5405, 43594, 19271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 78 ], [ 178, 194 ], [ 302, 316 ], [ 327, 332 ], [ 341, 349 ], [ 357, 365 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It has in turn spawned several alphabets, either as attempts to fix its perceived shortcomings, or to allow the notation of other languages, such as Chinese, Sanskrit and Tibetan. In the 20th century, Mongolia briefly switched to the Latin script, but then almost immediately replaced it with the Cyrillic script under the Mongolian People's Republic's for compatibility with the Soviet Union, as it was its satellite state. Nevertheless, Mongols living in Inner Mongolia as well as other parts of China, on the other hand, continued to use alphabets based on the traditional Mongolian script.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 19359, 27698, 5451939, 19271, 6683766, 5639, 325708, 26779, 44101, 55064, 5405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 149, 156 ], [ 158, 166 ], [ 171, 178 ], [ 201, 209 ], [ 234, 246 ], [ 297, 312 ], [ 323, 350 ], [ 380, 392 ], [ 408, 423 ], [ 457, 471 ], [ 498, 503 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March 2020, the Government of Mongolia announced plans to use the traditional Mongolian script alongside the Cyrillic script in official documents (e.g. identity documents, academic certificates, birth certificates, marriage certificates, among others) as well as the State Great Khural by 2025, although the Cyrillic script could be used alone on an optional basis for less official writing.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 19275, 364578, 10280535, 210286, 6024347, 2226080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 41 ], [ 156, 174 ], [ 176, 196 ], [ 199, 217 ], [ 219, 239 ], [ 271, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Xianbei spoke a proto-Mongolic language and wrote down several pieces of literature in their language. They are believed to have used Chinese characters to phonetically represent Xianbei, like the Japanese system of Man'yōgana with Chinese, but all works written in Xianbei are now lost.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Precursors", "target_page_ids": [ 113175, 91231, 877023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 11 ], [ 138, 156 ], [ 220, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Khitan spoke another proto-Mongolic language and developed two scripts for writing it: Khitan large script and Khitan small script, logographic scripts derived from Chinese characters.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Precursors", "target_page_ids": [ 15684439, 1424038, 7859951, 23189439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ], [ 17, 48 ], [ 91, 110 ], [ 115, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the very beginning of the Mongol Empire, around 1204, Genghis Khan defeated the Naimans and captured a Uyghur scribe called Tata-tonga, who then adapted the Uyghur alphabet—a descendant of the Syriac alphabet, via Sogdian—to write Mongol. With only minor modifications, it is used in Inner Mongolia to this day. Its most salient feature is its vertical direction; it is the only vertical script still in use that is written from left to right. (All other vertical writing systems are written right to left.) This is because the Uyghurs rotated their script 90 degrees anticlockwise to emulate the Chinese writing system.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Classic Mongolian script", "target_page_ids": [ 240146, 17414699, 1606735, 37631145, 27596734, 19264087, 533521, 853480, 55064, 2651813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 42 ], [ 57, 69 ], [ 83, 90 ], [ 106, 112 ], [ 127, 137 ], [ 160, 175 ], [ 196, 211 ], [ 217, 224 ], [ 287, 301 ], [ 382, 397 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a variant of the traditional script there exists a vertical square script (Босоо дөрвөлжин), also called folded script, used e.g. on the Mongolian banknotes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Classic Mongolian script", "target_page_ids": [ 1475555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1587, the translator and scholar Ayuush Güüsh created the Galik alphabet, inspired by Sonam Gyatso, the third Dalai Lama. It primarily added extra letters to transcribe Tibetan and Sanskrit terms in religious texts, and later also from Chinese and Russian. Later some of these letters officially merged to traditional alphabet as group named \"Galig usug\" to transcribe foreign word in today's use.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Classic Mongolian script", "target_page_ids": [ 100619, 8133, 5070772, 27698, 5751, 25431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 101 ], [ 113, 123 ], [ 172, 179 ], [ 184, 192 ], [ 239, 246 ], [ 251, 258 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1648, the Oirat Buddhist monk Zaya Pandita created this variation with the goal of bringing the written language closer to the actual Oirat pronunciation, and to make it easier to transcribe Tibetan and Sanskrit. The script was used by Kalmyks of Russia until 1924, when it was replaced by the Cyrillic alphabet. In Xinjiang, China, the Oirats still use it.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Classic Mongolian script", "target_page_ids": [ 423470, 462109, 192031, 423470, 27698, 25391, 25862547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 18 ], [ 19, 32 ], [ 33, 45 ], [ 137, 142 ], [ 206, 214 ], [ 250, 256 ], [ 319, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The traditional Mongolian alphabet is not a perfect fit for the Mongolian language, and it would be impractical to extend it to a language with a very different phonology like Chinese. Therefore, during the Yuan Dynasty (ca. 1269), Kublai Khan asked a Tibetan monk, Drogön Chögyal Phagpa, to design a new script for use by the whole empire. Phagpa extended his native Tibetan script to encompass Mongolian and Chinese; the result was known by several descriptive names, such as the Mongolian new script, but today is known as the 'Phags-pa script. The script did not receive wide acceptance and fell into disuse with the collapse of the Yuan dynasty in 1368. After this it was mainly used as a phonetic gloss for Mongols learning Chinese characters. However, scholars such as Gari Ledyard believe that in the meantime it was the source of some of the basic letters of the Korean hangul alphabet.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "'Phags-pa script (Square script)", "target_page_ids": [ 19606306, 20754760, 1424155, 243871, 2256405, 2308666, 42538288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 207, 219 ], [ 232, 243 ], [ 266, 287 ], [ 368, 382 ], [ 703, 708 ], [ 776, 788 ], [ 879, 885 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Soyombo script is an abugida created by the Mongolian monk and scholar Bogdo Zanabazar in the late 17th century, that can also be used to write Tibetan and Sanskrit. A special glyph in the script, the Soyombo symbol, became a national symbol of Mongolia, and has appeared on the national flag since 1921, and on the national coat of arms since 1992, as well as money, stamps, etc.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Soyombo script", "target_page_ids": [ 878, 5692969, 27698, 16240496, 19271, 459211, 1568963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 32 ], [ 75, 90 ], [ 160, 168 ], [ 205, 219 ], [ 249, 257 ], [ 283, 296 ], [ 320, 341 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Zanabazar had created it for the translation of Buddhist texts from Sanskrit or Tibetan, and both he and his students used it extensively for that purpose. Aside from historical texts, it can usually be found in temple inscriptions. It also has some relevance to linguistic research, because it reflects certain developments in the Mongolian language, such as that of long vowels.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Soyombo script", "target_page_ids": [ 437585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 219, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At around the same time, Zanabazar also developed the horizontal square script (Хэвтээ дөрвөлжин), which was only rediscovered in 1801. The script's applications during the period of its use are not known. It was also largely based on the Tibetan alphabet, read left to right, and employed vowel diacritics above and below the consonant letters. Additionally, a dot was used below consonants to show that they were syllable-final.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Horizontal square script", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Horizontal square script is included in the Unicode Standard under the name \"Zanabazar Square\". The Zanabazar Square block, comprising 72 characters, was added as part of Unicode version 10.0 in June 2017.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Horizontal square script", "target_page_ids": [ 31742, 54353027 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 60 ], [ 100, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before the 13th century, foreign scripts such as the Uighur and the Tibetan scripts were used to write the Mongolian language. Even during the reign of the Mongol Empire, people in the conquered areas often wrote it in their local systems. In some cases it was transcribed phonetically using Chinese characters, as is the case with the only surviving copies of The Secret History of the Mongols. Subjects from the Middle East hired into administrative functions would also often use Perso-Arabic script to write their Mongolian language documents.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Foreign scripts", "target_page_ids": [ 91231, 1337682, 19323, 848217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 292, 309 ], [ 361, 394 ], [ 414, 425 ], [ 483, 495 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 1 February 1930, Mongolia officially adopted a Latin alphabet. On 25 March 1941, the decision was reversed. According to later official claims, the alphabet had turned out to have not been thought out well. It was said not to distinguish all the sounds of the Mongolian language, and was difficult to use. However, those seem to have been pretexts rather than the true reasons. Using \"y\" as feminine \"u\" , with additional feminine \"o\" (\"ө\") and with additional consonants \"ç\" for \"ch\" , \"ş\" for \"sh\" and ƶ for \"zh\" , it successfully served in printing books and newspapers. Many of the Latin letters (f, h, p, v) were even rarely used while q, w and x were completely excluded. The adoption of the Cyrillic script a short time later, almost simultaneously with most Soviet republics, suggests political reasons. In the advent of the Internet, people who use social networking services prefer typing in the Latin script for the ease of typing compared to the Cyrillic script, using the orthography introduced in 1939.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Foreign scripts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The most recent Mongolian alphabet is based on the Cyrillic script, more specifically the Russian alphabet plus the letters, Өө Öö and Үү Üü. It was introduced in the 1940s and has been in use as the official writing system of Mongolia ever since.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Foreign scripts", "target_page_ids": [ 5639, 316936, 19271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 66 ], [ 90, 106 ], [ 227, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March 2020, the Government of Mongolia announced plans to use the traditional Mongolian script alongside Cyrillic in official documents starting from 2025.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Foreign scripts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "SASM/GNC romanization § Mongolian", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32807187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mongolian transliteration of Chinese characters", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38731306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mongolian Braille", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41017109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mongolian Sign Language", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24744283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mongolian name", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5873951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Silver Horde: Mongol Scripts", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Mongolian language and scripts, Tseveliin Shagdarsuren, Indiana University", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Inkway Mongolian Calligraphy", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Mongolian_writing_systems" ]

[ "Mongolian alphabets" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Specific impulse (usually abbreviated ) is a measure of how efficiently a reaction mass engine (a rocket using propellant or a jet engine using fuel) creates thrust. For engines whose reaction mass is only the fuel they carry, specific impulse is exactly proportional to the effective exhaust gas velocity.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 262135, 15944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 104 ], [ 127, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A propulsion system with a higher specific impulse uses the mass of the propellant more efficiently. In the case of a rocket, this means less propellant needed for a given delta-v, so that the vehicle attached to the engine can more efficiently gain altitude and velocity.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 194465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 172, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In an atmospheric context, specific impulse can include the contribution to impulse provided by the mass of external air that is accelerated by the engine in some way, such as by an internal turbofan or heating by fuel combustion participation then thrust expansion or by external propeller. Jet engines breathe external air for both combustion and by-pass, and therefore have a much higher specific impulse than rocket engines. The specific impulse in terms of propellant mass spent has units of distance per time, which is a notional velocity called the effective exhaust velocity. This is higher than the actual exhaust velocity because the mass of the combustion air is not being accounted for. Actual and effective exhaust velocity are the same in rocket engines operating in a vacuum.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Specific impulse is inversely proportional to specific fuel consumption (SFC) by the relationship for SFC in kg/(N·s) and for SFC in lb/(lbf·hr).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 172348 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The amount of propellant can be measured either in units of mass or weight. If mass is used, specific impulse is an impulse per unit of mass, which dimensional analysis shows to have units of speed, specifically the effective exhaust velocity. As the SI system is mass-based, this type of analysis is usually done in meters per second. If a force-based unit system is used, impulse is divided by propellant weight (weight is a measure of force), resulting in units of time (seconds). These two formulations differ from each other by the standard gravitational acceleration (g0) at the surface of the earth.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "General considerations", "target_page_ids": [ 211922, 8267, 2532789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 123 ], [ 148, 168 ], [ 546, 572 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The rate of change of momentum of a rocket (including its propellant) per unit time is equal to the thrust. The higher the specific impulse, the less propellant is needed to produce a given thrust for a given time and the more efficient the propellant is. This should not be confused with the physics concept of energy efficiency, which can decrease as specific impulse increases, since propulsion systems that give high specific impulse require high energy to do so.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "General considerations", "target_page_ids": [ 7005062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 312, 329 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thrust and specific impulse should not be confused. Thrust is the force supplied by the engine and depends on the amount of reaction mass flowing through the engine. Specific impulse measures the impulse produced per unit of propellant and is proportional to the exhaust velocity. Thrust and specific impulse are related by the design and propellants of the engine in question, but this relationship is tenuous. For example, LH2/LO bipropellant produces higher but lower thrust than RP-1/LO due to the exhaust gases having a lower density and higher velocity (H2O vs CO2 and H2O). In many cases, propulsion systems with very high specific impulse—some ion thrusters reach 10,000 seconds—produce low thrust. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "General considerations", "target_page_ids": [ 37892, 1078982, 383074, 314402, 24027000, 5906, 37839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 425, 431 ], [ 484, 488 ], [ 489, 491 ], [ 561, 564 ], [ 568, 571 ], [ 653, 665 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When calculating specific impulse, only propellant carried with the vehicle before use is counted. For a chemical rocket, the propellant mass therefore would include both fuel and oxidizer. In rocketry, a heavier engine with a higher specific impulse may not be as effective in gaining altitude, distance, or velocity as a lighter engine with a lower specific impulse, especially if the latter engine possesses a higher thrust-to-weight ratio. This is a significant reason for most rocket designs having multiple stages. The first stage is optimised for high thrust to boost the later stages with higher specific impulse into higher altitudes where they can perform more efficiently.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "General considerations", "target_page_ids": [ 184882, 697793 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 180, 188 ], [ 420, 442 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For air-breathing engines, only the mass of the fuel is counted, not the mass of air passing through the engine. Air resistance and the engine's inability to keep a high specific impulse at a fast burn rate are why all the propellant is not used as fast as possible.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "General considerations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If it were not for air resistance and the reduction of propellant during flight, specific impulse would be a direct measure of the engine's effectiveness in converting propellant weight or mass into forward momentum.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "General considerations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The most common unit for specific impulse is the second, as values are identical regardless of whether the calculations are done in SI, imperial, or customary units. Nearly all manufacturers quote their engine performance in seconds, and the unit is also useful for specifying aircraft engine performance.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [ 26764, 15492, 32308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 134 ], [ 136, 144 ], [ 149, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The use of metres per second to specify effective exhaust velocity is also reasonably common. The unit is intuitive when describing rocket engines, although the effective exhaust speed of the engines may be significantly different from the actual exhaust speed, especially in gas-generator cycle engines. For airbreathing jet engines, the effective exhaust velocity is not physically meaningful, although it can be used for comparison purposes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [ 67231, 1295452, 27883135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 28 ], [ 276, 295 ], [ 309, 332 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Metres per second are numerically equivalent to newton-seconds per kg (N·s/kg), and SI measurements of specific impulse can be written in terms of either units interchangeably. This unit highlights the definition of specific impulse as impulse per unit mass of propellant.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [ 211922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 236, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Specific fuel consumption is inversely proportional to specific impulse and has units of g/(kN·s) or lb/(lbf·hr). Specific fuel consumption is used extensively for describing the performance of air-breathing jet engines.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [ 172348 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Specific impulse, measured in seconds, effectively means how many seconds this propellant, when paired with this engine, can accelerate its own initial mass at 1g. The more seconds it can accelerate its own mass, the more delta-V it delivers to the whole system.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In other words, given a particular engine and a mass of a particular propellant, specific impulse measures for how long a time that engine can exert a continuous force (thrust) until fully burning that mass of propellant. A given mass of a more energy-dense propellant can burn for a longer duration than some less energy-dense propellant made to exert the same force while burning in an engine. Different engine designs burning the same propellant may not be equally efficient at directing their propellant's energy into effective thrust. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For all vehicles, specific impulse (impulse per unit weight-on-Earth of propellant) in seconds can be defined by the following equation:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " is the thrust obtained from the engine (newtons or pounds force),", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [ 72540, 178702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 47 ], [ 52, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " is the standard gravity, which is nominally the gravity at Earth's surface (m/s2 or ft/s2),", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [ 2532789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " is the specific impulse measured (seconds),", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " is the mass flow rate of the expended propellant (kg/s or slugs/s)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [ 2223535, 902982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 22 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The English unit pound mass is more commonly used than the slug, and when using pounds per second for mass flow rate, the conversion constant g0 becomes unnecessary, because the slug is dimensionally equivalent to pounds divided by g0:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [ 2224213, 23316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 17, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Isp in seconds is the amount of time a rocket engine can generate thrust, given a quantity of propellant whose weight is equal to the engine's thrust. The last term on the right, , is necessary for dimensional consistency ()", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The advantage of this formulation is that it may be used for rockets, where all the reaction mass is carried on board, as well as airplanes, where most of the reaction mass is taken from the atmosphere. In addition, it gives a result that is independent of units used (provided the unit of time used is the second).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In rocketry, the only reaction mass is the propellant, so an equivalent way of calculating the specific impulse in seconds is used. Specific impulse is defined as the thrust integrated over time per unit weight-on-Earth of the propellant:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [ 33931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 204, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " is the specific impulse measured in seconds,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " is the average exhaust speed along the axis of the engine (in m/s or ft/s),", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " is the standard gravity (in m/s2 or ft/s2).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [ 2532789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In rockets, due to atmospheric effects, the specific impulse varies with altitude, reaching a maximum in a vacuum. This is because the exhaust velocity isn't simply a function of the chamber pressure, but is a function of the difference between the interior and exterior of the combustion chamber. Values are usually given for operation at sea level (\"sl\") or in a vacuum (\"vac\").", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [ 452493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 208, 296 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because of the geocentric factor of g0 in the equation for specific impulse, many prefer an alternative definition. The specific impulse of a rocket can be defined in terms of thrust per unit mass flow of propellant. This is an equally valid (and in some ways somewhat simpler) way of defining the effectiveness of a rocket propellant. For a rocket, the specific impulse defined in this way is simply the effective exhaust velocity relative to the rocket, ve. \"In actual rocket nozzles, the exhaust velocity is not really uniform over the entire exit cross section and such velocity profiles are difficult to measure accurately. A uniform axial velocity, v e, is assumed for all calculations which employ one-dimensional problem descriptions. This effective exhaust velocity represents an average or mass equivalent velocity at which propellant is being ejected from the rocket vehicle.\" The two definitions of specific impulse are proportional to one another, and related to each other by:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " is the specific impulse in seconds,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " is the specific impulse measured in m/s, which is the same as the effective exhaust velocity measured in m/s (or ft/s if g is in ft/s2),", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [ 67231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " is the standard gravity, 9.80665 m/s2 (in United States customary units 32.174 ft/s2).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [ 2532789, 32308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 24 ], [ 43, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This equation is also valid for air-breathing jet engines, but is rarely used in practice.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "(Note that different symbols are sometimes used; for example, c is also sometimes seen for exhaust velocity. While the symbol might logically be used for specific impulse in units of (N·s)/(m·kg); to avoid confusion, it is desirable to reserve this for specific impulse measured in seconds.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is related to the thrust, or forward force on the rocket by the equation:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [ 37892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where is the propellant mass flow rate, which is the rate of decrease of the vehicle's mass.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A rocket must carry all its propellant with it, so the mass of the unburned propellant must be accelerated along with the rocket itself. Minimizing the mass of propellant required to achieve a given change in velocity is crucial to building effective rockets. The Tsiolkovsky rocket equation shows that for a rocket with a given empty mass and a given amount of propellant, the total change in velocity it can accomplish is proportional to the effective exhaust velocity. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [ 772517, 20491903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 264, 291 ], [ 394, 402 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A spacecraft without propulsion follows an orbit determined by its trajectory and any gravitational field. Deviations from the corresponding velocity pattern (these are called Δv) are achieved by sending exhaust mass in the direction opposite to that of the desired velocity change.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [ 194465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When an engine is run within the atmosphere, the exhaust velocity is reduced by atmospheric pressure, in turn reducing specific impulse. This is a reduction in the effective exhaust velocity, versus the actual exhaust velocity achieved in vacuum conditions. In the case of gas-generator cycle rocket engines, more than one exhaust gas stream is present as turbopump exhaust gas exits through a separate nozzle. Calculating the effective exhaust velocity requires averaging the two mass flows as well as accounting for any atmospheric pressure.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [ 1295452, 31440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 273, 292 ], [ 356, 365 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For air-breathing jet engines, particularly turbofans, the actual exhaust velocity and the effective exhaust velocity are different by orders of magnitude. This happens for several reasons. First, a good deal of additional momentum is obtained by using air as reaction mass, such that combustion products in the exhaust have more mass than the burned fuel. Next, inert gases in the atmosphere absorb heat from combustion, and through the resulting expansion provide additional thrust. Lastly, for turbofans and other designs there is even more thrust created by pushing against intake air which never sees combustion directly. These all combine to allow a better match between the airspeed and the exhaust speed, which saves energy/propellant and enormously increases the effective exhaust velocity while reducing the actual exhaust velocity. Again, this is because the mass of the air is not counted in the specific impulse calculation, thus attributing all of the thrust momentum to the mass of the fuel component of the exhaust, and omitting the reaction mass, inert gas, and effect of driven fans on overall engine efficiency from consideration. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [ 103077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Essentially, the momentum of engine exhaust includes a lot more than just fuel, but specific impulse calculation ignores everything but the fuel. Even though the effective exhaust velocity for an air-breathing engine seems nonsensical in the context of actual exhaust velocity, this is still useful for comparing absolute fuel efficiency of different engines.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Units", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An example of a specific impulse measured in time is 453seconds, which is equivalent to an effective exhaust velocity of , for the RS-25 engines when operating in a vacuum. An air-breathing jet engine typically has a much larger specific impulse than a rocket; for example a turbofan jet engine may have a specific impulse of 6,000seconds or more at sea level whereas a rocket would be between 200 and 400seconds.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 40250, 680000, 103077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 117 ], [ 131, 136 ], [ 275, 283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An air-breathing engine is thus much more propellant efficient than a rocket engine, because the air serves as reaction mass and oxidizer for combustion which does not have to be carried as propellant, and the actual exhaust speed is much lower, so the kinetic energy the exhaust carries away is lower and thus the jet engine uses far less energy to generate thrust. While the actual exhaust velocity is lower for air-breathing engines, the effective exhaust velocity is very high for jet engines. This is because the effective exhaust velocity calculation assumes that the carried propellant is providing all the reaction mass and all the thrust. Hence effective exhaust velocity is not physically meaningful for air-breathing engines; nevertheless, it is useful for comparison with other types of engines.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The highest specific impulse for a chemical propellant ever test-fired in a rocket engine was with a tripropellant of lithium, fluorine, and hydrogen. However, this combination is impractical. Lithium and fluorine are both extremely corrosive, lithium ignites on contact with air, fluorine ignites on contact with most fuels, and hydrogen, while not hypergolic, is an explosive hazard. Fluorine and the hydrogen fluoride (HF) in the exhaust are very toxic, which damages the environment, makes work around the launch pad difficult, and makes getting a launch license that much more difficult. The rocket exhaust is also ionized, which would interfere with radio communication with the rocket.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 58671, 17561, 17481271, 13255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 115 ], [ 119, 126 ], [ 128, 136 ], [ 142, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nuclear thermal rocket engines differ from conventional rocket engines in that energy is supplied to the propellants by an external nuclear heat source instead of the heat of combustion. The nuclear rocket typically operates by passing liquid hydrogen gas through an operating nuclear reactor. Testing in the 1960s yielded specific impulses of about 850 seconds (8,340m/s), about twice that of the Space Shuttle engines.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 37842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A variety of other rocket propulsion methods, such as ion thrusters, give much higher specific impulse but with much lower thrust; for example the Hall effect thruster on the SMART-1 satellite has a specific impulse of but a maximum thrust of only . The variable specific impulse magnetoplasma rocket (VASIMR) engine currently in development will theoretically yield , and a maximum thrust of .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 37839, 37838, 206217, 40248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 66 ], [ 147, 167 ], [ 175, 182 ], [ 255, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jet engine", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Impulse", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 211922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tsiolkovsky rocket equation", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 772517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " System-specific impulse", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7162263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Specific energy", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2030045 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Standard gravity", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2532789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thrust specific fuel consumption—fuel consumption per unit thrust", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 172348 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Specific thrust—thrust per unit of air for a duct engine", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7598767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Heating value", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1112273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Energy density", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1610231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Delta-v (physics)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14454695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rocket propellant", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 30873089 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Liquid rocket propellants", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1078982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "RPA - Design Tool for Liquid Rocket Engine Analysis", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "List of Specific Impulses of various rocket fuels", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Rocket_propulsion", "Spacecraft_propulsion", "Physical_quantities", "Classical_mechanics", "Engine_technology" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Rowrbrazzle is an Amateur Press Association magazine devoted to funny animal cartoon illustration.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1434754, 20637639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 43 ], [ 64, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rowrbrazzle was founded in 1983 by Marc Schirmeister, who published the first issue in February 1984, and was editor for the first nineteen quarterly mailings. Fred Patten was then editor from January 1989 (Issue 20) through January 2005 until suffering a stroke and retiring after Issue 84. Edd Vick became Official Editor from April 2005 (Issue 85) to April 2007 (Issue 93), William Earl Haskell became Official Editor from Issue 94 (July 2007) to January 2016 (Issue 128) when he was forced to retire due to poor health, and Edd Vick became Official Editor again from April 2016 (Issue 129).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3999538, 625404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 171 ], [ 256, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first Rowrbrazzle was distributed to the association membership in February 1984.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Landmark issue number 150 was distributed in July 2021, in a continuing uninterrupted run of 37 1/2 years.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fred Patten, onetime editor of Rowrbrazzle, had this view of Rowrbrazzle's significance:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Significance", "target_page_ids": [ 3999538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"My thesis is that furry fandom coalesced out of sf fandom and comics fandom, blending elements from both of them and achieving its own critical mass in 1983/1984. The first clear signs of the independent furry fandom were the creation of its first apa, Rowrbrazzle, and the decision by some fans to self-publish furry comic books because there seemed to be enough fans of stories with talking animals to support them (as distinct from earlier attempts to self-publish comics which had to hope for sufficient sales from the general public alone.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Significance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"...", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Significance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Rowrbrazzle started in February 1984. Since it was specifically an apa for writing and drawing funny animals as a genre and discussing the new fandom that was forming about them, it is a handy landmark to say that 'furry fandom existed at this time.'\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Significance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Visual_arts_magazines_published_in_the_United_States", "Furry_fandom", "Magazines_established_in_1983" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Precognition (from the Latin 'before', and 'acquiring knowledge'), is the purported psychic phenomenon of seeing, or otherwise becoming directly aware of, events in the future. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 17730, 58323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 28 ], [ 86, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is no accepted scientific evidence that precognition is a real effect, and it is widely considered to be pseudoscience. Precognition violates the principle of causality, that an effect cannot occur before its cause. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23047, 37196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 124 ], [ 165, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Precognition has been widely believed in throughout history. Despite the lack of scientific evidence, many people believe it to be real; it is still widely reported and remains a topic of research and discussion within the parapsychology community.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 223, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Precognition is sometimes treated as an example of the wider phenomenon of prescience or foreknowledge, to understand by any means what is likely to happen in the future. It is distinct from premonition, which is a vaguer feeling of some impending disaster. Related activities such as predictive prophecy and fortune telling have been practised throughout history.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Precognitive phenomena", "target_page_ids": [ 605511, 87334, 54116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 102 ], [ 296, 304 ], [ 309, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Precognitive dreams are the most widely reported occurrences of precognition. Usually, a dream or vision can only be identified as precognitive after the putative event has taken place. When such an event occurs after a dream, it is said to have \"broken the dream\". ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Precognitive phenomena", "target_page_ids": [ 44785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Judaism it is believed that dreams are mostly insignificant while others \"have the potential to contain prophetic messages\". In Islam precognition is called the 'True Dream' and forms part of the teaching in the Quran. Hinduism has a subsystem of psychology called Indian psychology with dreams believed to contain information about the future. There are seven classifications of dream or 'swapna', in which those which become 'manifest' are called 'bhāvita'. Precognition has a role in Buddhism with dreams believed to be 'mind-created phenomena'. Those dreams which 'warn of impending danger or even prepare us for overwhelming good news\" are considered the most important.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Precognitive phenomena", "target_page_ids": [ 15624, 6037917, 13543, 59528986, 3267529 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 10 ], [ 131, 136 ], [ 222, 230 ], [ 268, 285 ], [ 490, 498 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Throughout history it has been accepted that certain individuals have precognitive abilities, and such visions have sometimes been associated with important historical events. Despite the lack of scientific evidence, many people still believe in precognition. A poll in 2005 showed 73% of Americans believe in at least one type of paranormal experience, with 41% believing in extrasensory perception.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 10515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 377, 400 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since ancient times precognition has been associated with dreams and trance states as well as waking premonitions, giving rise to acts of prophecy and fortune telling. Oracles, originally seen as sources of wisdom, became progressively associated with previsions of the future.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 44785, 28867511, 22589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 63 ], [ 69, 75 ], [ 169, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Such claims of seeing the future have never been without their sceptical critics. Aristotle carried out an inquiry into allegedly prophetic dreams in his On Divination in Sleep. He accepted that \"it is quite conceivable that some dreams may be tokens and causes [of future events]\" but also believed that \"most [so-called prophetic] dreams are, however, to be classed as mere coincidences...\". Where Democritus had suggested that emanations from future events could be sent back to the dreamer, Aristotle proposed that it was, rather, the dreamer's sense impressions which reached forward to the event.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 308, 1692773, 1397857, 8211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 91 ], [ 154, 176 ], [ 376, 387 ], [ 400, 410 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term \"precognition\" first appeared in the 17th century but did not come into common use among investigators until much later.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An early investigation into claims of precognition was published by the missionary Fr. P. Boilat in 1883. He claimed to have put an unspoken question to an African witch-doctor whom he mistrusted. Contrary to his expectations, the witch-doctor gave him the correct answer without ever having heard the question.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 599192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the early 20th century J. W. Dunne, a British soldier and aeronautics engineer, experienced several dreams which he regarded as precognitive. He developed techniques to record and analyse them, identifying any correspondences between his future experiences and his recorded dreams. He reported his findings in his 1927 book An Experiment with Time. In it he alleges that 10% of his dreams appeared to include some element of future experience. He also persuaded some friends to try the experiment on themselves, with mixed results. He noted a strong cognitive bias in which subjects, including himself, were reluctant to ascribe their dream correspondences to precognition and determinedly sought alternative explanations. Dunne concluded that precognitive elements in dreams are common and that many people unknowingly have them.<ref>Flew, Antony; \"The Sources of Serialism, in Shivesh Thakur (Ed). Philosophy and Psychical Research, George Allen & Unwin Ltd. 1976, pp. 81–96. </ref> He suggested also that dream precognition did not reference future events of all kinds, but specifically the future experiences of the dreamer. He was led to this idea when he found that a dream of a volcanic eruption appeared to foresee not the disaster itself but his subsequent misreading of an inaccurate account in a newspaper. Edith Lyttelton, who became President of the Society for Psychical Research (SPR), regarded his theory as consistent with her own idea of the superconscious. In 1932 he helped the SPR to conduct a more formal experiment, but he and the Society's lead researcher Theodore Besterman failed to agree on the significance of the results. Nevertheless, the Philosopher C. D. Broad remarked that, \"The only theory known to me which seems worth consideration is that proposed by Mr. Dunne in his Experiment with Time.\" An Experiment with Time was widely read and \"undoubtedly helped to form something of the imaginative climate of [the interwar] years\", influencing many writers of both fact and fiction both then and since. According to Flieger, \"Dunne's theory was so current and popular a topic that not to understand it was a mark of singularity.\" Major writers whose work was significantly influenced by his ideas on precognition in dreams and visions include H. G. Wells, J. B. Priestley and Olaf Stapledon. Vladimir Nabokov was also later influenced by Dunne.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 300753, 1219129, 1336396, 9505815, 28122, 2064994, 25231377, 833962, 13459, 87253, 99988, 32442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 37 ], [ 327, 350 ], [ 838, 850 ], [ 1321, 1336 ], [ 1366, 1396 ], [ 1463, 1477 ], [ 1583, 1601 ], [ 1684, 1695 ], [ 2278, 2289 ], [ 2291, 2306 ], [ 2311, 2325 ], [ 2327, 2343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1932 Charles Lindbergh's infant son was kidnapped, murdered and buried among trees. Psychologists Henry Murray and D. R. Wheeler used the event to test for dream precognition, by inviting the public to report any dreams of the child. A total of 1,300 dreams were reported. Only five percent envisioned the child dead and only 4 of the 1,300 envisioned the location of the grave as amongst trees.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 82981, 2017552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 25 ], [ 101, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first ongoing and organised research program on precognition was instituted by husband-and-wife team Joseph Banks Rhine and Louisa E. Rhine in the 1930s at Duke University's Parapsychology Laboratory. J. B. Rhine used a method of forced-choice matching in which participants guessed the order of a deck of 25 cards, each five of which bore one of five geometrical symbols. Although his results were positive and gained some academic acceptance, his methods were later shown to be badly flawed and subsequent researchers using more rigorous procedures were unable to reproduce his results. His mathematics was sometimes flawed, the experiments were not double-blinded or even necessarily single-blinded and some of the cards to be guessed were so thin that the symbol could be seen through the backing.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1347596, 49990765, 53273, 794881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 123 ], [ 128, 143 ], [ 160, 175 ], [ 178, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Samuel G. Soal, another leading member of the SPR, was described by Rhine as one of his harshest critics, running many similar experiments with wholly negative results. However, from around 1940 he ran forced-choice ESP experiments in which a subject attempted to identify which of five animal pictures a subject in another room was looking at. Their performance on this task was at chance, but when the scores were matched with the card that came after the target card, three of the thirteen subjects showed a very high hit rate; Rhine now described Soal's work as \"a milestone in the field\". However analyses of Soal's findings, conducted several years later, concluded that the positive results were more likely the result of deliberate fraud. The controversy continued for many years more. In 1978 the statistician and parapsychology researcher Betty Markwick, while seeking to vindicate Soal, discovered that he had tampered with his data. The untainted experimental results showed no evidence of precognition.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 8784196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As more modern technology became available, more automated techniques of experimentation were developed that did not rely on hand-scoring of equivalence between targets and guesses, and in which the targets could be more reliably and readily tested at random. In 1969 Helmut Schmidt introduced the use of high-speed random event generators (REG) for precognition testing, and experiments were also conducted at the Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Lab. Once again, flaws were found in all of Schmidt's experiments, when the psychologist C. E. M. Hansel found that several necessary precautions were not taken.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 794866, 1193632, 39264850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 268, 282 ], [ 415, 459 ], [ 545, 560 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "SF writer Philip K Dick believed that he had precognitive experiences and used the idea in some of his novels, especially as a central plot element in his 1956 science fiction short story The Minority Report and in his 1956 novel The World Jones Made.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23005, 142051, 4744329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ], [ 188, 207 ], [ 231, 251 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1963 the BBC television programme Monitor broadcast an appeal by the writer J.B. Priestley for experiences which challenged our understanding of Time. He received hundreds of letters in reply and believed that many of them described genuine precognitive dreams. In 2014 the BBC Radio 4 broadcaster Francis Spufford revisited Priestley's work and its relation to the ideas of J.W. Dunne. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19344654, 87253, 25625361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 15 ], [ 79, 93 ], [ 301, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1965 G. W. Lambert, a former Council member of the SPR, proposed five criteria that needed to be met before an account of a precognitive dream could be regarded as credible:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The dream should be reported to a credible witness before the event.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The time interval between the dream and the event should be short.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The event should be unexpected at the time of the dream.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The description should be of an event destined literally, and not symbolically, to happen.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The details of dream and event should tally.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "David Ryback, a psychologist in Atlanta, used a questionnaire survey approach to investigate precognitive dreaming in college students. His survey of over 433 participants showed that 290 or 66.9 percent reported some form of paranormal dream. He rejected many of these reports, but claimed that 8.8 percent of the population was having actual precognitive dreams.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2011 the psychologist Daryl Bem, a Professor Emeritus at Cornell University, published findings showing statistical evidence for precognition in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. The paper was heavily criticised and the criticism widened to include the journal itself and the validity of the peer review process. In 2012, an independent attempt to reproduce Bem's results was published, but it failed to do so. The widespread controversy led to calls for improvements in practice and for more research.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 364117, 7954422, 8309381, 24116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 34 ], [ 60, 78 ], [ 153, 197 ], [ 312, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Claims of precognition are, like any other claims, open to scientific criticism. However the nature of the criticism must adapt to the nature of the claim.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Scientific reception", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Claims of precognition are criticised on three main grounds:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Scientific reception", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There is no known scientific mechanism which would allow precognition. It breaks temporal causality, in that the precognised event causes an effect in the subject prior to the event itself.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Scientific reception", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The large body of experimental work has produced no accepted scientific evidence that precognition exists.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Scientific reception", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The large body of anecdotal evidence can be explained by alternative psychological mechanisms.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Scientific reception", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Consequently, precognition is widely considered to be pseudoscience.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Scientific reception", "target_page_ids": [ 23047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Precognition would violate the principle of antecedence (causality), that an effect does not happen before its cause. Information passing backwards in time (retrocausality) would need to be carried by physical particles doing the same. Experimental evidence from high-energy physics suggests that this cannot happen. There is therefore no direct justification for precognition from physics.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Scientific reception", "target_page_ids": [ 37196, 7506128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 66 ], [ 157, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Precognition would therefore also contradict \"most of the neuroscience and psychology literature, from electrophysiology and neuroimaging to temporal effects found in psychophysical research.\" ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Scientific reception", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A great deal of evidence for precognition has been put forward, both as witnessed anecdotes and as experimental results, but none has been accepted as rigorous scientific proof of the phenomenon. Even the most prominent pieces of evidence have been repeatedly rejected due to errors in those experiments as well as follow-on studies contradicting the original evidence. This suggests that the evidence was not valid in the first place.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Scientific reception", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Various known psychological processes have been put forward to explain experiences of apparent precognition. These include:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Scientific reception", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Coincidence, where apparent instances of precognition in fact arise from the law of large numbers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Scientific reception", "target_page_ids": [ 1397857, 157055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 78, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Self-fulfilling prophecy and unconscious enactment, where people unconsciously bring about events which they have previously imagined.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Scientific reception", "target_page_ids": [ 232445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Unconscious perception, where people unconsciously infer, from data they have unconsciously learned, that a certain event will probably happen in a certain context. When the event occurs, the former knowledge appears to have been acquired without the aid of recognised channels of information.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Scientific reception", "target_page_ids": [ 33702525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Retrofitting, which involves the false interpretation of a past record of a dream or vision, in order to match it to a recent event. Retrofitting provides an explanation for the supposed accuracy of Nostradamus's vague predictions. For example, quatrain I:60 states \"A ruler born near Italy...He's less a prince than a butcher.\" The phrase \"near Italy\" can be construed as covering a very broad range of geography, while no details are provided by Nostradamus regarding the era when this ruler will live. Because of this vagueness, and the flexibility of retrofitting, this quatrain has been interpreted by some as referring to Napoleon, but by others as referring to the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II, and by others still as a reference to Hitler.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Scientific reception", "target_page_ids": [ 5560489, 21615 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 200, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "False memories, such as Identifying paramnesia and Memory biases, where the memory of a non-existent precognitive event is formed after the real event has occurred. Where subjects in a dream experiment have been asked to write down their dreams in a diary, this can prevent selective memory effects such that the dreams no longer seem accurate about the future. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Scientific reception", "target_page_ids": [ 510791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Déjà vu, where people experience a false feeling that an identical event has occurred previously. Some recent authors have suggested that déjà vu and identifying paramnesia are the same thing. This view is not universally held, with others instead treating them as distinct phenomena.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Scientific reception", "target_page_ids": [ 8888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Psychological explanations have also been proposed for belief in precognition. Psychologists have conducted experiments which are claimed to show that people who feel loss of control in their lives will turn to belief in precognition, because it gives them a sense of regaining control.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Scientific reception", "target_page_ids": [ 72132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Inner eye", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 266899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Third eye", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 266899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Oneiromancy (Veridical dreaming)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 806414 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Retrocognition", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 344660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of topics characterized as pseudoscience", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 267014 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dream", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 44785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flieger, Verlyn; A Question of Time: JRR Tolkien's Road to Faërie, Kent State University Press, 1997.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 9029834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Inglis, Brian. (1986). The Paranormal: An Encyclopedia of Psychic Phenomena. Paladin (Grafton) 1986. (1st Edition Granada 1985)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 3070329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Priestley, J.B. Man and Time. Aldus 1964, 2nd Edition Bloomsbury 1989.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 87253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wynn, Charles M., and Wiggins, Arthur W. (2001). Quantum Leaps in the Wrong Direction: Where Real Science Ends...and Pseudoscience Begins. Joseph Henry Press. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Chris French. (2012). \"Precognition Studies and the Curse of the Failed Replications\". The Guardian.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 2647398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "David Marks. (2000). The Psychology of the Psychic'' (2nd Edition). Prometheus Books. ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 4087208, 11235313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 21, 50 ] ] } ]

[ "Paranormal_terminology", "Parapsychology", "Prediction", "Psychic_powers", "Pseudoscience", "Spiritual_faculties" ]

[ "future sight", "second sight", "second-sight" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In computer science and operations research, a genetic algorithm (GA) is a metaheuristic inspired by the process of natural selection that belongs to the larger class of evolutionary algorithms (EA). Genetic algorithms are commonly used to generate high-quality solutions to optimization and search problems by relying on biologically inspired operators such as mutation, crossover and selection. Some examples of GA applications include optimizing decision trees for better performance, solving sudoku puzzles, hyperparameter optimization, etc.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5323, 43476, 774458, 21147, 190837, 52033, 28249, 555213, 554546, 1105886, 577003, 8444301, 54361643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 19 ], [ 24, 43 ], [ 75, 88 ], [ 116, 133 ], [ 170, 192 ], [ 275, 287 ], [ 292, 306 ], [ 362, 370 ], [ 372, 381 ], [ 386, 395 ], [ 449, 463 ], [ 496, 510 ], [ 512, 539 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a genetic algorithm, a population of candidate solutions (called individuals, creatures, organisms, or phenotypes) to an optimization problem is evolved toward better solutions. Each candidate solution has a set of properties (its chromosomes or genotype) which can be mutated and altered; traditionally, solutions are represented in binary as strings of 0s and 1s, but other encodings are also possible.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [ 22949, 9157119, 24543, 6438, 12796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 36 ], [ 40, 58 ], [ 106, 115 ], [ 234, 244 ], [ 249, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The evolution usually starts from a population of randomly generated individuals, and is an iterative process, with the population in each iteration called a generation. In each generation, the fitness of every individual in the population is evaluated; the fitness is usually the value of the objective function in the optimization problem being solved. The more fit individuals are stochastically selected from the current population, and each individual's genome is modified (recombined and possibly randomly mutated) to form a new generation. The new generation of candidate solutions is then used in the next iteration of the algorithm. Commonly, the algorithm terminates when either a maximum number of generations has been produced, or a satisfactory fitness level has been reached for the population.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [ 68833, 187849, 442137, 292222, 554546, 775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 109 ], [ 194, 201 ], [ 294, 312 ], [ 384, 398 ], [ 479, 489 ], [ 631, 640 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A typical genetic algorithm requires:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " a genetic representation of the solution domain,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [ 3558944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " a fitness function to evaluate the solution domain.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [ 412285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A standard representation of each candidate solution is as an array of bits (also called bit set or bit string). Arrays of other types and structures can be used in essentially the same way. The main property that makes these genetic representations convenient is that their parts are easily aligned due to their fixed size, which facilitates simple crossover operations. Variable length representations may also be used, but crossover implementation is more complex in this case. Tree-like representations are explored in genetic programming and graph-form representations are explored in evolutionary programming; a mix of both linear chromosomes and trees is explored in gene expression programming.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [ 1189937, 554546, 12424, 460689, 1098818 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 75 ], [ 350, 359 ], [ 523, 542 ], [ 590, 614 ], [ 674, 701 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Once the genetic representation and the fitness function are defined, a GA proceeds to initialize a population of solutions and then to improve it through repetitive application of the mutation, crossover, inversion and selection operators.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The population size depends on the nature of the problem, but typically contains several hundreds or thousands of possible solutions. Often, the initial population is generated randomly, allowing the entire range of possible solutions (the search space). Occasionally, the solutions may be \"seeded\" in areas where optimal solutions are likely to be found.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [ 9157119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 240, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During each successive generation, a portion of the existing population is selected to breed a new generation. Individual solutions are selected through a fitness-based process, where fitter solutions (as measured by a fitness function) are typically more likely to be selected. Certain selection methods rate the fitness of each solution and preferentially select the best solutions. Other methods rate only a random sample of the population, as the former process may be very time-consuming.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [ 1105886, 187849, 412285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 83 ], [ 184, 190 ], [ 219, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The fitness function is defined over the genetic representation and measures the quality of the represented solution. The fitness function is always problem dependent. For instance, in the knapsack problem one wants to maximize the total value of objects that can be put in a knapsack of some fixed capacity. A representation of a solution might be an array of bits, where each bit represents a different object, and the value of the bit (0 or 1) represents whether or not the object is in the knapsack. Not every such representation is valid, as the size of objects may exceed the capacity of the knapsack. The fitness of the solution is the sum of values of all objects in the knapsack if the representation is valid, or 0 otherwise.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [ 16974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 189, 205 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In some problems, it is hard or even impossible to define the fitness expression; in these cases, a simulation may be used to determine the fitness function value of a phenotype (e.g. computational fluid dynamics is used to determine the air resistance of a vehicle whose shape is encoded as the phenotype), or even interactive genetic algorithms are used.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [ 375416, 24543, 305924, 901162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 110 ], [ 168, 177 ], [ 184, 212 ], [ 316, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The next step is to generate a second generation population of solutions from those selected, through a combination of genetic operators: crossover (also called recombination), and mutation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [ 371709, 554546, 555213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 135 ], [ 138, 147 ], [ 181, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For each new solution to be produced, a pair of \"parent\" solutions is selected for breeding from the pool selected previously. By producing a \"child\" solution using the above methods of crossover and mutation, a new solution is created which typically shares many of the characteristics of its \"parents\". New parents are selected for each new child, and the process continues until a new population of solutions of appropriate size is generated.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Although reproduction methods that are based on the use of two parents are more \"biology inspired\", some research suggests that more than two \"parents\" generate higher quality chromosomes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These processes ultimately result in the next generation population of chromosomes that is different from the initial generation. Generally, the average fitness will have increased by this procedure for the population, since only the best organisms from the first generation are selected for breeding, along with a small proportion of less fit solutions. These less fit solutions ensure genetic diversity within the genetic pool of the parents and therefore ensure the genetic diversity of the subsequent generation of children.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Opinion is divided over the importance of crossover versus mutation. There are many references in Fogel (2006) that support the importance of mutation-based search.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [ 8170049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although crossover and mutation are known as the main genetic operators, it is possible to use other operators such as regrouping, colonization-extinction, or migration in genetic algorithms.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is worth tuning parameters such as the mutation probability, crossover probability and population size to find reasonable settings for the problem class being worked on. A very small mutation rate may lead to genetic drift (which is non-ergodic in nature). A recombination rate that is too high may lead to premature convergence of the genetic algorithm. A mutation rate that is too high may lead to loss of good solutions, unless Elitism is employed. An adequate population size ensures sufficient genetic diversity for the problem at hand, but can lead to a waste of computational resources if set to a value larger than required.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [ 555213, 554546, 72016, 5456824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 50 ], [ 64, 73 ], [ 212, 225 ], [ 240, 247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to the main operators above, other heuristics may be employed to make the calculation faster or more robust. The speciation heuristic penalizes crossover between candidate solutions that are too similar; this encourages population diversity and helps prevent premature convergence to a less optimal solution.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [ 63452, 1514142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 56 ], [ 281, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This generational process is repeated until a termination condition has been reached. Common terminating conditions are:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A solution is found that satisfies minimum criteria", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fixed number of generations reached", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Allocated budget (computation time/money) reached", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The highest ranking solution's fitness is reaching or has reached a plateau such that successive iterations no longer produce better results", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Manual inspection", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Combinations of the above", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Genetic algorithms are simple to implement, but their behavior is difficult to understand. In particular, it is difficult to understand why these algorithms frequently succeed at generating solutions of high fitness when applied to practical problems. The building block hypothesis (BBH) consists of:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "The building block hypothesis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A description of a heuristic that performs adaptation by identifying and recombining \"building blocks\", i.e. low order, low defining-length schemata with above average fitness.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "The building block hypothesis", "target_page_ids": [ 17808671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A hypothesis that a genetic algorithm performs adaptation by implicitly and efficiently implementing this heuristic.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "The building block hypothesis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Goldberg describes the heuristic as follows:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "The building block hypothesis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Short, low order, and highly fit schemata are sampled, recombined [crossed over], and resampled to form strings of potentially higher fitness. In a way, by working with these particular schemata [the building blocks], we have reduced the complexity of our problem; instead of building high-performance strings by trying every conceivable combination, we construct better and better strings from the best partial solutions of past samplings.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "The building block hypothesis", "target_page_ids": [ 554546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Because highly fit schemata of low defining length and low order play such an important role in the action of genetic algorithms, we have already given them a special name: building blocks. Just as a child creates magnificent fortresses through the arrangement of simple blocks of wood, so does a genetic algorithm seek near optimal performance through the juxtaposition of short, low-order, high-performance schemata, or building blocks.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "The building block hypothesis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Despite the lack of consensus regarding the validity of the building-block hypothesis, it has been consistently evaluated and used as reference throughout the years. Many estimation of distribution algorithms, for example, have been proposed in an attempt to provide an environment in which the hypothesis would hold. Although good results have been reported for some classes of problems, skepticism concerning the generality and/or practicality of the building-block hypothesis as an explanation for GAs efficiency still remains. Indeed, there is a reasonable amount of work that attempts to understand its limitations from the perspective of estimation of distribution algorithms.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "The building block hypothesis", "target_page_ids": [ 3062637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 171, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are limitations of the use of a genetic algorithm compared to alternative optimization algorithms:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Limitations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Repeated fitness function evaluation for complex problems is often the most prohibitive and limiting segment of artificial evolutionary algorithms. Finding the optimal solution to complex high-dimensional, multimodal problems often requires very expensive fitness function evaluations. In real world problems such as structural optimization problems, a single function evaluation may require several hours to several days of complete simulation. Typical optimization methods cannot deal with such types of problem. In this case, it may be necessary to forgo an exact evaluation and use an approximated fitness that is computationally efficient. It is apparent that amalgamation of approximate models may be one of the most promising approaches to convincingly use GA to solve complex real life problems.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Limitations", "target_page_ids": [ 412285, 412285, 22142854, 22142854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ], [ 257, 273 ], [ 590, 610 ], [ 682, 700 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Genetic algorithms do not scale well with complexity. That is, where the number of elements which are exposed to mutation is large there is often an exponential increase in search space size. This makes it extremely difficult to use the technique on problems such as designing an engine, a house or a plane . In order to make such problems tractable to evolutionary search, they must be broken down into the simplest representation possible. Hence we typically see evolutionary algorithms encoding designs for fan blades instead of engines, building shapes instead of detailed construction plans, and airfoils instead of whole aircraft designs. The second problem of complexity is the issue of how to protect parts that have evolved to represent good solutions from further destructive mutation, particularly when their fitness assessment requires them to combine well with other parts.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Limitations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The \"better\" solution is only in comparison to other solutions. As a result, the stop criterion is not clear in every problem.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Limitations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In many problems, GAs have a tendency to converge towards local optima or even arbitrary points rather than the global optimum of the problem. This means that it does not \"know how\" to sacrifice short-term fitness to gain longer-term fitness. The likelihood of this occurring depends on the shape of the fitness landscape: certain problems may provide an easy ascent towards a global optimum, others may make it easier for the function to find the local optima. This problem may be alleviated by using a different fitness function, increasing the rate of mutation, or by using selection techniques that maintain a diverse population of solutions, although the No Free Lunch theorem proves that there is no general solution to this problem. A common technique to maintain diversity is to impose a \"niche penalty\", wherein, any group of individuals of sufficient similarity (niche radius) have a penalty added, which will reduce the representation of that group in subsequent generations, permitting other (less similar) individuals to be maintained in the population. This trick, however, may not be effective, depending on the landscape of the problem. Another possible technique would be to simply replace part of the population with randomly generated individuals, when most of the population is too similar to each other. Diversity is important in genetic algorithms (and genetic programming) because crossing over a homogeneous population does not yield new solutions. In evolution strategies and evolutionary programming, diversity is not essential because of a greater reliance on mutation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Limitations", "target_page_ids": [ 774451, 298420, 310599, 1297402, 12424, 940033, 460689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 71 ], [ 113, 127 ], [ 305, 322 ], [ 661, 682 ], [ 1376, 1395 ], [ 1477, 1497 ], [ 1502, 1526 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Operating on dynamic data sets is difficult, as genomes begin to converge early on towards solutions which may no longer be valid for later data. Several methods have been proposed to remedy this by increasing genetic diversity somehow and preventing early convergence, either by increasing the probability of mutation when the solution quality drops (called triggered hypermutation), or by occasionally introducing entirely new, randomly generated elements into the gene pool (called random immigrants). Again, evolution strategies and evolutionary programming can be implemented with a so-called \"comma strategy\" in which parents are not maintained and new parents are selected only from offspring. This can be more effective on dynamic problems.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Limitations", "target_page_ids": [ 940033, 460689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 513, 533 ], [ 538, 562 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " GAs cannot effectively solve problems in which the only fitness measure is a single right/wrong measure (like decision problems), as there is no way to converge on the solution (no hill to climb). In these cases, a random search may find a solution as quickly as a GA. However, if the situation allows the success/failure trial to be repeated giving (possibly) different results, then the ratio of successes to failures provides a suitable fitness measure.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Limitations", "target_page_ids": [ 8336 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " For specific optimization problems and problem instances, other optimization algorithms may be more efficient than genetic algorithms in terms of speed of convergence. Alternative and complementary algorithms include evolution strategies, evolutionary programming, simulated annealing, Gaussian adaptation, hill climbing, and swarm intelligence (e.g.: ant colony optimization, particle swarm optimization) and methods based on integer linear programming. The suitability of genetic algorithms is dependent on the amount of knowledge of the problem; well known problems often have better, more specialized approaches.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Limitations", "target_page_ids": [ 940033, 460689, 172244, 9210345, 364002, 762988, 588615, 337083, 411215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 218, 238 ], [ 240, 264 ], [ 266, 285 ], [ 287, 306 ], [ 308, 321 ], [ 327, 345 ], [ 353, 376 ], [ 378, 405 ], [ 428, 454 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The simplest algorithm represents each chromosome as a bit string. Typically, numeric parameters can be represented by integers, though it is possible to use floating point representations. The floating point representation is natural to evolution strategies and evolutionary programming. The notion of real-valued genetic algorithms has been offered but is really a misnomer because it does not really represent the building block theory that was proposed by John Henry Holland in the 1970s. This theory is not without support though, based on theoretical and experimental results (see below). The basic algorithm performs crossover and mutation at the bit level. Other variants treat the chromosome as a list of numbers which are indexes into an instruction table, nodes in a linked list, hashes, objects, or any other imaginable data structure. Crossover and mutation are performed so as to respect data element boundaries. For most data types, specific variation operators can be designed. Different chromosomal data types seem to work better or worse for different specific problem domains.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [ 1189937, 14563, 11376, 940033, 460689, 1713373, 18167, 95154, 169665, 8519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 65 ], [ 119, 126 ], [ 158, 172 ], [ 238, 258 ], [ 263, 287 ], [ 460, 478 ], [ 778, 789 ], [ 791, 797 ], [ 799, 806 ], [ 832, 846 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When bit-string representations of integers are used, Gray coding is often employed. In this way, small changes in the integer can be readily affected through mutations or crossovers. This has been found to help prevent premature convergence at so-called Hamming walls, in which too many simultaneous mutations (or crossover events) must occur in order to change the chromosome to a better solution.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [ 50564 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other approaches involve using arrays of real-valued numbers instead of bit strings to represent chromosomes. Results from the theory of schemata suggest that in general the smaller the alphabet, the better the performance, but it was initially surprising to researchers that good results were obtained from using real-valued chromosomes. This was explained as the set of real values in a finite population of chromosomes as forming a virtual alphabet (when selection and recombination are dominant) with a much lower cardinality than would be expected from a floating point representation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An expansion of the Genetic Algorithm accessible problem domain can be obtained through more complex encoding of the solution pools by concatenating several types of heterogenously encoded genes into one chromosome. This particular approach allows for solving optimization problems that require vastly disparate definition domains for the problem parameters. For instance, in problems of cascaded controller tuning, the internal loop controller structure can belong to a conventional regulator of three parameters, whereas the external loop could implement a linguistic controller (such as a fuzzy system) which has an inherently different description. This particular form of encoding requires a specialized crossover mechanism that recombines the chromosome by section, and it is a useful tool for the modelling and simulation of complex adaptive systems, especially evolution processes.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A practical variant of the general process of constructing a new population is to allow the best organism(s) from the current generation to carry over to the next, unaltered. This strategy is known as elitist selection and guarantees that the solution quality obtained by the GA will not decrease from one generation to the next.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Parallel implementations of genetic algorithms come in two flavors. Coarse-grained parallel genetic algorithms assume a population on each of the computer nodes and migration of individuals among the nodes. Fine-grained parallel genetic algorithms assume an individual on each processor node which acts with neighboring individuals for selection and reproduction.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [ 148840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other variants, like genetic algorithms for online optimization problems, introduce time-dependence or noise in the fitness function.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [ 49914674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Genetic algorithms with adaptive parameters (adaptive genetic algorithms, AGAs) is another significant and promising variant of genetic algorithms. The probabilities of crossover (pc) and mutation (pm) greatly determine the degree of solution accuracy and the convergence speed that genetic algorithms can obtain. Instead of using fixed values of pc and pm, AGAs utilize the population information in each generation and adaptively adjust the pc and pm in order to maintain the population diversity as well as to sustain the convergence capacity. In AGA (adaptive genetic algorithm), the adjustment of pc and pm depends on the fitness values of the solutions. In CAGA (clustering-based adaptive genetic algorithm), through the use of clustering analysis to judge the optimization states of the population, the adjustment of pc and pm depends on these optimization states.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It can be quite effective to combine GA with other optimization methods. A GA tends to be quite good at finding generally good global solutions, but quite inefficient at finding the last few mutations to find the absolute optimum. Other techniques (such as simple hill climbing) are quite efficient at finding absolute optimum in a limited region. Alternating GA and hill climbing can improve the efficiency of GA while overcoming the lack of robustness of hill climbing.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [ 364002 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 257, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This means that the rules of genetic variation may have a different meaning in the natural case. For instance provided that steps are stored in consecutive order crossing over may sum a number of steps from maternal DNA adding a number of steps from paternal DNA and so on. This is like adding vectors that more probably may follow a ridge in the phenotypic landscape. Thus, the efficiency of the process may be increased by many orders of magnitude. Moreover, the inversion operator has the opportunity to place steps in consecutive order or any other suitable order in favour of survival or efficiency.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [ 1342193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 467, 485 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A variation, where the population as a whole is evolved rather than its individual members, is known as gene pool recombination.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A number of variations have been developed to attempt to improve performance of GAs on problems with a high degree of fitness epistasis, i.e. where the fitness of a solution consists of interacting subsets of its variables. Such algorithms aim to learn (before exploiting) these beneficial phenotypic interactions. As such, they are aligned with the Building Block Hypothesis in adaptively reducing disruptive recombination. Prominent examples of this approach include the mGA, GEMGA and LLGA.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Problems which appear to be particularly appropriate for solution by genetic algorithms include timetabling and scheduling problems, and many scheduling software packages are based on GAs. GAs have also been applied to engineering. Genetic algorithms are often applied as an approach to solve global optimization problems.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Problem domains", "target_page_ids": [ 13957150, 9251, 563854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 131 ], [ 219, 230 ], [ 293, 312 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a general rule of thumb genetic algorithms might be useful in problem domains that have a complex fitness landscape as mixing, i.e., mutation in combination with crossover, is designed to move the population away from local optima that a traditional hill climbing algorithm might get stuck in. Observe that commonly used crossover operators cannot change any uniform population. Mutation alone can provide ergodicity of the overall genetic algorithm process (seen as a Markov chain).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Problem domains", "target_page_ids": [ 310599, 555213, 554546, 774451, 364002, 5456824, 60876 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 118 ], [ 136, 144 ], [ 165, 174 ], [ 221, 233 ], [ 253, 266 ], [ 409, 419 ], [ 472, 484 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Examples of problems solved by genetic algorithms include: mirrors designed to funnel sunlight to a solar collector, antennae designed to pick up radio signals in space, walking methods for computer figures, optimal design of aerodynamic bodies in complex flowfields", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Problem domains", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In his Algorithm Design Manual, Skiena advises against genetic algorithms for any task:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Problem domains", "target_page_ids": [ 36257554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1950, Alan Turing proposed a \"learning machine\" which would parallel the principles of evolution. Computer simulation of evolution started as early as in 1954 with the work of Nils Aall Barricelli, who was using the computer at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. His 1954 publication was not widely noticed. Starting in 1957, the Australian quantitative geneticist Alex Fraser published a series of papers on simulation of artificial selection of organisms with multiple loci controlling a measurable trait. From these beginnings, computer simulation of evolution by biologists became more common in the early 1960s, and the methods were described in books by Fraser and Burnell (1970) and Crosby (1973). Fraser's simulations included all of the essential elements of modern genetic algorithms. In addition, Hans-Joachim Bremermann published a series of papers in the 1960s that also adopted a population of solution to optimization problems, undergoing recombination, mutation, and selection. Bremermann's research also included the elements of modern genetic algorithms. Other noteworthy early pioneers include Richard Friedberg, George Friedman, and Michael Conrad. Many early papers are reprinted by Fogel (1998).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1208, 16752217, 184179, 84658, 2995140, 200646, 14914165, 8170049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 20 ], [ 179, 199 ], [ 235, 263 ], [ 267, 288 ], [ 392, 403 ], [ 450, 470 ], [ 835, 858 ], [ 1231, 1236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Barricelli, in work he reported in 1963, had simulated the evolution of ability to play a simple game, artificial evolution only became a widely recognized optimization method as a result of the work of Ingo Rechenberg and Hans-Paul Schwefel in the 1960s and early 1970s Rechenberg's group was able to solve complex engineering problems through evolution strategies. Another approach was the evolutionary programming technique of Lawrence J. Fogel, which was proposed for generating artificial intelligence. Evolutionary programming originally used finite state machines for predicting environments, and used variation and selection to optimize the predictive logics. Genetic algorithms in particular became popular through the work of John Holland in the early 1970s, and particularly his book Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems (1975). His work originated with studies of cellular automata, conducted by Holland and his students at the University of Michigan. Holland introduced a formalized framework for predicting the quality of the next generation, known as Holland's Schema Theorem. Research in GAs remained largely theoretical until the mid-1980s, when The First International Conference on Genetic Algorithms was held in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 190837, 11554355, 15449976, 940033, 8170186, 460689, 1713373, 54342, 1713373, 31740, 4329360, 25101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 132 ], [ 212, 227 ], [ 232, 250 ], [ 355, 375 ], [ 440, 457 ], [ 518, 542 ], [ 746, 758 ], [ 894, 911 ], [ 926, 933 ], [ 958, 980 ], [ 1084, 1108 ], [ 1250, 1274 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the late 1980s, General Electric started selling the world's first genetic algorithm product, a mainframe-based toolkit designed for industrial processes. ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1989, Axcelis, Inc. released Evolver, the world's first commercial GA product for desktop computers. The New York Times technology writer John Markoff wrote about Evolver in 1990, and it remained the only interactive commercial genetic algorithm until 1995. Evolver was sold to Palisade in 1997, translated into several languages, and is currently in its 6th version. Since the 1990s, MATLAB has built in three derivative-free optimization heuristic algorithms (simulated annealing, particle swarm optimization, genetic algorithm) and two direct search algorithms (simplex search, pattern search).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3119872, 30680, 667189, 20412, 41680875 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 39 ], [ 104, 122 ], [ 141, 153 ], [ 388, 394 ], [ 414, 442 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Genetic algorithms are a sub-field:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related techniques", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Evolutionary algorithms", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 190837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Evolutionary computing", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 268020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Metaheuristics", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 774458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stochastic optimization", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 7325543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Optimization", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 52033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Evolutionary algorithms is a sub-field of evolutionary computing.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 268020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Evolution strategies (ES, see Rechenberg, 1994) evolve individuals by means of mutation and intermediate or discrete recombination. ES algorithms are designed particularly to solve problems in the real-value domain. They use self-adaptation to adjust control parameters of the search. De-randomization of self-adaptation has led to the contemporary Covariance Matrix Adaptation Evolution Strategy (CMA-ES).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 940033, 8143131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 399, 405 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Evolutionary programming (EP) involves populations of solutions with primarily mutation and selection and arbitrary representations. They use self-adaptation to adjust parameters, and can include other variation operations such as combining information from multiple parents.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 460689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Estimation of Distribution Algorithm (EDA) substitutes traditional reproduction operators by model-guided operators. Such models are learned from the population by employing machine learning techniques and represented as Probabilistic Graphical Models, from which new solutions can be sampled or generated from guided-crossover.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 3062637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Genetic programming (GP) is a related technique popularized by John Koza in which computer programs, rather than function parameters, are optimized. Genetic programming often uses tree-based internal data structures to represent the computer programs for adaptation instead of the list structures typical of genetic algorithms. There are many variants of Genetic Programming, including Cartesian genetic programming, Gene expression programming, Grammatical Evolution, Linear genetic programming, Multi expression programming etc.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 12424, 147867, 30806, 8519, 208382, 57551456, 1098818, 5609640, 1217294, 47623626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 64, 73 ], [ 181, 191 ], [ 201, 215 ], [ 282, 286 ], [ 387, 416 ], [ 418, 445 ], [ 447, 468 ], [ 470, 496 ], [ 498, 526 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Grouping genetic algorithm (GGA) is an evolution of the GA where the focus is shifted from individual items, like in classical GAs, to groups or subset of items. The idea behind this GA evolution proposed by Emanuel Falkenauer is that solving some complex problems, a.k.a. clustering or partitioning problems where a set of items must be split into disjoint group of items in an optimal way, would better be achieved by making characteristics of the groups of items equivalent to genes. These kind of problems include bin packing, line balancing, clustering with respect to a distance measure, equal piles, etc., on which classic GAs proved to perform poorly. Making genes equivalent to groups implies chromosomes that are in general of variable length, and special genetic operators that manipulate whole groups of items. For bin packing in particular, a GGA hybridized with the Dominance Criterion of Martello and Toth, is arguably the best technique to date.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 287015, 669675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 519, 530 ], [ 548, 558 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Interactive evolutionary algorithms are evolutionary algorithms that use human evaluation. They are usually applied to domains where it is hard to design a computational fitness function, for example, evolving images, music, artistic designs and forms to fit users' aesthetic preference.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 901162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Swarm intelligence is a sub-field of evolutionary computing.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 268020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ant colony optimization (ACO) uses many ants (or agents) equipped with a pheromone model to traverse the solution space and find locally productive areas. ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 588615 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although considered an Estimation of distribution algorithm, Particle swarm optimization (PSO) is a computational method for multi-parameter optimization which also uses population-based approach. A population (swarm) of candidate solutions (particles) moves in the search space, and the movement of the particles is influenced both by their own best known position and swarm's global best known position. Like genetic algorithms, the PSO method depends on information sharing among population members. In some problems the PSO is often more computationally efficient than the GAs, especially in unconstrained problems with continuous variables.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 3062637, 337083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 59 ], [ 61, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Evolutionary computation is a sub-field of the metaheuristic methods.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 774458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Memetic algorithm (MA), often called hybrid genetic algorithm among others, is a population-based method in which solutions are also subject to local improvement phases. The idea of memetic algorithms comes from memes, which unlike genes, can adapt themselves. In some problem areas they are shown to be more efficient than traditional evolutionary algorithms.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 3989208, 19312 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 213, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bacteriologic algorithms (BA) inspired by evolutionary ecology and, more particularly, bacteriologic adaptation. Evolutionary ecology is the study of living organisms in the context of their environment, with the aim of discovering how they adapt. Its basic concept is that in a heterogeneous environment, there is not one individual that fits the whole environment. So, one needs to reason at the population level. It is also believed BAs could be successfully applied to complex positioning problems (antennas for cell phones, urban planning, and so on) or data mining.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 1261011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cultural algorithm (CA) consists of the population component almost identical to that of the genetic algorithm and, in addition, a knowledge component called the belief space.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 13478962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Differential evolution (DE) inspired by migration of superorganisms.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 3132241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gaussian adaptation (normal or natural adaptation, abbreviated NA to avoid confusion with GA) is intended for the maximisation of manufacturing yield of signal processing systems. It may also be used for ordinary parametric optimisation. It relies on a certain theorem valid for all regions of acceptability and all Gaussian distributions. The efficiency of NA relies on information theory and a certain theorem of efficiency. Its efficiency is defined as information divided by the work needed to get the information. Because NA maximises mean fitness rather than the fitness of the individual, the landscape is smoothed such that valleys between peaks may disappear. Therefore it has a certain \"ambition\" to avoid local peaks in the fitness landscape. NA is also good at climbing sharp crests by adaptation of the moment matrix, because NA may maximise the disorder (average information) of the Gaussian simultaneously keeping the mean fitness constant.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 9210345, 15445, 187849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 870, 889 ], [ 934, 946 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Metaheuristic methods broadly fall within stochastic optimisation methods.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 7325543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Simulated annealing (SA) is a related global optimization technique that traverses the search space by testing random mutations on an individual solution. A mutation that increases fitness is always accepted. A mutation that lowers fitness is accepted probabilistically based on the difference in fitness and a decreasing temperature parameter. In SA parlance, one speaks of seeking the lowest energy instead of the maximum fitness. SA can also be used within a standard GA algorithm by starting with a relatively high rate of mutation and decreasing it over time along a given schedule.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 172244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tabu search (TS) is similar to simulated annealing in that both traverse the solution space by testing mutations of an individual solution. While simulated annealing generates only one mutated solution, tabu search generates many mutated solutions and moves to the solution with the lowest energy of those generated. In order to prevent cycling and encourage greater movement through the solution space, a tabu list is maintained of partial or complete solutions. It is forbidden to move to a solution that contains elements of the tabu list, which is updated as the solution traverses the solution space.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 381937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Extremal optimization (EO) Unlike GAs, which work with a population of candidate solutions, EO evolves a single solution and makes local modifications to the worst components. This requires that a suitable representation be selected which permits individual solution components to be assigned a quality measure (\"fitness\"). The governing principle behind this algorithm is that of emergent improvement through selectively removing low-quality components and replacing them with a randomly selected component. This is decidedly at odds with a GA that selects good solutions in an attempt to make better solutions.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 4832828, 313942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 132, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The cross-entropy (CE) method generates candidate solutions via a parameterized probability distribution. The parameters are updated via cross-entropy minimization, so as to generate better samples in the next iteration.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 5767980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Reactive search optimization (RSO) advocates the integration of sub-symbolic machine learning techniques into search heuristics for solving complex optimization problems. The word reactive hints at a ready response to events during the search through an internal online feedback loop for the self-tuning of critical parameters. Methodologies of interest for Reactive Search include machine learning and statistics, in particular reinforcement learning, active or query learning, neural networks, and metaheuristics.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 66294, 28801798, 1729542, 774458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 430, 452 ], [ 454, 478 ], [ 480, 495 ], [ 501, 515 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Genetic programming", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12424 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of genetic algorithm applications", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28311992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Genetic algorithms in signal processing (a.k.a. particle filters)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1396948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Propagation of schema", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17808671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Universal Darwinism", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20847621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Metaheuristics", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 774458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Learning classifier system", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 854461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rule-based machine learning", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 51997474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rechenberg, Ingo (1994): Evolutionsstrategie '94, Stuttgart: Fromman-Holzboog.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Schwefel, Hans-Paul (1974): Numerische Optimierung von Computer-Modellen (PhD thesis). Reprinted by Birkhäuser (1977).", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Provides a list of resources in the genetic algorithms field", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " An Overview of the History and Flavors of Evolutionary Algorithms", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Genetic Algorithms - Computer programs that \"evolve\" in ways that resemble natural selection can solve complex problems even their creators do not fully understand An excellent introduction to GA by John Holland and with an application to the Prisoner's Dilemma", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " An online interactive Genetic Algorithm tutorial for a reader to practise or learn how a GA works: Learn step by step or watch global convergence in batch, change the population size, crossover rates/bounds, mutation rates/bounds and selection mechanisms, and add constraints.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A Genetic Algorithm Tutorial by Darrell Whitley Computer Science Department Colorado State University An excellent tutorial with much theory", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Essentials of Metaheuristics\", 2009 (225 p). Free open text by Sean Luke.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Global Optimization Algorithms – Theory and Application", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Genetic Algorithms in Python Tutorial with the intuition behind GAs and Python implementation.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Genetic Algorithms evolves to solve the prisoner's dilemma. Written by Robert Axelrod.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Genetisk programmering", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Genetic_algorithms", "Evolutionary_algorithms", "Search_algorithms", "Cybernetics", "Digital_organisms", "Machine_learning" ]

[ "optimize problem", "GA" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Jupiter ( or , from Proto-Italic \"day, sky\" + \"father\", thus \"sky father\" Greek: Δίας or Ζεύς), also known as Jove (gen. Iovis ), is the god of the sky and thunder, and king of the gods in ancient Roman religion and mythology. Jupiter was the chief deity of Roman state religion throughout the Republican and Imperial eras, until Christianity became the dominant religion of the Empire. In Roman mythology, he negotiates with Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome, to establish principles of Roman religion such as offering, or sacrifice.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 30138690, 351417, 34398, 34398, 12539, 6007897, 5456607, 2174623, 214954, 28957716, 25816, 25507, 2352987, 85284, 8489792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 32 ], [ 64, 74 ], [ 83, 87 ], [ 91, 95 ], [ 118, 121 ], [ 139, 153 ], [ 158, 165 ], [ 171, 187 ], [ 191, 213 ], [ 218, 227 ], [ 296, 306 ], [ 311, 319 ], [ 332, 387 ], [ 428, 442 ], [ 455, 467 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter is usually thought to have originated as a sky god. His identifying implement is the thunderbolt and his primary sacred animal is the eagle, which held precedence over other birds in the taking of auspices and became one of the most common symbols of the Roman army (see Aquila). The two emblems were often combined to represent the god in the form of an eagle holding in its claws a thunderbolt, frequently seen on Greek and Roman coins. As the sky-god, he was a divine witness to oaths, the sacred trust on which justice and good government depend. Many of his functions were focused on the Capitoline Hill, where the citadel was located. In the Capitoline Triad, he was the central guardian of the state with Juno and Minerva. His sacred tree was the oak.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 88138, 462184, 753281, 1806573, 144901, 8657425, 944850, 668594, 19845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 104 ], [ 205, 213 ], [ 263, 273 ], [ 279, 285 ], [ 601, 616 ], [ 628, 635 ], [ 656, 672 ], [ 720, 724 ], [ 729, 736 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Romans regarded Jupiter as the equivalent of the Greek Zeus, and in Latin literature and Roman art, the myths and iconography of Zeus are adapted under the name Iuppiter. In the Greek-influenced tradition, Jupiter was the brother of Neptune and Pluto, the Roman equivalents of Poseidon and Hades respectively. Each presided over one of the three realms of the universe: sky, the waters, and the underworld. The Italic Diespiter was also a sky god who manifested himself in the daylight, usually identified with Jupiter. Tinia is usually regarded as his Etruscan counterpart.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1449016, 34398, 18058, 1076505, 146091, 98694, 22948, 13225, 2237587, 85717, 85681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 45 ], [ 59, 63 ], [ 72, 88 ], [ 93, 102 ], [ 237, 244 ], [ 249, 254 ], [ 281, 289 ], [ 294, 299 ], [ 415, 421 ], [ 524, 529 ], [ 557, 565 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Romans believed that Jupiter granted them supremacy because they had honoured him more than any other people had. Jupiter was \"the fount of the auspices upon which the relationship of the city with the gods rested.\" He personified the divine authority of Rome's highest offices, internal organization, and external relations. His image in the Republican and Imperial Capitol bore regalia associated with Rome's ancient kings and the highest consular and Imperial honours.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Role in the state", "target_page_ids": [ 462184, 25816, 25507, 1403809, 8489792, 2390810, 3828146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 156 ], [ 347, 357 ], [ 362, 370 ], [ 384, 391 ], [ 408, 428 ], [ 445, 453 ], [ 458, 474 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The consuls swore their oath of office in Jupiter's name, and honoured him on the annual feriae of the Capitol in September. To thank him for his help, and to secure his continued support, they sacrificed a white ox (bos mas) with gilded horns. A similar sacrificial offering was made by triumphal generals, who surrendered the tokens of their victory at the feet of Jupiter's statue in the Capitol. Some scholars have viewed the triumphator as embodying (or impersonating) Jupiter in the triumphal procession.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Role in the state", "target_page_ids": [ 26130884, 38012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 95 ], [ 288, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter's association with kingship and sovereignty was reinterpreted as Rome's form of government changed. Originally, Rome was ruled by kings; after the monarchy was abolished and the Republic established, religious prerogatives were transferred to the patres, the patrician ruling class. Nostalgia for the kingship (affectatio regni) was considered treasonous. Those suspected of harbouring monarchical ambitions were punished, regardless of their service to the state. In the 5th century BC, the triumphator Camillus was sent into exile after he drove a chariot with a team of four white horses (quadriga)—an honour reserved for Jupiter himself. When Marcus Manlius, whose defense of the Capitol against the invading Gauls had earned him the name Capitolinus, was accused of regal pretensions, he was executed as a traitor by being cast from the Tarpeian Rock. His house on the Capitoline Hill was razed, and it was decreed that no patrician should ever be allowed to live there. Capitoline Jupiter represented a continuity of royal power from the Regal period, and conferred power to the magistrates who paid their respects to him.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Role in the state", "target_page_ids": [ 8489792, 25816, 181397, 158293, 347069, 382857, 867792, 169923, 25882, 9167402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 143 ], [ 186, 194 ], [ 267, 289 ], [ 512, 520 ], [ 600, 608 ], [ 655, 669 ], [ 712, 726 ], [ 850, 863 ], [ 1052, 1064 ], [ 1093, 1104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Conflict of the Orders, Rome's plebeians demanded the right to hold political and religious office. During their first secessio (similar to a general strike), they withdrew from the city and threatened to found their own. When they agreed to come back to Rome they vowed the hill where they had retreated to Jupiter as symbol and guarantor of the unity of the Roman res publica. Plebeians eventually became eligible for all the magistracies and most priesthoods, but the high priest of Jupiter (Flamen Dialis) remained the preserve of patricians.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Role in the state", "target_page_ids": [ 481250, 244404, 3076429, 41138909, 9167402, 1546787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 33 ], [ 42, 51 ], [ 130, 138 ], [ 153, 167 ], [ 439, 451 ], [ 506, 519 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter was served by the patrician Flamen Dialis, the highest-ranking member of the flamines, a college of fifteen priests in the official public cult of Rome, each of whom was devoted to a particular deity. His wife, the Flaminica Dialis, had her own duties, and presided over the sacrifice of a ram to Jupiter on each of the nundinae, the \"market\" days of a calendar cycle, comparable to a week. The couple were required to marry by the exclusive patrician ritual confarreatio, which included a sacrifice of spelt bread to Jupiter Farreus (from far, \"wheat, grain\").", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Role in the state", "target_page_ids": [ 347423, 11288037, 25792, 1723052, 847308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 93 ], [ 97, 104 ], [ 328, 336 ], [ 467, 479 ], [ 511, 516 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The office of Flamen Dialis was circumscribed by several unique ritual prohibitions, some of which shed light on the sovereign nature of the god himself. For instance, the flamen may remove his clothes or apex (his pointed hat) only when under a roof, in order to avoid showing himself naked to the sky—that is, \"as if under the eyes of Jupiter\" as god of the heavens. Every time the Flaminica saw a lightning bolt or heard a clap of thunder (Jupiter's distinctive instrument), she was prohibited from carrying on with her normal routine until she placated the god.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Role in the state", "target_page_ids": [ 1727581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 205, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some privileges of the flamen of Jupiter may reflect the regal nature of Jupiter: he had the use of the curule chair, and was the only priest (sacerdos) who was preceded by a lictor and had a seat in the senate. Other regulations concern his ritual purity and his separation from the military function; he was forbidden to ride a horse or see the army outside the sacred boundary of Rome (pomerium). Although he served the god who embodied the sanctity of the oath, it was not religiously permissible (fas) for the Dialis to swear an oath. He could not have contacts with anything dead or connected with death: corpses, funerals, funeral fires, raw meat. This set of restrictions reflects the fulness of life and absolute freedom that are features of Jupiter.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Role in the state", "target_page_ids": [ 1584743, 26130884, 308532, 16685964, 300575, 26130884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 116 ], [ 143, 151 ], [ 175, 181 ], [ 204, 210 ], [ 389, 397 ], [ 502, 505 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The augures publici, augurs were a college of sacerdotes who were in charge of all inaugurations and of the performing of ceremonies known as auguria. Their creation was traditionally ascribed to Romulus. They were considered the only official interpreters of Jupiter's will, thence they were essential to the very existence of the Roman State as Romans saw in Jupiter the only source of state authority.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Role in the state", "target_page_ids": [ 47891, 9403710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 27 ], [ 196, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The fetials were a college of 20 men devoted to the religious administration of international affairs of state. Their task was to preserve and apply the fetial law (ius fetiale), a complex set of procedures aimed at ensuring the protection of the gods in Rome's relations with foreign states. Iuppiter Lapis is the god under whose protection they act, and whom the chief fetial (pater patratus) invokes in the rite concluding a treaty. If a declaration of war ensues, the fetial calls upon Jupiter and Quirinus, the heavenly, earthly and chthonic gods as witnesses of any potential violation of the ius. He can then declare war within 33 days.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Role in the state", "target_page_ids": [ 17939404, 30106405, 261939, 85609, 444886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 11 ], [ 293, 307 ], [ 441, 459 ], [ 502, 510 ], [ 538, 546 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The action of the fetials falls under Jupiter's jurisdiction as the divine defender of good faith. Several emblems of the fetial office pertain to Jupiter. The silex was the stone used for the fetial sacrifice, housed in the Temple of Iuppiter Feretrius, as was their sceptre. Sacred herbs (sagmina), sometimes identified as vervain, had to be taken from the nearby citadel (arx) for their ritual use.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Role in the state", "target_page_ids": [ 23005824, 1117409, 8657425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 235, 253 ], [ 325, 332 ], [ 366, 379 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The role of Jupiter in the conflict of the orders is a reflection of the religiosity of the Romans. On one side, the patricians were able to naturally claim the support of the supreme god as they held the auspices of the State. On the other side, the plebs (plebeians) argued that, as Jupiter was the source of justice, they had his favor because their cause was just.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Role in the state", "target_page_ids": [ 481250, 462184, 244404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 49 ], [ 205, 213 ], [ 251, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first secession was caused by the excessive debt burden on the plebs. The legal institute of the nexum permitted a debtor to become a slave of his creditor. The plebs argued the debts had become unsustainable because of the expenses of the wars wanted by the patricians. As the senate did not accede to the proposal of a total debt remission advanced by dictator and augur Manius Valerius Maximus the plebs retired on the Mount Sacer, a hill located three Roman miles to the North-northeast of Rome, past the Nomentan bridge on river Anio. The place is windy and was usually the site of rites of divination performed by haruspices. The senate in the end sent a delegation composed of ten members with full powers of making a deal with the plebs, of which were part Menenius Agrippa and Manius Valerius. It was Valerius, according to the inscription found at Arezzo in 1688 and written on the order of Augustus as well as other literary sources, that brought the plebs down from the Mount, after the secessionists had consecrated it to Jupiter Territor and built an altar (ara) on its summit. The fear of the wrath of Jupiter was an important element in the solution of the crisis. The consecration of the Mount probably referred to its summit only. The ritual requested the participation of both an augur (presumably Manius Valerius himself) and a pontifex.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Role in the state", "target_page_ids": [ 1145914, 40061607, 1633658, 2141166 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 106 ], [ 377, 400 ], [ 538, 542 ], [ 769, 785 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The second secession was caused by the autocratic and arrogant behaviour of the decemviri, who had been charged by the Roman people with writing down the laws in use till then kept secret by the patrician magistrates and the sacerdotes. All magistracies and the tribunes of the plebs had resigned in advance. The task resulted in the XII Tables, which though concerned only private law. The plebs once again retreated to the Sacer Mons: this act besides recalling the first secession was meant to seek the protection of the supreme god. The secession ended with the resignation of the decemviri and an amnesty for the rebellious soldiers who had deserted from their camp near Mount Algidus while warring against the Volscians, abandoning the commanders. The amnesty was granted by the senate and guaranteed by the pontifex maximus Quintus Furius (in Livy's version) (or Marcus Papirius) who also supervised the nomination of the new tribunes of the plebs, then gathered on the Aventine Hill. The role played by the pontifex maximus in a situation of vacation of powers is a significant element underlining the religious basis and character of the tribunicia potestas.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Role in the state", "target_page_ids": [ 180572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A dominant line of scholarship has held that Rome lacked a body of myths in its earliest period, or that this original mythology has been irrecoverably obscured by the influence of the Greek narrative tradition. After the influence of Greek culture on Roman culture, Latin literature and iconography reinterpreted the myths of Zeus in depictions and narratives of Jupiter. In the legendary history of Rome, Jupiter is often connected to kings and kingship.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Myths and legends", "target_page_ids": [ 23416994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 185, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter is depicted as the twin of Juno in a statue at Praeneste that showed them nursed by Fortuna Primigenia. An inscription that is also from Praeneste, however, says that Fortuna Primigenia was Jupiter's first-born child. Jacqueline Champeaux sees this contradiction as the result of successive different cultural and religious phases, in which a wave of influence coming from the Hellenic world made Fortuna the daughter of Jupiter. The childhood of Zeus is an important theme in Greek religion, art and literature, but there are only rare (or dubious) depictions of Jupiter as a child.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Myths and legends", "target_page_ids": [ 610679, 610679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 64 ], [ 92, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Faced by a period of bad weather endangering the harvest during one early spring, King Numa resorted to the scheme of asking the advice of the god by evoking his presence. He succeeded through the help of Picus and Faunus, whom he had imprisoned by making them drunk. The two gods (with a charm) evoked Jupiter, who was forced to come down to earth at the Aventine (hence named Iuppiter Elicius, according to Ovid). After Numa skilfully avoided the requests of the god for human sacrifices, Jupiter agreed to his request to know how lightning bolts are averted, asking only for the substitutions Numa had mentioned: an onion bulb, hairs and a fish. Moreover, Jupiter promised that at the sunrise of the following day he would give to Numa and the Roman people pawns of the imperium. The following day, after throwing three lightning bolts across a clear sky, Jupiter sent down from heaven a shield. Since this shield had no angles, Numa named it ancile; because in it resided the fate of the imperium, he had many copies made of it to disguise the real one. He asked the smith Mamurius Veturius to make the copies, and gave them to the Salii. As his only reward, Mamurius expressed the wish that his name be sung in the last of their carmina. Plutarch gives a slightly different version of the story, writing that the cause of the miraculous drop of the shield was a plague and not linking it with the Roman imperium.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Myths and legends", "target_page_ids": [ 85284, 38793397, 239783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 91 ], [ 1077, 1094 ], [ 1136, 1141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Throughout his reign, King Tullus had a scornful attitude towards religion. His temperament was warlike, and he disregarded religious rites and piety. After conquering the Albans with the duel between the Horatii and Curiatii, Tullus destroyed Alba Longa and deported its inhabitants to Rome. As Livy tells the story, omens (prodigia) in the form of a rain of stones occurred on the Alban Mount because the deported Albans had disregarded their ancestral rites linked to the sanctuary of Jupiter. In addition to the omens, a voice was heard requesting that the Albans perform the rites. A plague followed and at last the king himself fell ill. As a consequence, the warlike character of Tullus broke down; he resorted to religion and petty, superstitious practices. At last, he found a book by Numa recording a secret rite on how to evoke Iuppiter Elicius. The king attempted to perform it, but since he executed the rite improperly the god threw a lightning bolt which burned down the king's house and killed Tullus.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Myths and legends", "target_page_ids": [ 179601, 3792724, 742442, 23455280, 18049, 26130884, 14810458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 33 ], [ 172, 178 ], [ 205, 225 ], [ 244, 254 ], [ 296, 300 ], [ 325, 333 ], [ 383, 394 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When approaching Rome (where Tarquin was heading to try his luck in politics after unsuccessful attempts in his native Tarquinii), an eagle swooped down, removed his hat, flew screaming in circles, replaced the hat on his head and flew away. Tarquin's wife Tanaquil interpreted this as a sign that he would become king based on the bird, the quadrant of the sky from which it came, the god who had sent it and the fact it touched his hat (an item of clothing placed on a man's most noble part, the head).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Myths and legends", "target_page_ids": [ 1563805, 249374, 462184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 128 ], [ 258, 266 ], [ 267, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Elder Tarquin is credited with introducing the Capitoline Triad to Rome, by building the so-called Capitolium Vetus. Macrobius writes this issued from his Samothracian mystery beliefs.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Myths and legends", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sacrificial victims (hostiae) offered to Jupiter were the ox (castrated bull), the lamb (on the Ides, the ovis idulis) and the wether (a castrated goat or castrated ram) (on the Ides of January). The animals were required to be white. The question of the lamb's gender is unresolved; while a sacrificial lamb for a male deity was usually male, for the vintage-opening festival the flamen Dialis sacrificed a ewe lamb to Jupiter. This rule seems to have had many exceptions, as the sacrifice of a ram on the Nundinae by the flaminica Dialis demonstrates.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cult", "target_page_ids": [ 26130884, 17158563, 26252564 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 28 ], [ 411, 414 ], [ 510, 518 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During one of the crises of the Punic Wars, Jupiter was offered every animal born that year.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cult", "target_page_ids": [ 28563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The temple to Jupiter Optimus Maximus stood on the Capitoline Hill in Rome. Jupiter was worshiped there as an individual deity, and with Juno and Minerva as part of the Capitoline Triad. The building was supposedly begun by king Tarquinius Priscus, completed by the last king (Tarquinius Superbus) and inaugurated in the early days of the Roman Republic (September 13, 509 BC). It was topped with the statues of four horses drawing a quadriga, with Jupiter as charioteer. A large statue of Jupiter stood within; on festival days, its face was painted red. In (or near) this temple was the Iuppiter Lapis: the Jupiter Stone, on which oaths could be sworn.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cult", "target_page_ids": [ 1627066, 144901, 668594, 19845, 944850, 18046, 18047, 347069, 30106405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 37 ], [ 51, 66 ], [ 137, 141 ], [ 146, 153 ], [ 169, 185 ], [ 229, 247 ], [ 277, 296 ], [ 434, 442 ], [ 610, 623 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter's Capitoline Temple probably served as the architectural model for his provincial temples. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cult", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When Hadrian built Aelia Capitolina on the site of Jerusalem, a temple to Jupiter Capitolinus was erected in the place of the destroyed Temple in Jerusalem. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cult", "target_page_ids": [ 2632, 16043, 30526 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 35 ], [ 51, 60 ], [ 136, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There were two temples in Rome dedicated to Iuppiter Stator; the first one was built and dedicated in 294 BC by Marcus Atilius Regulus after the third Samnite War. It was located on the Via Nova, below the Porta Mugonia, ancient entrance to the Palatine. Legend attributed its founding to Romulus. There may have been an earlier shrine (fanum), since the Jupiter cult is attested epigraphically. Ovid places the temple's dedication on June 27, but it is unclear whether this was the original date, or the rededication after the restoration by Augustus.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cult", "target_page_ids": [ 8269670, 3544453, 26130884, 37802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 74 ], [ 112, 134 ], [ 337, 342 ], [ 396, 400 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A second temple of Iuppiter Stator was built and dedicated by Quintus Caecilus Metellus Macedonicus after his triumph in 146 BC near the Circus Flaminius. It was connected to the restored temple of Iuno Regina with a portico (porticus Metelli).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cult", "target_page_ids": [ 8269689, 1455757, 48714977, 477808, 3470548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ], [ 137, 153 ], [ 175, 209 ], [ 217, 224 ], [ 226, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Iuppiter Victor had a temple dedicated by Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges during the third Samnite War in 295 BC. Its location is unknown, but it may be on the Quirinal, on which an inscription reading Diovei Victore has been found, or on the Palatine according to the Notitia in the Liber Regionum (regio X), which reads: aedes Iovis Victoris. Either might have been dedicated on April 13 or June 13 (days of Iuppiter Victor and of Iuppiter Invictus, respectively, in Ovid's Fasti).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cult", "target_page_ids": [ 3615250, 7352465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 71 ], [ 474, 479 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Inscriptions from the imperial age have revealed the existence of an otherwise-unknown temple of Iuppiter Propugnator on the Palatine.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cult", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The cult of Iuppiter Latiaris was the most ancient known cult of the god: it was practised since very remote times near the top of the Mons Albanus on which the god was venerated as the high protector of the Latin League under the hegemony of Alba Longa.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cult", "target_page_ids": [ 23455280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 243, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the destruction of Alba by king Tullus Hostilius the cult was forsaken. The god manifested his discontent through the prodigy of a rain of stones: the commission sent by the Roman senate to inquire was also greeted by a rain of stones and heard a loud voice from the grove on the summit of the mount requesting the Albans perform the religious service to the god according to the rites of their country. In consequence of this event the Romans instituted a festival of nine days (nundinae). Nonetheless a plague ensued: in the end Tullus Hostilius himself was affected and lastly killed by the god with a lightning bolt. The festival was reestablished on its primitive site by the last Roman king Tarquin the Proud under the leadership of Rome.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cult", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The feriae Latinae, or Latiar as they were known originally, were the common festival (panegyris) of the so-called Priscan Latins and of the Albans. Their restoration aimed at grounding Roman hegemony in this ancestral religious tradition of the Latins. The original cult was reinstated unchanged as is testified by some archaic features of the ritual: the exclusion of wine from the sacrifice the offers of milk and cheese and the ritual use of rocking among the games. Rocking is one of the most ancient rites mimicking ascent to Heaven and is very widespread. At the Latiar the rocking took place on a tree and the winner was of course the one who had swung the highest. This rite was said to have been instituted by the Albans to commemorate the disappearance of king Latinus, in the battle against Mezentius king of Caere: the rite symbolised a search for him both on earth and in heaven. The rocking as well as the customary drinking of milk was also considered to commemorate and ritually reinstate infancy. The Romans in the last form of the rite brought the sacrificial ox from Rome and every participant was bestowed a portion of the meat, rite known as carnem petere. Other games were held in every participant borough. In Rome a race of chariots (quadrigae) was held starting from the Capitol: the winner drank a liquor made with absynth. This competition has been compared to the Vedic rite of the vajapeya: in it seventeen chariots run a phoney race which must be won by the king in order to allow him to drink a cup of madhu, i. e. soma. The feasting lasted for at least four days, possibly six according to Niebuhr, one day for each of the six Latin and Alban decuriae. According to different records 47 or 53 boroughs took part in the festival (the listed names too differ in Pliny NH III 69 and Dionysius of Halicarnassus AR V 61). The Latiar became an important feature of Roman political life as they were feriae conceptivae, i. e. their date varied each year: the consuls and the highest magistrates were required to attend shortly after the beginning of the administration, originally on the Ides of March: the Feriae usually took place in early April. They could not start campaigning before its end and if any part of the games had been neglected or performed unritually the Latiar had to be wholly repeated. The inscriptions from the imperial age record the festival back to the time of the decemvirs.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cult", "target_page_ids": [ 33595910, 81919, 85502, 2384547, 373452, 204651, 312726, 180572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 774, 781 ], [ 805, 814 ], [ 823, 828 ], [ 1413, 1421 ], [ 1625, 1632 ], [ 1929, 1947 ], [ 2419, 2427 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wissowa remarks the inner linkage of the temple of the Mons Albanus with that of the Capitol apparent in the common association with the rite of the triumph: since 231 BC some triumphing commanders had triumphed there first with the same legal features as in Rome.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cult", "target_page_ids": [ 38012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 149, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Ides (the midpoint of the month, with a full moon) was sacred to Jupiter, because on that day heavenly light shone day and night. Some (or all) Ides were Feriae Iovis, sacred to Jupiter. On the Ides, a white lamb (ovis idulis) was led along Rome's Sacred Way to the Capitoline Citadel and sacrificed to him. Jupiter's two epula Iovis festivals fell on the Ides, as did his temple foundation rites as Optimus Maximus, Victor, Invictus and (possibly) Stator.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religious calendar", "target_page_ids": [ 25792, 26130884, 1925588, 8657425, 1598294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 8 ], [ 158, 164 ], [ 252, 262 ], [ 270, 288 ], [ 326, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The nundinae recurred every ninth day, dividing the calendar into a market cycle analogous to a week. Market days gave rural people (pagi) the opportunity to sell in town and to be informed of religious and political edicts, which were posted publicly for three days. According to tradition, these festival days were instituted by the king Servius Tullius. The high priestess of Jupiter (Flaminica Dialis) sanctified the days by sacrificing a ram to Jupiter.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religious calendar", "target_page_ids": [ 26252564, 3752412, 27951, 1546787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ], [ 133, 137 ], [ 340, 355 ], [ 388, 404 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Republican era, more fixed holidays on the Roman calendar were devoted to Jupiter than to any other deity.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religious calendar", "target_page_ids": [ 25816, 26130884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 25 ], [ 32, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Festivals of viniculture and wine were devoted to Jupiter, since grapes were particularly susceptible to adverse weather. Dumézil describes wine as a \"kingly\" drink with the power to inebriate and exhilarate, analogous to the Vedic Soma.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religious calendar", "target_page_ids": [ 513591, 99767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 24 ], [ 232, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Three Roman festivals were connected with viniculture and wine.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religious calendar", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The rustic Vinalia altera on August 19 asked for good weather for ripening the grapes before harvest. When the grapes were ripe, a sheep was sacrificed to Jupiter and the flamen Dialis cut the first of the grape harvest.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religious calendar", "target_page_ids": [ 21347614 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Meditrinalia on October 11 marked the end of the grape harvest; the new wine was pressed, tasted and mixed with old wine to control fermentation. In the Fasti Amiternini, this festival is assigned to Jupiter. Later Roman sources invented a goddess Meditrina, probably to explain the name of the festival.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religious calendar", "target_page_ids": [ 338902, 21991369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 85, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the Vinalia urbana on April 23, new wine was offered to Jupiter. Large quantities of it were poured into a ditch near the temple of Venus Erycina, which was located on the Capitol.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religious calendar", "target_page_ids": [ 21347614, 37622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 14 ], [ 135, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Regifugium (\"King's Flight\") on February 24 has often been discussed in connection with the Poplifugia on July 5, a day holy to Jupiter. The Regifugium followed the festival of Iuppiter Terminus (Jupiter of Boundaries) on February 23. Later Roman antiquarians misinterpreted the Regifugium as marking the expulsion of the monarchy, but the \"king\" of this festival may have been the priest known as the rex sacrorum who ritually enacted the waning and renewal of power associated with the New Year (March 1 in the old Roman calendar). A temporary vacancy of power (construed as a yearly \"interregnum\") occurred between the Regifugium on February 24 and the New Year on March 1 (when the lunar cycle was thought to coincide again with the solar cycle), and the uncertainty and change during the two winter months were over. Some scholars emphasize the traditional political significance of the day.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religious calendar", "target_page_ids": [ 2180019, 18109430, 614648, 149685, 326523, 21637, 368411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 96, 106 ], [ 191, 199 ], [ 252, 263 ], [ 407, 419 ], [ 493, 501 ], [ 592, 603 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Poplifugia (\"Routing of Armies\"), a day sacred to Jupiter, may similarly mark the second half of the year; before the Julian calendar reform, the months were named numerically, Quintilis (the fifth month) to December (the tenth month). The Poplifugia was a \"primitive military ritual\" for which the adult male population assembled for purification rites, after which they ritually dispelled foreign invaders from Rome.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religious calendar", "target_page_ids": [ 15651, 311221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 144 ], [ 181, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There were two festivals called epulum Iovis (\"Feast of Jove\"). One was held on September 13, the anniversary of the foundation of Jupiter's Capitoline temple. The other (and probably older) festival was part of the Plebeian Games (Ludi Plebei), and was held on November 13. In the 3rd century BC, the epulum Iovis became similar to a lectisternium.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religious calendar", "target_page_ids": [ 28429753, 2893723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 216, 230 ], [ 335, 348 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most ancient Roman games followed after one day (considered a dies ater, or \"black day\", i. e. a day which was traditionally considered unfortunate even though it was not nefas, see also article Glossary of ancient Roman religion) the two Epula Iovis of September and November.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religious calendar", "target_page_ids": [ 26130884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The games of September were named Ludi Magni; originally they were not held every year, but later became the annual Ludi Romani and were held in the Circus Maximus after a procession from the Capitol. The games were attributed to Tarquinius Priscus, and linked to the cult of Jupiter on the Capitol. Romans themselves acknowledged analogies with the triumph, which Dumézil thinks can be explained by their common Etruscan origin; the magistrate in charge of the games dressed as the triumphator and the pompa circensis resembled a triumphal procession. Wissowa and Mommsen argue that they were a detached part of the triumph on the above grounds (a conclusion which Dumézil rejects).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religious calendar", "target_page_ids": [ 37328, 38012, 30089265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 149, 163 ], [ 350, 357 ], [ 503, 518 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Ludi Plebei took place in November in the Circus Flaminius.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religious calendar", "target_page_ids": [ 1455757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mommsen argued that the epulum of the Ludi Plebei was the model of the Ludi Romani, but Wissowa finds the evidence for this assumption insufficient. The Ludi Plebei were probably established in 534 BC. Their association with the cult of Jupiter is attested by Cicero.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religious calendar", "target_page_ids": [ 85762 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The feriae of December 23 were devoted to a major ceremony in honour of Acca Larentia (or Larentina), in which some of the highest religious authorities participated (probably including the Flamen Quirinalis and the pontiffs). The Fasti Praenestini marks the day as feriae Iovis, as does Macrobius. It is unclear whether the rite of parentatio was itself the reason for the festival of Jupiter, or if this was another festival which happened to fall on the same day. Wissowa denies their association, since Jupiter and his flamen would not be involved with the underworld or the deities of death (or be present at a funeral rite held at a gravesite).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religious calendar", "target_page_ids": [ 84959, 25750171, 185096, 1438009, 28957716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 85 ], [ 190, 207 ], [ 216, 223 ], [ 231, 248 ], [ 561, 571 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Latin name Iuppiter originated as a vocative compound of the Old Latin vocative *Iou and pater (\"father\") and came to replace the Old Latin nominative case *Ious. Jove is a less common English formation based on Iov-, the stem of oblique cases of the Latin name. Linguistic studies identify the form *Iou-pater as deriving from the Proto-Italic vocable *Djous Patēr, and ultimately the Indo-European vocative compound *Dyēu-pəter (meaning \"O Father Sky-god\"; nominative: *Dyēus-pətēr).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 32559, 430640, 21774, 8569916, 22760983, 30138690, 559297, 1110853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 57 ], [ 65, 74 ], [ 144, 159 ], [ 189, 196 ], [ 267, 277 ], [ 336, 348 ], [ 390, 403 ], [ 476, 481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Older forms of the deity's name in Rome were Dieus-pater (\"day/sky-father\"), then Diéspiter. The 19th-century philologist Georg Wissowa asserted these names are conceptually- and linguistically-connected to Diovis and Diovis Pater; he compares the analogous formations Vedius-Veiove and fulgur Dium, as opposed to fulgur Summanum (nocturnal lightning bolt) and flamen Dialis (based on Dius, dies). The Ancient later viewed them as entities separate from Jupiter. The terms are similar in etymology and semantics (dies, \"daylight\" and Dius, \"daytime sky\"), but differ linguistically. Wissowa considers the epithet Dianus noteworthy. Dieus is the etymological equivalent of ancient Greece's Zeus and of the Teutonics' Ziu (genitive Ziewes). The Indo-European deity is the god from which the names and partially the theology of Jupiter, Zeus and the Indo-Aryan Vedic Dyaus Pita derive or have developed.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 17600879, 66540, 34398, 12446, 30569, 1481651, 201363, 99557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 135 ], [ 672, 686 ], [ 689, 693 ], [ 705, 715 ], [ 716, 719 ], [ 847, 857 ], [ 858, 863 ], [ 864, 874 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Roman practice of swearing by Jove to witness an oath in law courts is the origin of the expression \"by Jove!\"—archaic, but still in use. The name of the god was also adopted as the name of the planet Jupiter; the adjective \"jovial\" originally described those born under the planet of Jupiter (reputed to be jolly, optimistic, and buoyant in temperament).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 38930, 37512, 38930, 113055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 205, 212 ], [ 218, 227 ], [ 289, 296 ], [ 346, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jove was the original namesake of Latin forms of the weekday now known in English as Thursday (originally called Iovis Dies in Latin). These became jeudi in French, jueves in Spanish, joi in Romanian, giovedì in Italian, dijous in Catalan, Xoves in Galician, Joibe in Friulian and Dijóu in Provençal.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 1277350, 54633, 17730, 10597, 26825, 25534, 14708, 5282, 26614365, 317455, 465924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 60 ], [ 85, 93 ], [ 127, 132 ], [ 157, 163 ], [ 175, 182 ], [ 191, 199 ], [ 212, 219 ], [ 231, 238 ], [ 249, 257 ], [ 268, 276 ], [ 290, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The epithets of a Roman god indicate his theological qualities. The study of these epithets must consider their origins (the historical context of an epithet's source).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter's most ancient attested forms of cult belong to the State cult: these include the mount cult (see section above note n. 22). In Rome this cult entailed the existence of particular sanctuaries the most important of which were located on Mons Capitolinus (earlier Tarpeius). The mount had two tops that were both destined to the discharge of acts of cult related to Jupiter. The northern and higher top was the arx and on it was located the observation place of the augurs (auguraculum) and to it headed the monthly procession of the sacra Idulia. On the southern top was to be found the most ancient sanctuary of the god: the shrine of Iuppiter Feretrius allegedly built by Romulus, restored by Augustus. The god here had no image and was represented by the sacred flintstone (silex). The most ancient known rites, those of the spolia opima and of the fetials which connect Jupiter with Mars and Quirinus are dedicated to Iuppiter Feretrius or Iuppiter Lapis. The concept of the sky god was already overlapped with the ethical and political domain since this early time. According to Wissowa and Dumézil Iuppiter Lapis seems to be inseparable from Iuppiter Feretrius in whose tiny templet on the Capitol the stone was lodged.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 8657425, 47891, 26130884, 17939404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 418, 421 ], [ 473, 479 ], [ 481, 492 ], [ 861, 868 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another most ancient epithet is Lucetius: although the Ancients, followed by some modern scholars such as Wissowa, interpreted it as referring to sunlight, the carmen Saliare shows that it refers to lightning. A further confirmation of this interpretation is provided by the sacred meaning of lightning which is reflected in the sensitivity of the flaminica Dialis to the phenomenon. To the same atmospheric complex belongs the epithet Elicius: while the ancient erudites thought it was connected to lightning, it is in fact related to the opening of the rervoirs of rain, as is testified by the ceremony of the Nudipedalia, meant to propitiate rainfall and devoted to Jupiter. and the ritual of the lapis manalis, the stone which was brought into the city through the Porta Capena and carried around in times of drought, which was named Aquaelicium. Other early epithets connected with the atmospheric quality of Jupiter are Pluvius, Imbricius, Tempestas, Tonitrualis, tempestatium divinarum potens, Serenator, Serenus and, referred to lightning, Fulgur, Fulgur Fulmen, later as nomen agentis Fulgurator, Fulminator: the high antiquity of the cult is testified by the neutre form Fulgur and the use of the term for the bidental, the lightning well dug on the spot hit by a lightning bolt.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 13142963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 700, 713 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A group of epithets has been interpreted by Wissowa (and his followers) as a reflection of the agricultural or warring nature of the god, some of which are also in the list of eleven preserved by Augustine. The agricultural ones include Opitulus, Almus, Ruminus, Frugifer, Farreus, Pecunia, Dapalis, Epulo. Augustine gives an explanation of the ones he lists which should reflect Varro's: Opitulus because he brings opem (means, relief) to the needy, Almus because he nourishes everything, Ruminus because he nourishes the living beings by breastfeeding them, Pecunia because everything belongs to him.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dumézil maintains the cult usage of these epithets is not documented and that the epithet Ruminus, as Wissowa and Latte remarked, may not have the meaning given by Augustine but it should be understood as part of a series including Rumina, Ruminalis ficus, Iuppiter Ruminus, which bears the name of Rome itself with an Etruscan vocalism preserved in inscriptions, series that would be preserved in the sacred language (cf. Rumach Etruscan for Roman). However many scholars have argued that the name of Rome, Ruma, meant in fact woman's breast. Diva Rumina, as Augustine testifies in the cited passage, was the goddess of suckling babies: she was venerated near the ficus ruminalis and was offered only libations of milk. Here moreover Augustine cites the verses devoted to Jupiter by Quintus Valerius Soranus, while hypothesising Iuno (more adept in his view as a breastfeeder), i.e. Rumina instead of Ruminus, might be nothing else than Iuppiter: \"Iuppiter omnipotens regum rerumque deumque Progenitor genetrixque deum...\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 85614, 18812559 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 546, 557 ], [ 786, 810 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Dumézil's opinion Farreus should be understood as related to the rite of the confarreatio the most sacred form of marriage, the name of which is due to the spelt cake eaten by the spouses, rather than surmising an agricultural quality of the god: the epithet means the god was the guarantor of the effects of the ceremony, to which the presence of his flamen is necessary and that he can interrupt with a clap of thunder.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The epithet Dapalis is on the other hand connected to a rite described by Cato and mentioned by Festus. Before the sowing of autumn or spring the peasant offered a banquet of roast beef and a cup of wine to Jupiter : it is natural that on such occasions he would entreat the god who has power over the weather, however Cato' s prayer of s one of sheer offer and no request. The language suggests another attitude: Jupiter is invited to a banquet which is supposedly abundant and magnificent. The god is honoured as summus. The peasant may hope he shall receive a benefit, but he does not say it. This interpretation finds support in the analogous urban ceremony of the epulum Iovis, from which the god derives the epithet of Epulo and which was a magnificent feast accompanied by flutes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Epithets related to warring are in Wissowa's view Iuppiter Feretrius, Iuppiter Stator, Iuppiter Victor and Iuppiter Invictus. Feretrius would be connected with war by the rite of the first type of spolia opima which is in fact a dedication to the god of the arms of the defeated king of the enemy that happens whenever he has been killed by the king of Rome or his equivalent authority. Here too Dumézil notes the dedication has to do with regality and not with war, since the rite is in fact the offer of the arms of a king by a king: a proof of such an assumption is provided by the fact that the arms of an enemy king captured by an officer or a common soldier were dedicated to Mars and Quirinus respectively.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 186215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Iuppiter Stator was first attributed by tradition to Romulus, who had prayed to the god for his almighty help at a difficult time during the battle with the Sabines of king Titus Tatius. Dumézil opines the action of Jupiter is not that of a god of war who wins through fighting: Jupiter acts by causing an inexplicable change in the morale of the fighters of the two sides. The same feature can be detected also in the certainly historical record of the battle of the third Samnite War in 294 BC, in which consul Marcus Atilius Regulus vowed a temple to Iuppiter Stator if \"Jupiter will stop the rout of the Roman army and if afterwards the Samnite legions shall be victouriously massacred...It looked as if the gods themselves had taken side with Romans, so much easily did the Roman arms succeed in prevailing...\". In a similar manner one can explain the epithet Victor, whose cult was founded in 295 BC on the battlefield of Sentinum by Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges and who received another vow again in 293 by consul Lucius Papirius Cursor before a battle against the Samnite legio linteata. The religious meaning of the vow is in both cases an appeal to the supreme god by a Roman chief at a time of need for divine help from the supreme god, albeit for different reasons: Fabius had remained the only political and military responsible of the Roman State after the devotio of P. Decius Mus, Papirius had to face an enemy who had acted with impious rites and vows, i.e. was religiously reprehensible.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 9403710, 3544453, 1456477, 3615250, 2612009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 60 ], [ 513, 535 ], [ 928, 936 ], [ 940, 969 ], [ 1022, 1044 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "More recently Dario Sabbatucci has given a different interpretation of the meaning of Stator within the frame of his structuralistic and dialectic vision of Roman calendar, identifying oppositions, tensions and equilibria: January is the month of Janus, at the beginning of the year, in the uncertain time of winter (the most ancient calendar had only ten months, from March to December). In this month Janus deifies kingship and defies Jupiter. Moreover, January sees also the presence of Veiovis who appears as an anti-Jupiter, of Carmenta who is the goddess of birth and like Janus has two opposed faces, Prorsa and Postvorta (also named Antevorta and Porrima), of Iuturna, who as a gushing spring evokes the process of coming into being from non-being as the god of passage and change does. In this period the preeminence of Janus needs compensating on the Ides through the action of Jupiter Stator, who plays the role of anti-Janus, i.e. of moderator of the action of Janus.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 159852, 84871, 85135, 85035, 85035, 85316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 247, 252 ], [ 490, 497 ], [ 533, 541 ], [ 641, 650 ], [ 655, 662 ], [ 668, 675 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some epithets describe a particular aspect of the god, or one of his functions:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jove Aegiochus, Jove \"Holder of the Goat or Aegis\", as the father of Aegipan.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 13812010 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter Caelus, Jupiter as the sky or heavens; see also Caelus.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 1023819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter Caelestis, \"Heavenly\" or \"Celestial Jupiter\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter Elicius, Jupiter \"who calls forth [celestial omens]\" or \"who is called forth [by incantations]\"; \"sender of rain\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter Feretrius, who carries away the spoils of war\". Feretrius was called upon to witness solemn oaths. The epithet or \"numen\" is probably connected with the verb ferire, \"to strike,\" referring to a ritual striking of ritual as illustrated in foedus ferire, of which the silex, a quartz rock, is evidence in his temple on the Capitoline hill, which is said to have been the first temple in Rome, erected and dedicated by Romulus to commemorate his winning of the spolia opima from Acron, king of the Caeninenses, and to serve as a repository for them. Iuppiter Feretrius was therefore equivalent to Iuppiter Lapis, the latter used for a specially solemn oath. According to Livy I 10, 5 and Plutarch Marcellus 8 though, the meaning of this epithet is related to the peculiar frame used to carry the spolia opima to the god, the feretrum, itself from verb fero,", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 209811, 2347090, 9403710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 53 ], [ 123, 128 ], [ 424, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter Centumpeda, literally, \"he who has one hundred feet\"; that is, \"he who has the power of establishing, of rendering stable, bestowing stability on everything\", since he himself is the paramount of stability.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter Fulgur (\"Lightning Jupiter\"), Fulgurator or Fulgens", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter Lucetius (\"of the light\"), an epithet almost certainly related to the light or flame of lightningbolts and not to daylight, as indicated by the Jovian verses of the carmen Saliare.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 239782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 173, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter Optimus Maximus (\"the best and greatest\"). Optumus because of the benefits he bestows, Maximus because of his strength, according to Cicero Pro Domo Sua.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 944850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter Pluvius, \"sender of rain\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 40255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter Ruminus, \"breastfeeder of every living being\", according to Augustine.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter Stator, from stare, \"to stand\": \"he who has power of founding, instituting everything\", thence also he who bestows the power of resistance, making people, soldiers, stand firm and fast.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter Summanus, sender of nocturnal thunder", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 85650 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter Terminalus or Iuppiter Terminus, patron and defender of boundaries", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 614648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter Tigillus, \"beam or shaft that supports and holds together the universe.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter Tonans, \"thunderer\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 22846288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter Victor, \"he who has the power of conquering everything.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some epithets of Jupiter indicate his association with a particular place. Epithets found in the provinces of the Roman Empire may identify Jupiter with a local deity or site (see syncretism).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 29612 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 180, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter Ammon, Jupiter equated with the Egyptian deity Amun after the Roman conquest of Egypt", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 19230789, 496519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 59 ], [ 70, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter Brixianus, Jupiter equated with the local god of the town of Brescia in Cisalpine Gaul (modern North Italy)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 47862814, 410180, 14532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 76 ], [ 80, 94 ], [ 109, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter Capitolinus, also Jupiter Optimus Maximus, venerated throughout the Roman Empire at sites with a Capitol (Capitolium)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 25507, 144901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 88 ], [ 114, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter Dolichenus, from Doliche in Syria, originally a Baal weather and war god. From the time of Vespasian, he was popular among the Roman legions as god of war and victory, especially on the Danube at Carnuntum. He is depicted as standing on a bull, with a thunderbolt in his left hand, and a double ax in the right.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 18776495, 569037, 1928858, 58204, 32570, 25994, 21209639, 113295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 25, 32 ], [ 36, 41 ], [ 56, 60 ], [ 99, 108 ], [ 135, 148 ], [ 194, 200 ], [ 204, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter Indiges, \"Jupiter of the country,\" a title given to Aeneas after his death, according to Livy", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 4436865, 1540, 18049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 60, 66 ], [ 97, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter Ladicus, Jupiter equated with a Celtiberian mountain-god and worshipped as the spirit of Mount Ladicus in Gallaecia, northwest Iberia, preserved in the toponym Codos de Ladoco.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 955915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter Laterius or Latiaris, the god of Latium", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 7408972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter Parthinus or Partinus, under this name was worshiped on the borders of northeast Dalmatia and Upper Moesia, perhaps associated with the local tribe known as the Partheni.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 11979528, 75870, 15451435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 97 ], [ 102, 114 ], [ 169, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter Poeninus, under this name worshipped in the Alps, around the Great St Bernard Pass, where he had a sanctuary.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 293719 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter Solutorius, a local version of Jupiter worshipped in Spain; he was syncretised with the local Iberian god Eacus.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 26667, 415870, 9887921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 66 ], [ 102, 109 ], [ 114, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter Taranis, Jupiter equated with the Celtic god Taranis.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 86848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter Uxellinus, Jupiter as a god of high mountains.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In addition, many of the epithets of Zeus can be found applied to Jupiter, by interpretatio romana. Thus, since the hero Trophonius (from Lebadea in Boeotia) is called Zeus Trophonius, this can be represented in English (as it would be in Latin) as Jupiter Trophonius. Similarly, the Greek cult of Zeus Meilichios appears in Pompeii as Jupiter Meilichius. Except in representing actual cults in Italy, this is largely 19th-century usage; modern works distinguish Jupiter from Zeus.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Name and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 1449016, 83172, 2620658, 5864321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 98 ], [ 121, 131 ], [ 138, 145 ], [ 303, 313 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Marcus Terentius Varro and Verrius Flaccus were the main sources on the theology of Jupiter and archaic Roman religion in general. Varro was acquainted with the libri pontificum (\"books of the Pontiffs\") and their archaic classifications. On these two sources depend other ancient authorities, such as Ovid, Servius, Aulus Gellius, Macrobius, patristic texts, Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Plutarch.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Theology", "target_page_ids": [ 235965, 308479, 26130884, 326432, 37802, 158392, 78426, 235887, 33643361, 159387, 24517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ], [ 27, 42 ], [ 161, 177 ], [ 193, 201 ], [ 302, 306 ], [ 308, 315 ], [ 317, 330 ], [ 332, 341 ], [ 343, 358 ], [ 360, 386 ], [ 391, 399 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the most important sources which preserve the theology of Jupiter and other Roman deities is The City of God against the Pagans by Augustine of Hippo. Augustine's criticism of traditional Roman religion is based on Varro's lost work, Antiquitates Rerum Divinarum. Although a work of Christian apologetics, The City of God provides glimpses into Varro's theological system and authentic Roman theological lore in general. According to Augustine, Varro drew on the pontiff Mucius Scaevola's tripartite theology:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Theology", "target_page_ids": [ 9357769, 434485, 2030, 54974864, 2513801, 2056221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 96 ], [ 100, 134 ], [ 138, 156 ], [ 241, 269 ], [ 290, 311 ], [ 478, 493 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The mythic theology of the poets (useful for the theatre)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Theology", "target_page_ids": [ 13752228, 7691134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 20 ], [ 50, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The physical theology of the philosophers (useful for understanding the natural world)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Theology", "target_page_ids": [ 21665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The civil theology of the priests (useful for the state)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Theology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Georg Wissowa stressed Jupiter's uniqueness as the only case among Indo-European religions in which the original god preserved his name, his identity and his prerogatives. In this view, Jupiter is the god of heaven and retains his identification with the sky among the Latin poets (his name is used as a synonym for \"sky\".) In this respect, he differs from his Greek equivalent Zeus (who is considered a personal god, warden and dispenser of skylight). His name reflects this idea; it is a derivative of the Indo-European word for \"bright, shining sky\". His residence is found atop the hills of Rome and of mountains in general; as a result, his cult is present in Rome and throughout Italy at upper elevations. Jupiter assumed atmospheric qualities; he is the wielder of lightning and the master of weather. However, Wissowa acknowledges that Jupiter is not merely a naturalistic, heavenly, supreme deity; he is in continual communication with man by means of thunder, lightning and the flight of birds (his auspices). Through his vigilant watch he is also the guardian of public oaths and compacts and the guarantor of good faith in the State cult. The Jovian cult was common to the Italic people under the names Iove, Diove (Latin) and Iuve, Diuve (Oscan, in Umbrian only Iuve, Iupater in the Iguvine Tables).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Theology", "target_page_ids": [ 17600879, 462184, 2237587, 241533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 1009, 1017 ], [ 1185, 1198 ], [ 1297, 1311 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wissowa considered Jupiter also a god of war and agriculture, in addition to his political role as guarantor of good faith (public and private) as Iuppiter Lapis and Dius Fidius, respectively. His view is grounded in the sphere of action of the god (who intervenes in battle and influences the harvest through weather).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Theology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Georges Dumézil's view, Jovian theology (and that of the equivalent gods in other Indo-European religions) is an evolution from a naturalistic, supreme, celestial god identified with heaven to a sovereign god, a wielder of lightning bolts, master and protector of the community (in other words, of a change from a naturalistic approach to the world of the divine to a socio-political approach).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Theology", "target_page_ids": [ 539074 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Vedic religion, Dyaus Pitar remained confined to his distant, removed, passive role and the place of sovereign god was occupied by Varuna and Mitra. In Greek and Roman religion, instead, the homonymous gods *Diou- and Διϝ- evolved into atmospheric deities; by their mastery of thunder and lightning, they expressed themselves and made their will known to the community. In Rome, Jupiter also sent signs to the leaders of the state in the form of auspices in addition to thunder. The art of augury was considered prestigious by ancient Romans; by sending his signs, Jupiter (the sovereign of heaven) communicates his advice to his terrestrial colleague: the king (rex) or his successor magistrates. The encounter between the heavenly and political, legal aspects of the deity are well represented by the prerogatives, privileges, functions and taboos proper to his flamen (the flamen Dialis and his wife, the flaminica Dialis).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Theology", "target_page_ids": [ 201363, 99557, 32551, 100203, 8125, 462184, 462184, 347423, 1546787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 17 ], [ 19, 30 ], [ 134, 140 ], [ 145, 150 ], [ 223, 224 ], [ 449, 457 ], [ 493, 499 ], [ 867, 873 ], [ 879, 892 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dumézil maintains that Jupiter is not himself a god of war and agriculture, although his actions and interest may extend to these spheres of human endeavour. His view is based on the methodological assumption that the chief criterion for studying a god's nature is not to consider his field of action, but the quality, method and features of his action. Consequently, the analysis of the type of action performed by Jupiter in the domains in which he operates indicates that Jupiter is a sovereign god who may act in the field of politics (as well as agriculture and war) in his capacity as such, i.e. in a way and with the features proper to a king. Sovereignty is expressed through the two aspects of absolute, magic power (epitomised and represented by the Vedic god Varuna) and lawful right (by the Vedic god Mitra). However, sovereignty permits action in every field; otherwise, it would lose its essential quality. As a further proof, Dumézil cites the story of Tullus Hostilius (the most belligerent of the Roman kings), who was killed by Jupiter with a lightning bolt (indicating that he did not enjoy the god's favour). ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Theology", "target_page_ids": [ 32551, 100203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 770, 776 ], [ 813, 818 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Varro's definition of Jupiter as the god who has under his jurisdiction the full expression of every being (penes Iovem sunt summa) reflects the sovereign nature of the god, as opposed to the jurisdiction of Janus (god of passages and change) on their beginning (penes Ianum sunt prima).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Theology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Capitoline Triad was introduced to Rome by the Tarquins. Dumézil thinks it might have been an Etruscan (or local) creation based on Vitruvius' treatise on architecture, in which the three deities are associated as the most important. It is possible that the Etruscans paid particular attention to Menrva (Minerva) as a goddess of destiny, in addition to the royal couple Uni (Juno) and Tinia (Jupiter). In Rome, Minerva later assumed a military aspect under the influence of Athena Pallas (Polias). Dumézil argues that with the advent of the Republic, Jupiter became the only king of Rome, no longer merely the first of the great gods.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 85706, 1182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 301, 307 ], [ 479, 492 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Archaic Triad is a hypothetical theological structure (or system) consisting of the gods Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus. It was first described by Wissowa, and the concept was developed further by Dumézil. The three-function hypothesis of Indo-European society advanced by Dumézil holds that in prehistory, society was divided into three classes:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 508376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 239, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "{| class=wikitable", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|+ Dumézil's trifunctional hypothesis as applied to Roman religion", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 539074, 1757652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 10 ], [ 13, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|- style=\"vertical-align:bottom;\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! Function !! Subfunction !! Description !! Example Roman god", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|- ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "!rowspan=\"3;\" style=\"vertical-align:center;\"| 1 !! ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|style=\"vertical-align:top;\"| sovereignty ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|style=\"vertical-align:top;\"| Jupiter", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|- style=\"vertical-align:top;\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! 1 (a) ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| judicial || Jupiter / Fides / Dius Fidius", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 85311, 85220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 31 ], [ 34, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|- style=\"vertical-align:top;\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! 1 (b) ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| religious || Veiovis, Janus; Fortuna", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 84871, 159852, 724601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 22 ], [ 24, 29 ], [ 31, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|- ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "!rowspan=\"3;\" style=\"vertical-align:center;\"| 2 !! ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|style=\"vertical-align:top;\"| warriors ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|style=\"vertical-align:top;\"| Mars", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 19638032 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|- style=\"vertical-align:top;\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! 2 (a) ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| protection || Minerva (Pallas Athena), Castor and Pollux; Mars, Roma", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 19845, 1182, 60790, 19638032, 145327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 25 ], [ 27, 40 ], [ 43, 60 ], [ 63, 67 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|- style=\"vertical-align:top;\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! 2 (b) ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| raids and conquest || Bellona, Mars, ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 1986729, 19638032 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 31 ], [ 33, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|- ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "!rowspan=\"6;\" style=\"vertical-align:center;\"| 3 !! ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|style=\"vertical-align:top;\"| production of wealth", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|style=\"vertical-align:top;\"| Quirinus, Saturnus, Ops; Penates", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 85609, 19230710, 85538, 85555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 38 ], [ 40, 48 ], [ 50, 53 ], [ 55, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|- style=\"vertical-align:top;\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! 3 (a) ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|style=\"vertical-align:top;\"| crop farming ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|style=\"vertical-align:top;\"| Saturnus, Dīs Pater, Ceres, Tellus; Quirinus", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 19230710, 84895, 78452, 722634, 85609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 38 ], [ 40, 49 ], [ 51, 56 ], [ 58, 64 ], [ 67, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|- style=\"vertical-align:top;\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! 3 (b) ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| animal husbandry || Castor and Pollux, Juno, Faunus; Neptune, Hercules", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 60790, 668594, 39132, 146091, 13770 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 39 ], [ 41, 45 ], [ 47, 53 ], [ 55, 62 ], [ 64, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|- style=\"vertical-align:top;\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! 3 (c) ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| commerce || Mercury; Feronia, Neptune, Portunus", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 37417, 736575, 146091, 85594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 28 ], [ 30, 37 ], [ 39, 46 ], [ 48, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|- style=\"vertical-align:top;\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! 3 (d) ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| manual crafts || Vulcanus, Minerva (Athena Polytechnea)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 12096234, 19845, 1182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 29 ], [ 31, 38 ], [ 40, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|- style=\"vertical-align:top;\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! 3 (e) ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| human fertility || Venus, Juno, Quirinus; Mater Matuta, Minerva, Bona Dea (late add.) ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 32745, 668594, 85609, 85487, 19845, 85116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 27 ], [ 29, 33 ], [ 35, 43 ], [ 45, 57 ], [ 59, 66 ], [ 68, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|- style=\"vertical-align:top;\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|colspan=\"4;\"|:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|}", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At least for the three main functions, people in each station in life had their religious counterparts the divine figures of the sovereign god, the warrior god, and the industrius god; there were almost always two separate gods for class1, and sometimes more than one for class3. Over time gods or, groups of gods might be consolidated or split, and it is unclear that there were ever any strict separations of all function.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The sovereign function(1) embodied in Jupiter entailed omnipotence; thence, a domain extended over every aspect of nature and life.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The three functions are interrelated with one another, overlapping to some extent; the sovereign function, although including a part that is essentially religious in nature, is involved in many ways in areas pertaining to the other two. Therefore, Jupiter is the \"magic player\" in the founding of the Roman state and the fields of war, agricultural plenty, human fertility, and wealth.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This hypothesis has not found widespread support among scholars.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Apart from being protectress of the arts and craft as Minerva Capta, who was brought from Falerii, Minerva's association to Jupiter and relevance to Roman state religion is mainly linked to the Palladium, a wooden statue of Athena that could move the eyes and wave the spear. It was stored in the penus interior, inner penus of the aedes Vestae, temple of Vesta and considered the most important among the pignora imperii, pawns of dominion, empire. In Roman traditional lore it was brought from Troy by Aeneas. Scholars though think it was last taken to Rome in the third or second century BC.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 1278771, 38206335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 194, 203 ], [ 406, 421 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The divine couple received from Greece its matrimonial implications, thence bestowing on Juno the role of tutelary goddess of marriage (Iuno Pronuba).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 668594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The couple itself though cannot be reduced to a Greek apport. The association of Juno and Jupiter is of the most ancient Latin theology. Praeneste offers a glimpse into original Latin mythology: the local goddess Fortuna is represented as milking two infants, one male and one female, namely Jove (Jupiter) and Juno. It seems fairly safe to assume that from the earliest times they were identified by their own proper names and since they got them they were never changed through the course of history: they were called Jupiter and Juno. These gods were the most ancient deities of every Latin town. Praeneste preserved divine filiation and infancy as the sovereign god and his paredra Juno have a mother who is the primordial goddess Fortuna Primigenia. Many terracotta statuettes have been discovered which represent a woman with a child: one of them represents exactly the scene described by Cicero of a woman with two children of different sex who touch her breast. Two of the votive inscriptions to Fortuna associate her and Jupiter: \" Fortunae Iovi puero...\" and \"Fortunae Iovis puero...\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 610679, 724601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 146 ], [ 213, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1882 though R. Mowat published an inscription in which Fortuna is called daughter of Jupiter, raising new questions and opening new perspectives in the theology of Latin gods. Dumezil has elaborated an interpretative theory according to which this aporia would be an intrinsic, fundamental feature of Indoeuropean deities of the primordial and sovereign level, as it finds a parallel in Vedic religion. The contradiction would put Fortuna both at the origin of time and into its ensuing diachronic process: it is the comparison offered by Vedic deity Aditi, the Not-Bound or Enemy of Bondage, that shows that there is no question of choosing one of the two apparent options: as the mother of the Aditya she has the same type of relationship with one of his sons, Dakṣa, the minor sovereign. who represents the Creative Energy, being at the same time his mother and daughter, as is true for the whole group of sovereign gods to which she belongs. Moreover, Aditi is thus one of the heirs (along with Savitr) of the opening god of the Indoiranians, as she is represented with her head on her two sides, with the two faces looking opposite directions. The mother of the sovereign gods has thence two solidal but distinct modalities of duplicity, i.e. of having two foreheads and a double position in the genealogy. Angelo Brelich has interpreted this theology as the basic opposition between the primordial absence of order (chaos) and the organisation of the cosmos.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 99582, 20646470, 100200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 554, 559 ], [ 699, 705 ], [ 1002, 1008 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The relation of Jupiter to Janus is problematic. Varro defines Jupiter as the god who has potestas (power) over the forces by which anything happens in the world. Janus, however, has the privilege of being invoked first in rites, since in his power are the beginnings of things (prima), the appearance of Jupiter included.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Latins considered Saturn the predecessor of Jupiter. Saturn reigned in Latium during a mythical Golden Age reenacted every year at the festival of Saturnalia. Saturn also retained primacy in matters of agriculture and money. Unlike the Greek tradition of Cronus and Zeus, the usurpation of Saturn as king of the gods by Jupiter was not viewed by the Latins as violent or hostile; Saturn continued to be revered in his temple at the foot of the Capitol Hill, which maintained the alternative name Saturnius into the time of Varro.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 25176543, 7408972, 31497818, 157592, 19230687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ], [ 75, 81 ], [ 100, 110 ], [ 151, 161 ], [ 259, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A. Pasqualini has argued that Saturn was related to Iuppiter Latiaris, the old Jupiter of the Latins, as the original figure of this Jupiter was superseded on the Alban Mount, whereas it preserved its gruesome character in the ceremony held at the sanctuary of the Latiar Hill in Rome which involved a human sacrifice and the aspersion of the statue of the god with the blood of the victim.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The abstract personification Fides (\"Faith, Trust\") was one of the oldest gods associated with Jupiter. As guarantor of public faith, Fides had her temple on the Capitol (near that of Capitoline Jupiter).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 2946566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dius Fidius is considered a theonym for Jupiter, and sometimes a separate entity also known in Rome as Semo Sancus Dius Fidius. Wissowa argued that while Jupiter is the god of the Fides Publica Populi Romani as Iuppiter Lapis (by whom important oaths are sworn), Dius Fidius is a deity established for everyday use and was charged with the protection of good faith in private affairs. Dius Fidius would thus correspond to Zeus Pistios. The association with Jupiter may be a matter of divine relation; some scholars see him as a form of Hercules. Both Jupiter and Dius Fidius were wardens of oaths and wielders of lightning bolts; both required an opening in the roof of their temples.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 53308533, 85623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 35 ], [ 103, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The functionality of Sancus occurs consistently within the sphere of fides, oaths and respect for contracts and of the divine-sanction guarantee against their breach. Wissowa suggested that Semo Sancus is the genius of Jupiter, but the concept of a deity's genius is a development of the Imperial period.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 85362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 209, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some aspects of the oath-ritual for Dius Fidius (such as proceedings under the open sky or in the compluvium of private residences), and the fact the temple of Sancus had no roof, suggest that the oath sworn by Dius Fidius predated that for Iuppiter Lapis or Iuppiter Feretrius.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine quotes Varro who explains the genius as \"the god who is in charge and has the power to generate everything\" and \"the rational spirit of all (therefore, everyone has their own)\". Augustine concludes that Jupiter should be considered the genius of the universe.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "G. Wissowa advanced the hypothesis that Semo Sancus is the genius of Jupiter. W. W. Fowler has cautioned that this interpretation looks to be an anachronism and it would only be acceptable to say that Sancus is a Genius Iovius, as it appears from the Iguvine Tables.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 85623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Censorinus cites Granius Flaccus as saying that \"the Genius was the same entity as the Lar\" in his lost work De Indigitamentis. probably referring to the Lar Familiaris. Mutunus Tutunus had his shrine at the foot of the Velian Hill near those of the Di Penates and of Vica Pota, who were among the most ancient gods of the Roman community of according to Wissowa.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 26225117, 425567, 25870219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 32 ], [ 154, 168 ], [ 170, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dumézil opines that the attribution of a Genius to the gods should be earlier than its first attestation of 58 BC, in an inscription which mentions the Iovis Genius.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A connection between Genius and Jupiter seems apparent in Plautus' comedy Amphitryon, in which Jupiter takes up the looks of Alcmena's husband in order to seduce her: J. Hubeaux sees there a reflection of the story that Scipio Africanus' mother conceived him with a snake that was in fact Jupiter transformed. Scipio himself claimed that only he would rise to the mansion of the gods through the widest gate.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 24171, 60782, 1579, 33642554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 65 ], [ 74, 84 ], [ 125, 132 ], [ 220, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Among the Etruscan Penates there is a Genius Iovialis who comes after Fortuna and Ceres and before Pales. Genius Iovialis is one of the Penates of the humans and not of Jupiter though, as these were located in region I of Martianus Capella' s division of Heaven, while Genius appears in regions V and VI along with Ceres, Favor (possibly a Roman approximation to an Etruscan male manifestation of Fortuna) and Pales. This is in accord with the definition of the Penates of man being Fortuna, Ceres, Pales and Genius Iovialis and the statement in Macrobius that the Larentalia were dedicated to Jupiter as the god whence the souls of men come from and to whom they return after death.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The god of nighttime lightning has been interpreted as an aspect of Jupiter, either a chthonic manifestation of the god or a separate god of the underworld. A statue of Summanus stood on the roof of the Temple of Capitoline Jupiter, and Iuppiter Summanus is one of the epithets of Jupiter. Dumézil sees the opposition Dius Fidius versus Summanus as complementary, interpreting it as typical to the inherent ambiguity of the sovereign god exemplified by that of Mitra and Varuna in Vedic religion. The complementarity of the epithets is shown in inscriptions found on puteals or bidentals reciting either fulgur Dium conditum or fulgur Summanum conditum in places struck by daytime versus nighttime lightning bolts respectively. This is also consistent with the etymology of Summanus, deriving from sub and mane (the time before morning).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 444886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Iuppiter was associated with Liber through his epithet of Liber (association not yet been fully explained by scholars, due to the scarcity of early documentation).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 79357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the past, it was maintained that Liber was only a progressively-detached hypostasis of Jupiter; consequently, the vintage festivals were to be attributed only to Iuppiter Liber. Such a hypothesis was rejected as groundless by Wissowa, although he was a supporter of Liber's Jovian origin. Olivier de Cazanove contends that it is difficult to admit that Liber (who is present in the oldest calendars—those of Numa—in the Liberalia and in the month of Liber at Lavinium) was derived from another deity. Such a derivation would find support only in epigraphic documents, primarily from the Osco-Sabellic area. Wissowa sets the position of Iuppiter Liber within the framework of an agrarian Jupiter. The god also had a temple in this name on the Aventine in Rome, which was restored by Augustus and dedicated on September 1. Here, the god was sometimes named Liber and sometimes Libertas. Wissowa opines that the relationship existed in the concept of creative abundance through which the supposedly-separate Liber might have been connected to the Greek god Dionysos, although both deities might not have been originally related to viticulture.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 63325, 513591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1058, 1066 ], [ 1132, 1143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other scholars assert that there was no Liber (other than a god of wine) within historical memory. O. de Cazanove argues that the domain of the sovereign god Jupiter was that of sacred, sacrificial wine (vinum inferium), while that of Liber and Libera was confined to secular wine (vinum spurcum); these two types were obtained through differing fermentation processes. The offer of wine to Liber was made possible by naming the mustum (grape juice) stored in amphoras sacrima.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 51812 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 460, 467 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sacred wine was obtained by the natural fermentation of juice of grapes free from flaws of any type, religious (e. g. those struck by lightning, brought into contact with corpses or wounded people or coming from an unfertilised grapeyard) or secular (by \"cutting\" it with old wine). Secular (or \"profane\") wine was obtained through several types of manipulation (e.g. by adding honey, or mulsum; using raisins, or passum; by boiling, or defrutum). However, the sacrima used for the offering to the two gods for the preservation of grapeyards, vessels and wine was obtained only by pouring the juice into amphors after pressing. The mustum was considered spurcum (dirty), and thus unusable in sacrifices. The amphor (itself not an item of sacrifice) permitted presentation of its content on a table or could be added to a sacrifice; this happened at the auspicatio vindamiae for the first grape and for ears of corn of the praemetium on a dish (lanx) at the", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "temple of Ceres.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 78452 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dumézil, on the other hand, sees the relationship between Jupiter and Liber as grounded in the social and political relevance of the two gods (who were both considered patrons of freedom). The Liberalia of March were, since earliest times, the occasion for the ceremony of the donning of the toga virilis or libera (which marked the passage into adult citizenship by young people). Augustine relates that these festivals had a particularly obscene character: a phallus was taken to the fields on a cart, and then back in triumph to town. In Lavinium they lasted a month, during which the population enjoyed bawdy jokes. The most honest matronae were supposed to publicly crown the phallus with flowers, to ensure a good harvest and repeal the fascinatio (evil eye). In Rome representations of the sex organs were placed in the temple of the couple Liber Libera, who presided over the male and female components of generation and the \"liberation\" of the semen. This complex of rites and beliefs shows that the divine couple's jurisdiction extended over fertility in general, not only that of grapes. The etymology of Liber (archaic form Loifer, Loifir) was explained by Émile Benveniste as formed on the IE theme *leudh- plus the suffix -es-; its original meaning is \"the one of germination, he who ensures the sprouting of crops\".", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 502435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 543, 551 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The relationship of Jupiter with freedom was a common belief among the Roman people, as demonstrated by the dedication of the Mons Sacer to the god after the first secession of the plebs. Later inscriptions also show the unabated popular belief in Jupiter as bestower of freedom in the imperial era.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Scholars have been often puzzled by Ve(d)iove (or Veiovis, or Vedius) and unwilling to discuss his identity, claiming our knowledge of this god is insufficient. Most, however, agree that Veiove is a sort of special Jupiter or anti-Iove, or even an underworld Jupiter. In other words, Veiove is indeed the Capitoline god himself, who takes up a different, diminished appearance (iuvenis and parvus, young and gracile), in order to be able to discharge sovereign functions over places, times and spheres that by their own nature are excluded from the direct control of Jupiter as Optimus Maximus. This conclusion is based on information provided by Gellius, who states his name is formed by adding prefix ve (here denoting \"deprivation\" or \"negation\") to Iove (whose name Gellius posits as rooted in the verb iuvo \"I benefit\"). D. Sabbatucci has stressed the feature of bearer of instability and antithesis to cosmic order of the god, who threatens the kingly power of Jupiter as Stator and Centumpeda and whose presence occurs side by side to Janus' on January 1, but also his function of helper to the growth of the young Jupiter. In 1858 Ludwig Preller suggested that Veiovis may be the sinister double of Jupiter.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 84871, 162075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 57 ], [ 1140, 1154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In fact, the god (under the name Vetis) is placed in the last case (number 16) of the outer rim of the Piacenza Liver—before Cilens (Nocturnus), who ends (or begins in the Etruscan vision) the disposition of the gods. In Martianus Capella's division of heaven, he is found in region XV with the dii publici; as such, he numbers among the infernal (or antipodal) gods. The location of his two temples in Rome—near those of Jupiter (one on the Capitoline Hill, in the low between the arx and the Capitolium, between the two groves where the asylum founded by Romulus stood, the other on the Tiber Island near that of Iuppiter Iurarius, later also known as temple of Aesculapius)—may be significant in this respect, along with the fact that he is considered the father of Apollo, perhaps because he was depicted carrying arrows. He is also considered to be the unbearded Jupiter. The dates of his festivals support the same conclusion: they fall on January 1, March 7 and May 21, the first date being the recurrence of the Agonalia, dedicated to Janus and celebrated by the king with the sacrifice of a ram. The nature of the sacrifice is debated; Gellius states capra, a female goat, although some scholars posit a ram. This sacrifice occurred rito humano, which may mean \"with the rite appropriate for human sacrifice\". Gellius concludes by stating that this god is one of those who receive sacrifices so as to persuade them to refrain from causing harm.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 737686, 24190473, 2885124 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 221, 238 ], [ 539, 545 ], [ 1021, 1029 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The arrow is an ambivalent symbol; it was used in the ritual of the devotio (the general who vowed had to stand on an arrow). It is perhaps because of the arrow and of the juvenile looks that Gellius identifies Veiove with Apollo and as a god who must receive worship in order to obtain his abstention from harming men, along with Robigus and Averruncus. The ambivalence in the identity of Veiove is apparent in the fact that while he is present in places and times which may have a negative connotation (such as the asylum of Romulus in between the two groves on the Capitol, the Tiberine island along with Faunus and Aesculapius, the kalends of January, the nones of March, and May 21, a statue of his nonetheless stands in the arx. Moreover, the initial particle ve- which the ancient supposed were part of his name is itself ambivalent as it may have both an accrescitive and diminutive value.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 31506409, 431221, 2810061 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 75 ], [ 331, 338 ], [ 343, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maurice Besnier has remarked that a temple to Iuppiter was dedicated by praetor Lucius Furius Purpureo before the battle of Cremona against the Celtic Cenomani of Cisalpine Gaul. An inscription found at Brescia in 1888 shows that Iuppiter Iurarius was worshipped there and one found on the south tip of Tiber Island in 1854 that there was a cult to the god on the spot too. Besnier speculates that Lucius Furius had evoked the chief god of the enemy and built a temple to him in Rome outside the pomerium. On January 1, the Fasti Praenestini record the festivals of Aesculapius and Vediove on the Island, while in the Fasti Ovid speaks of Jupiter and his grandson. Livy records that in 192 BC, duumvir Q. Marcus Ralla dedicated to Jupiter on the Capitol the two temples promised by L. Furius Purpureo, one of which was that promised during the war against the Gauls. Besnier would accept a correction to Livy's passage (proposed by Jordan) to read aedes Veiovi instead of aedes duae Iovi. Such a correction concerns the temples dedicated on the Capitol: it does not address the question of the dedication of the temple on the Island, which is puzzling, since the place is attested epigraphically as dedicated to the cult of Iuppiter Iurarius, in the Fasti Praenestini of Vediove and to Jupiter according to Ovid. The two gods may have been seen as equivalent: Iuppiter Iurarius is an awesome and vengeful god, parallel to the Greek Zeus Orkios, the avenger of perjury.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 3175423, 12212494, 47862814 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 131 ], [ 144, 177 ], [ 203, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A. Pasqualini has argued that Veiovis seems related to Iuppiter Latiaris, as the original figure of this Jupiter would have been superseded on the Alban Mount, whereas it preserved its gruesome character in the ceremony held on the sanctuary of the Latiar Hill, the southernmost hilltop of the Quirinal in Rome, which involved a human sacrifice. The gens Iulia had gentilician cults at Bovillae where a dedicatory inscription to Vediove has been found in 1826 on an ara. According to Pasqualini it was a deity similar to Vediove, wielder of lightningbolts and chthonic, who was connected to the cult of the founders who first inhabited the Alban Mount and built the sanctuary. Such a cult once superseded on the Mount would have been taken up and preserved by the Iulii, private citizens bound to the sacra Albana by their Alban origin.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 39284, 323117, 2984910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 294, 302 ], [ 350, 360 ], [ 386, 394 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Victoria was connected to Iuppiter Victor in his role as bestower of military victory. Jupiter, as a sovereign god, was considered as having the power to conquer anyone and anything in a supernatural way; his contribution to military victory was different from that of Mars (god of military valour). Victoria appears first on the reverse of coins representing Venus (driving the quadriga of Jupiter, with her head crowned and with a palm in her hand) during the first Punic War. Sometimes, she is represented walking and carrying a trophy.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 19638032 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 269, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A temple was dedicated to the goddess afterwards on the Palatine, testifying to her high station in the Roman mind. When Hieron of Syracuse presented a golden statuette of the goddess to Rome, the Senate had it placed in the temple of Capitoline Jupiter among the greatest (and most sacred) deities.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 78421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Victoria played a significant role in the religious ideology of the late Republic and the Empire, she is undocumented in earlier times. A function similar to hers may have been played by the little-known Vica Pota.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 85670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 213, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Juventas and Terminus were the gods who, according to legend, refused to leave their sites on the Capitol when the construction of the temple of Jupiter was undertaken. Therefore, they had to be reserved a sacellum within the new temple. Their stubbornness was considered a good omen; it would guarantee youth, stability and safety to Rome on its site. This legend is generally thought by scholars to indicate their strict connection with Jupiter. An inscription found near Ravenna reads Iuppiter Ter., indicating that Terminus is an aspect of Jupiter.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 37409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 474, 481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Terminus is the god of boundaries (public and private), as he is portrayed in literature. The religious value of the boundary marker is documented by Plutarch, who ascribes to king Numa the construction of temples to Fides and Terminus and the delimitation of Roman territory. Ovid gives a vivid description of the rural rite at a boundary of fields of neighbouring peasants on February 23 (the day of the Terminalia. On that day, Roman pontiffs and magistrates held a ceremony at the sixth mile of the Via Laurentina (ancient border of the Roman ager, which maintained a religious value). ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 7275586, 614648, 3236335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 132 ], [ 406, 416 ], [ 503, 517 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This festival, however, marked the end of the year and was linked to time more directly than to space (as attested by Augustine's apologia on the role of Janus with respect to endings). Dario Sabbatucci has emphasised the temporal affiliation of Terminus, a reminder of which is found in the rite of the regifugium. ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 246903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "G. Dumézil, on the other hand, views the function of this god as associated with the legalistic aspect of the sovereign function of Jupiter. Terminus would be the counterpart of the minor Vedic god Bagha, who oversees the just and fair division of goods among citizens.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Along with Terminus, Iuventas (also known as Iuventus and Iuunta) represents an aspect of Jupiter (as the legend of her refusal to leave the Capitol Hill demonstrates. Her name has the same root as Juno (from Iuu-, \"young, youngster\"); the ceremonial litter bearing the sacred goose of Juno Moneta stopped before her sacellum on the festival of the goddess. Later, she was identified with the Greek Hebe. The fact that Jupiter is related to the concept of youth is shown by his epithets Puer, Iuuentus and Ioviste (interpreted as \"the youngest\" by some scholars). Dumézil noted the presence of the two minor sovereign deities Bagha and Aryaman beside the Vedic sovereign gods Varuna and Mitra (though more closely associated with Mitra); the couple would be reflected in Rome by Terminus and Iuventas. Aryaman is the god of young soldiers. The function of Iuventas is to protect the iuvenes (the novi togati of the year, who are required to offer a sacrifice to Jupiter on the Capitol) and the Roman soldiers (a function later attributed to Juno). King Servius Tullius, in reforming the Roman social organisation, required that every adolescent offer a coin to the goddess of youth upon entering adulthood.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 668594, 318068, 1894996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 200, 204 ], [ 401, 405 ], [ 638, 645 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Dumézil's analysis, the function of Iuventas (the personification of youth), was to control the entrance of young men into society and protect them until they reach the age of iuvenes or iuniores (i.e. of serving the state as soldiers).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A temple to Iuventas was promised in 207 BC by consul Marcus Livius Salinator and dedicated in 191 BC.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 2783990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Romans considered the Penates as the gods to whom they owed their own existence. As noted by Wissowa Penates is an adjective, meaning \"those of or from the penus\" the innermost part, most hidden recess; Dumézil though refuses Wissowa's interpretation of penus as the storeroom of a household. As a nation the Romans honoured the Penates publici: Dionysius calls them Trojan gods as they were absorbed into the Trojan legend. They had a temple in Rome at the foot of the Velian Hill, near the Palatine, in which they were represented as a couple of male youth. They were honoured every year by the new consuls before entering office at Lavinium, because the Romans believed the Penates of that town were identical to their own.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 8985801, 502435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 474, 485 ], [ 639, 647 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The concept of di Penates is more defined in Etruria: Arnobius (citing a Caesius) states that the Etruscan Penates were named Fortuna, Ceres, Genius Iovialis and Pales; according to Nigidius Figulus, they included those of Jupiter, of Neptune, of the infernal gods and of mortal men. According to Varro the Penates reside in the recesses of Heaven and are called Consentes and Complices by the Etruscans because they rise and set together, are twelve in number and their names are unknown, six male and six females and are the cousellors and masters of Jupiter. Martianus states they are always in agreement among themselves. While these last gods seem to be the Penates of Jupiter, Jupiter himself along with Juno and Minerva is one of the Penates of man according to some authors.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 611545, 1646509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 62 ], [ 182, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This complex concept is reflected in Martianus Capella's division of heaven, found in Book I of his De Nuptiis Mercurii et Philologiae, which places the Di Consentes Penates in region I with the Favores Opertanei; Ceres and Genius in region V; Pales in region VI; Favor and Genius (again) in region VII; Secundanus Pales, Fortuna and Favor Pastor in region XI. The disposition of these divine entities and their repetition in different locations may be due to the fact that Penates belonging to different categories (of Jupiter in region I, earthly or of mortal men in region V) are intended. Favor(es) may be the Etruscan masculine equivalent of Fortuna.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to other gods", "target_page_ids": [ 9455 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 614, 622 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ver sacrum", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 25700598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Japheth", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Planets in astrology", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 30872816 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Zeus", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 34398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Musei Capitolini", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mary Beard, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A History (Cambridge University Press, 1998).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 1896715 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dumézil, G. (1977) La religione romana arcaica. Con un'appendice sulla religione degli Etruschi. Milano, Rizzoli. Edizione e traduzione a cura di Furio Jesi.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 539074 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dumézil, G. (1988). Mitra-Varuna: An essay on two Indo-European representations of sovereignty. New York: Zone Books. ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dumézil, G. (1996). Archaic Roman religion: With an appendix on the religion of the Etruscans. Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press. ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Article \"Jupiter\" in The Oxford Classical Dictionary. ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Smith, Miranda J., 'Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend' ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Favourite Greek Myths, Mary Pope Osbourne Aedes Iovis Optimi Maximi Capitolini", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Platner, S. B., & Ashby, T. (1929). A topographical dictionary of ancient Rome. London: Oxford University Press, H. Milford. ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Rüpke, Jörg (Editor), A Companion to Roman Religion, Wiley-Blackwell, 2007. ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 33173890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (ca 1,700 images of Jupiter)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Jovian_deities", "Sky_and_weather_gods", "Thunder_gods", "Justice_gods", "Roman_gods", "Mythological_kings", "Mythological_rapists", "Deities_in_the_Aeneid", "Jupiter_(mythology)", "Baal", "Metamorphoses_characters", "Capitoline_Triad", "Dii_Consentes", "Zeus" ]

[ "Jove", "Diespiter", "Jupiter (mythology)", "Ioue" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In computing, a trusted client is a device or program controlled by the user of a service, but with restrictions designed to prevent its use in ways not authorized by the provider of the service. That is, the client is a device that vendors trust and then sell to the consumers, whom they do not trust. Examples include video games played over a computer network or the Content Scramble System (CSS) in DVDs.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5213, 5363, 4122592, 18935238, 11014498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 12 ], [ 320, 330 ], [ 346, 362 ], [ 370, 393 ], [ 403, 406 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Trusted client software is considered fundamentally insecure: once the security is broken by one user, the break is trivially copyable and available to others. As computer security specialist Bruce Schneier states, \"Against the average user, anything works; there's no need for complex security software. Against the skilled attacker, on the other hand, nothing works.\" Trusted client hardware is somewhat more secure, but not a complete solution.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 36732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 192, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Trusted clients are attractive to business as a form of vendor lock-in: sell the trusted client at a loss and charge more than would be otherwise economically viable for the associated service. One early example was radio receivers that were subsidized by broadcasters, but restricted to receiving only their radio station. Modern examples include video recorders being forced by law to include Macrovision copy protection, the DVD region code system and region-coded video game consoles.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 146180, 15368428, 1203932, 20679, 1692431, 32629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 70 ], [ 216, 221 ], [ 348, 363 ], [ 395, 406 ], [ 428, 443 ], [ 468, 486 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Technically knowledgeable consumers and other manufacturers frequently bypass the limiting features of trusted clients— from the simple replacement of the fixed tuning capacitor in the early locked radios to the successful DeCSS cryptographic attack on CSS in 1999. Manufacturers have resorted to legal threats via the Digital Millennium Copyright Act and similar laws to prevent their circumvention, with varying degrees of success. However, the nature of the internet enables any crack that is discovered and published to be virtually impossible to remove.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4932111, 39675, 20648089, 20598752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 177 ], [ 223, 228 ], [ 319, 351 ], [ 528, 558 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Trusted computing aims to create computer hardware which assists in the implementation of such restrictions in software, and attempts to make circumvention of these restrictions more difficult.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 58608, 21808348, 5309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 33, 50 ], [ 111, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Digital rights management", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18938226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dongle", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 29238770 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Secure cryptoprocessor", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 59865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Trust", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 850663 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] } ]

[ "Computer_security", "Clients_(computing)" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In music, harmony is the process by which individual sounds are joined together or composed into whole units or compositions. Often, the term harmony refers to simultaneously occurring frequencies, pitches (tones, notes), or chords. However, harmony is generally understood to involve both vertical harmony (chords) and horizontal harmony (melody). ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18839, 10779, 77933, 77892, 22026, 224256, 37735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 8 ], [ 185, 196 ], [ 198, 205 ], [ 207, 212 ], [ 214, 219 ], [ 225, 231 ], [ 340, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harmony is a perceptual property of music, and, along with melody, one of the building blocks of Western music. Its perception is based on consonance, a concept whose definition has changed various times throughout Western music. In a physiological approach, consonance is a continuous variable. Consonant pitch relationships are described as sounding more pleasant, euphonious, and beautiful than dissonant relationships which sound unpleasant, discordant, or rough.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18839, 37735, 21208262, 1664363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 41 ], [ 59, 65 ], [ 97, 110 ], [ 139, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The study of harmony involves chords and their construction and chord progressions and the principles of connection that govern them.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 183431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Counterpoint, which refers to the relationship between melodic lines, and polyphony, which refers to the simultaneous sounding of separate independent voices, are therefore sometimes distinguished from harmony.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5909, 24144 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 74, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In popular and jazz harmony, chords are named by their root plus various terms and characters indicating their qualities. In many types of music, notably baroque, romantic, modern, and jazz, chords are often augmented with \"tensions\". A tension is an additional chord member that creates a relatively dissonant interval in relation to the bass.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 28985781, 1986438, 424238, 1664363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 10 ], [ 15, 27 ], [ 55, 59 ], [ 301, 319 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Typically, in the classical common practice period a dissonant chord (chord with tension) \"resolves\" to a consonant chord. Harmonization usually sounds pleasant to the ear when there is a balance between consonance and dissonance. Simply put, this occurs when there is a balance between \"tense\" and \"relaxed\" moments. Dissonance is an important part of harmony when dissonance can be resolved and contribute to the composition of music as a whole. A misplayed note or any sound that is judged to detract from the whole composition can be described as disharmonious rather than dissonant. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 415263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term harmony derives from the Greek harmonia, meaning \"joint, agreement, concord\", from the verb harmozō, \"(Ι) fit together, join\". Aristoxenus wrote a work entitled Elements of Harmony, which is thought the first work in European history written on the subject of harmony. In this book, Aristoxenus refers to previous experiments conducted by Pythagoreans to determine the relationship between small integer ratios and consonant notes (e.g., 1:2 describes an octave relationship, which is a doubling of frequency). While identifying as a Pythagorean, Aristoxenus claims that numerical ratios are not the ultimate determinant of harmony; instead, he claims that the listener's ear determines harmony.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology and definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 148363, 98921, 46601445, 291170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 39 ], [ 138, 149 ], [ 172, 191 ], [ 350, 362 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Current dictionary definitions, while attempting to give concise descriptions, often highlight the ambiguity of the term in modern use. Ambiguities tend to arise from either aesthetic considerations (for example the view that only pleasing concords may be harmonious) or from the point of view of musical texture (distinguishing between harmonic (simultaneously sounding pitches) and \"contrapuntal\" (successively sounding tones). According to A. Whittall:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology and definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 31408636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 443, 454 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The view that modern tonal harmony in Western music began in about 1600 is commonplace in music theory. This is usually accounted for by the replacement of horizontal (or contrapuntal) composition, common in the music of the Renaissance, with a new emphasis on the vertical element of composed music. Modern theorists, however, tend to see this as an unsatisfactory generalisation. According to Carl Dahlhaus:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology and definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 304572, 5909, 25532, 1045209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 26 ], [ 171, 183 ], [ 225, 236 ], [ 395, 408 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Descriptions and definitions of harmony and harmonic practice often show bias towards European (or Western) musical traditions, although many cultures practice vertical harmony. In addition, South Asian art music (Hindustani and Carnatic music) is frequently cited as placing little emphasis on what is perceived in western practice as conventional harmony; the underlying harmonic foundation for most South Asian music is the drone, a held open fifth interval (or fourth interval) that does not alter in pitch throughout the course of a composition. Pitch simultaneity in particular is rarely a major consideration. Nevertheless, many other considerations of pitch are relevant to the music, its theory and its structure, such as the complex system of Rāgas, which combines both melodic and modal considerations and codifications within it.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology and definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 9239, 21208262, 577590, 164188, 979065, 39793116, 200339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 92 ], [ 99, 106 ], [ 214, 224 ], [ 229, 243 ], [ 427, 432 ], [ 446, 460 ], [ 753, 757 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "So, intricate pitch combinations that sound simultaneously do occur in Indian classical music – but they are rarely studied as teleological harmonic or contrapuntal progressions – as with notated Western music. This contrasting emphasis (with regard to Indian music in particular) manifests itself in the different methods of performance adopted: in Indian Music improvisation takes a major role in the structural framework of a piece, whereas in Western Music improvisation has been uncommon since the end of the 19th century. Where it does occur in Western music (or has in the past), the improvisation either embellishes pre-notated music or draws from musical models previously established in notated compositions, and therefore uses familiar harmonic schemes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology and definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 223014, 80757, 5909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 93 ], [ 127, 139 ], [ 152, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Emphasis on the precomposed in European art music and the written theory surrounding it shows considerable cultural bias. The Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (Oxford University Press) identifies this clearly:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology and definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 48518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 167, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Yet the evolution of harmonic practice and language itself, in Western art music, is and was facilitated by this process of prior composition, which permitted the study and analysis by theorists and composers of individual pre-constructed works in which pitches (and to some extent rhythms) remained unchanged regardless of the nature of the performance.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology and definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Early Western religious music often features parallel perfect intervals; these intervals would preserve the clarity of the original plainsong. These works were created and performed in cathedrals, and made use of the resonant modes of their respective cathedrals to create harmonies. As polyphony developed, however, the use of parallel intervals was slowly replaced by the English style of consonance that used thirds and sixths. The English style was considered to have a sweeter sound, and was better suited to polyphony in that it offered greater linear flexibility in part-writing.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical rules", "target_page_ids": [ 65427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carl Dahlhaus (1990) distinguishes between coordinate and subordinate harmony. Subordinate harmony is the hierarchical tonality or tonal harmony well known today. Coordinate harmony is the older Medieval and Renaissance tonalité ancienne, \"The term is meant to signify that sonorities are linked one after the other without giving rise to the impression of a goal-directed development. A first chord forms a 'progression' with a second chord, and a second with a third. But the former chord progression is independent of the later one and vice versa.\" Coordinate harmony follows direct (adjacent) relationships rather than indirect as in subordinate. Interval cycles create symmetrical harmonies, which have been extensively used by the composers Alban Berg, George Perle, Arnold Schoenberg, Béla Bartók, and Edgard Varèse's Density 21.5.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 1045209, 13998, 304572, 19956, 25840, 692139, 2406, 623861, 67025, 4527, 42821450, 805020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 106, 118 ], [ 119, 127 ], [ 195, 203 ], [ 208, 219 ], [ 651, 665 ], [ 747, 757 ], [ 759, 771 ], [ 773, 790 ], [ 792, 803 ], [ 809, 822 ], [ 825, 837 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Close harmony and open harmony use close position and open position chords, respectively. See: Voicing (music) and Close and open harmony.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 4306316, 288458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 110 ], [ 115, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other types of harmony are based upon the intervals of the chords used in that harmony. Most chords in western music are based on \"tertian\" harmony, or chords built with the interval of thirds. In the chord C Major7, C–E is a major third; E–G is a minor third; and G to B is a major third. Other types of harmony consist of quartal and quintal harmony.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 945128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 324, 351 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A unison is considered a harmonic interval, just like a fifth or a third, but is unique in that it is two identical notes produced together. The unison, as a component of harmony, is important, especially in orchestration. In pop music, unison singing is usually called doubling, a technique The Beatles used in many of their earlier recordings. As a type of harmony, singing in unison or playing the same notes, often using different musical instruments, at the same time is commonly called monophonic harmonization.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 359293, 29812, 185515, 14028384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 8 ], [ 292, 303 ], [ 492, 502 ], [ 503, 516 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An interval is the relationship between two separate musical pitches. For example, in the melody \"Twinkle Twinkle Little Star\", between the first two notes (the first \"twinkle\") and the second two notes (the second \"twinkle\") is the interval of a fifth. What this means is that if the first two notes were the pitch C, the second two notes would be the pitch G—four scale notes, or seven chromatic notes (a perfect fifth), above it.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Intervals", "target_page_ids": [ 49171, 31261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 11 ], [ 98, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following are common intervals:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Intervals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Therefore, the combination of notes with their specific intervals—a chord—creates harmony. For example, in a C chord, there are three notes: C, E, and G. The note C is the root. The notes E and G provide harmony, and in a G7 (G dominant 7th) chord, the root G with each subsequent note (in this case B, D and F) provide the harmony.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Intervals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the musical scale, there are twelve pitches. Each pitch is referred to as a \"degree\" of the scale. The names A, B, C, D, E, F, and G are insignificant. The intervals, however, are not. Here is an example:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Intervals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As can be seen, no note will always be the same scale degree. The tonic, or first-degree note, can be any of the 12 notes (pitch classes) of the chromatic scale. All the other notes fall into place. For example, when C is the tonic, the fourth degree or subdominant is F. When D is the tonic, the fourth degree is G. While the note names remain constant, they may refer to different scale degrees, implying different intervals with respect to the tonic. The great power of this fact is that any musical work can be played or sung in any key. It is the same piece of music, as long as the intervals are the same—thus transposing the melody into the corresponding key. When the intervals surpass the perfect Octave (12 semitones), these intervals are called compound intervals, which include particularly the 9th, 11th, and 13th Intervals—widely used in jazz and blues Music.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Intervals", "target_page_ids": [ 15613, 3352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 852, 856 ], [ 861, 866 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Compound Intervals are formed and named as follows:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Intervals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2nd + Octave = 9th", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Intervals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "3rd + Octave = 10th", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Intervals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "4th + Octave = 11th", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Intervals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "5th + Octave = 12th", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Intervals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "6th + Octave = 13th", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Intervals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "7th + Octave = 14th", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Intervals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These numbers don't \"add\" together because intervals are numbered inclusive of the root note (e.g. one tone up is a 2nd), so the root is counted twice by adding them. Apart from this categorization, intervals can also be divided into consonant and dissonant. As explained in the following paragraphs, consonant intervals produce a sensation of relaxation and dissonant intervals a sensation of tension. In tonal music, the term consonant also means \"brings resolution\" (to some degree at least, whereas dissonance \"requires resolution\").", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Intervals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The consonant intervals are considered the perfect unison, octave, fifth, fourth and major and minor third and sixth, and their compound forms. An interval is referred to as \"perfect\" when the harmonic relationship is found in the natural overtone series (namely, the unison 1:1, octave 2:1, fifth 3:2, and fourth 4:3). The other basic intervals (second, third, sixth, and seventh) are called \"imperfect\" because the harmonic relationships are not found mathematically exact in the overtone series. In classical music the perfect fourth above the bass may be considered dissonant when its function is contrapuntal. Other intervals, the second and the seventh (and their compound forms) are considered Dissonant and require resolution (of the produced tension) and usually preparation (depending on the music style).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Intervals", "target_page_ids": [ 359293, 37726, 143888, 143880, 5909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 57 ], [ 59, 65 ], [ 67, 72 ], [ 74, 80 ], [ 601, 613 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Note that the effect of dissonance is perceived relatively within musical context: for example, a major seventh interval alone (i.e., C up to B) may be perceived as dissonant, but the same interval as part of a major seventh chord may sound relatively consonant. A tritone (the interval of the fourth step to the seventh step of the major scale, i.e., F to B) sounds very dissonant alone, but less so within the context of a dominant seventh chord (G7 or D7 in that example).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Intervals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the Western tradition, in music after the seventeenth century, harmony is manipulated using chords, which are combinations of pitch classes. In tertian harmony, so named after the interval of a third, the members of chords are found and named by stacking intervals of the third, starting with the \"root\", then the \"third\" above the root, and the \"fifth\" above the root (which is a third above the third), etc. (Note that chord members are named after their interval above the root.) Dyads, the simplest chords, contain only two members (see power chords).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Chords and tension", "target_page_ids": [ 224256, 412388, 427929, 424671, 162401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 100 ], [ 129, 140 ], [ 147, 154 ], [ 486, 490 ], [ 544, 555 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A chord with three members is called a triad because it has three members, not because it is necessarily built in thirds (see Quartal and quintal harmony for chords built with other intervals). Depending on the size of the intervals being stacked, different qualities of chords are formed. In popular and jazz harmony, chords are named by their root plus various terms and characters indicating their qualities. To keep the nomenclature as simple as possible, some defaults are accepted (not tabulated here). For example, the chord members C, E, and G, form a C Major triad, called by default simply a C chord. In an A chord (pronounced A-flat), the members are A, C, and E.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Chords and tension", "target_page_ids": [ 497868, 945128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 44 ], [ 126, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In many types of music, notably baroque, romantic, modern and jazz, chords are often augmented with \"tensions\". A tension is an additional chord member that creates a relatively dissonant interval in relation to the bass. Following the tertian practice of building chords by stacking thirds, the simplest first tension is added to a triad by stacking, on top of the existing root, third, and fifth, another third above the fifth, adding a new, potentially dissonant member a seventh away from the root (called the \"seventh\" of the chord) producing a four-note chord called a \"seventh chord\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Chords and tension", "target_page_ids": [ 203442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 576, 589 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Depending on the widths of the individual thirds stacked to build the chord, the interval between the root and the seventh of the chord may be major, minor, or diminished. (The interval of an augmented seventh reproduces the root, and is therefore left out of the chordal nomenclature.) The nomenclature allows that, by default, \"C7\" indicates a chord with a root, third, fifth, and seventh spelled C, E, G, and B. Other types of seventh chords must be named more explicitly, such as \"C Major 7\" (spelled C, E, G, B), \"C augmented 7\" (here the word augmented applies to the fifth, not the seventh, spelled C, E, G, B), etc. (For a more complete exposition of nomenclature see Chord (music).)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Chords and tension", "target_page_ids": [ 224256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 676, 689 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Continuing to stack thirds on top of a seventh chord produces extensions, and brings in the \"extended tensions\" or \"upper tensions\" (those more than an octave above the root when stacked in thirds), the ninths, elevenths, and thirteenths. This creates the chords named after them. (Note that except for dyads and triads, tertian chord types are named for the interval of the largest size and magnitude in use in the stack, not for the number of chord members : thus a ninth chord has five members [tonic, 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th], not nine.) Extensions beyond the thirteenth reproduce existing chord members and are (usually) left out of the nomenclature. Complex harmonies based on extended chords are found in abundance in jazz, late-romantic music, modern orchestral works, film music, etc.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Chords and tension", "target_page_ids": [ 428163 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 678, 692 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Typically, in the classical Common practice period a dissonant chord (chord with tension) resolves to a consonant chord. Harmonization usually sounds pleasant to the ear when there is a balance between the consonant and dissonant sounds. In simple words, that occurs when there is a balance between \"tense\" and \"relaxed\" moments. For this reason, usually tension is 'prepared' and then 'resolved', where preparing tension means to place a series of consonant chords that lead smoothly to the dissonant chord. In this way the composer ensures introducing tension smoothly, without disturbing the listener. Once the piece reaches its sub-climax, the listener needs a moment of relaxation to clear up the tension, which is obtained by playing a consonant chord that resolves the tension of the previous chords. The clearing of this tension usually sounds pleasant to the listener, though this is not always the case in late-nineteenth century music, such as Tristan und Isolde by Richard Wagner.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Chords and tension", "target_page_ids": [ 415263, 14028384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 50 ], [ 121, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A number of features contribute to the perception of a chord's harmony.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Perception", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tonal fusion contributes to the perceived consonance of a chord, describing the degree to which multiple pitches are heard as a single, unitary tone. Chords which have more coinciding partials (frequency components) are perceived as more consonant, such as the octave and perfect fifth. The spectra of these intervals resemble that of a uniform tone. According to this definition, a major triad fuses better than a minor triad and a major-minor seventh chord fuses better than a major-major seventh or minor-minor seventh. These differences may not be readily apparent in tempered contexts but can explain why major triads are generally more prevalent than minor triads and major-minor sevenths are generally more prevalent than other sevenths (in spite of the dissonance of the tritone interval) in mainstream tonal music.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Perception", "target_page_ids": [ 37726, 143888, 417032, 417034, 573098, 4185360, 1009701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 261, 267 ], [ 272, 285 ], [ 383, 394 ], [ 415, 426 ], [ 433, 458 ], [ 479, 498 ], [ 502, 521 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In organ registers, certain harmonic interval combinations and chords are activated by a single key. The sounds produced fuse into one tone with a new timbre. This tonal fusion effect is also used in synthesizers and orchestral arrangements; for instance, in Ravel’s Bolero #5 the parallel parts of flutes, horn and celesta resemble the sound of an electric organ.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Perception", "target_page_ids": [ 48068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 259, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When adjacent harmonics in complex tones interfere with one another, they create the perception of what is known as \"beating\" or \"roughness\". These precepts are closely related to the perceived dissonance of chords. To interfere, partials must lie within a critical bandwidth, which is a measure of the ear's ability to separate different frequencies. Critical bandwidth lies between 2 and 3 semitones at high frequencies and becomes larger at lower frequencies. The roughest interval in the chromatic scale is the minor second and its inversion, the major seventh. For typical spectral envelopes in the central range, the second roughest interval is the major second and minor seventh, followed by the tritone, the minor third (major sixth), the major third (minor sixth) and the perfect fourth (fifth).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Perception", "target_page_ids": [ 49234, 415167, 13922792, 202672, 415190, 415192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 492, 507 ], [ 515, 527 ], [ 536, 545 ], [ 578, 595 ], [ 729, 740 ], [ 760, 771 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Familiarity also contributes to the perceived harmony of an interval. Chords that have often been heard in musical contexts tend to sound more consonant. This principle explains the gradual historical increase in harmonic complexity of Western music. For example, around 1600 unprepared seventh chords gradually became familiar and were therefore gradually perceived as more consonant.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Perception", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Individual characteristics such as age and musical experience also have an effect on harmony perception.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Perception", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The inferior colliculus is a mid-brain structure which is the first site of binaural auditory integration, processing auditory information from the left and right ears. Frequency following responses (FFRs) recorded from the mid-brain exhibit peaks in activity which correspond to the frequency components of a tonal stimulus. The extent to which FFRs accurately represent the harmonic information of a chord is called neural salience, and this value is correlated with behavioral ratings of the perceived pleasantness of chords.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Perception", "target_page_ids": [ 1085361, 1021754, 32454456, 487143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 23 ], [ 76, 105 ], [ 169, 197 ], [ 224, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In response to harmonic intervals, cortical activity also distinguishes chords by their consonance, responding more robustly to chords with greater consonance.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Perception", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chromatic chord", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 500922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chromatic mediant", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11480167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Harmonie", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10977690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Homophony (music)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2108135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of musical terminology", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 338960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mathematics of musical scales", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5643937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Musica universalis", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 318648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Organum (polyphonic chant)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 405183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Peter Westergaard's tonal theory", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5849071 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Physics of music", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1379269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Prolongation", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1399975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tonality", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 304572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Unified field", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 961242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Voice leading", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1187696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dahlhaus, Carl. Gjerdingen, Robert O. trans. (1990). Studies in the Origin of Harmonic Tonality, p.141. Princeton University Press. .", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "van der Merwe, Peter (1989). Origins of the Popular Style: The Antecedents of Twentieth-Century Popular Music. Oxford: Clarendon Press. .", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 1596807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nettles, Barrie & Graf, Richard (1997). The Chord Scale Theory and Jazz Harmony. Advance Music, ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Prout, Ebenezer, Harmony, its Theory and Practice (1889, revised 1903)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 11623013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chord Geometry – Graphical Analysis of Harmony Tool", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Harmony", "Concepts_in_aesthetics", "Sound", "Psychoacoustics", "Consonance_and_dissonance" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Harthacnut (; \"Tough-knot\"; – 8 June 1042), traditionally Hardicanute, sometimes referred to as Canute III, was King of Denmark from 1035 to 1042 and King of the English from 1040 to 1042.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 55661, 160904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 127 ], [ 150, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harthacnut was the son of King Cnut the Great (who ruled Denmark, Norway, and England) and Emma of Normandy. When Cnut died in 1035, Harthacnut struggled to retain his father's possessions. Magnus I took control of Norway, but Harthacnut succeeded as King of Denmark and became King of England in 1040 after the death of his half-brother Harold Harefoot, king of England. Harthacnut himself died suddenly in 1042 and was succeeded by Magnus in Denmark and Edward the Confessor in England. Harthacnut was the last Dane to rule England.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 40501, 76972, 21241, 40236, 66279, 40261, 40243, 623153 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 45 ], [ 57, 64 ], [ 66, 72 ], [ 91, 107 ], [ 190, 198 ], [ 338, 353 ], [ 456, 476 ], [ 513, 517 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harthacnut was born shortly after the marriage of his parents in July or August 1017. Cnut had put aside his first wife Ælfgifu of Northampton to marry Emma, and according to the Encomium Emmae Reginae, a book she inspired many years later, Cnut agreed that any sons of their marriage should take precedence over the sons of his first marriage. In 1023, Emma and Harthacnut played a leading role in the translation of the body of the martyr St Ælfheah from London to Canterbury, an occasion seen by Harthacnut's biographer, Ian Howard, as recognition of his position as Cnut's heir in England.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 158199, 5065970, 2110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 142 ], [ 179, 201 ], [ 441, 451 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1020s Denmark was threatened by Norway and Sweden, and in 1026 Cnut decided to strengthen its defences by bringing over his eight-year-old son to be the future king under a council headed by his brother-in-law, Earl Ulf. However, Ulf alienated Cnut by getting the Danish provinces to acknowledge Harthacnut as king without reference to Cnut's overall authority and by failing to take vigorous measures to meet Norwegian and Swedish invasions, instead waiting for Cnut's assistance. In 1027, Cnut arrived with a fleet. He forgave Harthacnut his insubordination in view of his youth but had Ulf murdered. He drove the invaders out of Denmark and established his authority over Norway, returning to England in 1028 and leaving Denmark to be ruled by King Harthacnut.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 2193184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 218, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cnut had left Norway under the rule of Håkon Eiriksson, who drowned in a shipwreck in 1029 or 1030. Cnut then appointed his son Svein to rule Norway with the assistance of Ælfgifu, Cnut's first wife and Svein's mother. However, they made themselves unpopular by heavy taxation and favouring Danish advisers over the Norwegian nobles, and when King Magnus I of Norway, the son of the former King of Norway, Olaf, invaded in 1035, they were forced to flee to Harthacnut's court. Harthacnut was a close ally of Svein, but he did not feel his resources were great enough to launch an invasion of Norway, and the half-brothers looked for help from their father, but instead they received news of his death in November 1035.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 1759377, 7067308, 66279, 150695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 54 ], [ 128, 133 ], [ 348, 366 ], [ 406, 410 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1035, Harthacnut succeeded his father on the throne of Denmark as Cnut III. He was unable to come to England in view of the situation in Denmark, and it was agreed that Svein's full brother, Harold Harefoot, should act as regent, with Emma holding Wessex on Harthacnut's behalf. In 1037, Harold was generally accepted as king, Harthacnut being, in the words of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, \"forsaken because he was too long in Denmark\", while Emma fled to Bruges, in Flanders. In 1039, Harthacnut sailed with ten ships to meet his mother in Bruges but delayed an invasion as it was clear Harold was sick and would soon die, which he did in March 1040. Envoys soon crossed the channel to offer Harthacnut the throne.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 20714373, 24222749, 38334190, 10878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 65 ], [ 368, 389 ], [ 457, 463 ], [ 468, 476 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While the general outline of events following Cnut's death are clear, the details are obscure, and historians give differing interpretations. states that it is unclear whether Harthacnut was to have England as well as Denmark, but it was probably a reflection of a formal arrangement that mints south of the Thames produced silver pennies in his name, while those to the north were almost all Harold's. There might have been a division of the kingdom if Harthacnut had appeared straight away. He probably stayed in Denmark because of the threat from Magnus of Norway, but they eventually made a treaty by which if either died without an heir, his kingdom would go to the other, and this may have freed Harthacnut to pursue his claim to England.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to Ian Howard, Harthacnut agreed to help Svein recover Norway and planned an invasion in 1036. Svein died shortly before it was to set out, but Harthacnut proceeded anyway. War was avoided by the treaty between Harthacnut and Magnus, which Harthacnut agreed to because he had no plausible candidate to rule Norway after Svein's death, and he was in any case temperamentally inclined to avoid campaigns and wars. Howard dates the treaty to 1036, whereas other historians date it to 1039 and believe it freed Harthacnut to launch an invasion of England.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Exiled in Bruges, Emma plotted to gain the English throne for her son. She sponsored the Encomium Emmae Reginae, which eulogised her and attacked Harold, especially for arranging the murder of Alfred Atheling (the younger of Emma's two sons by Æthelred) in 1036. The work describes Harthacnut's horror at hearing of his half brother's murder, and in Howard's view, was probably influential in finally persuading the cautious Harthacnut to invade England. According to a later edition of the Encomium, the English took the initiative in communicating with Harthacnut in 1039, possibly when they became aware that Harold had not long to live.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 6201270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 193, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harthacnut travelled to England with his mother. The landing at Sandwich on 17 June 1040, \"seven days before Midsummer\", was a peaceful one, though he had a fleet of 62 warships. Even though he had been invited to take the throne, he was taking no chances and came as a conqueror with an invasion force. The crews had to be rewarded for their service, and to pay them, he levied a geld of more than 21,000 pounds, a huge sum of money that made him unpopular, although it was only a quarter of the amount his father had raised in similar circumstances in 1017–1018.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 82438, 221226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 72 ], [ 109, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harthacnut had been horrified by Harold's murder of Alfred, and his mother demanded vengeance. With the approval of Harold's former councillors, his body was disinterred from its place of honour at Westminster and publicly beheaded. It was disposed of in a sewer, but then retrieved and thrown in the Thames, from which London shipmen rescued it and had it buried in a churchyard. Godwin, the powerful earl of Wessex, had been complicit in the crime as he had handed over Alfred to Harold, and Queen Emma charged him in a trial before Harthacnut and members of his council. The king allowed Godwin to escape punishment by bringing witnesses that he had acted on Harold's orders, but Godwin then gave Harthacnut a ship so richly decorated that it amounted to the wergild that Godwin would have had to pay if he had been found guilty. Bishop Lyfing of Worcester was also charged with complicity in the crime and deprived of his see, but in 1041 he made his peace with Harthacnut and was restored to his position.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 40149, 33658, 33725, 98117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 381, 387 ], [ 410, 416 ], [ 762, 769 ], [ 833, 859 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The English had become used to the king ruling in council, with the advice of his chief men, but Harthacnut had ruled autocratically in Denmark, and he was not willing to change, particularly as he did not fully trust the leading earls. At first he was successful intimidating his subjects, though less so later in his short reign. He doubled the size of the English fleet from sixteen to thirty-two ships, partly so that he had a force capable of dealing with trouble elsewhere in his empire, and to pay for it he severely increased the rate of taxation. The increase coincided with a poor harvest, causing severe hardship. In 1041 two of his tax gatherers were so harsh in dealing with people in and around Worcester that they rioted and killed the tax gatherers. Harthacnut reacted by imposing a then-legal but very unpopular punishment known as 'harrying'. He ordered his earls to burn the town and kill the population. Few people were killed, as the people of Worcester had fled in advance of their arrival. Although the city was burnt and plundered, citizens of Worcester who had taken refuge on an island in the River Severn fought successfully against Harthacnut's troops, and won the right to return to their homes without further punishment.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 58681, 50807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 709, 718 ], [ 1119, 1131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The earl of Northumbria was Siward, but Earl Eadwulf of Bernicia ruled the northern part in semi-independence, a situation which did not please the autocratic Harthacnut. In 1041 Earl Eadwulf gave offence to the king for an unknown reason but then sought reconciliation. Harthacnut promised him safe conduct but then colluded in his murder by Siward, who became earl of the whole of Northumbria. The crime was widely condemned, and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle described it as \"a betrayal\" and the king as an \"oath-breaker\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 36717, 1945901, 3705433, 149239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 23 ], [ 28, 34 ], [ 45, 52 ], [ 56, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harthacnut was generous to the church. Very few contemporary documents survive, but a royal charter of his transferred land to Bishop Ælfwine of Winchester, and he made several grants to Ramsey Abbey. The 12th-century Ramsey Chronicle speaks well of his generosity and of his character.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 13117936, 151256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 155 ], [ 187, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harthacnut had suffered from bouts of illness even before he became King of England. He may have suffered from tuberculosis, and he probably knew that he had not long to live. In 1041 he invited his half-brother Edward the Confessor (his mother Emma's son by Æthelred the Unready) back from exile in Normandy and probably made him his heir. He may well have been influenced by Emma, who hoped to keep her power by ensuring that one of her sons was succeeded by another. Harthacnut was unmarried and had no known children.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 30653, 40243, 10083, 21724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 123 ], [ 212, 232 ], [ 259, 279 ], [ 300, 308 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 8 June 1042, Harthacnut attended a wedding in Lambeth. The groom was Tovi the Proud, former standard-bearer to Cnut, and the bride was Gytha, daughter of the courtier Osgod Clapa. Harthacnut presumably consumed large quantities of alcohol. As he was drinking to the health of the bride, he \"died as he stood at his drink, and he suddenly fell to the earth with an awful convulsion; and those who were close by took hold of him, and he spoke no word afterwards...\" The likely cause of death was a stroke, \"brought about by an excessive intake of alcohol\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 298747, 25179701, 9173667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 56 ], [ 72, 86 ], [ 170, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sten Körner noted that the death of Harthacnut could be part of a plot, but did not further explore the notion, though the implication would be that Edward the Confessor was behind this plot. Brewer points out that Edward benefited from the sudden death of Harthacnut and that while Godwin, Earl of Wessex, was the father-in-law to Edward, he had once led an uprising against his son-in-law. He died suddenly after dining with said son-in-law, again pointing suspicion at Edward as the probable culprit behind both deaths. Katherine Holman was certain that Harthacnut was poisoned but felt that the culprit will never be known with certainty due to \"no shortage of discontented candidates\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The political agreement between Harthacnut and Magnus the Good included the appointment of the latter as heir to Harthacnut. At the time, the agreement would have only affected the throne of Denmark. The Heimskringla reports that when Harthacnut died, Magnus extended his claim to England. He reportedly sent a letter to Edward the Confessor, pressing his claim to the English throne and threatening invasion. His own heir, Harald Hardrada, would also press this claim. Both considered themselves legal heirs to Harthacnut. The Fagrskinna contains a scene where Magnus proclaims that \"I will take possession of all the Danish empire or else die in the attempt.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Succession", "target_page_ids": [ 66279, 14468, 66054, 1636244, 26220980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 62 ], [ 204, 216 ], [ 424, 439 ], [ 528, 538 ], [ 619, 632 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the Encomium, Edward the Confessor already served as co-ruler of England since 1041. There is an emphasis on Harthacnut, Edward, and Emma serving as a trinity of rulers, in emulation of the Holy Trinity. Edward, by surviving his co-ruler, would be king by default. The Heimskringla depicts Edward portraying himself as brother and legal heir to both Harold Harefoot and Harthacnut, while pointing out that he had already won the support \"of all the people of the country\". Unstated in both is that the marriage of Edward to Edith of Wessex would also support his claim by earning him both the political support of her father Godwin and an additional connection to Cnut. She was a niece to the king. The Fagrskinna has Edward point out that he was the son of Æthelred the Unready and Emma of Normandy, the brother to Edmund Ironside, the stepson of Cnut, the stepbrother of Harold Harefoot, and the half-brother of Harthacnut. In short, he had a much stronger family claim to the throne than Magnus. All the leaders of England had already acknowledged him as their king, and he was consecrated by an archbishop. England was his own heritage. Whether Magnus managed to defeat him in war or not, \"you can never be called king in England, and you will never be granted any allegiance there before you put an end to my life.\" This was supposedly enough to cause Magnus to doubt the strength of his own claim.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Succession", "target_page_ids": [ 30511, 1348309, 47092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 203, 215 ], [ 537, 552 ], [ 829, 844 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The marriage agreement between Gunhilda of Denmark (sister of Harthacnut) and Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor would allow descendants of this marriage to claim the throne of Denmark and potentially of England. The marriage, from Henry's perspective, was probably orchestrated to allow the Holy Roman Empire to claim control of Denmark and the western areas of the Baltic Sea. However, Gunhilda died in 1038 with no known sons. Her only daughter was Beatrice I, Abbess of Quedlinburg, who never married.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Succession", "target_page_ids": [ 9950248, 27485485, 13277, 3335, 20024785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 50 ], [ 78, 107 ], [ 287, 304 ], [ 362, 372 ], [ 447, 480 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apart from the Ramsey Chronicle, medieval sources are hostile to Harthacnut. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle he \"did nothing worthy of a king as long as he ruled.\" Modern historians are less dismissive. In the view of M. K. Lawson, he had at least two of the requisites of a successful medieval king: he was \"both ruthless and feared\"; had he not died young, the Norman Conquest might not have happened. Ian Howard praises Harthacnut for keeping peace throughout his empire, benefiting trade and merchants, and ensuring a peaceful succession by inviting Edward to his court as his heir. Had he lived longer, Howard believes, his character might have enabled him to become a successful king like his father.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reputation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Henry of Huntingdon (12th century) claimed that Harthacnut ordered for the dining tables of his court to be \"laid four times a day with royal sumptuousness\" which O'Brien says is likely a popular myth. Henry of Huntingdon viewed this detail in the context of the monarch sharing these meals with the members of his household, making Harthacnut more generous than his own contemporaries, who \"through avarice, or as they pretend through disgust, ...set but one meal a day before their dependents\". His account produced the image of Harthacnut as a \"very generous bon viveur.\" Ranulf Higden (14th century) viewed the same detail in a negative light. He claimed that Harthacnut insisted on having two dinners and two suppers per day. His example influenced the English people, who supposedly were to Higden's day gluttonous and extravagant. Higden so claimed that Harthacnut had a lasting effect on the English national character. The association of Harthacnut with gluttony was well known enough to appear in the novel Ivanhoe (1819) by Walter Scott. The character Cedric comments on his friend Athelstane, whose main character trait is a love for food and drink, that \"The soul of Hardicanute hath taken possession of him, and he hath no pleasure save to fill, to swill, and to call for more.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reputation", "target_page_ids": [ 1358460, 620600, 15055, 27884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 575, 588 ], [ 1017, 1024 ], [ 1035, 1047 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Knýtlinga saga treats the death of Harthacnut as the end of an ancient line of kings, and notes that he was the last Danish king to rule over England. But otherwise Harthacnut is treated as a mere footnote in the line of monarchs, while there are many observations on Cnut. The Morkinskinna covers Harthacnut's death in some detail, but records next to nothing about his life, suggesting a lack of memorable details on him, presumably due to his short reign.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reputation", "target_page_ids": [ 2635020, 6350700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 282, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Brut Chronicle was an Anglo-Norman work, covering British and English monarchs from Brut (Brutus of Troy) to the death of Henry III in 1272. It was probably written during the reign of Edward I (reigned 1272–1307), though the oldest surviving manuscript dates to 1338. The text often includes notable errors. The original author remains unknown, but there were a number of continuations by different hands, continuing the story to the Battle of Halidon Hill (1333). The material on Harthacnut is largely positive. The author considered both Harold Harefoot and Harthacnut to have been sons of Cnut and Emma of Normandy. He portrays Harold as lacking in chivalry, courtesy, and honour. While Harthacnut was \"...a noble knight and stalwart of body, and he greatly loved knighthood and all virtues.\" He praises Harthacnut for his generosity with food and drink, claiming that his table was open \"...for all who wished to come to his court to be richly served with royal dishes\". He concludes by portraying Harthacnut as a loyal son for accepting his mother, Emma, back to court.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reputation", "target_page_ids": [ 53930969, 257098, 164185, 46591, 46373, 240000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 26, 38 ], [ 94, 108 ], [ 126, 135 ], [ 189, 197 ], [ 439, 461 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is a contradictory account of Harthacnut's death featured in the Morkinskinna (13th century). According to this account, Magnus I of Norway (reigned 1034–1047) visited the court of Harthacnut in Denmark, received with all official honours. The two monarchs then argued on a matter of etiquette, on whether the host or the guest should drink first, each man offering the honour to the other. The two eventually agreed that the host should drink first. Then Álfífa (Ælfgifu of Northampton) entered the royal hall, welcoming Magnus. She poured a drink for him. But the guest offered the drink to Harthacnut. He drank from the drinking horn and fell dead, poisoned. Álfífa had thus intended to poison Magnus, but accidentally killed Harthacnut instead. She fled to escape punishment.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Contradictory account of his death", "target_page_ids": [ 6350700, 66279, 51512, 158199, 2784736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 83 ], [ 127, 145 ], [ 290, 299 ], [ 470, 492 ], [ 629, 642 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The tale is probably fictional in origin, though consistent with the villainous depiction of Ælfgifu in this work. A nearly identical story appears in the Egils saga, though the three protagonists are different, with Egill Skallagrímsson as the intended victim, with Bárðr of Atley and Gunnhild, Mother of Kings as the would-be poisoners.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Contradictory account of his death", "target_page_ids": [ 274702, 1109199, 12123767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 165 ], [ 217, 237 ], [ 286, 311 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Based primarily on Einarsson's 1984 edition.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "DeVries, Kelly, The Norwegian Invasion of England in 1066 (2003). Boydell & Brewer Ltd, ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Douglas, David Charles, William The Conqueror: The Norman Impact Upon England (1964). University of California Press.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Gillingham, John, The introduction of chivalry into England. Essay included in Law and Government in Medieval England and Normandy: Essays in Honour of Sir James Holt (1994), pages 31–56. Cambridge University Press, ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Howard, Ian, Harold II: a Throne-Worthy King. Essay included in King Harold II and the Bayeux Tapestry (2005), pages 35–52. Boydell Press, .", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rushton, Alan R., Royal Maladies: Inherited Diseases in the Royal Houses of Europe (2008). Victoria, British Columbia: Trafford, ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1010s_births", "1042_deaths", "11th-century_English_monarchs", "11th-century_kings_of_Denmark", "Anglo-Norse_monarchs", "Burials_at_Winchester_Cathedral", "Christian_monarchs", "Cnut_the_Great", "House_of_Knýtlinga", "Monarchs_of_England_before_1066", "Simony" ]

[ "Harthacnut", "Hardeknud", "Cnut III", "Harthacnut Cnutsson, King of England and Denmark", "Hardicanute", "Harthacanute", "Canute III", "Harðacnut", "Hardecanute" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Harold I (died 17 March 1040), also known as Harold Harefoot, was King of the English from 1035 to 1040. Harold's nickname \"Harefoot\" is first recorded as \"Harefoh\" or \"Harefah\" in the twelfth century in the history of Ely Abbey, and according to some late medieval chroniclers it meant that he was \"fleet of foot\".", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 160904, 884375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 85 ], [ 219, 228 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The son of Cnut the Great and Ælfgifu of Northampton, Harold was elected regent of England following the death of his father in 1035. He initially ruled England in place of his brother Harthacnut, who was stuck in Denmark due to a rebellion in Norway which had ousted their brother Svein. Although Harold had wished to be crowned king since 1035, Æthelnoth, Archbishop of Canterbury, refused to do so. It was not until 1037 that Harold, supported by earl Leofric and many others, was officially proclaimed king. The same year, Harold's two step-brothers Edward and Alfred returned to England with a considerable military force. Alfred was captured by Earl Godwin, who had him seized and delivered to an escort of men loyal to Harefoot. While en route to Ely, he was blinded and soon after died of his wounds.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 40501, 158199, 40259, 7067308, 145871, 955862, 957758, 40149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 25 ], [ 30, 52 ], [ 185, 195 ], [ 282, 287 ], [ 347, 356 ], [ 358, 382 ], [ 455, 462 ], [ 651, 662 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harold died in 1040, having ruled just five years; his half-brother Harthacnut soon returned and took hold of the kingdom peacefully. Harold was originally buried in Westminster, but Harthacnut had his body dragged up and thrown into a fen adjacent to the river Thames, but it was after a short time picked up by a fisherman, immediately taken to the Danes, and honourably buried by them in their cemetery at London.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 40259, 113530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 78 ], [ 236, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reports that Harold said that he was a son of Cnut the Great and Ælfgifu of Northampton, \"although it was not true\". Florence of Worcester (12th century) elaborates on the subject. Claiming that Ælfgifu wanted to have a son by the king but was unable to, she secretly adopted the newborn children of strangers and pretended to have given birth to them. Harold was reportedly the son of a cobbler, while his brother Svein Knutsson was the illegitimate son of a priest. She deceived Cnut into recognizing both children as his own.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Paternity", "target_page_ids": [ 24222749, 40501, 158199, 146626, 7067308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 25 ], [ 72, 86 ], [ 91, 113 ], [ 143, 164 ], [ 441, 455 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "21st-century author Harriet O'Brien doubts Cnut, the shrewd politician who \"masterminded the bloodless takeover of Norway\", could have been deceived in such a way. She suspects the tale started out as a popular myth, or intentional defamation presumably tailored by Emma of Normandy, the other wife of Cnut and rival to Ælfgifu.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Paternity", "target_page_ids": [ 28661, 40236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 232, 242 ], [ 266, 282 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Upon the death of Cnut on 12 November 1035, Harold's younger half-brother Harthacnut, the son of Cnut and his queen Emma of Normandy, was the legitimate heir to the thrones of both the Danes and the English. Harthacnut, however, was unable to travel to his coronation in England because his Danish kingdom was under threat of invasion by King Magnus I of Norway and King Anund Jacob of Sweden. England's magnates favored the idea of installing Harold Harefoot temporarily as regent or joint monarch, due to the difficulty of Harthacnut's absence, and despite the opposition of Godwin, the Earl of Wessex, and the Queen, he eventually wore the crown. There is some dispute in primary sources (the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle) about Harold's initial role. Versions E and F mention him as regent, the others as co-ruler.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Harthacnut's reign", "target_page_ids": [ 40259, 40236, 4154892, 66279, 21241, 170174, 904281, 35348624, 40149, 413730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 84 ], [ 116, 132 ], [ 338, 342 ], [ 343, 351 ], [ 355, 361 ], [ 366, 370 ], [ 371, 392 ], [ 476, 482 ], [ 578, 584 ], [ 590, 604 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ian Howard points out that Cnut had been survived by three sons: Svein, Harold, and Harthacnut. The Encomium Emmae Reginae also describes Edward the Confessor and Alfred Aetheling as the sons of Canute, though the modern term would be step-sons. Harold could claim the regency or kingship because he was the only one of the five present in England in 1035. Harthacnut was reigning in Denmark, and Svein had joined him there following his deposition from the Norwegian throne, while Edward and Alfred were in Normandy. Harold could reign in the name of his absent brothers, with Emma rivaling him as a candidate for the regency.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Harthacnut's reign", "target_page_ids": [ 5065970, 40243, 6201270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 122 ], [ 138, 158 ], [ 163, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ignores the existence of Svein, or his claim to the throne, which Howard considers as evidence of the relative entries being unreliable, of failing to give a complete picture. The Heimskringla of Snorri Sturluson claims that Svein and Harthacnut had agreed to share the kingdom between them. This agreement would include Denmark and (probably) England. Snorri quotes older sources on the subject and could be preserving valuable details.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Harthacnut's reign", "target_page_ids": [ 14468, 23408931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 206, 218 ], [ 222, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harold reportedly sought coronation as early as 1035. According to the Encomium Emmae Reginae, however, Æthelnoth, Archbishop of Canterbury, refused to crown Harold Harefoot. Coronation by the Archbishop would be a legal requirement to become a king. Æthelnoth reportedly placed the sceptre and crown on the altar of a temple, possibly that of the Canterbury Cathedral. Offering to consecrate Harold without using any of the royal regalia would have been an empty honour. He refused to remove the items from the altar and forbade any other bishop from doing so. The tale goes on that Harold failed to sway Æthelnoth, as both bribes and threats proved ineffectual. The despairing Harold reportedly rejected Christianity in protest. He refused to attend church services while uncrowned, preoccupying himself with hunting and trivial matters.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 5065970, 145871, 955862, 26052054, 95353, 68640, 72987, 1185902, 5211, 38791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 93 ], [ 104, 113 ], [ 115, 139 ], [ 283, 290 ], [ 295, 300 ], [ 308, 313 ], [ 348, 368 ], [ 382, 392 ], [ 706, 718 ], [ 811, 818 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Encomium stays silent on an event reported by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and other sources. Harold was accepted as monarch in a Witenagemot held at Oxford. His chief supporter in the council was Leofric, Earl of Mercia, while the opposition was led by Godwin, Earl of Wessex. There is evidence that Ælfgifu of Northampton was attempting to secure her son's position through bribes to the nobles. In 1036, Gunhilda of Denmark, sister to Harthacnut and half-sister to Harold, married Henry III, King of Germany. On this occasion Immo, a priest serving at the court of the Holy Roman Empire, wrote a letter to Azecho, Bishop of Worms. It included information on the situation in England, with messengers from there reporting that Ælfgifu was gaining the support of the leading aristocrats through pleas and bribery, binding them to herself and Harold by oaths of loyalty.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 40145, 22308, 957758, 40149, 9950248, 27485485, 13277, 1527981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 142 ], [ 151, 157 ], [ 198, 221 ], [ 255, 277 ], [ 408, 427 ], [ 485, 511 ], [ 573, 590 ], [ 618, 633 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Initially the Kingdom of England was divided between the two half-brothers. Harold ruled the areas north of the River Thames, supported by the local nobility. The southern nobility under Godwin and Emma continued to be ruled in the name of the absent Harthacnut. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reports that Godwin and the leading men of Wessex opposed the rule of Harold for \"...as long as they could, but they could not do anything against it.\" With the north at least on Harold's side, in adherence to the terms of a deal, which Godwin was part of, Emma was settled in Winchester, with Harthacnut's huscarls. Harold soon \"sent and had taken from her all the best treasures\" of Cnut the Great.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 407950, 49031, 43412, 436644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 32 ], [ 112, 124 ], [ 566, 576 ], [ 596, 604 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The situation could not last for long, and Godwin eventually switched sides. William of Malmesbury asserts that Godwin had been overwhelmed \"in power and in numbers\" by Harold. In 1037, Emma of Normandy fled to Bruges, Flanders, and Harold \"was everywhere chosen as king\". The details behind the event are obscure. The account of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, version E, jumps from Harold being a mere regent to Harold being the sole king. Versions C and D do not even make a distinction between the two phases. Ian Howard theorises that the death of Svein Knutsson could have strengthened Harold's position. He went from being the second surviving son of Cnut to being the eldest living, with Harthacnut still absent and unable to press his claim to the throne.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 158000, 40236, 38334190, 10878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 98 ], [ 186, 202 ], [ 211, 217 ], [ 219, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harold himself is somewhat obscure; the historian Frank Stenton considered it probable that his mother Ælfgifu was \"the real ruler of England\" for part or all of his reign. Kelly DeVries points out that during the High Middle Ages, royal succession in Northern Europe was determined by military power. The eldest son of a king could have a superior right of inheritance but still lose the throne to a younger brother, or other junior claimant, possessing greater military support. Harold managed to win the throne against the superior claim of Harthacnut in this way. The 11th century provides other similar examples. Magnus I of Norway (reigned 1035–1047), who wasn't a warlord, had reigned for more than a decade when his uncle Harald Hardrada (reigned 1047–1066) challenged his rule. With Harald being a famous military leader, his claim would end Magnus' reign early. Baldwin VI, Count of Flanders (reigned 1067–1070) was effectively succeeded by his brother Robert I (reigned 1071–1093), rather than his own sons. Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy (reigned 1087–1106) lost the throne of England to his younger brothers William II (reigned 1087–1100) and Henry I (reigned 1100–1135).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 590589, 11375871, 503345, 159865, 66279, 66054, 360728, 360739, 60213, 442503, 33918, 14179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 63 ], [ 173, 186 ], [ 214, 230 ], [ 252, 267 ], [ 618, 636 ], [ 730, 745 ], [ 872, 901 ], [ 963, 971 ], [ 1019, 1034 ], [ 1036, 1052 ], [ 1124, 1134 ], [ 1159, 1166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the Kingdom of England practically owned by Harold, Harthacnut could not even approach without securing sufficient military strength. His decision to remain in Denmark probably points to him lacking sufficient support, though he would certainly wait for an opportunity to forcefully assert his claim and depose his half-brother. Harold reigned as sole king from 1037 to 1040. There are few surviving documents about events of his reign. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle mostly covers church matters, such as the deaths and appointments of bishops and archbishops. There is, however, record of a skirmish between the Anglo-Saxons and the Welsh in 1039. The named casualties were Eadwine (Edwin), brother to Leofric, Earl of Mercia, Thurkil, and Ælfgeat, but there are no other details concerning this event. Also in 1039, there is mention of a great gale, again with no details.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 407950, 957758, 320909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 27 ], [ 704, 727 ], [ 847, 851 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1036, Ælfred Ætheling, son of Emma by the long-dead Æthelred, returned to the kingdom from exile in the Duchy of Normandy with his brother Edward the Confessor, with some show of arms. Their motivation is uncertain. William of Poitiers claimed that they had come to claim the English throne for themselves. Frank Barlow suspected that Emma had invited them, possibly to use them against Harold. If so, it could mean that Emma had abandoned the cause of Harthacnut, probably to strengthen her own position, but that could have inspired Godwin to also abandon the lost cause.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 6201270, 10083, 379489, 40243, 252427, 15020590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 24 ], [ 55, 63 ], [ 107, 124 ], [ 142, 162 ], [ 219, 238 ], [ 310, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Encomium Emmae Reginae claims that Harold himself had lured them to England, having sent them a forged letter, supposedly written by Emma. The letter reportedly both decried Harold's behaviour against her, and urged her estranged sons to come and protect her. Barlow and other modern historians suspect that this letter was genuine. Ian Howard argued that Emma not being involved in a major political manoeuvre would be \"out of character for her\", and the Encomium was probably trying to mask her responsibility for a blunder. William of Jumièges reports that earlier in 1036, Edward had conducted a successful raid of Southampton, managing to win a victory against the troops defending the city and then sailing back to Normandy \"richly laden with booty\", but the swift retreat confirms William's assessment that Edward would need a larger army to seriously claim the throne.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 5065970, 3096849, 7920751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 26 ], [ 531, 550 ], [ 623, 634 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With his bodyguard, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Ælfred intended to visit his mother, Emma, in Winchester, but he may have made this journey for reasons other than a family reunion. As the \"murmur was very much in favour of Harold\", on the direction of Godwin (now apparently on the side of Harold Harefoot), Ælfred was captured. Godwin had him seized and delivered to an escort of men loyal to Harefoot. He was transported by ship to Ely, and blinded while on board. He died in Ely soon after due to the severity of the wounds, his bodyguard similarly treated. The event would later affect the relationship between Edward and Godwin, the Confessor holding Godwin responsible for the death of his brother.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 23909004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 446, 449 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The failed invasion shows that Harold Harefoot, as a son and successor to Cnut, had gained the support of Anglo-Danish nobility, which violently rejected the claims of Ælfred, Edward, and (by extension) the Aethelings. The House of Wessex had lost support among the nobility of the Kingdom. It might also have served as a turning point in the struggle between Harold and Emma that resulted in Emma's exile.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 64946, 662596, 579745 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 118 ], [ 207, 217 ], [ 223, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harold died at Oxford on 17 March 1040, just as Harthacnut was preparing an invasion force of Danes, and was buried at Westminster Abbey. His body was subsequently exhumed, beheaded, and thrown into a fen bordering the Thames when Harthacnut assumed the throne in June 1040. The body was subsequently recovered by fishermen, and resident Danes reportedly had it reburied at their local cemetery in London. The body was eventually buried in a church in the City of Westminster, which was fittingly named St. Clement Danes. A contradictory account in the Knýtlinga saga (13th century) reports Harold buried in the city of Morstr, alongside his half-brother Harthacnut and their father Cnut. While mentioned as a great city in the text, nothing else is known of Morstr. The Heimskringla by Snorri Sturluson reports Harold Harefoot to have been buried at Winchester, again alongside Cnut and Harthacnut.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 22308, 43245, 113530, 49031, 54060, 400330, 2635020, 14468, 23408931, 43412 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 21 ], [ 119, 136 ], [ 202, 205 ], [ 220, 226 ], [ 457, 476 ], [ 504, 521 ], [ 554, 568 ], [ 773, 785 ], [ 789, 805 ], [ 853, 863 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The cause of Harold's death is uncertain. Katherine Holman attributes the death to \"a mysterious illness\". An Anglo-Saxon charter attributes the illness to divine judgment. Harold had reportedly claimed Sandwich for himself, thereby depriving the monks of Christchurch. Harold is described as lying ill and in despair at Oxford. When monks came to him to settle the dispute over Sandwich, he \"lay and grew black as they spoke\". The context of the event was a dispute between Christchurch and St Augustine's Abbey, which took over the local toll in the name of the king. There is little attention paid to the illness of the king. Harriet O'Brien feels this is enough to indicate that Harold died of natural causes, but not to determine the nature of the disease. The Anglo-Saxons themselves would consider him elf-shot (attacked by elves), their term for any number of deadly diseases. Michael Evans points out that Harold was only one of several youthful kings of pre-Conquest England to die following short reigns. Others included Edmund I (reigned 939–946, murdered at age 25), Eadred (reigned 946–955, died at age 32), Eadwig (reigned 955–959, died at age 19), Edmund Ironside (reigned 1016, murdered at age 26), and Harthacnut (reigned 1040–1042, who would die at age 24). Evans wonders whether the role of king was dangerous in this era, more so than in the period after the Conquest, or whether hereditary diseases were in effect, since most of these kings were members of the same lineage, the House of Wessex.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 4188169, 7126061, 82438, 207459, 22308, 40223698, 21782987, 9896, 10354, 58521, 47099, 47092, 579745 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 129 ], [ 156, 171 ], [ 203, 211 ], [ 256, 268 ], [ 321, 327 ], [ 492, 512 ], [ 809, 817 ], [ 831, 836 ], [ 1032, 1040 ], [ 1080, 1086 ], [ 1122, 1128 ], [ 1164, 1179 ], [ 1501, 1516 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is unclear why a king would have been buried at the Abbey. The only previous royals reportedly buried there were Sæberht of Essex and his wife Æthelgoda. Emma Mason speculates that Cnut had built a royal residence in the vicinity of the Abbey, or that Westminster held some significance to the Danish Kings of England, which would also explain why Harthacnut would not allow a usurper to be buried there. The lack of detail in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle implies that, for its compilers, the main point of interest was not the burial site, but the exhumation of the body. Harriet O'Brien theorises that the choice of location might simply reflect the political affiliation of the area of Westminster and nearby London, being a power base for Harold.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 457771, 31809076, 17867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 132 ], [ 297, 320 ], [ 712, 718 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A detailed account of the exhumation appears in the writings of John of Worcester (12th century). The group tasked with the mission was reportedly led by Ælfric Puttoc, Archbishop of York, and Godwin, Earl of Wessex. The involvement of such notable men would have had a significance of its own, giving the event an official nature and avoiding secrecy. Emma Mason suspects that this could also serve as a punishment for Godwin, who had served as a chief supporter of Harold, and was now charged with the gruesome task.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 9394042, 3362795, 5771838, 40149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 81 ], [ 154, 167 ], [ 169, 187 ], [ 193, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harold may have had a wife, Ælfgifu, and a son, Ælfwine, who became a monk on the continent when he was older – his monastic name was Alboin. Ælfwine/Alboin is recorded in 1060 and 1062 in charters from the Abbey Church of Saint Foy in Conques, which mention him as son of \"Heroldus rex fuit Anglorum\" (Latin: Harold, who was king of the English People). Harold Harefoot is the most likely father as the only other king Harold was Harold Godwinson, who would not rise to the throne until 1066. Either way, an underage boy would be unable to claim the throne in 1040. His possible hereditary claims would not be enough to gain the support of the leading nobles against the adult Harthacnut.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Offspring", "target_page_ids": [ 24751001, 419369, 47525151, 232183, 40148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 55 ], [ 70, 74 ], [ 207, 232 ], [ 236, 243 ], [ 431, 447 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ælfgifu of Northampton disappears with no trace after 1040. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Harold Harefoot ruled for four years and sixteen weeks, by which calculation he would have begun ruling two weeks after the death of Cnut.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Offspring", "target_page_ids": [ 158199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Prose Brut chronicle was an Anglo-Norman work, covering British and English monarchs from Brut (Brutus of Troy) to the death of Henry III in 1272. It was probably written during the reign of Edward I (reigned 1272–1307), though the oldest surviving manuscript dates to 1338. The text often includes notable errors. The original author remains unknown, but there were a number of continuations by different hands, extending the story to the Battle of Halidon Hill (1333). The material on Harold Harefoot is rather unflattering. The author considered both Harold and Harthacnut to have been sons of Cnut and Emma of Normandy. He proceeds to portray Harold as follows: \"...He went astray from the qualities and conduct of his father King Cnut, for he cared not at all for knighthood, for courtesy, or for honour, but only for his own will...\". He accuses Harold of driving his own mother Emma out of England, by the advice of Godwin, Earl of Wessex. He paints Harthacnut in a more favorable light.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reputation", "target_page_ids": [ 257098, 164185, 46591, 46373, 240000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 44 ], [ 100, 114 ], [ 132, 141 ], [ 195, 203 ], [ 444, 466 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Knýtlinga saga (13th century) considers Harold Harefoot to be the oldest son of Cnut and Emma of Normandy, though its author frequently misrepresents family relationships. Harthacnut and Gunhilda of Denmark are regarded in the text as his younger siblings. The narrative has Harold and Harthacnut dividing the realms of their father in an agreement. It also features Harold offering hospitality to his half-brother Edward the Confessor, but they were actually step-brothers, and Edward only settled in England following the death of Harold.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reputation", "target_page_ids": [ 2635020, 9950248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 191, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cook, John Douglas – Harwood, Philip- Pollock, Walter Herries- Harris, Frank- Hodge Harris, The Saturday Review of Politics, Literature, Science and Art, vol. 153 (1932). J. W. Parker and Son.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1010s_births", "1040_deaths", "Anglo-Norse_monarchs", "Cnut_the_Great", "11th-century_English_monarchs", "Christian_monarchs", "House_of_Knýtlinga", "Monarchs_of_England_before_1066", "Place_of_birth_missing" ]

[ "Harold I", "Harold I, King of England", "Harold I Harefoot" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Vibrator may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Vibrator (sex toy), a device for massage or sexual pleasure used by both men and women", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Technology", "target_page_ids": [ 7448976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vibrator (mechanical), a class of devices which create mechanical vibrations for uses such as signaling annunciators, doorbells, or industrial uses such as compacting gravel, transporting materials, cleaning, etc.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Technology", "target_page_ids": [ 7449035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vibrator (electronic), an electronic component in DC power supplies for generating high voltage made obsolete by the late 1960s", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Technology", "target_page_ids": [ 7449188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vibrating alert, used in mobile phones and pagers", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Technology", "target_page_ids": [ 304513 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vibrator (music), a musical instrument", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 11657734 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Vibrators, a British punk band", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 2615760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vibrator (album), a 1995 album by Terence Trent D'Arby", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 2349652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Vibrator\", a song by Motörhead on Motörhead (album)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 2040353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Vibrator\", a song by Electric Six, on their second album Senor Smoke", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 1494776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vibroseis, a mobile energy source used in seismic exploration", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 7736733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vibrator (film), a 2003 film", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 25827694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Industrial sociology, until recently a crucial research area within the field of sociology of work, examines", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"the direction and implications of trends in technological change, globalization, labour markets, work organization, managerial practices and employment relations to the extent to which these trends are intimately related to changing patterns of inequality in modern societies and to the changing experiences of individuals and families the ways in which workers challenge, resist and make their own contributions to the patterning of work and shaping of work institutions.\"", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 29816, 46313, 19881, 8824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 58 ], [ 67, 80 ], [ 117, 127 ], [ 142, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One branch of industrial sociology is labour process theory (LPT). In 1974, Harry Braverman wrote Labor and Monopoly Capital, which provided a critical analysis of scientific management. This book analysed capitalist productive relations from a Marxist perspective. Following Marx, Braverman argued that work within capitalist organizations was exploitative and alienating, and therefore workers had to be coerced into servitude. For Braverman the pursuit of capitalist interests over time ultimately leads to deskilling and routinization of the worker. The Taylorist work design is the ultimate embodiment of this tendency.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Labour process theory", "target_page_ids": [ 21509389, 3312454, 24245661, 5416, 13228814, 1904053, 389401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 59 ], [ 76, 91 ], [ 98, 124 ], [ 206, 216 ], [ 217, 227 ], [ 245, 252 ], [ 558, 567 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Braverman demonstrated several mechanisms of control in both the factory blue-collar and clerical white-collar labour force.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Labour process theory", "target_page_ids": [ 246816, 246818 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 84 ], [ 98, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His key contribution is his \"deskilling\" thesis. Braverman argued that capitalist owners and managers were incessantly driven to deskill the labour force to lower production costs and ensure higher productivity. Deskilled labour is cheap and above all easy to control due to the workers' lack of direct engagement in the production process. In turn work becomes intellectually or emotionally unfulfilling; the lack of capitalist reliance on human skill reduces the need of employers to reward workers in anything but a minimal economic way.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Labour process theory", "target_page_ids": [ 10538039 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Braverman's contribution to the sociology of work and industry (i.e., industrial sociology) has been important and his theories of the labour process continue to inform teaching and research. Braverman's thesis has, however, been contested, by Andrew Freidman in his work Industry and Labour (1977). In it, Freidman suggests that whilst the direct control of labour is beneficial for the capitalist under certain circumstances, a degree of \"responsible autonomy\" can be granted to unionized or \"core\" workers, in order to harness their skill under controlled conditions. Also, Richard Edwards showed in 1979 that although hierarchy in organizations has remained constant, additional forms of control (such as technical control via email monitoring, call monitoring; bureaucratic control via procedures for leave, sickness etc.) has been added to gain the interests of the capitalist class versus the workers. Duncan Gallie has shown how important it is to approach the question of skill from a social class perspective. In his study, the majority of non-manual, intermediate and skilled manual workers believed that their work had come to demand a higher level of skill, but the majority of manual worker felt that the responsibility and skill needed in their work had either remained constant or declined. This means that Braverman's claims can't be applied to all social classes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Labour process theory", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The notion the particular type of technology workers were exposed to shapes their experience was most forcefully argued in a classic study by Robert Blauner. He argued that some work is alienating more than other types because of the different technologies workers use. Alienation, to Blauner, has four dimensions: powerlessness, meaninglessness, isolation, and self-estrangement. Individuals are powerless when they can't control their own actions or conditions of work; work is meaningless when it gives employees little or no sense of value, interest or worth; work is isolating when workers cannot identify with their workplace; and work is self-estranging when, at the subjective level, the worker has no sense of involvement in the job.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Labour process theory", "target_page_ids": [ 4219894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Blauner's claims however fail to recognize that the same technology can be experienced in a variety of ways. Studies have shown that cultural differences with regard to management–union relations, levels of hierarchical control, and reward and performance appraisal policies mean that the experience of the same kind of work can vary considerably between countries and firms. The individualization of work and the need for workers to have more flexible skills in order to respond to technological changes means that Blauner's characterization of work experience is no longer valid. Additionally, workers today may work in teams to alleviate workers' sense of alienation, since they are involved in the entire process, rather than just a small part of it. In conclusion, automative technologies and computerized work systems have typically enhanced workers' job satisfaction and skill deployment in the better-paid, secure public and private sector jobs. But, in more non-skilled manual work, they have just perpetuated job dissatisfaction, especially for the many women involved in this type of work.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Labour process theory", "target_page_ids": [ 228062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 244, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bibliography of sociology", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 33654482 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Economic sociology", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 819720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Industrial and organizational psychology", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ] ] } ]

[ "Secondary_sector_of_the_economy", "Economic_sociology", "Industrial_relations" ]

[ "sociology of work" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Kayaking is the use of a kayak for moving over water. It is distinguished from canoeing by the sitting position of the paddler and the number of blades on the paddle. A kayak is a low-to-the-water, canoe-like boat in which the paddler sits facing forward, legs in front, using a double-bladed paddle to pull front-to-back on one side and then the other in rotation. Most kayaks have closed decks, although sit-on-top and inflatable kayaks are growing in popularity as well.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 17383, 283976, 17383, 17383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 30 ], [ 79, 87 ], [ 406, 416 ], [ 421, 438 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kayaks were created thousands of years ago by the Inuit, formerly known as Eskimos, of the northern Arctic regions. They used driftwood and sometimes the skeleton of whale, to construct the frame of the kayak, and animal skin, particularly seal skin was used to create the body. The main purpose for creating the kayak, which literally translates to \"hunter's boat\" was for hunting and fishing. The kayak's stealth capabilities allowed for the hunter to sneak up behind animals on the shoreline and successfully catch their prey.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 15704166, 9491, 36971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 55 ], [ 75, 81 ], [ 100, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1740s, Russian explorers led by the Danish explorer Vitus Bering came in contact with the Aleutians, who had taken the basic kayak concept and developed multiple designs specifically for hunting, transportation, and environmental conditions. They soon recognized the Aleutians were very skillful at hunting sea otters by kayak. Because otters were a popular commodity in Europe and Asia, they would exploit and even kidnap Aleutians and keep them aboard their ships to work and hunt.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 57931, 3034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 71 ], [ 97, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the mid-1800s the kayak became increasingly popular and the Europeans became interested. German and French men began kayaking for sport. In 1931, Adolf Anderle was the first person to kayak down the Salzachöfen Gorge, which is believed to be the birthplace of modern-day white-water kayaking. Kayak races were introduced in the Berlin Olympic Games in 1936.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 59851049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 202, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1950s, fiberglass kayaks were developed and commonly used, until 1980s when polyester and polyethylene plastic kayaks were introduced. Kayaking progressed as a fringe sport in the U.S. until the 1970s, when it became a mainstream popular sport. Now, more than 10 white water kayaking events are featured in the Olympics. While kayaking represents a key international watersport, few academic studies have (to date) been conducted on the role kayaking plays in the lives and activities of the public ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 174431, 3508478, 77385, 26145195 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 24 ], [ 83, 92 ], [ 97, 109 ], [ 110, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kayaks can also be classified by their design and the materials from which they are made. Each design has its specific advantage, including performance, manoeuvrability, stability and paddling style. Kayaks can be made of metal, fibreglass, wood, plastic, fabrics, and inflatable fabrics such as PVC or rubber, and more recently expensive but feather light carbon fiber. Each material also has its specific advantage, including strength, durability, portability, flexibility, resistance to ultraviolet and storage requirements. For example, wooden kayaks can be created from kits or built by hand. Stitch and glue, plywood kayaks can be lighter than any other material except skin-on frame. Inflatable kayaks, made from lightweight fabric, can be deflated and easily transported and stored, and are considered to be remarkably tough and durable compared to some hard-sided boats.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Design", "target_page_ids": [ 24458, 31990, 3996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 296, 299 ], [ 490, 501 ], [ 873, 878 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are many types of kayaks used in flat water and whitewater kayaking. The sizes and shapes vary drastically depending on what type of water to be paddled on and also what the paddler would like to do. The second set of essentials for kayaking is an off-set paddle where the paddle blades are tilted to help reduce wind resistance while the other blade is being used in the water. These vary in length and also shape depending on the intended use, height of the paddler, and the paddler's preference. Kayaks should be equipped with one or more buoyancy aid (also called flotation) which creates air space that helps prevent a kayak from sinking when filled with water. A life jacket should be worn at all times (also called a personal flotation device or PFD), and a helmet is also often required for most kayaking and is mandatory for white water kayaking. Various other pieces of safety gear include a whistle for signaling for help; throwing ropes to help rescue other kayakers; and, a diving knife and appropriate water shoes should used depending upon the risks the water and terrain pose. Proper clothing such as a dry suit, wetsuit or spray top also help protect kayakers from cold water or air temperatures.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 6301158, 132151, 353353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 548, 560 ], [ 771, 777 ], [ 840, 860 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Sit on top\" kayaks place the paddler in an open, shallowly-concave deck above the water level. This style is usually used for non-white water activities as most find it harder to stay inside the kayak while also preventing them from \"rolling\" which allows the user to upright themselves if they flip over. There are some benefits to sit on tops such as the ability for a \"dry hatch\" these are a compartment, that usually runs the length of the kayak, which in addition to providing more buoyancy allows for the kayaker to store various equipment in. \"Sit on top\" kayaks often use \"through holes\" which allows any water that got in the boat to make it through the deck and dry hatch to drain. \"Cockpit style\" involves sitting with the legs and hips inside the kayak hull with a spray deck or \"spray skirt\" that creates a water-resistant seal around the waist. There is a wide range of \"cockpit style\" boats which usually allow for more user control of the boat as they are able to push against the walls of the boat to tip in order to complete maneuvers. A common variant of \"cockpit style\" kayaks are \"play boats\" these are usually very short kayaks in which the user does tricks and maneuvers: \"Inflatables\" are a hybrid of the two previous configurations; these boats have an open deck, but the paddler sits below the level of the deck. These boats are often subject to more instability due to the way the boat sits higher in the water. They are often used in a more commercial setting, they are often affectionately called \"Duckies\". \"Tandems\" are configured for multiple paddlers, in contrast to the single person designs featured by most kayaks. Tandems can be used by two or even three paddlers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 380368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 778, 788 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because of their range and adaptability, kayaks can be useful for other outdoor activities such as diving, fishing, wilderness exploration and search and rescue during floods.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Activities involving kayaks", "target_page_ids": [ 20896975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kayak diving is a type of recreational diving where the divers paddle to a diving site in a kayak carrying all their gear to the place they want to dive. The range can be up to several kilometres along the coastline from the launching point to a place where access would be difficult from the shore, although the sea is sheltered. It is a considerably cheaper alternative to using a powered boat, as well as combining the experience of sea kayaking at the same time. Kayak diving gives the diver independence from dive boat operators, while allowing dives at sites which are too far to comfortably swim, but are sufficiently sheltered.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Activities involving kayaks", "target_page_ids": [ 494840, 28502, 301001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 45 ], [ 117, 121 ], [ 436, 448 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kayak fishing is fishing from a kayak. The kayak has long been a means of transportation and a stealth means of approaching easily spooked fish, such as cobia and flounder. Kayak fishing has gained popularity in recent times due to its broad appeal as an environmentally friendly and healthy method of transportation, as well as its relatively low cost of entry compared to motorized boats. In addition, kayaks allow greater access by their ability to operate in shallow water, getting in and out along the shoreline, and having the ability to get away from the crowds to find a more solitary environment where boats may not have the ability to do so.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Activities involving kayaks", "target_page_ids": [ 36581, 451566, 46311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 24 ], [ 153, 158 ], [ 163, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ecotourism based on kayak trips is gaining in popularity. In warm-water vacation destinations such as Sarasota Keys, guided kayak trips take kayakers on a tour of the local ecosystem. Kayakers can watch dolphins breach and manatees eat seagrass, in shallow bay water.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Activities involving kayaks", "target_page_ids": [ 109756, 9061, 20204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 115 ], [ 203, 210 ], [ 223, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the most common uses of kayaks for hobbyists is whitewater kayaking. Whitewater kayaking is when a kayaker traverses down a series of rapids. The difficulty of these rapid ranges from Class I to Class VI. The difficulty of rapids often changes with water level and debris in the river. Debris that inhibits a kayaker's path are often called \"strainers\" as they \"strain\" out the kayakers like a colander. There are often training camps as well as man-made structures to help train kayakers.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Activities involving kayaks", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A surfski (or: \"surf ski\", \"surf-ski\") is generally the longest of all kayaks and is a performance oriented kayak designed for speed on open water, most commonly the ocean, although it is well suited to all bodies of water and recreational paddling.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Activities involving kayaks", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Winter kayaking is inherently more dangerous than regular paddling, as cold water and air temperatures can quickly lead to hypothermia. The activity requires the use of clothing that negates the effects of the elements on the kayaker.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Activities involving kayaks", "target_page_ids": [ 146879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Canoe polo", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 283786 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Canoe slalom", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 717419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Canoeing", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 283976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Quadrathlon", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 663850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Surf kayaking", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4733137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Whitewater kayaking", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 353353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] } ]

[ "Kayaking", "Canoeing_and_kayaking", "Whitewater_sports" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Blackboard bold is a typeface style that is often used for certain symbols in mathematical texts, in which certain lines of the symbol (usually vertical or near-vertical lines) are doubled. The symbols usually denote number sets. One way of producing blackboard bold is to double-strike a character with a small offset on a typewriter. Thus, they are also referred to as double struck.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 64105, 18831, 26691, 44365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 29 ], [ 78, 90 ], [ 217, 228 ], [ 324, 334 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In typography, such a font with characters that are not solid is called an \"inline\", \"shaded\", or \"tooled\" font.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 31217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In some texts, these symbols are simply shown in bold type. Blackboard bold in fact originated from the attempt to write bold letters on blackboards in a way that clearly differentiated them from non-bold letters (by using the edge rather than the point of a chalk). It then made its way back into print form as a separate style from ordinary bold, possibly starting with the original 1965 edition of Gunning and Rossi's textbook on complex analysis.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 219805, 234802, 22647108 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 58 ], [ 137, 147 ], [ 401, 408 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1960s and 1970s, blackboard bold spread quickly in classrooms and is now widely used in the English- and French-speaking worlds. In textbooks, however, the situation is not so clear cut. Many mathematicians adopted blackboard bold, but many others still prefer to use bold.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Well-known books where the blackboard bold style is used include Lindsay Childs' A Concrete Introduction to Higher Algebra, which is widely used as a text for undergraduate courses in the US, John Stillwell's Elements of Number Theory, and Edward Barbeau's \"University of Toronto Mathematics Competition (2001–2015)\", which is often used to prepare for mathematics competitions.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 15066763, 34002758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 192, 206 ], [ 240, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jean-Pierre Serre used double-struck letters when he wrote bold on the blackboard, whereas his published works (like his well-known \"Cohomologie galoisienne\") have consistently used ordinary bold for the same symbols.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 205483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Donald Knuth also preferred boldface to blackboard bold and so did not include blackboard bold in the Computer Modern fonts that he created for the TeX mathematical typesetting system.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 8095, 639806, 30065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 102, 117 ], [ 148, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Serge Lang also used boldface instead of blackboard bold in his highly influential Algebra.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 872991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Chicago Manual of Style evolved over this issue. In 1993, for the 14th edition, it advised that \"blackboard bold should be confined to the classroom\" (13.14). In 2003, for the 15th edition, it stated that \"open-faced (blackboard) symbols are reserved for familiar systems of numbers\" (14.12).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 75877 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "TeX, the standard typesetting system for mathematical texts, does not contain direct support for blackboard bold symbols, but the add-on AMS Fonts package () by the American Mathematical Society provides this facility for uppercase letters (e.g., is written as ). The package loads .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Encoding", "target_page_ids": [ 30065, 198822 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ], [ 165, 194 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Unicode, a few of the more common blackboard bold characters (ℂ, ℍ, ℕ, ℙ, ℚ, ℝ, and ℤ) are encoded in the Basic Multilingual Plane (BMP) in the Letterlike Symbols (2100–214F) area, named DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL C etc. The rest, however, are encoded outside the BMP, in Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols (1D400–1D7FF), specifically from to (uppercase, excluding those encoded in the BMP), to (lowercase) and to (digits).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Encoding", "target_page_ids": [ 31742, 14579836, 5498909, 971549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 10 ], [ 109, 133 ], [ 147, 177 ], [ 270, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following table shows all available Unicode blackboard bold characters.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The first column shows the letter as typically rendered by the LaTeX markup system. The second column shows the Unicode code point. The third column shows the Unicode symbol itself (which will only display correctly on browsers that support Unicode and have access to a suitable font). The fourth column describes some typical usage in mathematical texts. Some of the symbols (particularly and ) are nearly universal in their interpretation, while others are more varied in use. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 18195 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition, a blackboard-bold μn (not found in Unicode) is sometimes used by number theorists and algebraic geometers to designate the group scheme of nth roots of unity.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 166751, 21527, 1997, 510523, 171950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 32 ], [ 78, 94 ], [ 99, 118 ], [ 136, 148 ], [ 156, 170 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "LaTeX notes:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Only uppercase letters are given LaTeX renderings because is used here.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Italicized blackboard bold is not rendered in LaTeX here due to the complexity involved.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mathematical alphanumeric symbols", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 971549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Set notation", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 220089 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] } ]

[ "Mathematical_notation", "Mathematical_typefaces" ]

[ "double-struck", "double struck" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Corpus linguistics is the study of a language as that language is expressed in its text corpus (plural corpora), its body of \"real world\" text. Corpus linguistics proposes that a reliable analysis of a language is more feasible with corpora collected in the field—the natural context (\"realia\") of that language—with minimal experimental interference.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 22760983, 53887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 45 ], [ 83, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The text-corpus method uses the body of texts written in any natural language to derive the set of abstract rules which govern that language. Those results can be used to explore the relationships between that subject language and other languages which have undergone a similar analysis. The first such corpora were manually derived from source texts, but now that work is automated.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Corpora have not only been used for linguistics research, they have also been used to compile dictionaries (starting with The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language in 1969) and grammar guides, such as A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language, published in 1985.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7931, 255353, 37442847 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 106 ], [ 122, 178 ], [ 216, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Experts in the field have differing views about the annotation of a corpus. These views range from John McHardy Sinclair, who advocates minimal annotation so texts speak for themselves, to the Survey of English Usage team (University College, London), who advocate annotation as allowing greater linguistic understanding through rigorous recording.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3247478, 19454402, 52029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 120 ], [ 193, 216 ], [ 223, 241 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some of the earliest efforts at grammatical description were based at least in part on corpora of particular religious or cultural significance. For example, Prātiśākhya literature described the sound patterns of Sanskrit as found in the Vedas, and ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5598944, 27698, 1527181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 159, 170 ], [ 214, 222 ], [ 239, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pāṇini's grammar of classical Sanskrit was based at least in part on analysis of that same corpus. Similarly, the early Arabic grammarians paid particular attention to the language of the Quran. In the Western European tradition, scholars prepared concordances to allow detailed study of the language of the Bible and other canonical texts.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5604422, 27698, 305966, 36922, 17436096 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 20, 38 ], [ 121, 139 ], [ 189, 194 ], [ 250, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A landmark in modern corpus linguistics was the publication of Computational Analysis of Present-Day American English in 1967. Written by Henry Kučera and W. Nelson Francis, the work was based on an analysis of the Brown Corpus, which was a contemporary compilation of about a million American English words, carefully selected from a wide variety of sources. Kučera and Francis subjected the Brown Corpus to a variety of computational analyses and then combined elements of linguistics, language teaching, psychology, statistics, and sociology to create a rich and variegated opus. A further key publication was Randolph Quirk's \"Towards a description of English Usage\" in 1960 in which he introduced the Survey of English Usage.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 374485, 40206062, 1156283, 22921, 957204, 19454402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 138, 150 ], [ 155, 172 ], [ 215, 227 ], [ 507, 517 ], [ 613, 627 ], [ 702, 729 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shortly thereafter, Boston publisher Houghton-Mifflin approached Kučera to supply a million-word, three-line citation base for its new American Heritage Dictionary, the first dictionary compiled using corpus linguistics. The AHD took the innovative step of combining prescriptive elements (how language should be used) with descriptive information (how it actually is used).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1003088, 255353, 7931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 53 ], [ 135, 163 ], [ 175, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other publishers followed suit. The British publisher Collins' COBUILD monolingual learner's dictionary, designed for users learning English as a foreign language, was compiled using the Bank of English. The Survey of English Usage Corpus was used in the development of one of the most important Corpus-based Grammars, which was written by Quirk et al. and published in 1985 as A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 253636, 250260, 5948207, 951824, 19454402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 70 ], [ 71, 103 ], [ 133, 162 ], [ 187, 202 ], [ 208, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Brown Corpus has also spawned a number of similarly structured corpora: the LOB Corpus (1960s British English), Kolhapur (Indian English), Wellington (New Zealand English), Australian Corpus of English (Australian English), the Frown Corpus (early 1990s American English), and the FLOB Corpus (1990s British English). Other corpora represent many languages, varieties and modes, and include the International Corpus of English, and the British National Corpus, a 100 million word collection of a range of spoken and written texts, created in the 1990s by a consortium of publishers, universities (Oxford and Lancaster) and the British Library. For contemporary American English, work has stalled on the American National Corpus, but the 400+ million word Corpus of Contemporary American English (1990–present) is now available through a web interface.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1156283, 22302452, 4179, 256135, 21670, 1897, 1890, 14624106, 6847449, 31797, 316977, 18934361, 2746499, 15896065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 80, 90 ], [ 98, 113 ], [ 126, 140 ], [ 155, 174 ], [ 207, 225 ], [ 258, 274 ], [ 399, 430 ], [ 440, 463 ], [ 601, 607 ], [ 612, 621 ], [ 631, 646 ], [ 707, 731 ], [ 759, 798 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first computerized corpus of transcribed spoken language was constructed in 1971 by the Montreal French Project, containing one million words, which inspired Shana Poplack's much larger corpus of spoken French in the Ottawa-Hull area.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19318307 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 162, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1990s, many of the notable early successes on statistical methods in natural-language programming (NLP) occurred in the field of machine translation, due especially to work at IBM Research. These systems were able to take advantage of existing multilingual textual corpora that had been produced by the Parliament of Canada and the European Union as a result of laws calling for the translation of all governmental proceedings into all official languages of the corresponding systems of government.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19980, 53887, 87446, 9317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 155 ], [ 265, 280 ], [ 311, 331 ], [ 340, 354 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are corpora in non-European languages as well. For example, the National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics in Japan has built a number of corpora of spoken and written Japanese.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Besides these corpora of living languages, computerized corpora have also been made of collections of texts in ancient languages. An example is the Andersen-Forbes database of the Hebrew Bible, developed since the 1970s, in which every clause is parsed using graphs representing up to seven levels of syntax, and every segment tagged with seven fields of information. The Quranic Arabic Corpus is an annotated corpus for the Classical Arabic language of the Quran. This is a recent project with multiple layers of annotation including morphological segmentation, part-of-speech tagging, and syntactic analysis using dependency grammar. The Digital Corpus of Sanskrit (DCS) is a \"Sandhi-split corpus of Sanskrit texts with full morphological and lexical analysis... designed for text-historical research in Sanskrit linguistics and philology.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21855796, 25056605, 36922, 746912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 156 ], [ 372, 393 ], [ 458, 463 ], [ 563, 585 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Besides pure linguistic inquiry, researchers had begun to apply corpus linguistics to other academic and professional fields, such as the emerging sub-discipline of Law and Corpus Linguistics, which seeks to understand legal texts using corpus data and tools.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 51586384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 165, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Corpus linguistics has generated a number of research methods, which attempt to trace a path from data to theory. Wallis and Nelson (2001) first introduced what they called the 3A perspective: Annotation, Abstraction and Analysis.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Annotation consists of the application of a scheme to texts. Annotations may include structural markup, part-of-speech tagging, parsing, and numerous other representations.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [ 45059, 310015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 119 ], [ 129, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Abstraction consists of the translation (mapping) of terms in the scheme to terms in a theoretically motivated model or dataset. Abstraction typically includes linguist-directed search but may include e.g., rule-learning for parsers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Analysis consists of statistically probing, manipulating and generalising from the dataset. Analysis might include statistical evaluations, optimisation of rule-bases or knowledge discovery methods.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Most lexical corpora today are part-of-speech-tagged (POS-tagged). However even corpus linguists who work with 'unannotated plain text' inevitably apply some method to isolate salient terms. In such situations annotation and abstraction are combined in a lexical search.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The advantage of publishing an annotated corpus is that other users can then perform experiments on the corpus (through corpus managers). Linguists with other interests and differing perspectives than the originators' can exploit this work. By sharing data, corpus linguists are able to treat the corpus as a locus of linguistic debate and further study.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [ 46446887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A Linguistic Atlas of Early Middle English", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 53064903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Collocation", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 435356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Collostructional analysis", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5825553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Concordance (KWIC)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2937111, 41908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " European Language Resource Association", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6635035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Keyword (linguistics)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2634000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Linguistic Data Consortium", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1436254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of text corpora", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41623003 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Machine translation", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Natural Language Toolkit", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1661566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pattern grammar", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31209624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Search engines: they access the \"web corpus\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4059023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Semantic prosody", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1392680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Speech corpus", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11322771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Text corpus", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 53887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Translation memory", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 51288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Treebank", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3732417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Biber, D., Conrad, S., Reppen R. Corpus Linguistics, Investigating Language Structure and Use, Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1998. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " McCarthy, D., and Sampson G. Corpus Linguistics: Readings in a Widening Discipline, Continuum, 2005. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Facchinetti, R. Theoretical Description and Practical Applications of Linguistic Corpora. Verona: QuiEdit, 2007 ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Facchinetti, R. (ed.) Corpus Linguistics 25 Years on. New York/Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2007 ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Facchinetti, R. and Rissanen M. (eds.) Corpus-based Studies of Diachronic English. Bern: Peter Lang, 2006 ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lenders, W. Computational lexicography and corpus linguistics until ca. 1970/1980, in: Gouws, R. H., Heid, U., Schweickard, W., Wiegand, H. E. (eds.) Dictionaries – An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography. Supplementary Volume: Recent Developments with Focus on Electronic and Computational Lexicography. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton, 2013 ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fuß, Eric et al. (Eds.): Grammar and Corpora 2016, Heidelberg: Heidelberg University Publishing, 2018. (digital open access).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Stefanowitsch A. 2020. Corpus linguistics: A guide to the methodology. Berlin: Language Science Press. , Open Access .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Book series in this field include:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Language and Computers (Brill)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 9751765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Studies in Corpus Linguistics (John Benjamins)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " English Corpus Linguistics (Peter Lang)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Corpus and Discourse (Bloomsbury)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There are several international peer-reviewed journals dedicated to corpus linguistics, for example:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Corpora", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 8918483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 8918555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ICAME Journal", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " International Journal of Corpus Linguistics", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 8918467 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Language Resources and Evaluation Journal, supported by the European Language Resources Association", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Research in Corpus Linguistics, supported by the Spanish Association for Corpus Linguistics (AELINCO)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bookmarks for Corpus-based Linguists – very comprehensive site with categorized and annotated links to language corpora, software, references, etc.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Corpora discussion list", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Freely-available, web-based corpora (100 million – 400 million words each): American (COCA, COHA), British (BNC), Time, Spanish, Portuguese", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Manuel Barbera's overview site", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Przemek Kaszubski's list of references", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " AskOxford.com the composition and use of the Oxford Corpus", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " DMCBC.com", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Datum Multilanguage Corpora Based on chinese free sample download", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Corpus4u Community a Chinese online forum for corpus linguistics", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " McEnery and Wilson's Corpus Linguistics Page", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Corpus Linguistics with R mailing list", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Research and Development Unit for English Studies", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Survey of English Usage", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Centre for Corpus Linguistics at Birmingham University", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tools for Corpus Linguistics (annotated list)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gateway to Corpus Linguistics on the Internet: an annotated guide to corpus resources on the web", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Biomedical corpora", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Linguistic Data Consortium, a major distributor of corpora", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Penn Parsed Corpora of Historical English", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Corsis: (formerly Tenka Text) an open-source (GPLed) corpus analysis tool written in C#", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 277663, 18938683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 45 ], [ 47, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ICECUP and Fuzzy Tree Fragments", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Discussion group text mining", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 318439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A corpus linguistics related conference MAG 2017: You can find some information and events related to Metadiscourse Across Genres by visiting MAG 2017 website.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Corpus of Political Speeches, Free access to political speeches by American and Chinese politicians, developed by Hong Kong Baptist University Library", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " LightTag -Text Annotation Tool, A text annotation tool for machine learning corpus focused on team management ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "LIVAC Synchronous Corpus", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 43695590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] } ]

[ "Corpus_linguistics", "Applied_linguistics", "Discourse_analysis", "Linguistic_history", "Linguistic_research" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In mathematics, logic, and computer science, a type theory is the formal presentation of a specific type system, and in general type theory is the academic study of type systems. Some type theories serve as alternatives to set theory as a foundation of mathematics. Two influential type theories that were proposed as foundations are Alonzo Church's typed λ-calculus and Per Martin-Löf's intuitionistic type theory. Most computerized proof-writing systems use a type theory for their foundation. A common one is Thierry Coquand's Calculus of Inductive Constructions.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18831, 46426065, 5323, 396102, 199701, 27553, 169358, 49731, 366208, 1925764, 345023, 1258607, 31842262, 613557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ], [ 16, 21 ], [ 27, 43 ], [ 66, 85 ], [ 100, 111 ], [ 223, 233 ], [ 239, 264 ], [ 334, 347 ], [ 350, 366 ], [ 371, 385 ], [ 388, 414 ], [ 422, 456 ], [ 514, 529 ], [ 532, 567 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Type theory was created to avoid a paradox in a mathematical foundation based on naive set theory and formal logic. Russell's paradox, which was discovered by Bertrand Russell, existed because a set could be defined using \"all possible sets\", which included itself. Between 1902 and 1908, Bertrand Russell proposed various \"theories of type\" to fix the problem. By 1908 Russell arrived at a \"ramified\" theory of types together with an \"axiom of reducibility\" both of which featured prominently in Whitehead and Russell's Principia Mathematica published between 1910 and 1913. This system avoided Russell's paradox by creating a hierarchy of types and then assigning each concrete mathematical entity to a type. Entities of a given type are built exclusively of subtypes of that type, thus preventing an entity from being defined using itself. Russell's theory of types ruled out the possibility of a set being a member of itself. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4944, 46426065, 46095, 4163, 10591072, 43395, 4163, 24133, 213508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 97 ], [ 102, 114 ], [ 117, 134 ], [ 160, 176 ], [ 440, 461 ], [ 501, 510 ], [ 515, 522 ], [ 525, 546 ], [ 767, 774 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Types were not always used in logic. There were other techniques to avoid Russell's paradox. Types did gain a hold when used with one particular logic, Alonzo Church's lambda calculus.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 49731, 18203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 166 ], [ 169, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most famous early example is Church's simply typed lambda calculus. Church's theory of types helped the formal system avoid the Kleene–Rosser paradox that afflicted the original untyped lambda calculus. Church demonstrated that it could serve as a foundation of mathematics and it was referred to as a higher-order logic.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1986011, 14258729, 562883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 70 ], [ 132, 153 ], [ 306, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The phrase \"type theory\" now generally refers to a typed system based around lambda calculus. One influential system is Per Martin-Löf's intuitionistic type theory, which was proposed as a foundation for constructive mathematics. Another is Thierry Coquand's calculus of constructions, which is used as the foundation by Coq, Lean, and other \"proof assistants\" (computerized proof writing programs). Type theories are an area of active research, as demonstrated by homotopy type theory.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1925764, 345023, 21059, 31842262, 613557, 581974, 62889984, 33974223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 135 ], [ 138, 164 ], [ 205, 229 ], [ 242, 257 ], [ 260, 285 ], [ 322, 325 ], [ 327, 331 ], [ 467, 487 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are many type theories, which makes it difficult to produce a comprehensive taxonomy; this article is not an exhaustive categorization. What follows is an introduction for those unfamiliar with type theory, covering some of the major approaches.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In type theory, every term has a type. A term and its type are often written together as \"term : type\". A common type to include in a type theory is the Natural numbers, often written as \"\" or \"nat\". Another is Boolean logic values. So, some very simple terms with their types are:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21474, 54476844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 171 ], [ 215, 228 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 0 : nat", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 42 : nat", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " true : bool", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Terms can be built out of other terms using function calls. In type theory, a function call is called \"function application\". Function application takes a term of a given type and results in a term of another given type. Function application is written \"function argument argument ...\", instead of the conventional \"function(argument,argument, ...)\". For natural numbers, it is possible to define a function called \"add\" that takes two natural numbers. Thus, some more terms with their types are:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " add 0 0 : nat", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " add 2 3 : nat", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " add 1 (add 1 (add 1 0)) : nat", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the last term, parentheses were added to indicate the order of operations. Technically, most type theories require the parentheses to be present for every operation, but, in practice, they are not written and authors assume readers can use precedence and associativity to know where they are. For similar ease, it is a common notation to write \"\" instead of \"add \". So, the above terms might be rewritten as:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 0 + 0 : nat", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2 + 3 : nat", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1 + (1 + (1 + 0)) : nat", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Terms may also contain variables. Variables always have a type. So, assuming \"x\" and \"y\" are variables of type \"nat\", the following are also valid terms:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " x : nat", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " x + 2 : nat", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " x + (x + y) : nat", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There are more types than \"nat\" and \"bool\". We have already seen the term \"add\", which is not a \"nat\", but a function that, when applied to two \"nat\"s, computes to a \"nat\". The type of \"add\" will be covered later. First, we need to describe \"computes to\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Type theory has a built-in notation of computation. The following terms are all different:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1 + 4 : nat", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 3 + 2 : nat", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 0 + 5 : nat", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "but they all compute to the term \"5 : nat\". In type theory, we use the words \"reduction\" and \"reduce\" to refer to computation. So, we say \"0 + 5 : nat\" reduces to \"5 : nat\". It can be written \"0 + 5 : nat 5 : nat\". The computation is mechanical, accomplished by rewriting the term's syntax. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 415847 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 267, 276 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Terms that contain variables can be reduced too. So the term \"x + (1 + 4) : nat\" reduces to \"x + 5 : nat\". (We can reduce any sub-term within a term, thanks to the Church-Rosser theorem.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 150035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A term without any variables that cannot be reduced further is a \"canonical term\". All the terms above reduce to \"5 : nat\", which is a canonical term. The canonical terms of the natural numbers are:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 0 : nat", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1 : nat", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2 : nat", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " etc.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Obviously, terms that compute to the same term are equal. So, assuming \"x : nat\", the terms \"x + (1 + 4) : nat\" and \"x + (4 + 1) : nat\" are equal because they both reduce to \"x + 5 : nat\". When two terms are equal, they can be substituted for each other. Equality is a complex topic in type theory and there are many kinds of equality. This kind of equality, where two terms compute to the same term, is called \"judgemental equality\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In type theory, functions are terms. Functions can either be lambda terms or defined \"by rule\". ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A lambda term looks like \"(λ variablename : type1 . term)\" and has type \"type1 type2\". The type \"type1 type2\" indicates that the lambda term is a function that takes a parameter of type \"type1\" and computes to a term of type \"type2\". The term inside the lambda term must be a value of \"type2\", assuming the variable has type \"type1\". ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An example of a lambda term is this function which doubles its argument:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (λ x : nat . (add x x)) : nat nat", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The variable name is \"x\" and the variable has type \"nat\". The term \"(add x x)\" has type \"nat\", assuming \"x : nat\". Thus, the lambda term has type \"nat nat\", which means if it is given a \"nat\" as an argument, it will compute to a \"nat\". Reduction (a.k.a. computation) is defined for lambda terms. When the function is applied (a.k.a. called), the argument is substituted for the parameter.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25991243 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 363, 374 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Earlier, we saw that function application is written by putting the parameter after the function term. So, if we want to call the above function with the parameter \"5\" of type \"nat\", we write:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (λ x : nat . (add x x)) 5 : nat", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The lambda term was type \"nat nat\", which meant that given a \"nat\" as an argument, it will produce a term of type \"nat\". Since we have given it the argument \"5\", the above term has type \"nat\". Reduction works by substituting the argument \"5\" for the parameter \"x\" in the term \"(add x x)\", so the term computes to:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (add 5 5) : nat", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "which obviously computes to", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 10 : nat", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A lambda term is often called an \"anonymous function\" because it has no name. Often, to make things easier to read, a name is given to a lambda term. This is merely a notation and has no mathematical meaning. Some authors call it \"notational equality\". A name might be given to the function above using the notation:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " double : nat nat ::= (λ x : nat . (add x x))", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This is the same function as above, just a different way to write it. So the term", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " double 5 : nat", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "still computes to", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 10 : nat", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dependent typing is when the type returned by a function depends on the value of its argument. For example, when a type theory has a rule that defines the type \"bool\", it also defines the function \"if\". The function \"if\" takes 3 arguments and \"if true b c\" computes to \"b\" and \"if false b c\" computes to \"c\". But what is the type of \"if a b c\"?", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If \"b\" and \"c\" have the same type, it is obvious: \"if a b c\" has the same type as \"b\" and \"c\". Thus, assuming \"a : bool\",", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " if a 2 4 : nat", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " if a false true : bool", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "But if \"b\" and \"c\" have different types, then the type of \"if a b c\" depends on the value of \"a\". We use the symbol \"\" to indicate a function that takes an argument and returns a type. Assuming we have some types \"B\" and C\" and \"a : bool\", \"b : B\" and \"c : C\", then ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " if a b c : ( a : bool . B C if a B C)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "That is, the type of the \"if\" term is either the type of the second or third argument, depending on the value of the first argument. In actuality, \"if a B C\" isn't defined using \"if\", but that gets into details too complicated for this introduction.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Because the type can contain computation, dependent typing is amazingly powerful. When mathematicians say \"there exists a number such that is prime\" or \"there exists a number such that property holds\", it can be expressed as a dependent type. That is, the property is proven for the specific \"\" and that is visible in the type of the result. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There are many details to dependent typing. They are too long and complicated for this introduction. See the article on dependent typing and the lambda cube for more information.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1949487, 901593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 138 ], [ 147, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "-terms return a type. So what is the type of their return value? Well, there must be a type that contains types. A type that contains other types is called a \"universe\". It is often written with the symbol . Sometimes there is a hierarchy of universes, with \" : \", \" : \", etc..", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Universes are complicated. If a universe contains itself, it can lead to paradoxes like Girard's Paradox. The details of universes are too long and complicated for this introduction. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 49481270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Type theories are defined by their rules of inference. There are rules for a \"functional core\", described above, and rules that create types and terms. Below is a non-exhaustive list of common types and their associated terms.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 252311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The list ends with \"inductive types\", which is a powerful technique that is able to construct all the other ones in the list. The mathematical foundations used by the proof assistants \"Coq\" and \"Lean\" are based on the \"Calculus for Inductive Constructions\" which is the \"Calculus of Constructions\" (its \"functional core\") with inductive types. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The empty type has no terms. The type is usually written \"\" or \"\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3893287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is used to show that something is uncomputable. If for a type \"A\", you can create a function of type \"A \", you know that \"A\" has no terms. An example for the type \"A\" might be \"there exists a number such that both is even and is odd\". (See \"Product Type\" below for how the example \"A\" is constructed.) When a type has no terms, we say it is \"uninhabited\". ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The unit type has exactly 1 canonical term. The type is written \"\" or \"\" and the single canonical term is written \"*\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3646268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The unit type is used to show that something exists or is computable. If for a type \"A\", you can create a function of type \" A\", you know that \"A\" has one or more terms. When a type has at least 1 term, we say it is \"inhabited\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Boolean type has exactly 2 canonical terms. The type is usually written \"bool\" or \"\" or \"\". The canonical terms are usually \"true\" and \"false\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Boolean type is defined with an eliminator function \"if\" such that:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " if true b c b", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " if false b c c", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The product type has terms that are ordered pairs. For types \"A\" and \"B\", the product type is written \"A B\". Canonical terms are created by the constructor function \"pair\". The terms are \"pair a b\", where \"a\" is a term of type \"A\" and \"b\" is a term of type \"B\". The product type is defined with eliminator functions \"first\" and \"second\" such that:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 14892710, 22362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 36, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " first (pair a b) a", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " second (pair a b) b", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Besides ordered pairs, this type is used for the logical operator \"and\", because it holds an \"A\" and a \"B\". It is also used for intersection, because it holds one of both types.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18152, 41780044 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 71 ], [ 129, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If a type theory has dependent typing, it has dependent pairs. In a dependent pair, the second type depends on the value of the first term. Thus, the type is written \" a:A . B(a)\" where \"B\" has type \"A U\". It is useful when showing existence of an \"a\" with property \"B(a)\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1949487, 91420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 61 ], [ 236, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The sum type is a \"tagged union\". That is, for types \"A\" and \"B\", the type \"A + B\" holds either a term of type \"A\" or a term of type \"B\" and it knows which one it holds. The type comes with the constructors \"injectionLeft\" and \"injectionRight\". The call \"injectionLeft a\" takes \"a : A\" and returns a canonical term of type \"A + B\". Similarly, injectionRight b\" takes \"b : B\" and returns a canonical term of type \"A + B\". The type is defined with an eliminator function \"match\" such that for a type \"C\" and functions \"f : A C\" and \"g : B C\":", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 453395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " match (injectionLeft a) C f g (f a)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " match (injectionRight b) C f g (g b)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The sum type is used for logical or and for union.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7962, 47949 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 35 ], [ 44, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The natural numbers are usually implemented in the style of Peano Arithmetic. There is a canonical term, \"0 : nat\" for zero. Canonical values larger than zero use the constructor function \"S : nat nat\". Thus, \"S 0\" is one. \"S (S 0)\" is two. \"S (S (S 0)))\" is three. Etc. The decimal numbers are just notationally equal to those terms.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1 : nat ::= S 0", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2 : nat ::= S (S 0)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 3 : nat ::= S (S (S 0))", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ...", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The natural numbers are defined with an eliminator function \"R\" that uses recursion to define a function for all nats. It takes a function \"P : nat U\" which is the type of the function to define. It also takes a term \"PZ : P 0\" which is the value at zero and a function \"PS : P n P (S n)\" which says how to transform the value at \"n\" into the value at \"n + 1\". Thus, its computation rules are:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " R P PZ PS 0 PZ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " R P PZ PS (S ) PS (R P PZ PS )", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The function \"add\", that was used earlier, can be defined using \"R\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " add : natnatnat ::= R (λ n:nat . natnat) (λ n:nat . n) (λ g:natnat . (λ m:nat . S (g m)))", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The identity type is the third concept of equality in type theory. The first is \"notational equality\", which is for definitions like \"2 : nat ::= (S (S 0))\" that have no mathematical meaning but are useful to readers. The second is \"judgemental equality\", which is when two terms compute to the same term, like \"x + (1 + 4)\" and \"x + (4 + 1)\", which both compute to \"x + 5\". But type theory needs another form of equality, known as the \"identity type\" or \"propositional equality\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 44638758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The reason it needs the identity type is because some equal terms do not compute to the same term. Assuming \"x : nat\", the terms \"x + 1\" and \"1 + x\" do not compute to the same term. Recall that \"+\" is a notation for the function \"add\", which is a notation for the function \"R\". We cannot compute on \"R\" until the value for \"x\" is specified and, until it is specified, two different calls to \"R\" will not compute to the same term.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An identity type requires two terms \"a\" and \"b\" of the same type and is written \"a = b\". So, for \"x + 1\" and \"1 + x\", the type would be \"x+1 = 1+x\". Canonical terms are created with the constructor \"reflexivity\". The call \"reflexivity a\" takes a term \"a\" and returns a canonical term of the type \"a = a\". ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Computation with the identity type is done with the eliminator function \"J\". The function \"J\" lets a term dependent on \"a\", \"b\", and a term of type \"a = b\" to be rewritten so that \"b\" is replaced by \"a\". While \"J\" is one directional, only able to substitute \"b\" with \"a\", it can be proven that the identity type is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 200458, 53741, 200463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 317, 326 ], [ 328, 337 ], [ 342, 352 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If the canonical terms are always \"a=a\" and \"x+1\" does not compute to the same term as \"1+x\", how do we create a term of \"x+1 = 1+x\"? We use the \"R\" function. (See \"Natural Numbers\" above.) The \"R\" function's argument \"P\" is defined to be \"(λ x:nat . x+1 = 1+x)\". The other arguments act like the parts of an induction proof, where \"PZ : P 0\" becomes the base case \"0+1 = 1+0\" and \"PS : P n P (S n)\" becomes the inductive case. Essentially, this says that when \"x+1 = 1+x\" has \"x\" replaced with a canonical value, the expression will be the same as \"reflexivity (x+1)\". This application of the function \"R\" has type \"x : nat x+1 = 1+x\". We can use it and the function \"J\" to substituted \"1+x\" for \"x+1\" in any term. In this way, the identity type is able to capture equalities that are not possible with judgemental equality. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To be clear, it is possible to create the type \"0 = 1\", but there will not be a way to create terms of that type. Without a term of type \"0 = 1\", it will not be possible to use the function \"J\" to substitute \"0\" for \"1\" in another term. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The complexities of equality in type theory make it an active research area, see homotopy type theory.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 33974223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Inductive types is a way to create a large variety of types. In fact, all the types described above and more can be defined using the rules of inductive types. Once the type's constructors are specified, the eliminator functions and computation is determined by structural recursion.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 24047271, 211399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 178, 190 ], [ 264, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are similar, more powerful ways to create types. These include induction-recursion and induction-induction. There is also a way to create similar types using only lambda terms, called Scott encoding.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 38365576, 57750049, 15465998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 89 ], [ 94, 113 ], [ 192, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "(NOTE: Type theories do not usually include coinductive types. They represent an infinite data type and most type theories limit themselves to functions that can be proven to halt.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 10904266 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The traditional foundation for mathematics has been set theory paired with a logic. The most common one cited is Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, known as \"ZF\" or, with the Axiom of choice, \"ZFC\". Type theories differ from this foundation in a number of ways.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Differences from set theory", "target_page_ids": [ 152214, 840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 141 ], [ 170, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Set theory has both rules and axioms, while type theories only have rules. Set theories are built on top of logic. Thus, ZFC is defined by both the rules of first-order logic and its own axioms. (An axiom is a logical statement accepted as true without a logical derivation.) Type theories, in general, do not have axioms and are defined by their rules of inference. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Differences from set theory", "target_page_ids": [ 252311, 928, 10983, 152214, 928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 26 ], [ 31, 37 ], [ 160, 177 ], [ 182, 196 ], [ 203, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Set theory and logic have the law of excluded middle. That is, every theorem is true or false. When a type theory defines the concepts of \"and\" and \"or\" as types, it leads to intuitionistic logic, which does not have the law of excluded middle. However, the law can be proven for some types. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Differences from set theory", "target_page_ids": [ 17637, 169262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 53 ], [ 178, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In set theory, an element is not restricted to one set. The element can appear in subsets and unions with other sets. In type theory, terms (generally) belong to only one type. Where a subset would be used, type theory can use a predicate function or use a dependently-typed product type, where each element is paired with a proof that the subset's property holds for . Where a union would be used, type theory uses the sum type, which contains new canonical terms.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Differences from set theory", "target_page_ids": [ 285109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 233, 251 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Type theory has a built-in notion of computation. Thus, \"1+1\" and \"2\" are different terms in type theory, but they compute to the same value. Moreover, functions are defined computationally as lambda terms. In set theory, \"1+1=2\" means that \"1+1\" is just another way to refer the value \"2\". Type theory's computation does require a complicated concept of equality.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Differences from set theory", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Set theory usually encodes numbers as sets. (0 is the empty set, 1 is a set containing the empty set, etc. See Set-theoretic definition of natural numbers.) Type theory can encode numbers as functions using Church encoding or more naturally as inductive types. The constructors \"0\" and \"S\" created by the inductive type closely resemble Peano's axioms.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Differences from set theory", "target_page_ids": [ 428484, 2989409, 345023, 25005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 157 ], [ 210, 225 ], [ 247, 262 ], [ 341, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Set theory has set-builder notation. It can create any set that can be defined. This allows it to create Uncountable sets. Type theories are syntactic, which limits them to a countably infinite terms. Additionally, most type theories require computation to always halt and limit themselves to recursively generable terms. As a result, most type theories do not use the Real numbers but the Computable numbers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Differences from set theory", "target_page_ids": [ 220089, 32248, 6026, 23290990, 20646438, 6206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 36 ], [ 108, 123 ], [ 179, 197 ], [ 298, 319 ], [ 375, 386 ], [ 396, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In set theory, the Axiom of Choice is an axiom and is controversial, particularly when applied to uncountable sets. In type theory, the equivalent statement is a theorem (type) and is provable (inhabited by a term). ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Differences from set theory", "target_page_ids": [ 840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In type theory, proofs are mathematical objects. The type \"x+1 = 1+x\" cannot be used unless there is a term of the type. That term represents a proof that \"x+1 = 1+x\". Thus, type theory opens up proofs to be studied as mathematical objects. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Differences from set theory", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Proponents of type theory will also point out its connection to constructive mathematics through the BHK interpretation, its connected to logic by the Curry–Howard isomorphism, and its connections to Category theory.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Differences from set theory", "target_page_ids": [ 1925846, 254299, 5869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 119 ], [ 151, 175 ], [ 200, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A type theory is a mathematical logic. It is a collection of rules of inference that result in judgements. Most logics have judgements meaning \"The term is true.\" or \"The term is a well-formed formula.\". A type theory has additional judgements that define types and relate terms to types.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [ 19636, 252311, 15014170, 404582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 37 ], [ 62, 80 ], [ 96, 106 ], [ 185, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A term in logic is recursively defined as a constant symbol, variable, or a function application, where a term is applied to another term. Some constant symbols will be \"0\" of the natural numbers, \"true\" of the Booleans, and functions like \"S\" and \"if\". Thus some terms are \"0\", \"(S 0)\", \"(S (S x))\", and \"if true 0 (S 0)\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [ 24885593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most type theories have 4 judgements:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \" is a type.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \" is a term of type .\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Type is equal to type .\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Terms and are both of type and are equal.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The judgements can be made under an assumption. Thus, we might say, \"assuming is a term of type \"bool\" and is a term of type \"nat\" , (if x y y) is a term of type \"nat\"\". The mathematical notation for assumptions is a comma-separate list of \"term : type\" that precede the turnstile symbol ''. Thus, the example statement is formally written:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [ 7954712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 275, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " x:bool, y:nat (if x y y) : nat", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If there are no assumptions, there will be nothing to the left of the turnstile.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " S : nat nat", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The list of assumptions is called the \"context\". It is very common to see the symbol '' used to represent some or all of the assumptions. Thus, the formal notation for the 4 different judgements is usually:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "(NOTE: The judgement of equality of terms is where the phrase \"judgemental equality\" comes from. )", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The judgements enforce that every term has a type. The type will restrict which rules can be applied to a term.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A type theory's rules say what judgements can be made, based on the existence of other judgements. The rules are expressed using a horizontal line, with the required input judgements above the line and the resulting judgement below the line. The rule for creating a lambda term is:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [ 252311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The judgements required to create the lambda term go above the line. In this case, only one judgement is required. It is that there is some term \"b\" of some type \"B\", assuming there is some term \"a\" of some type \"A\" and some other assumptions \"\". (Note: \"\" \"a\", \"A\", \"b\", and \"B\" are all metavariables in the rule.) The resulting judgement goes below the line. This rule's resulting judgement states that the new lambda term has type \"A B\" under the other assumptions . ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [ 29557417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 291, 304 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The rules are syntactic and work by rewriting. Thus, the metavariables like \"\", \"a\", \"A\", etc. may actually consist of complex terms that contain many function applications, not just single symbols. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [ 415847 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To generate a particular judgement in type theory, there must be a rule to generate it. Then, there must be rules to generate all of that rule's required inputs. And then rules for all the inputs for those rules. The applied rules form a proof tree. This is usually drawn Gentzen-style, where the target judgement (root) is at the bottom and rules that do not require any inputs (leaves) at the top. (See Natural deduction.) An example of a rule that does not require any inputs is one that states there is a term \"0\" of type \"nat\":", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [ 51072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 410, 427 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A type theory usually has a number of rules, including ones to:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " create a context", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " add an assumption to the context (\"weakening\")", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " rearrange the assumptions", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [ 697666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " use an assumption to create a variable ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " define reflexivity, symmetry and transitivity for judgemental equality", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " define substitution for application of lambda terms", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " all the interactions of equality, substitution, etc.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " define universes", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Also, for each \"by rule\" type, there are 4 different kinds of rules", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"type formation\" rules say how to create the type", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"term introduction\" rules define the canonical terms and constructor functions, like \"pair\" and \"S\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"term elimination\" rules define the other functions like \"first\", \"second\", and \"R\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"computation\" rules specify how computation is performed with the type-specific functions.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Examples of rules:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rules to Martin-Löf's Intuitionistic Type Theory", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Appendix A.2 of Homotopy Type Theory book", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Terms usually belong to a single type. However, there are set theories that define \"subtyping\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Computation takes place by repeated application of rules. Many type theories are strongly normalizing, which means that any order of applying the rules will always end in the same result. However, some are not. In a normalizing type theory, the one-directional computation rules are called \"reduction rules\" and applying the rules \"reduces\" the term. If a rule is not one-directional, it is called a \"conversion rule\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [ 5085531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some combinations of types are equivalent to other combinations of types. When functions are considered \"exponentiation\", the combinations of types can be written similar to algebraic identities. Thus, , , , , .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Most type theories do not have axioms. This is because a type theory is defined by its rules of inference. (See \"Rules\" above). This is a source of confusion for people familiar with Set Theory, where a theory is defined by both the rules of inference for a logic (such as first-order logic) and axioms about sets. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [ 928, 10983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 37 ], [ 276, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sometimes, a type theory will add a few axioms. An axiom is a judgement that is accepted without a derivation using the rules of inference. They are often added to ensure properties that cannot be added cleanly through the rules. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Axioms can cause problems if they introduce terms without a way to compute on those terms. That is, axioms can interfere with the normalizing property of the type theory. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [ 5085531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some commonly encountered axioms are:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Axiom K\" ensures \"uniqueness of identity proofs\". That is, that every term of an identity type is equal to reflexivity.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Univalence Axiom\" holds that equivalence of types is equality of types. The research into this property led to cubical type theory, where the property holds without needing an axiom.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Law of Excluded Middle\" is often added to satisfy users who want classical logic, instead of intuitionistic logic.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [ 55868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Axiom of Choice does not need to be added to type theory, because in most type theories it can be derived from the rules of inference. This is because of the constructive nature of type theory, where proving that a value exists requires a method to compute the value. The Axiom of Choice is less powerful in type theory than most set theories, because type theory's functions must be computable and, being syntax-driven, the number of terms in a type must be countable. (See .)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [ 840, 21059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 163, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A type theory is naturally associated with the decision problem of type inhabitation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [ 8336, 14703193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 63 ], [ 67, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The decision problem of type inhabitation (abbreviated by ) is: ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Given a type environment and a type , decide whether there exists a term that can be assigned the type in the type environment .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Girard's paradox shows that type inhabitation is strongly related to the consistency of a type system with Curry–Howard correspondence. To be sound, such a system must have uninhabited types.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [ 49481270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The opposition of terms and types can also be views as one of implementation and specification. By program synthesis (the computational counterpart of) type inhabitation (see below) can be used to construct (all or parts of) programs from specification given in form of type information.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [ 498152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many programs that work with type theory (e.g., interactive theorem provers) also do type inferencing. It lets them select the rules that the user intends, with fewer actions by the user.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Homotopy type theory differs from intuitionistic type theory mostly by its handling of the equality type. In 2016 cubical type theory was proposed, which is a homotopy type theory with normalization.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Technical details", "target_page_ids": [ 33974223, 345023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 34, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Type theory has connections to other areas of mathematics. Proponents of type theory as a foundation often mention these connections as justification for its use.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When used as a foundation, certain types are interpreted as propositions (statements that can be proven) and a term of the type is a proof of that proposition. Thus, the type \" x:nat . x+1=1+x\" represents that, for any \"x\" of type \"nat\", \"x+1\" and \"1+x\" are equal. And a term of that type represents its proof. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 81094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Curry–Howard correspondence is the observed similarity between logics and programming languages. The implication in logic, \"A B\" resembles a function from type \"A\" to type \"B\". For a variety of logics, the rules are a similar to expression in a programming language's types. The similarity goes farther, as applications of the rules resemble programs in the programming languages. Thus, the correspondence is often summarized as \"proofs as programs\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 254299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The logic operators \"for all\" and \"exists\" led Per Martin-Löf to invent dependent type theory.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 76174, 91420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 28 ], [ 35, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When some types are interpreted as propositions, there is a set of common types that can be used to connect them to make a logic out of types. However, that logic is not classical logic but intuitionistic logic. That is, it does not have the law of excluded middle nor double negation.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 55868, 169262, 17637, 379833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 171, 186 ], [ 191, 211 ], [ 244, 266 ], [ 271, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is a natural relation of types to logical propositions. If \"A\" is a type representing a proposition, being able to create a function of type \" A\" indicates that A has a proof and being able to create the function \"A \" indicates that A does not have a proof. That is, inhabitable types are proven and uninhabitable types are disproven. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "WARNING: This interpretation can lead to a lot of confusion. A type theory may have terms \"true\" and \"false\" of type \"bool\", which act like a Boolean logic, and at the same time have types and to represent \"true\" (provable) and \"false\" (disproven), as part of a intuitionistic logic for proposition.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 54476844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under this intuitionistic interpretation, there are common types that act as the logical operators:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "But under this interpretation, there is no law of excluded middle. That is, there is no term of type A . A + (A ).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Likewise, there is no double negation. There is no term of type A . ((A ) ) A. (Note: Intuitionistic logic does allow and there is a term of type (((A ) ) ) (A ).)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Thus, the logic-of-types is an intuitionistic logic. Type theory is often cited as an implementation of the Brouwer–Heyting–Kolmogorov interpretation. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 1925846 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is possible to include the law of excluded middle and double negation into a type theory, by rule or assumption. However, terms may not compute down to canonical terms and it will interfere with the ability to determine if two terms are judgementally equal to each other.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Per Martin-Löf proposed his intuitionistic type theory as a foundation for constructive mathematics. Constructive mathematics requires when proving \"There exists an with property P()\", there must be a particular and a proof that it has property \"P\". In type theory, existence is accomplished using the dependent product type and, its proof, requires a term of that type. For the term , \"first \" will produce the and \"second \" will produce the proof of P().", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 21059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An example of a non-constructive proof is a \"proof by contradiction\". The first step is assuming that does not exist and refuting it by contradiction. The conclusion from that step is \"it is not the case that does not exist\". The last step is, by double negation, concluding that exists. To be clear, constructive mathematics still allows \"refute by contradiction\". It can prove that \"it is not the case that does not exist\". But constructive mathematics does not allow the last step of removing the double negation to conclude that exists.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Constructive mathematics has often used intutionistic logic, as evidenced by the Brouwer–Heyting–Kolmogorov interpretation. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 1925846 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most of the type theories proposed as foundations are constructive. This includes most of the ones used by proof assistants.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is possible to add non-constructive features to a type theory, by rule or assumption. These include operators on continuations such as call with current continuation. However, these operators tend to break desirable properties such as canonicity and parametricity. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 1064182, 9315395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 169 ], [ 254, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although the initial motivation for category theory was far removed from foundationalism, the two fields turned out to have deep connections. As John Lane Bell writes: \"In fact categories can themselves be viewed as type theories of a certain kind; this fact alone indicates that type theory is much more closely related to category theory than it is to set theory.\" In brief, a category can be viewed as a type theory by regarding its objects as types (or sorts), i.e. \"Roughly speaking, a category may be thought of as a type theory shorn of its syntax.\" A number of significant results follow in this way:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 5869, 25759134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 51 ], [ 145, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " cartesian closed categories correspond to the typed λ-calculus (Lambek, 1970);", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 237037, 1250498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ], [ 65, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " C-monoids (categories with products and exponentials and one non-terminal object) correspond to the untyped λ-calculus (observed independently by Lambek and Dana Scott around 1980);", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 161875 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " locally cartesian closed categories correspond to Martin-Löf type theories (Seely, 1984).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 237037, 345023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ], [ 51, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The interplay, known as categorical logic, has been a subject of active research since then; see the monograph of Jacobs (1999) for instance.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 1063799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Homotopy type theory attempts to combine type theory and category theory. It focuses on equalities, especially equalities between types.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 33974223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Simply typed lambda calculus which is a higher-order logic", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "List of type theories", "target_page_ids": [ 1986011, 562883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ], [ 41, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " intuitionistic type theory", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "List of type theories", "target_page_ids": [ 345023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " system F", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "List of type theories", "target_page_ids": [ 767637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " LF is often used to define other type theories", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "List of type theories", "target_page_ids": [ 901613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 3 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " calculus of constructions and its derivatives", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "List of type theories", "target_page_ids": [ 613557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Automath", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "List of type theories", "target_page_ids": [ 8532185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ST type theory", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "List of type theories", "target_page_ids": [ 38519367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " UTT (Luo's Unified Theory of dependent Types)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "List of type theories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " some forms of combinatory logic", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "List of type theories", "target_page_ids": [ 149848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " others defined in the lambda cube (also known as pure type systems)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "List of type theories", "target_page_ids": [ 901593, 17870536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 34 ], [ 50, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " others under the name typed lambda calculus", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "List of type theories", "target_page_ids": [ 366208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Homotopy type theory explores equality of types", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "List of type theories", "target_page_ids": [ 33974223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cubical Type Theory is an implementation of homotopy type theory", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "List of type theories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The first computer proof assistant, called Automath, used type theory to encode mathematics on a computer. Martin-Löf specifically developed intuitionistic type theory to encode all mathematics to serve as a new foundation for mathematics. There is ongoing research into mathematical foundations using homotopy type theory.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 8532185, 345023, 33974223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 51 ], [ 141, 167 ], [ 302, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mathematicians working in category theory already had difficulty working with the widely accepted foundation of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory. This led to proposals such as Lawvere's Elementary Theory of the Category of Sets (ETCS). Homotopy type theory continues in this line using type theory. Researchers are exploring connections between dependent types (especially the identity type) and algebraic topology (specifically homotopy).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 5869, 152214, 38801, 212250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 41 ], [ 112, 139 ], [ 391, 409 ], [ 424, 432 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Much of the current research into type theory is driven by proof checkers, interactive proof assistants, and automated theorem provers. Most of these systems use a type theory as the mathematical foundation for encoding proofs, which is not surprising, given the close connection between type theory and programming languages:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 1258607, 1258607, 2546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 73 ], [ 87, 102 ], [ 109, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " LF is used by Twelf, often to define other type theories;", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 901613, 2058228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 3 ], [ 15, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " many type theories which fall under higher-order logic are used by the HOL family of provers and PVS;", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 562883, 161888, 1848947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 55 ], [ 72, 93 ], [ 98, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " computational type theory is used by NuPRL;", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 45609427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " calculus of constructions and its derivatives are used by Coq, Matita, and Lean;", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 613557, 581974, 7160638, 62889984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ], [ 59, 62 ], [ 64, 70 ], [ 76, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " UTT (Luo's Unified Theory of dependent Types) is used by Agda which is both a programming language and proof assistant", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 4426773 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many type theories are supported by LEGO and Isabelle. Isabelle also supports foundations besides type theories, such as ZFC. Mizar is an example of a proof system that only supports set theory.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 33093747, 161886, 152214, 209074 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 40 ], [ 45, 53 ], [ 121, 124 ], [ 126, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Any static program analysis, such as the type checking algorithms in the semantic analysis phase of compiler, has a connection to type theory. A prime example is Agda, a programming language which uses UTT (Luo's Unified Theory of dependent Types) for its type system.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 28811, 189134, 5739, 4426773 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 27 ], [ 73, 90 ], [ 100, 108 ], [ 162, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The programming language ML was developed for manipulating type theories (see LCF) and its own type system was heavily influenced by them.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 20607, 161900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 27 ], [ 78, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Type theory is also widely used in formal theories of semantics of natural languages, especially Montague grammar and its descendants. In particular, categorial grammars and pregroup grammars extensively use type constructors to define the types (noun, verb, etc.) of words.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 31395652, 21173, 709308, 882427, 37231770 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 63 ], [ 67, 83 ], [ 97, 113 ], [ 150, 168 ], [ 174, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most common construction takes the basic types and for individuals and truth-values, respectively, and defines the set of types recursively as follows:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 161711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " if and are types, then so is ;", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " nothing except the basic types, and what can be constructed from them by means of the previous clause are types.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A complex type is the type of functions from entities of type to entities of type . Thus one has types like which are interpreted as elements of the set of functions from entities to truth-values, i.e. indicator functions of sets of entities. An expression of type is a function from sets of entities to truth-values, i.e. a (indicator function of a) set of sets. This latter type is standardly taken to be the type of natural language quantifiers, like everybody or nobody (Montague 1973, Barwise and Cooper 1981).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 185427, 240790, 7959499, 610182, 912858 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 40 ], [ 205, 223 ], [ 423, 451 ], [ 481, 489 ], [ 496, 503 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gregory Bateson introduced a theory of logical types into the social sciences; his notions of double bind and logical levels are based on Russell's theory of types.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 154331, 937347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 94, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Foundations of mathematics", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 169358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Covers type theory in depth, including polymorphic and dependent type extensions. Gives categorical semantics.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 1063799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Provides a historical survey of the developments of the theory of types with a focus on the decline of the theory as a foundation of mathematics over the four decades following the publication of the second edition of 'Principia Mathematica'.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Intended as a type theory counterpart of Paul Halmos's (1960) Naïve Set Theory", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 318598, 21986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 54 ], [ 64, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A good introduction to simple type theory for computer scientists; the system described is not exactly Church's STT though. Book review", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Type Theory at nLab, which has articles on many topics.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Intuitionistic Type Theory article at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Lambda Calculus with Types book by Henk Barendregt", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Intuitionistic Type Theory notes by Per Martin-Löf", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Programming in Martin-Löf ’s Type Theory book", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Homotopy Type Theory book, which proposed homotopy type theory as a mathematical foundation. ", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The TYPES Forum moderated e-mail forum focusing on type theory in computer science, operating since 1987.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Nuprl Book: \"Introduction to Type Theory.\"", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Types Project lecture notes of summer schools 2005–2008", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The 2005 summer school has introductory lectures", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Oregon Programming Languages Summer School, many lectures and some notes.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Summer 2013 lectures including Robert Harper's talks on YouTube", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Summer 2015 Types, Logic, Semantics, and Verification", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Andrej Bauer's blog", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Type_theory", "Systems_of_formal_logic", "Hierarchy" ]

[ "theory of types" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The melting point (or, rarely, liquefaction point) of a substance is the temperature at which it changes state from solid to liquid. At the melting point the solid and liquid phase exist in equilibrium. The melting point of a substance depends on pressure and is usually specified at a standard pressure such as 1 atmosphere or 100 kPa.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20647050, 37461, 18993816, 18993825, 23637, 265823, 23619, 27745, 582780, 66014 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 84 ], [ 105, 110 ], [ 116, 121 ], [ 125, 131 ], [ 175, 180 ], [ 190, 201 ], [ 247, 255 ], [ 286, 303 ], [ 314, 324 ], [ 332, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When considered as the temperature of the reverse change from liquid to solid, it is referred to as the freezing point or crystallization point. Because of the ability of substances to supercool, the freezing point can easily appear to be below its actual value. When the \"characteristic freezing point\" of a substance is determined, in fact, the actual methodology is almost always \"the principle of observing the disappearance rather than the formation of ice, that is, the Melting point measurements.\"", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 285534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 185, 194 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For most substances, melting and freezing points are approximately equal. For example, the melting point and freezing point of mercury is . However, certain substances possess differing solid-liquid transition temperatures. For example, agar melts at and solidifies from ; such direction dependence is known as hysteresis. The melting point of ice at 1 atmosphere of pressure is very close to ; this is also known as the ice point. In the presence of nucleating substances, the freezing point of water is not always the same as the melting point. In the absence of nucleators water can exist as a supercooled liquid down to before freezing.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 20648, 198824, 18617142, 3262, 147003, 1996857, 285534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 28 ], [ 33, 41 ], [ 127, 134 ], [ 237, 241 ], [ 312, 322 ], [ 452, 473 ], [ 598, 609 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The metal with the highest melting point is tungsten, at ; this property makes tungsten excellent for use as electrical filaments in incandescent lamps. The often-cited carbon does not melt at ambient pressure but sublimes at about ; a liquid phase only exists above pressures of and estimated (see carbon phase diagram). Hafnium carbonitride (Ta4HfC5) is a refractory compound with the highest known melting point of any substance to date and the only one confirmed to have a melting point above at ambient pressure. Quantum mechanical computer simulations predicted that this alloy (HfN0.38C0.51) would have a melting point of about 4400 K. This prediction was later confirmed by experiment, though a precise measurement of its exact melting point has yet to be confirmed. At the other end of the scale, helium does not freeze at all at normal pressure even at temperatures arbitrarily close to absolute zero; a pressure of more than twenty times normal atmospheric pressure is necessary.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 30046, 47139, 47139, 5299, 477661, 71507939, 861928, 13256, 1418, 47484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 52 ], [ 109, 128 ], [ 133, 150 ], [ 169, 175 ], [ 214, 222 ], [ 324, 344 ], [ 360, 370 ], [ 810, 816 ], [ 901, 914 ], [ 960, 980 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many laboratory techniques exist for the determination of melting points.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Melting point measurements", "target_page_ids": [ 173351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A Kofler bench is a metal strip with a temperature gradient (range from room temperature to 300°C). Any substance can be placed on a section of the strip, revealing its thermal behaviour at the temperature at that point. Differential scanning calorimetry gives information on melting point together with its enthalpy of fusion.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Melting point measurements", "target_page_ids": [ 23463958, 97914, 23523889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 14 ], [ 221, 254 ], [ 308, 326 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A basic melting point apparatus for the analysis of crystalline solids consists of an oil bath with a transparent window (most basic design: a Thiele tube) and a simple magnifier. Several grains of a solid are placed in a thin glass tube and partially immersed in the oil bath. The oil bath is heated (and stirred) and with the aid of the magnifier (and external light source) melting of the individual crystals at a certain temperature can be observed. A metal block might be used instead of an oil bath. Some modern instruments have automatic optical detection.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Melting point measurements", "target_page_ids": [ 12246212, 13066203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 94 ], [ 143, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The measurement can also be made continuously with an operating process. For instance, oil refineries measure the freeze point of diesel fuel \"online\", meaning that the sample is taken from the process and measured automatically. This allows for more frequent measurements as the sample does not have to be manually collected and taken to a remote laboratory.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Melting point measurements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For refractory materials (e.g. platinum, tungsten, tantalum, some carbides and nitrides, etc.) the extremely high melting point (typically considered to be above, say, 1800°C) may be determined by heating the material in a black body furnace and measuring the black-body temperature with an optical pyrometer. For the highest melting materials, this may require extrapolation by several hundred degrees. The spectral radiance from an incandescent body is known to be a function of its temperature. An optical pyrometer matches the radiance of a body under study to the radiance of a source that has been previously calibrated as a function of temperature. In this way, the measurement of the absolute magnitude of the intensity of radiation is unnecessary. However, known temperatures must be used to determine the calibration of the pyrometer. For temperatures above the calibration range of the source, an extrapolation technique must be employed. This extrapolation is accomplished by using Planck's law of radiation. The constants in this equation are not known with sufficient accuracy, causing errors in the extrapolation to become larger at higher temperatures. However, standard techniques have been developed to perform this extrapolation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Melting point measurements", "target_page_ids": [ 81231, 191123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 299, 308 ], [ 994, 1006 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Consider the case of using gold as the source (mp = 1063°C). In this technique, the current through the filament of the pyrometer is adjusted until the light intensity of the filament matches that of a black-body at the melting point of gold. This establishes the primary calibration temperature and can be expressed in terms of current through the pyrometer lamp. With the same current setting, the pyrometer is sighted on another black-body at a higher temperature. An absorbing medium of known transmission is inserted between the pyrometer and this black-body. The temperature of the black-body is then adjusted until a match exists between its intensity and that of the pyrometer filament. The true higher temperature of the black-body is then determined from Planck's Law. The absorbing medium is then removed and the current through the filament is adjusted to match the filament intensity to that of the black-body. This establishes a second calibration point for the pyrometer. This step is repeated to carry the calibration to higher temperatures. Now, temperatures and their corresponding pyrometer filament currents are known and a curve of temperature versus current can be drawn. This curve can then be extrapolated to very high temperatures.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Melting point measurements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In determining melting points of a refractory substance by this method, it is necessary to either have black body conditions or to know the emissivity of the material being measured. The containment of the high melting material in the liquid state may introduce experimental difficulties. Melting temperatures of some refractory metals have thus been measured by observing the radiation from a black body cavity in solid metal specimens that were much longer than they were wide. To form such a cavity, a hole is drilled perpendicular to the long axis at the center of a rod of the material. These rods are then heated by passing a very large current through them, and the radiation emitted from the hole is observed with an optical pyrometer. The point of melting is indicated by the darkening of the hole when the liquid phase appears, destroying the black body conditions. Today, containerless laser heating techniques, combined with fast pyrometers and spectro-pyrometers, are employed to allow for precise control of the time for which the sample is kept at extreme temperatures. Such experiments of sub-second duration address several of the challenges associated with more traditional melting point measurements made at very high temperatures, such as sample vaporization and reaction with the container.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Melting point measurements", "target_page_ids": [ 902820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For a solid to melt, heat is required to raise its temperature to the melting point. However, further heat needs to be supplied for the melting to take place: this is called the heat of fusion, and is an example of latent heat.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Thermodynamics", "target_page_ids": [ 19593167, 23523889, 164610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 25 ], [ 178, 192 ], [ 215, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From a thermodynamics point of view, at the melting point the change in Gibbs free energy (ΔG) of the material is zero, but the enthalpy (H) and the entropy (S) of the material are increasing (ΔH, ΔS > 0). Melting phenomenon happens when the Gibbs free energy of the liquid becomes lower than the solid for that material. At various pressures this happens at a specific temperature. It can also be shown that:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Thermodynamics", "target_page_ids": [ 238181, 10274, 9891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 89 ], [ 128, 136 ], [ 149, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Here T, ΔS and ΔH are respectively the temperature at the melting point, change of entropy of melting and the change of enthalpy of melting.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Thermodynamics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The melting point is sensitive to extremely large changes in pressure, but generally this sensitivity is orders of magnitude less than that for the boiling point, because the solid-liquid transition represents only a small change in volume. If, as observed in most cases, a substance is more dense in the solid than in the liquid state, the melting point will increase with increases in pressure. Otherwise the reverse behavior occurs. Notably, this is the case of water, as illustrated graphically to the right, but also of Si, Ge, Ga, Bi. With extremely large changes in pressure, substantial changes to the melting point are observed. For example, the melting point of silicon at ambient pressure (0.1 MPa) is 1415°C, but at pressures in excess of 10 GPa it decreases to 1000°C.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Thermodynamics", "target_page_ids": [ 23619, 4115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 69 ], [ 148, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Melting points are often used to characterize organic and inorganic compounds and to ascertain their purity. The melting point of a pure substance is always higher and has a smaller range than the melting point of an impure substance or, more generally, of mixtures. The higher the quantity of other components, the lower the melting point and the broader will be the melting point range, often referred to as the \"pasty range\". The temperature at which melting begins for a mixture is known as the solidus while the temperature where melting is complete is called the liquidus. Eutectics are special types of mixtures that behave like single phases. They melt sharply at a constant temperature to form a liquid of the same composition. Alternatively, on cooling a liquid with the eutectic composition will solidify as uniformly dispersed, small (fine-grained) mixed crystals with the same composition.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Thermodynamics", "target_page_ids": [ 1708244, 8796024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 499, 506 ], [ 569, 577 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In contrast to crystalline solids, glasses do not possess a melting point;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Thermodynamics", "target_page_ids": [ 12581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "on heating they undergo a smooth glass transition into a viscous liquid.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Thermodynamics", "target_page_ids": [ 22122416, 29509313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 49 ], [ 57, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Upon further heating, they gradually soften, which can be characterized by certain softening points.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Thermodynamics", "target_page_ids": [ 14884442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The freezing point of a solvent is depressed when another compound is added, meaning that a solution has a lower freezing point than a pure solvent. This phenomenon is used in technical applications to avoid freezing, for instance by adding salt or ethylene glycol to water.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Freezing-point depression", "target_page_ids": [ 37431, 28729 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 31 ], [ 92, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In organic chemistry, Carnelley's rule, established in 1882 by Thomas Carnelley, states that high molecular symmetry is associated with high melting point. Carnelley based his rule on examination of 15,000 chemical compounds. For example, for three structural isomers with molecular formula C5H12 the melting point increases in the series isopentane −160°C (113 K) n-pentane −129.8°C (143 K) and neopentane −16.4°C (256.8 K). Likewise in xylenes and also dichlorobenzenes the melting point increases in the order meta, ortho and then para. Pyridine has a lower symmetry than benzene hence its lower melting point but the melting point again increases with diazine and triazines. Many cage-like compounds like adamantane and cubane with high symmetry have relatively high melting points.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Carnelley's rule", "target_page_ids": [ 22208, 10986798, 27969, 7043, 2160196, 660161, 2160193, 118368, 1872626, 2273378, 23863, 18582186, 3002879, 1844006, 1190123, 417665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ], [ 98, 116 ], [ 249, 266 ], [ 273, 290 ], [ 339, 349 ], [ 365, 374 ], [ 396, 406 ], [ 438, 444 ], [ 455, 470 ], [ 513, 538 ], [ 540, 548 ], [ 575, 582 ], [ 656, 663 ], [ 668, 676 ], [ 709, 719 ], [ 724, 730 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A high melting point results from a high heat of fusion, a low entropy of fusion, or a combination of both. In highly symmetrical molecules the crystal phase is densely packed with many efficient intermolecular interactions resulting in a higher enthalpy change on melting.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Carnelley's rule", "target_page_ids": [ 23523889, 837770 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 55 ], [ 63, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An attempt to predict the bulk melting point of crystalline materials was first made in 1910 by Frederick Lindemann. The idea behind the theory was the observation that the average amplitude of thermal vibrations increases with increasing temperature. Melting initiates when the amplitude of vibration becomes large enough for adjacent atoms to partly occupy the same space. The Lindemann criterion states that melting is expected when the vibration root mean square amplitude exceeds a threshold value.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Predicting the melting point of substances (Lindemann's criterion)", "target_page_ids": [ 921111, 37649 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 115 ], [ 450, 476 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Assuming that all atoms in a crystal vibrate with the same frequency ν, the average thermal energy can be estimated using the equipartition theorem as", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Predicting the melting point of substances (Lindemann's criterion)", "target_page_ids": [ 516133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where m is the atomic mass, ν is the frequency, u is the average vibration amplitude, kB is the Boltzmann constant, and T is the absolute temperature. If the threshold value of u2 is c2a2 where c is the Lindemann constant and a is the atomic spacing, then the melting point is estimated as", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Predicting the melting point of substances (Lindemann's criterion)", "target_page_ids": [ 19604151, 10779, 53702, 41789, 16881256, 23478179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 26 ], [ 37, 46 ], [ 96, 114 ], [ 129, 149 ], [ 203, 221 ], [ 235, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several other expressions for the estimated melting temperature can be obtained depending on the estimate of the average thermal energy. Another commonly used expression for the Lindemann criterion is", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Predicting the melting point of substances (Lindemann's criterion)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From the expression for the Debye frequency for ν, we have", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Predicting the melting point of substances (Lindemann's criterion)", "target_page_ids": [ 371968 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where θD is the Debye temperature and h is the Planck constant. Values of c range from 0.15 to 0.3 for most materials.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Predicting the melting point of substances (Lindemann's criterion)", "target_page_ids": [ 371968, 19594213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 33 ], [ 47, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In February 2011, Alfa Aesar released over 10,000 melting points of compounds from their catalog as open data. This dataset has been used to create a random forest model for melting point prediction which is now freely available. Open melting point data are also available from Nature Precedings. High quality data mined from patents and also models developed with these data were published by Tetko et al.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Melting point prediction", "target_page_ids": [ 20616469, 7697770, 1363880, 11900752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 28 ], [ 100, 109 ], [ 150, 163 ], [ 278, 295 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Congruent melting", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7864782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hagedorn temperature", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2695487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Highest melting point", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 71507939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of elements by melting point", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2152181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Melting points of the elements (data page)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1618791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Phase diagram", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 56398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Simon–Glatzel equation", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 25061776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Slip melting point", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5664906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Triple point", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 30462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Zone melting", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 171396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Works cited", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Melting and boiling point tables vol. 1 by Thomas Carnelley (Harrison, London, 1885–1887)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Melting and boiling point tables vol. 2 by Thomas Carnelley (Harrison, London, 1885–1887)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Patent mined data Over 250,000 freely downloadable melting point data. Also downloadable at figshare", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Atmospheric_thermodynamics", "Physical_quantities", "Phase_transitions", "Threshold_temperatures" ]

[ "melting temperature" ]

[ { "plaintext": "A cam is a rotating or sliding piece in a mechanical linkage used especially in transforming rotary motion into linear motion. It is often a part of a rotating wheel (e.g. an eccentric wheel) or shaft (e.g. a cylinder with an irregular shape) that strikes a lever at one or more points on its circular path. The cam can be a simple tooth, as is used to deliver pulses of power to a steam hammer, for example, or an eccentric disc or other shape that produces a smooth reciprocating (back and forth) motion in the follower, which is a lever making contact with the cam. A cam timer is similar, and were widely used for electric machine control (an electromechanical timer in a washing machine being a common example) before the advent of inexpensive electronics, microcontrollers, integrated circuits, programmable logic controllers and digital control.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1552607, 38857, 23798069, 875513, 23682291, 489032, 21017, 15150, 24992, 564685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 60 ], [ 258, 263 ], [ 382, 394 ], [ 415, 424 ], [ 513, 521 ], [ 571, 580 ], [ 762, 778 ], [ 780, 798 ], [ 801, 830 ], [ 836, 851 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The cam can be seen as a device that converts rotational motion to reciprocating (or sometimes oscillating) motion. A common example is the camshaft of an automobile, which takes the rotary motion of the engine and converts it into the reciprocating motion necessary to operate the intake and exhaust valves of the cylinders.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Camshaft", "target_page_ids": [ 147572, 13673345, 147569, 859284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 148 ], [ 155, 165 ], [ 301, 307 ], [ 315, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cams can be characterized by their displacement diagrams, which reflect the changing position a follower would make as the surface of the cam moves in contact with the follower. In the example shown, the cam rotates about an axis. These diagrams relate angular position, usually in degrees, to the radial displacement experienced at that position. Displacement diagrams are traditionally presented as graphs with non-negative values. A simple displacement diagram illustrates the follower motion at a constant velocity rise followed by a similar return with a dwell in between as depicted in figure 2. The rise is the motion of the follower away from the cam center, dwell is the motion where the follower is at rest, and return is the motion of the follower toward the cam center.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Displacement diagram", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A common type is in the valve actuators in internal combustion engines. Here, the cam profile is commonly symmetric and at rotational speeds generally met with, very high acceleration forces develop. Ideally, a convex curve between the onset and maximum position of lift reduces acceleration, but this requires impractically large shaft diameters relative to lift. Thus, in practice, the points at which lift begins and ends mean that a tangent to the base circle appears on the profile. This is continuous with a tangent to the tip circle. In designing the cam, the lift and the dwell angle are given. If the profile is treated as a large base circle and a small tip circle, joined by a common tangent, giving lift , the relationship can be calculated, given the angle between one tangent and the axis of symmetry ( being ), while is the distance between the centres of the circles (required), and is the radius of the base (given) and that of the tip circle (required):", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Displacement diagram", "target_page_ids": [ 293079 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " and ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Displacement diagram", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The most commonly used cam is the cam plate (also known as disc cam or radial cam)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Disc or plate cam", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "which is cut out of a piece of flat metal or plate. Here, the follower moves in a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the camshaft. Several key terms are relevant in such a construction of plate cams: base circle, prime circle (with radius equal to the sum of the follower radius and the base circle radius), pitch curve which is the radial curve traced out by applying the radial displacements away from the prime circle across all angles, and the lobe separation angle (LSA – the angle between two adjacent intake and exhaust cam lobes).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Disc or plate cam", "target_page_ids": [ 15007551, 1780815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 212, 223 ], [ 244, 250 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The base circle is the smallest circle that can be drawn to the cam profile.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Disc or plate cam", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A once common, but now outdated, application of this type of cam was automatic machine tool programming cams. Each tool movement or operation was controlled directly by one or more cams. Instructions for producing programming cams and cam generation data for the most common makes of machine, were included in engineering references well into the modern CNC era.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Disc or plate cam", "target_page_ids": [ 693342 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 354, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This type of cam is used in many simple electromechanical appliances controllers, such as dishwashers and clothes washing machines, to actuate mechanical switches that control the various parts.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Disc or plate cam", "target_page_ids": [ 147572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A cylindrical cam or barrel cam is a cam in which the follower rides on the surface of a cylinder. In the most common type, the follower rides in a groove cut into the surface of a cylinder. These cams are principally used to convert rotational motion to linear motion parallel to the rotational axis of the cylinder. A cylinder may have several grooves cut into the surface and drive several followers. Cylindrical cams can provide motions that involve more than a single rotation of the cylinder and generally provide positive positioning, removing the need for a spring or other provision to keep the follower in contact with the control surface.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cylindrical cam", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Applications include machine tool drives, such as reciprocating saws, and shift control barrels in sequential transmissions, such as on most modern motorcycles.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cylindrical cam", "target_page_ids": [ 7473574, 32914296 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 123 ], [ 148, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A special case of this cam is a constant lead, where the position of the follower is linear with rotation, as in a lead screw. The purpose and detail of implementation influence whether this application is called a cam or a screw thread, but in some cases, the nomenclature may be ambiguous.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cylindrical cam", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cylindrical cams may also be used to reference an output to two inputs, where one input is the rotation of the cylinder and the other is the position of the follower along the cam. The output is radial to the cylinder. These were once common for special functions in control systems, such as fire control mechanisms for guns on naval vessels and mechanical analog computers.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cylindrical cam", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An example of a cylindrical cam with two inputs is provided by a duplicating lathe, an example of which is the Klotz axe handle lathe, which cuts an axe handle to a form controlled by a pattern acting as a cam for the lathe mechanism.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cylindrical cam", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A face cam produces motion by using a follower riding on the face of a disk. The most common type has the follower ride in a slot so that the captive follower produces radial motion with positive positioning without the need for a spring or other mechanism to keep the follower in contact with the control surface. A face cam of this type generally has only one slot for a follower on each face. In some applications, a single element, such as a gear, a barrel cam or other rotating element with a flat face, may do duty as a face cam in addition to other purposes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Face cam", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Face cams may provide repetitive motion with a groove that forms a closed curve or may provide function generation with a stopped groove. Cams used for function generation may have grooves that require several revolutions to cover the complete function, and in this case, the function generally needs to be invertible so that the groove does not self intersect, and the function output value must differ enough at corresponding rotations that there is sufficient material separating the adjacent groove segments. A common form is the constant lead cam, where the displacement of the follower is linear with rotation, such as the scroll plate in a scroll chuck. Non-invertible functions, which require the groove to self-intersect, can be implemented using special follower designs.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Face cam", "target_page_ids": [ 14907, 1646575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 307, 317 ], [ 647, 659 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A variant of the face cam provides motion parallel to the axis of cam rotation. A common example is the traditional sash window lock, where the cam is mounted to the top of the lower sash, and the follower is the hook on the upper sash. In this application, the cam is used to provide a mechanical advantage in forcing the window shut, and also provides a self-locking action, like some worm gears, due to friction.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Face cam", "target_page_ids": [ 3989781, 2681493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 127 ], [ 387, 397 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Face cams may also be used to reference a single output to two inputs, typically where one input is the rotation of the cam and the other is the radial position of the follower. The output is parallel to the axis of the cam. These were once common is mechanical analog computation and special functions in control systems.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Face cam", "target_page_ids": [ 2428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 262, 280 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A face cam that implements three outputs for a single rotational input is the stereo phonograph, where a relatively constant lead groove guides the stylus and tonearm unit, acting as either a rocker-type (tonearm) or linear (linear tracking turntable) follower, and the stylus alone acting as the follower for two orthogonal outputs to representing the audio signals. These motions are in a plane radial to the rotation of the record and at angles of 45 degrees to the plane of the disk (normal to the groove faces). The position of the tonearm was used by some turntables as a control input, such as to turn the unit off or to load the next disk in a stack, but was ignored in simple units.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Face cam", "target_page_ids": [ 24471, 102221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 95 ], [ 314, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This type of cam, in the form of a symmetric heart, is used to return a shaft holding the cam to a set position by pressure from a roller. They were used on early models of Post Office Master clocks to synchronise the clock time with Greenwich Mean Time when the activating follower was pressed onto the cam automatically via a signal from an accurate time source.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Heart shaped cam", "target_page_ids": [ 6890306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 185, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This type of cam was used for example in mechanical timekeeping clocking-in clocks to drive the day advance mechanism at precisely midnight and consisted of a follower being raised over 24 hours by the cam in a spiral path which terminated at a sharp cut off at which the follower would drop down and activate the day advance. Where timing accuracy is required as in clocking-in clocks these were typically ingeniously arranged to have a roller cam follower to raise the drop weight for most of its journey to near its full height, and only for the last portion of its travel for the weight to be taken over and supported by a solid follower with a sharp edge. This ensured that the weight dropped at a precise moment, enabling accurate timing. This was achieved by the use of two snail cams mounted coaxially with the roller initially resting on one cam and the final solid follower on the other but not in contact with its cam profile. Thus the roller cam initially carried the weight, until at the final portion of the run the profile of the non-roller cam rose more than the other causing the solid follower to take the weight.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Snail drop cam", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A linear cam is one in which the cam element moves in a straight line rather than rotates. The cam element is often a plate or block but may be any cross-section. The key feature is that the input is a linear motion rather than rotational. The cam profile may be cut into one or more edges of a plate or block, may be one or more slots or grooves in the face of an element, or may even be a surface profile for a cam with more than one input. The development of a linear cam is similar to, but not identical to, that of a rotating cam.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear cam", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A common example of a linear cam is a key for a pin tumbler lock. The pins act as followers. This behavior is exemplified when the key is duplicated in a key duplication machine, where the original key acts as a control cam for cutting the new key.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear cam", "target_page_ids": [ 349819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cam mechanisms appeared in China at around 600 BC in the form of a crossbow trigger-mechanism with a cam-shaped swing arm. However, the trigger mechanism did not rotate around its own axis and traditional Chinese technology generally made little use of continuously rotating cams. Nevertheless, later research showed that such cam mechanisms did in fact rotate around its own axis. Likewise, more recent research indicates that cams were used in water-driven trip hammers by the latter half of the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC – 8 AD) as recorded in the Huan Zi Xin Lun. Complex pestles were also mentioned in later records such as the Jin Zhu Gong Zan and the Tian Gong Kai Wu, amongst many other records of water-driven pestles. During the Tang dynasty, the wooden clock within the water-driven astronoical device, the spurs inside a water-driven armillary sphere, the automated alarm within a five-wheeled sand-driven clock, artificial paper figurines within a revolving lantern, all utilized cam mechanisms. The Chinese hodometer which utilized a bell and gong mechanism is also a cam, as described in the Song Shi. In the book Nongshu, the vertical wheel of a water-driven wind box is also a cam. Out of these examples, the water-driven pestle and the water driven wind box both have two cam mechanisms inside.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cams that rotated continuously and functioned as integral machine elements were built into Hellenistic water-driven automata from the 3rd century BC. The cam and camshaft later appeared in mechanisms by Al-Jazari and Shooshtari, who used them in their automata, described in 1206. The cam and camshaft appeared in European mechanisms from the 14th century. Waldo J Kelleigh of Electrical Apparatus Company patented the adjustable cam in the United States in 1956 for its use in mechanical engineering and weaponry.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 455379, 189749, 271981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 102 ], [ 116, 124 ], [ 203, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cam design pages Creates animated cams for specified follower motions.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kinematic Models for Design Digital Library (KMODDL) – Movies and photos of hundreds of working mechanical-systems models at Cornell University. Also includes an e-book library of classic texts on mechanical design and engineering.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Introduction to Mechanisms – Cams Classification, nomenclature, motion, and design of cams; information for the course, Introduction to Mechanisms, at Carnegie Mellon University.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Polynomial cam function with excel VBA file to demonstrate its motion", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Mechanisms_(engineering)" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "William Butler Ogden (June 15, 1805 – August 3, 1877) was an American politician and railroad executive who served as the first Mayor of Chicago. He was referred to as \"the Astor of Chicago.\" He was, at one time, the city's richest citizen.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 310285, 537471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 144 ], [ 174, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ogden was born on June 15, 1805, in Walton, New York. He was the son of Abraham Ogden (1771–1825) and Abigail (née Weed) Ogden (1788–1850).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 259746, 2037726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 52 ], [ 112, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When still a teenager, his father died and Ogden took over the family real estate business. He assisted Charles Butler, his brother-in-law, with business matters related to opening a new building for New York University, attending the law school for a brief period himself.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 47707435, 7954455, 3262885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 81 ], [ 200, 219 ], [ 235, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first political position Ogden held was as Postmaster of Walton, New York, having been appointed by President Andrew Jackson to the position.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 22990, 1623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 57 ], [ 114, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was a member of the New York State Assembly (Delaware Co.) in 1835.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 581663, 34337839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 46 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During his career in New York politics, Ogden was a Jacksonian Democrat. However, Ogden was also an advocate of government funding for infrastructural improvements, aspiring to see the federal government financially back the construction of a railroad from New York to Chicago. He told colleagues that such a railroad would be \"the most splendid system of internal communication ever yet devised by man.\" He had been elected to the New York Senate on a platform supporting state funding for the construction of the New York and Erie Railroad. The bill he backed to accomplish this was passed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 372347, 731246 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 71 ], [ 515, 541 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While Ogden's initial concern in Chicago was based in his land interests there, he believed that he could not afford to stay out of the politics of the city, as he believed growing western towns such as Chicago were dependent on government assistance.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Shortly after moving to Chicago in 1836, Ogden joined the committee responsible for drafting the city charter to be submitted to the state legislature.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1837, he was elected the first mayor of Chicago, serving a single one-year term. From 1840 through 1841, he served on the Chicago Common Council as an alderman from the 6th Ward. From 1847 through 1848, he served as an alderman from the 9th Ward.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 59254964, 6886, 772102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 43, 50 ], [ 125, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ogden was booster of Chicago both during and after his tenures in elected office. At the time he came to Chicago, its buildings were largely wood cabins, it lacked sidewalks and decent bridges, it had no paved roads, and it lacked water supply infrastructure. As a politician he advocated for the city to raise tax revenue for new roads, plank sidewalks, and bridges (which he presented designs of his own for). He also used his own wealth to fund improvements to the city's infrastructure.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 342006, 51852, 3397, 684928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 17 ], [ 164, 172 ], [ 185, 191 ], [ 231, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ogden was a leading promoter and investor in the Illinois and Michigan Canal, then switched his loyalty to railroads. Throughout his later life, Ogden was heavily involved in the building of several railroads. \"In 1847, Ogden announced a plan to build a railway out of Chicago, but no capital was forthcoming. Eastern investors were wary of Chicago's reputation for irrational boosterism, and Chicagoans did not want to divert traffic from their profitable canal works. So Ogden and his partner J. Young Scammon solicited subscriptions from the farmers and small businessmen whose land lay adjacent to the proposed rail. Farmer's wives used the money they earned from selling eggs to buy shares of stock on a monthly payment plan. By 1848, Ogden and Scammon had raised $350,000—enough to begin laying track. The Galena and Chicago Union Railroad was profitable from the start and eventually extended out to Wisconsin, bringing grain from the Great Plains into the city. As president of Union Pacific, Ogden extended the reach of Chicago's rail lines to the West coast.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 50379, 25715, 342006, 438918, 164671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 76 ], [ 199, 208 ], [ 377, 387 ], [ 812, 845 ], [ 986, 999 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1853, the Chicago Land Company, of which Ogden was a trustee, purchased land at a bend in the Chicago River and began to cut a channel, formally known as North Branch Canal, but also referred to as Ogden's Canal. The resulting island is now known as Goose Island.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 41962, 1303030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 110 ], [ 253, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1857, Ogden created the Chicago Dock and Canal Company.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 69674392 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ogden designed the first swing bridge over the Chicago River and donated the land for Rush Medical Center. Ogden was also a founder of the Chicago Board of Trade.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 490291, 41962, 429110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 37 ], [ 47, 60 ], [ 139, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later Ogden served on the board of the Mississippi and Missouri Railroad and lobbied with many others for congressional approval and funding of the transcontinental railroad. After the 1862 Pacific Railroad Act, Ogden was named as the first president of the Union Pacific Railroad. Ogden was a good choice for the first president, but his railroad experience was most likely not the primary reason he was chosen; Ogden was a clever man who had many political connections. When Ogden came to lead the Union Pacific, the railroad was not fully funded and had not yet laid a single mile of track. The railroad existed largely on paper created by an act of Congress. As part of the 1862 Pacific Railroad Act, Congress named several existing railroad companies to complete portions of the project. Several key areas needed to link the East (Chicago) to the West had none, and hence the Union Pacific was formed by Congress. Ogden was a fierce supporter of the transcontinental railroad at a time of great unrest for the country and was quoted as saying:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 8528451, 48934, 36541, 394957, 164671, 394957, 31756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 72 ], [ 77, 84 ], [ 148, 173 ], [ 190, 210 ], [ 258, 280 ], [ 683, 703 ], [ 705, 713 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ''This project must be carried through by even-handed wise consideration and a patriotic course of policy which shall inspire capitalists of the country with confidence. Speculation is as fatal to it as secession is to the Union. Whoever speculates will damn this project.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 144732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 204, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As history now shows, eventually Ogden and many others got their wish.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On October 8, 1871, Ogden lost most of his prized possessions in the Great Chicago Fire. He also owned a lumber company in Peshtigo, Wisconsin, which burned the same day.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 40311, 337470, 275359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 87 ], [ 123, 142 ], [ 150, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He married Marianna Tuttle Arnot (1825–1904). Marianna was the daughter of Scottish born John Arnot and Harriet (née Tuttle) Arnot. In New York, he named his home in the Highbridge, Bronx (named after the bridge now called Aqueduct Bridge over the Harlem River connecting Manhattan and the Bronx) Villa Boscobel.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 1157189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 171, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ogden died at his home in the Bronx on Friday, August 3, 1877. The funeral was held August 6, 1877, with several prominent pallbearers including, Gouverneur Morris III, William A. Booth, Parke Godwin, Oswald Ottendorfer, William C. Sheldon, Martin Zborowski, and Andrew H. Green. He was interred at Woodlawn Cemetery, Bronx.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 20025646, 20263552, 24942159, 8296876, 212263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 168 ], [ 188, 200 ], [ 202, 220 ], [ 264, 279 ], [ 301, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ogden, who had no children, left behind an estate valued at $10 million in 1877. Some of the money was used to fund a graduate school of science at the Old University of Chicago. Much was left to his niece Eleanor Wheeler, who married Alexander C. McClurg.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 4158760, 13894814, 43258377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 177 ], [ 200, 205 ], [ 235, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Namesakes of William B. Ogden include a stretch of U.S. Highway 34, called Ogden Avenue in Chicago and its suburbs, Ogden International School of Chicago, which is located on Walton Street in Chicago, and Ogden Slip, a man-made harbor near the mouth of the Chicago River. Ogden Avenue in The Bronx is also named after him, as is Ogden, Iowa. The Arnot-Odgen Memorial Hospital, founded by his wife Mariana, also bears his namesake. Following his death, William B. Ogden left money to his hometown of Walton N.Y which was used for the construction of a library, completed in 1897, which bears his name, the William B. Ogden Free Library, and is still in use today.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 888760, 69672477, 41962, 3338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 66 ], [ 205, 215 ], [ 257, 270 ], [ 288, 297 ] ] } ]

[ "1805_births", "1877_deaths", "Mayors_of_Chicago", "Members_of_the_New_York_State_Assembly", "19th-century_American_railroad_executives", "Union_Pacific_Railroad_people", "Illinois_Democrats", "Illinois_Republicans", "People_from_Walton,_New_York", "People_from_the_Bronx", "19th-century_American_politicians", "Burials_at_Woodlawn_Cemetery_(Bronx,_New_York)" ]

[ "William B. Ogden" ]

[ { "plaintext": "John Wentworth (nicknamed \"Long John\") (March 5, 1815 – October 16, 1888) was the editor of the Chicago Democrat, publisher of an extensive Wentworth family genealogy, a two-term mayor of Chicago, and a six-term member of the United States House of Representatives, both before and after his service as mayor.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 407636, 50597150, 19468510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 112 ], [ 140, 156 ], [ 226, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After growing up in New Hampshire, he joined the migration west and moved to the developing city of Chicago in 1836, where he made his adult life. Wentworth was affiliated with the Democratic Party until 1855; then he changed to the Republican Party. After retiring from politics, he wrote a three-volume genealogy of the Wentworth family in the United States.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5043544, 32070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 181, 197 ], [ 233, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Wentworth was born in Sandwich, New Hampshire. He was educated at the New Hampton Literary Institute and at the academy of Dudley Leavitt. He graduated from Dartmouth College in 1836.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 124527, 5640760, 19963268, 8418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 50 ], [ 75, 105 ], [ 128, 142 ], [ 162, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later that year, Wentworth joined a migration west and moved to Chicago, arriving in the city on October 25, 1836. He became managing editor of Chicago's first newspaper, the Chicago Democrat, eventually becoming its owner and publisher.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Migration west and career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Wentworth was admitted to the bar in 1841.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Migration west and career", "target_page_ids": [ 268188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He started a law practice and entered politics. He was a business partner of Illinois financier Jacob Bunn, and the two men were two of the incorporators of the Chicago Secure Depository Company.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Migration west and career", "target_page_ids": [ 77298, 24406671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 25 ], [ 96, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1844, he married Roxanna Marie Loomis. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Marriage and family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In later years, his nephew Moses J. Wentworth handled his business affairs, and would eventually manage his estate as well.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Marriage and family", "target_page_ids": [ 42587193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wentworth started his political involvement as a Jacksonian democrat, and promoted these views in the Chicago Democrat. After he supported the 1837 mayoral candidacy of William Ogden, including throwing the newspaper behind Ogden's candidacy, he was appointed by Odgen to serve in the post of city printer.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 372347, 59254964, 40287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 68 ], [ 143, 147 ], [ 169, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wentworth, after having become active in Democratic politics, was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, where he served for a total of six terms, five of them as a Democrat: (March 4, 1843March 3, 1851 and March 4, 1853March 3, 1855).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 5043544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 172, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He returned to Chicago and affiliated with the Republican Party. Wentworth was first elected mayor in the 1857 Chicago mayoral election; he served two terms, 1857–1858 and 1860–1861 (being elected to his second term in the 1860 Chicago mayoral election). In his second term, he again affiliated with the Democratic Party.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 32070, 59463650, 59644360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 63 ], [ 106, 135 ], [ 223, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As mayor Wentworth instituted the use of chain gangs of prisoners in the city as laborers.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 319639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 1857, while serving as mayor of Chicago, Wentworth was charged with assaulting an attorney named Charles Cameron, who was attempting to communicate with his incarcerated client. Cameron testified that Wentworth \"seized him by the coat collar and shirt bosom\" and forcibly removed him from the prison, alleging that he had resisted officers. Wentworth, after requested the case be delayed twice, refused to appear in court. The Judge found in favor of Cameron and charged Wentworth amounts of $25 \"and costs\" and $200.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In his effort to clean up the city's morals, he hired spies to determine who was frequenting Chicago's brothels. In 1857, Wentworth led a raid on \"the Sands,\" Chicago's red-light district, which resulted in the burning of the area.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 43254, 205998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 43 ], [ 169, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wentworth served on the Chicago Board of Education.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 48779679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1864, Wentworth ran again for Congress, as a Republican, and was elected for his last term, serving March 4, 1865March 3, 1867. While he was in the House, there was a controversial vote to settle a boundary issue between Wisconsin and Illinois, with Wisconsin claiming land as far as the tip of Lake Michigan. Wentworth was promised that if he voted to give the land including Chicago to Wisconsin, he would be appointed to the US Senate. Wentworth declined the offer.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 33127, 17948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 224, 233 ], [ 298, 311 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to city historians in Sandwich, Illinois, Wentworth was one of the key individuals who was responsible for the city getting a railroad stop. The town, which at the time, was called \"Newark Station\", was given the station, and in turn, the town gave Wentworth the honor of naming the town, which he subsequently named after his hometown, Sandwich, New Hampshire. It is also to note that the boundary line dispute with Wisconsin would have cut through present-day Sandwich, as it straddles the northern border with neighboring LaSalle County, which would have been the State Line had Wentworth not been successful in moving the line north.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 111100 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After retiring from Congress, from 1868 Wentworth lived at his country estate at 5441 South Harlem Avenue in Chicago. He owned about of land in what is today part of the Chicago neighborhood of Garfield Ridge and suburban Summit.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 1559643, 111061 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 195, 209 ], [ 223, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When an author left a manuscript of a history of Chicago with Wentworth for his suggestions, he reportedly removed what did not refer to him and returned the manuscript to its author with the note, \"Here is your expurgated and correct history of Chicago.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He researched and wrote The Wentworth Genealogy – English and American - twice, which he published privately. The first two-volume edition, also known as the \"private edition\", published in 1871, was followed by a second, corrected, edition in 1878, which was published in three volumes, for a total of 2241 pages. The total reported cost for both editions was $40,000. The first of the 1878 volumes chronicles the ancestry of Elder William Wentworth, the first of this family in New England, and his first five generations of New World descendants. The second and third volumes discuss the \"Elder's\" many descendants and others of the name. John was a fourth great-grandson of William.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family historian", "target_page_ids": [ 34970350 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 434, 451 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wentworth died at his estate in 1888, aged 73. He was buried in Rosehill Cemetery in Chicago.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 1310559 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At his request, his tombstone was a sixty-foot tall granite obelisk that was imported from New Hampshire on two railroad cars. It was, at the time, the tallest tombstone in the west.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 13088, 101600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 59 ], [ 60, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Wentworth Letter", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 438163 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Wentworth, \"First Inaugural Address\", Chicago Public Library", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "John Wentworth, \"Second Inaugural Address\", Chicago Public Library", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1815_births", "1888_deaths", "People_from_Sandwich,_New_Hampshire", "Illinois_Republicans", "Mayors_of_Chicago", "Illinois_lawyers", "19th-century_American_newspaper_publishers_(people)", "Burials_at_Rosehill_Cemetery", "Dartmouth_College_alumni", "Democratic_Party_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives_from_Illinois", "Republican_Party_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives", "19th-century_American_journalists", "American_male_journalists", "19th-century_American_male_writers", "19th-century_American_politicians", "19th-century_American_lawyers", "Members_of_the_Chicago_Board_of_Education" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Hiram College ( ) is a private liberal arts college in Hiram, Ohio. It was founded in 1850 as the Western Reserve Eclectic Institute by Amos Sutton Hayden and other members of the Disciples of Christ Church. The college is nonsectarian and coeducational. It is accredited by the Higher Learning Commission. Hiram's most famous alumnus is James A. Garfield, who served as a college instructor and principal before he was elected the 20th President of the United States.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1699468, 12151979, 129736, 35569665, 8660, 3750874, 40400, 19908980, 24113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 30 ], [ 31, 51 ], [ 55, 66 ], [ 136, 154 ], [ 180, 199 ], [ 279, 305 ], [ 338, 355 ], [ 432, 436 ], [ 437, 467 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On June 12, 1849, representatives of the Disciples of Christ voted to establish an academic institution, which would later become Hiram College. On November 7 that year, they chose the village of Hiram as the site for the school because the founders considered this area of the Western Reserve to be \"healthful and free of distractions\". The following month, on December 20, the founders accepted the suggestion of Isaac Errett and named the school the Western Reserve Eclectic Institute.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 568662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 278, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The institute's original charter was authorized by the state legislature on March 1, 1850, and the school opened several months later, on November 27. Many of the students came from the surrounding farms and villages of the Western Reserve, but Hiram soon gained a national reputation and students began arriving from other states. On February 20, 1867, the Institute incorporated as a college and changed its name to Hiram College.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During the years before it was renamed Hiram College, 1850–1867, the school had seven principals, the equivalent of today's college presidents. The two that did the most in establishing and defining the nature of the institution were Disciple minister Amos Sutton Hayden, who led the school through its first six years, and James A. Garfield, who had been a student at the institute from 1851 to 1853 and then returned in 1856 as a teacher. As principal, Garfield expanded the institute's curriculum. He left the Institute in 1861 and in 1880 was elected the 20th President of the United States.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1870, one of Garfield's best friends and former students, Burke A. Hinsdale, was appointed Hiram's president. Although there were two before him, Hinsdale is considered the college's first permanent president because the others served only briefly. The next president to have a major impact on the college was Ely V. Zollars, who increased enrollment significantly, established a substantial endowment and created a program for the construction of campus buildings. Later presidents who served for at least 10 years were Miner Lee Bates, Kenneth I. Brown, Paul H. Fall, Elmer Jagow, and G. Benjamin Oliver.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1931, shortly before Hiram celebrated the 100th anniversary of Garfield's birth, there was a debate in the community about changing the name of the school to Garfield College. There were strong advocates on both sides of the issue. Among the 2,000 guests at the centennial celebration were three generations of Garfield's family, including two of his sons. The idea of changing the college's name was not mentioned at the event and the idea was abandoned.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The following is a list of the school's leaders since its founding in 1850.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1850–1856 – Amos Sutton Hayden", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 35569665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1857–1861 – James A. Garfield", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 40400 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1861–1864 – Harvey W. Everest (Pro Tem)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1864–1865 – C. W. Heywood (acting)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1865–1866 – Adoniram J. Thomson (managing)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1866–1867 – John M. Atwater", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1867–1868 – Silas E. Shepard (acting)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1868–1870 – John M. Atwater (acting)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1870–1882 – Burke A. Hinsdale", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1883–1887 – George M. Laughlin", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1887–1888 – Colman Bancroft (acting)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1888–1902 – Ely V. Zollars", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1902–1903 – James A. Beattie", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1903–1905 – Edmund B. Wakefield (acting)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1905–1907 – Carlos C. Rowlison", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1907–1930 – Miner Lee Bates", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1930–1940 – Kenneth I. Brown", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1940–1957 – Paul H. Fall", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1957–1965 – Paul F. Sharp", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1965–1965 – James N. Primm", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1966–1966 – Wendell G. Johnson (acting)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1966–1985 – Elmer Jagow", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1986–1989 – Russell Aiuto", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1989–1989 – James Norton (interim)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1990–2000 – G. Benjamin Oliver", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2000–2002 – Richard J. Scaldini", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2003–2014 – Thomas V. Chema", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23239295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2014–2020 – Lori E. Varlotta", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 63940652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2020–present - David P. Haney", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As of the 2019–20 academic year, Hiram's student body consists of 1,116 undergraduates from 27 states and 11 foreign countries. Of the 81 full–time faculty, 95% hold a Ph.D. or other terminal degree in their field.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Academics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hiram specializes in the education of undergraduate students, though the college does have a small graduate program. Hiram confers the BA, BSN, and MA degrees. The college offers 33 majors and 40 minors for traditional undergraduates, in addition to pre-professional programs for specific fields. Interdisciplinary studies have also been a part of Hiram's curriculum for decades.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Academics", "target_page_ids": [ 156992, 940088, 170346, 479983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 137 ], [ 139, 142 ], [ 148, 150 ], [ 356, 366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hiram's curriculum requires all students to complete one course in each of nine academic areas: creative methods, interpretive methods, modeling methods, experimental scientific methods, social and cultural analysis, experiencing the world, understanding diversity at home, interdisciplinary, and ethics and social responsibility. Its education plan also includes international study and independent study opportunities, and faculty–guided research projects. Currently, almost all majors require some form of extensive independent project or apprenticeship experience.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Academics", "target_page_ids": [ 12491375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 388, 405 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hiram's academic program consists of five schools: Arts, Humantities & Culture; Business & Communication; Education, Civil Leadership & Social Change; Health & Medical Humanities; and Science & Technology.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Academics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The college's curriculum is currently marketed under the name Hiram Connect, which involves four steps: First Year Colloquium/Foundations of the Liberal Arts, Declaration of Major, Experiential Learning, and a Capstone Project.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Academics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hiram has five \"Centers of Distinction\" for interdisciplinary studies: Center for Integrated Entrepreneurship, Center for Scientific Engagement, Center for Literature and Medicine, Garfield Institute for Public Leadership, and Lindsay-Crane Center for Writing and Literature.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Academics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hiram was ranked #167 among National Liberal Arts Colleges by U.S. News & World Report in 2012. At the same time, Hiram is currently ranked #67 among Liberal Arts Colleges by Washington Monthly. Also, in 2018, Forbes ranked Hiram at #644 among all colleges and universities in the U.S, and #29 in Ohio. Hiram has regularly been included in The Princeton Review Best Colleges guide, and is one of only 40 schools included in Loren Pope's book Colleges That Change Lives.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Rankings", "target_page_ids": [ 449826, 325569, 294894, 22199, 841060, 1235443, 4413260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 86 ], [ 175, 193 ], [ 210, 216 ], [ 297, 301 ], [ 340, 360 ], [ 424, 434 ], [ 442, 468 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hiram is a member of the Annapolis Group, which has been critical of the college rankings process. Hiram is among the signatories of the Presidents Letter.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Rankings", "target_page_ids": [ 10496671, 11874994, 11874994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 40 ], [ 57, 89 ], [ 137, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The school's sports teams are called the Terriers. They participate in NCAA Division III and the North Coast Athletic Conference. In men's volleyball, a sport not sponsored by the NCAC, Hiram competes in the Allegheny Mountain Collegiate Conference.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Student life", "target_page_ids": [ 874503, 37221, 1971074 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 88 ], [ 97, 128 ], [ 208, 248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Hiram College basketball team won the gold medal in the collegiate division of the 1904 Summer Olympics in St. Louis. It was the first time that basketball was part of an Olympics; it was included as a demonstration sport and no foreign teams participated.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Student life", "target_page_ids": [ 1858495, 27687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 107 ], [ 111, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Cleveland Browns held their training camp at Hiram College from 1952 through 1974, making it the longest–tenured training site in the team's history.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Student life", "target_page_ids": [ 6576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2014 Hiram vs. Mount St. Joseph women's basketball game was named the Best Moment at the 2015 ESPY Awards. The game featured terminally ill Mount St. Joseph player Lauren Hill in the first of her four college games, which set the all-time attendance record for an NCAA women's game below the Division I level.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Student life", "target_page_ids": [ 44295663, 10977005, 47234143, 44952141, 669931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 59 ], [ 74, 85 ], [ 93, 109 ], [ 168, 179 ], [ 296, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The college's residential complexes include Booth-Centennial, East Hall, Whitcomb Hall, Miller Hall, Bowler Hall, and the Townhouses.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Student life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Student Senate is the elected student governing body of the college. It serves as a liaison between students and the school's administration, and oversees all student clubs and organizations, collectively called the Associated Student Organizations (ASO). The Kennedy Center Programming Board (KCPB) falls under the auspices of Student Senate, and is responsible for planning educational, social, recreational, and cultural programs.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Student life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hiram has close to 70 registered student clubs and organizations in eight categories: Academic, Greek Social, Musical, Political and Activism, Publications and Communications, Religious, Special Interest and Service, and Sports and Recreation. Fraternities and sororities are not permitted on campus, but there are six Greek social clubs: Delta Chi Lambda, Kappa Sigma Pi, Lambda Lambda Lambda, Phi Beta Gamma, Phi Gamma Epsilon, Phi Kappa Chi, and Greek Social.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Student life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since 1971, Hiram has maintained a chapter of Phi Beta Kappa, the national honor society for the liberal arts. The school has also had a chapter of Omicron Delta Kappa (ODK), a national leadership honor society, since 1962.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Student life", "target_page_ids": [ 166504, 4461300 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 60 ], [ 148, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jean Ankeney – politician, nurse", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 46373196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Edna Allyn – first librarian of the Hawaii State Library", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 57322276, 714797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 37, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Miner Searle Bates – historian, and college professor and administrator", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 17225852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Laura Bell – author", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 37088280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Robert Biscup – orthopaedic surgeon", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 27038899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Howard Junior Brown – physician, gay rights advocate", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 8536267 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Henry Lawrence Burnett – lawyer", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 8115881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Allen R. Bushnell – U.S. Representative", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 12157141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Russell L. Caldwell – historian and college professor", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 46367389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " James Anson Campbell – industrialist", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 10192695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sharon Creech – author", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 3027752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Martha Derthick – academic", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 49999264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fritz Dreisbach – artist", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 25817106 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Virginia Fraser – elder rights activist", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 57551514 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " James A. Garfield – 20th President of the United States", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 40400 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lucretia Rudolph Garfield – First Lady of the United States", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 416322, 10847 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ], [ 29, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Franklin L. Gilson – jurist and politician", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 49439229 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Osee M. Hall – U.S. Representative", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 6005155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pamela Helming - New York State Senator", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 52822786 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ammon Hennacy – Christian pacifist, anarchist, and member of the Catholic Worker Movement", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 960944, 1477287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 67, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " David Brendan Hopes – author, playwright, and poet", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 15139419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jan Hopkins – anchor, CNNfn", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 3269073, 1341753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 23, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Deborah Joseph – computer scientist", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 59332279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Samuel Kenyon – linguist", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 3893492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Frank Laporte – Major League baseball player, second baseman", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 5747309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vachel Lindsay – poet", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 161034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lance Liotta – cancer biologist", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 62656001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " J. Kevin McMahon – President and CEO, Pittsburgh Cultural Trust", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 5252477, 5244618 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 39, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Louis Mink – philosopher of history and college professor", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 34710472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Horace Ladd Moore – U.S. Representative", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 11636233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wendy Murray – journalist", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 23460917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Carol Z. Perez – U.S. Ambassador to Chile", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 52316377, 5489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 37, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Augustus Herman Pettibone – U.S. Representative", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 5375331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Benjamin D. Pritchard – Brevetted Brigadier General, United States Army", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 5657926, 1854625, 11035076, 32087 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 25, 34 ], [ 35, 52 ], [ 54, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dean A. Scarborough – chief executive officer of Avery Dennison Corporation", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 44356033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Platt Rogers Spencer – originator, Spencarian penmanship", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 3458508, 5730220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 36, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mark W. Spong – roboticist", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 18079073 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Michael Stanley – singer–songwriter, musician, and radio personality", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 1704799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Claude Steele – social psychologist, college professor, and college administrator", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 3082304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Howard F. Taylor – sociologist", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 58055280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Allyn Vine – physicist and oceanographer", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 31468769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " P. H. Welshimer – minister", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 8311197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tom Wesselmann – artist", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 1310791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John J. Whitacre – U.S. Representative", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 11630546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bill White – Major League Baseball player and broadcaster; President, National League", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 509850, 38776, 64290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 14, 35 ], [ 71, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dempster Woodworth – editor, politician and physician", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 51213098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Laurin D. Woodworth – U.S. Representative", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 11630720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Harold Bell Wright – author", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 2400920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Allyn Abbott Young – economist", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable alumni and faculty", "target_page_ids": [ 1053268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Official website", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Official athletics website", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Hiram_College", "Private_universities_and_colleges_in_Ohio", "Education_in_Portage_County,_Ohio", "Universities_and_colleges_affiliated_with_the_Christian_Church_(Disciples_of_Christ)", "Educational_institutions_established_in_1850", "Buildings_and_structures_in_Portage_County,_Ohio", "Western_Reserve,_Ohio" ]

[ "Hiram", "Western Reserve Eclectic Institute" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Joseph Medill (April 6, 1823March 16, 1899) was a Canadian-American newspaper editor, publisher, and Republican Party politician. He was co-owner and managing editor of the Chicago Tribune, and he was Mayor of Chicago from after the Great Chicago Fire of 1871 until 1873.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 32070, 60961, 310285, 40311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 117 ], [ 173, 188 ], [ 201, 217 ], [ 233, 251 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Joseph Medill was born April 6, 1823, in Saint John, New Brunswick, British North America to a Scots-Irish family. He read law in Ohio and was admitted to the Ohio Bar in 1846.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 28866, 21182, 219386, 40789751, 22199, 235222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 51 ], [ 53, 66 ], [ 68, 89 ], [ 95, 106 ], [ 130, 134 ], [ 143, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medill married Katherine \"Kitty\" Patrick on September 2, 1852, and they had three daughters, Katherine, Elinor and Josephine.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1859 Medill purchased the Coshocton Democratic Whig then renamed the paper as the Democratic Whig. In 1853, Medill and Edwin Cowles started the Leader, a newspaper in Cleveland, Ohio. (It was later absorbed by The Plain Dealer.) In 1854, the Tribune'''s part-owner, Captain J. D. Webster, asked Medill to become the paper's managing editor. Medill was further encouraged to come to Chicago by Dr. Charles H. Ray of Galena, Illinois, and editor Horace Greeley of the New York Tribune.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Publishing career", "target_page_ids": [ 13662853, 5951, 22199, 738659, 6886, 111352, 171486, 360819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 134 ], [ 170, 179 ], [ 181, 185 ], [ 213, 229 ], [ 385, 392 ], [ 418, 434 ], [ 447, 461 ], [ 469, 485 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1855, Medill sold his interest in the Leader to Cowles and bought the Tribune in partnership with Dr. Ray and Alfred Cowles (Edwin's brother).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Publishing career", "target_page_ids": [ 13906840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under Medill's management, the Tribune flourished, becoming one of the largest newspapers in Chicago. Medill served as its managing editor until 1864, when Horace White became editor-in-chief. At that time Medill left day-to-day operations of the Tribune for political activities.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Publishing career", "target_page_ids": [ 7848677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "But White clashed with Medill over the presidential election of 1872. So, in 1873 Medill bought additional equity from Cowles and from White, becoming majority owner. In 1874, he replaced White as editor-in-chief. Medill served as editor-in-chief until his death.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Publishing career", "target_page_ids": [ 40402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under Medill, the Tribune became the leading Republican newspaper in Chicago. Medill was strongly anti-slavery, supporting both the Free-Soil cause and Abolitionism. Medill was a major supporter of Abraham Lincoln in the 1850s. Medill and the Tribune were instrumental in Lincoln's presidential nomination, and were equally supportive of the Union cause during the American Civil War. The Tribune's chief adversary through this period was the Chicago Times, which supported the Democrats.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political activity", "target_page_ids": [ 32070, 195138, 40318770, 307, 481130, 863, 76487, 5043544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 55 ], [ 132, 141 ], [ 152, 164 ], [ 198, 213 ], [ 342, 347 ], [ 365, 383 ], [ 443, 456 ], [ 478, 487 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medill was among Chicago's Protestant elites. His rabid anti-Irish sentiment was published daily in The Chicago Tribune. He regularly dismissed the Irish as lazy and shiftless. “Who does not know that the most depraved, debased, worthless and irredeemable drunkards and sots which curse the community are Irish Catholics?” This came even as Irish laborers worked feverishly to complete Chicago's stately St. Patrick's church at Adams and Desplaines Streets in the mid-1850s.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political activity", "target_page_ids": [ 25814008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1864, Medill left the Tribune editorship for political activity, which occupied him for the next ten years. He was appointed by President Grant to the first Civil Service Commission. In 1870, he was elected as a delegate to the Illinois Constitutional convention.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political activity", "target_page_ids": [ 31752, 6553678, 266437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 146 ], [ 160, 184 ], [ 240, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1871, after the Great Chicago Fire, Medill was elected mayor of Chicago as candidate of the temporary \"Fireproof\" party, defeating Charles C. P. Holden, and served as mayor for two years.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political activity", "target_page_ids": [ 59327643, 40311, 66216462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 19, 37 ], [ 134, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medill was sworn in as mayor on December 4, 1871.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political activity", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As mayor, Medill gained more power for the mayor's office, created Chicago's first public library, enforced blue laws, and reformed the police and fire departments.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political activity", "target_page_ids": [ 3359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During his mayoralty, Medill worked successfully to have the Illinois General Assembly modify the city charter to increase mayoral authority. As mayor-elect, on December 4, 1871, he tapped Judge Murray F. Tuley to draft a \"Mayor's Bill\" to be submitted to the General Assembly in its next session. After successful lobbying by Medill and Tuley, the bill passed on March 9, 1872. It went into effect July 1 1872, and provided the mayor with the new authority to,", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political activity", "target_page_ids": [ 861658, 5435975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 86 ], [ 195, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Serve as presiding officer of the Chicago City Council; to appoint all unelected city officials with the advice and consent of the City Council", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political activity", "target_page_ids": [ 772102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Remove all unelected city officials, with only the requirement that they provide the City Council with reasons for such a removal", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political activity", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Appoint the standing committees of the City Council and serve as an ex officio member of those committees", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political activity", "target_page_ids": [ 12368470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Veto any ordinance, including all or part of an appropriations ordinance, with a two-thirds vote of the City Council required to override such as veto", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political activity", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Exercise special police powers", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political activity", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In his first year as mayor, Medill received very little legislative resistance from the Chicago City Council. While he vetoed what was an unprecedented eleven City Council ordinances that year, most narrowly were involved with specific financial practices considered wasteful and none of the vetoes were overridden. He used his new powers to appoint the members of the newly constituted Chicago Board of Education and the commissioners of its constituted public library. His appointments were approved unanimously by the City Council.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political activity", "target_page_ids": [ 48779679, 710757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 387, 413 ], [ 455, 469 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medill sought funding for the recovery of Chicago. Medill had strongly lobbied on behalf of the city to receive state financial aid, taking advantage of his connections with state legislators in the state capitol of Springfield, Illinois. While, at the time, state law prohibited the direct appropriation of state funds to the city, Medill was able to get the legislature to pass a special act reimbursing the city for $2.9 million the city had expended on the state-owned Illinois and Michigan Canal. Medill also sought federal financial help. Medill took advantage of his connections in Washington, D.C. to seek such aid. In his third month in office, he wrote Vice President Schuyler Colfax to urge the passage of a tariff rebate that would help increase the supply of inexpensive material for the reconstruction of the city. Despite strong opposition from lumber interests, the legislation succeeded in passing. Medill also convinced President Grant to give a personal $1,000 contribution to aid the city's reconstruction. More than $5 million in gifts an loans were collected from people and cities across the world.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political activity", "target_page_ids": [ 57706, 50379, 108956, 89151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 216, 237 ], [ 473, 500 ], [ 589, 605 ], [ 678, 693 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Taking Medill's lead, on February 12, 1872, the City Council approved 26-6 an ordinance that prohibited the construction of wood frame buildings in city limits.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political activity", "target_page_ids": [ 2071443 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medill was a strong Republican loyalist who supported President Grant for re-election in 1872. The breach with White came because White supported the breakaway Liberal Republicans, reformists who nominated Horace Greeley for president. It was also at this time that Medill broke with Greeley.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political activity", "target_page_ids": [ 742475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his second year as mayor, tensions arose as he began to further utilize the new powers given to the mayor. At the first 1873 meeting of the City Council, Medill announced that he would be using the power to select the chairmen of members of the council committees. He appointed his loyalists to lead most important committees, while aldermen of wards consisting of immigrant populations received lesser consideration for appointments. In the first three months of 1873 alone, Medill practiced his veto power on five City Council ordinances.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political activity", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Medill and his police superintendent Elmer Washburn cracked down on gambling.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political activity", "target_page_ids": [ 59868386, 11921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 51 ], [ 68, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medill met not only resistance from a City Council divided over his exercise of power and aspects of his agenda, but also resistance from citizens. Anton C. Hesing derided him as \"Joseph I, Dictator\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political activity", "target_page_ids": [ 46952777, 8409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 163 ], [ 190, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The stress of the job of mayor impaired Medill's health. In August 1873, he appointed Lester L. Bond as Acting Mayor for the remaining 3½ months of his term, and went to Europe on a convalescent tour.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political activity", "target_page_ids": [ 7685170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medill died on March 16th,1899 at the age of 75 in San Antonio,Texas.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political activity", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During World War II, the Liberty ship was built in Panama City, and named in his honor.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 198201, 108975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 37 ], [ 52, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Medill School of Journalism, Media, and Integrated Marketing Communications at Northwestern University is also named in his honor.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 303851, 174216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 79 ], [ 83, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The tree omits Medill's third daughter, Josephine, who died in 1892.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family tree", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " McKinney, M. The Magnificent Medills (2011)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Anderson, Jeffrey Justin. Joseph Medill: How one man influenced the Republican presidential nomination of 1860 (Ph.D. Diss.) Roosevelt University, 2011.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tebbel, John William. An American dynasty: the story of the McCormicks, Medills, and Pattersons'' Greenwood Pub. Group, 1968.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 71121743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] } ]

[ "1823_births", "1899_deaths", "19th-century_American_newspaper_publishers_(people)", "Chicago_Tribune_people", "Mayors_of_Chicago", "People_of_the_American_Civil_War", "Writers_from_Saint_John,_New_Brunswick", "Burials_at_Graceland_Cemetery_(Chicago)", "People_from_Wheaton,_Illinois", "Illinois_Free_Soilers", "Illinois_Republicans", "19th-century_American_journalists", "American_male_journalists", "19th-century_American_male_writers", "Journalists_from_Illinois", "Medill-Patterson_family", "American_abolitionists" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Carter Henry Harrison Sr. (February 15, 1825October 28, 1893) was an American politician who served as mayor of Chicago, Illinois, from 1879 until 1887; he was subsequently elected to a fifth term in 1893 but was assassinated before completing the term. He previously served two terms in the United States House of Representatives. Harrison was the first cousin twice removed of President William Henry Harrison, whose grandson, Benjamin Harrison, had also been president until just months prior to the assassination. He was also the father of Carter Harrison Jr., who would follow in his father's footsteps, and would serve five terms as the mayor of Chicago himself.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 310285, 6886, 59267996, 19468510, 33299, 7766419, 40292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 108 ], [ 112, 129 ], [ 200, 204 ], [ 292, 330 ], [ 389, 411 ], [ 429, 446 ], [ 544, 563 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Born on a plantation on February 15, 1825 near Lexington, Kentucky to Carter Henry Harrison II and Caroline Russell, he was only a few months old when his father died.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life, education, and career", "target_page_ids": [ 50352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harrison's family had a long Southern lineage, dating back to early colonial Virginia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life, education, and career", "target_page_ids": [ 32432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harrison was educated by private tutors and graduated from Yale College in 1845 as a member of Scroll and Key. Following graduation, he traveled and studied in Europe from 1851 to 1853 before entering Transylvania College in Lexington, where he earned a law degree in 1855. Harrison was admitted to the bar in 1855 and commenced practice in Chicago. In 1855 he and his family came to Chicago because he saw it as a land of opportunity. At the time, he inherited the Kentucky plantation and almost 100 slaves but sold out to be done with slavery.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life, education, and career", "target_page_ids": [ 34273, 391450, 752593, 299903, 235222, 77298, 253264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 71 ], [ 95, 109 ], [ 201, 221 ], [ 254, 264 ], [ 287, 306 ], [ 329, 337 ], [ 538, 545 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harrison invested in real estate in Chicago, and became a millionaire.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life, education, and career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After the Great Chicago Fire, he became involved in politics. One of his first acts in politics was convincing Joseph Medill to run for mayor in 1871. Later, during Harrison's own career in citywide politics, Medill, publisher of the Chicago Tribune, would come to be a political rival of Harrison's.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life, education, and career", "target_page_ids": [ 40311, 40290, 59327643, 60961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ], [ 111, 124 ], [ 142, 149 ], [ 234, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harrison ran an unsuccessful campaign in 1872 for election to the 43rd United States Congress. From 1874 through 1876, he served one term as a member of the board of commissioners of Cook County.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early political career", "target_page_ids": [ 2152016, 4535806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 93 ], [ 157, 194 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1874, Harrison was elected as a Democrat to the 44th United States Congress, and was subsequently reelected in 1876 to the 45th United States Congress.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Congressional career (1875–1879)", "target_page_ids": [ 5043544, 2192067, 2417390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 43 ], [ 51, 78 ], [ 126, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Scandal occurred in his second term in congress when, as chairman of the Committee on Reform of the Civil Service, Harrison had pushed through the payment of benefits to four self-proclaimed Union Army veterans purporting disabilities from wartime injuries despite the fact that their claims had previously been rejected. None of these individuals had actually seen active service, and none of them had suffered serious injuries.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Congressional career (1875–1879)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During his time in congress, he was noted for his flamboyant oration.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Congressional career (1875–1879)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1878, Harrison lost reelection to congress.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Congressional career (1875–1879)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During his first mayoralty, Harrison was elected mayor of Chicago for four consecutive two-year terms (in 1879, 1881, 1883, and 1885).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "First mayoralty (1879–1887)", "target_page_ids": [ 59577398, 59579210, 59578670, 59407672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 110 ], [ 112, 116 ], [ 118, 122 ], [ 128, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After he campaigned in 1879 with a pet eagle, he became affectionately nicknamed \"the Eagle\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "First mayoralty (1879–1887)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He was sworn-in for his first term on April 28, 1879.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "First mayoralty (1879–1887)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During his first mayoralty, he surpassed his predecessor Monroe Heath's title as the longest serving mayor Chicago had had up to that time.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "First mayoralty (1879–1887)", "target_page_ids": [ 984917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harrison has been described as a practitioner of charismatic authority. He governed the city in cooperation with a fractious Democratic Party organization.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "First mayoralty (1879–1887)", "target_page_ids": [ 227674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While Harrison garnered both business and working class support, the evangelical middle class generally disapproved of Harrison.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "First mayoralty (1879–1887)", "target_page_ids": [ 39903086, 10370, 251534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 55 ], [ 69, 80 ], [ 81, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the time he took office, Chicago had nearly a half-million residents. However, it was still a developing city. Harrison would later remark that, when he took office as mayor, \"there were not ten miles of paved street in the whole city over which a light vehicle could move rapidly without injury to wheel or axle.” Long a booster of his adopted city, Harrison was known to refer to Chicago as his \"bride\". Harrison significantly increased the city's number of paved roads and sidewalks in its downtown and increased the size and improved the efficiency of its fire department. Harrison also forced utility companies operating in the central business district to bury their wires. Harrison fought the Illinois Central Railroad's right to the lakefront, a legal battle which was ultimately taken by the State of Illinois to Supreme Court of the United States in Illinois Central Railroad Co. v. Illinois. He also worked to persuade railroads to begin elevating their tracks to eliminate level crossings. He also attempted to push measures in the City Council that would have required locomotives, steamships and tugboats to burn anthracite, which burned cleaner. He also attempted to have the city build new and longer public water system intake pipes.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "First mayoralty (1879–1887)", "target_page_ids": [ 342006, 1158422, 31737, 8872408, 193595, 146635, 216434, 182544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 325, 332 ], [ 703, 728 ], [ 825, 859 ], [ 863, 904 ], [ 988, 1002 ], [ 1098, 1108 ], [ 1113, 1121 ], [ 1130, 1140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harrison's first mayoral tenure was a period that saw many events which brought the city national and international attention. One such event was the Haymarket affair. Early on the evening of the Haymarket affair in 1886, Harrison had casually observed the then still peaceful demonstration of anarchists and trade unionists and advised the police to leave the demonstrators alone; he then left the scene before the \"riot\" occurred. A significant reason for his ability to attend the rally unbothered was that, while Harrison came from a Protestant background, he needed the votes of and thus made appeals to the city's large ethnic White Catholic population as well as its rapidly growing numbers of trade unionists. His administration gave the impression of being more favorable to trade unions and strikes than those of previous Chicago mayors as well as other mayors of the time, although his police force routinely viciously attacked striking workers and trade union activists - as the events of later that same evening were to prove once again.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "First mayoralty (1879–1887)", "target_page_ids": [ 23466744, 25814008, 166202, 606848, 17626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 150, 166 ], [ 538, 548 ], [ 633, 638 ], [ 639, 647 ], [ 701, 712 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harrison was a delegate to the 1880 and 1884 Democratic National Conventions. At the 1884 convention, held in Chicago, Harrison supported the successful candidacy of Grover Cleveland, and delivered the seconding speech for Cleveland's nomination at the convention. Harrison was also alleged to have ordered the Chicago police to fill the convention hall's convention hall with as many men sympathetic to Cleveland's candidacy as they could find on the street.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "First mayoralty (1879–1887)", "target_page_ids": [ 13664858, 22456511, 55262958, 12495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 35 ], [ 40, 44 ], [ 138, 162 ], [ 166, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1884, Harrison ran as the Democratic Party nominee for governor of Illinois, losing to Republican Richard J. Oglesby.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "First mayoralty (1879–1887)", "target_page_ids": [ 68401586, 253070, 32070, 758233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 58, 78 ], [ 90, 100 ], [ 101, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harrison's tenure as mayor formally ended on April 18, 1887.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "First mayoralty (1879–1887)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Harrison retired from politics. He soon embarked on a sixteen-month world tour.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Initial retirement from politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1890, Harrison and his daughter took a vacation trip from Chicago to Yellowstone National Park and Alaska. His letters from the trip were first published in the Chicago Tribune and later compiled into an 1891 book, A Summer's Outing and The Old Man's Story.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Initial retirement from politics", "target_page_ids": [ 34340, 624, 60961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 97 ], [ 102, 108 ], [ 164, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After leaving office, Harrison was owner and editor of the Chicago Times from 1891 to 1893, where he continued to advocate for labor unions and the many Catholic and immigrant communities in Chicago.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Initial retirement from politics", "target_page_ids": [ 76487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harrison married Margarette (or Margaret) E. Stearns in 1882, following the death of his first wife in 1876. She was the daughter of Chicago pioneer Marcus C. Stearns.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Initial retirement from politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Harrison unsuccessfully sought to stage a comeback, running in the 1891 Chicago mayoral election.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Unsuccessful 1891 mayoral campaign", "target_page_ids": [ 59342556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harrison was re-elected mayor in 1893, in time for the World's Columbian Exposition being held in the city. His desire was to show the world the \"true\" Chicago, and he appointed 1st Ward Alderman \"Bathhouse\" John Coughlin to sit on the reception committee. This appointment was a small part in Harrison's plan to create a centralized Democratic Party machine consisting of empowered ward committeemen and precinct captains that would answer to the local Democratic Party. The plan would not be accomplished until Anton Cermak came to power in Chicago politics in the 1920s.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Second mayoralty (1893)", "target_page_ids": [ 59267996, 41960, 286925, 43820, 5043544, 407940, 40303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 37 ], [ 55, 83 ], [ 187, 195 ], [ 196, 221 ], [ 334, 350 ], [ 351, 358 ], [ 513, 525 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harrison was sworn-in for his fifth nonconsecutive term on April 17, 1893.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Second mayoralty (1893)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On October 28, 1893, a few months into his fifth term and just two days before the close of the World's Columbian Exposition, Harrison was murdered in his home by Patrick Eugene Prendergast, an office-seeker who had supported Harrison's re-election under the idea that Harrison would reward him with an appointment to a post within his mayoral administration. Harrison was buried in Chicago's Graceland Cemetery. As part of his funeral services, Harrison laid in state in the City Hall. A celebration planned for the close of the Exposition was cancelled and replaced by a large public memorial service for Harrison. Prendergast was sentenced to death for the crime and hanged on July 13, 1894.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Second mayoralty (1893)", "target_page_ids": [ 769192, 882465, 1505399, 155019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 189 ], [ 393, 411 ], [ 455, 468 ], [ 670, 676 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While Harrison died at a time when the elites, Protestants, and Republicans of all kinds greatly disliked him, he never lost his core supporters of labor unions, Catholics, immigrants, and the working class. He was Chicago's first mayor to be elected five times; eventually his son Carter Harrison Jr. was also elected mayor five times.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Second mayoralty (1893)", "target_page_ids": [ 40292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 282, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harrison's career and assassination are closely connected with the World's Columbian Exposition, and are discussed at some length as a subplot to the two main stories (about the fair and serial killer H. H. Holmes) in Erik Larson's best-selling 2003 non-fiction book The Devil in the White City.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Second mayoralty (1893)", "target_page_ids": [ 354237, 1546835, 7023665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 201, 213 ], [ 218, 229 ], [ 267, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harrison was a populist Democrat.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Political positions", "target_page_ids": [ 177019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harrison did not disapprove of liquor consumption or gambling.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Political positions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hailing from a border state and wed to a woman who hailed from the Deep South, during the American Civil War, Harrison had occasionally openly expressed sympathy towards the Confederate cause, leading him to be derided as a Copperhead.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Political positions", "target_page_ids": [ 427798, 401342, 863, 303134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 27 ], [ 67, 77 ], [ 90, 108 ], [ 224, 234 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harrison saw the city's strength as being in its neighborhoods, and viewed it as a city of neighborhoods.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Political positions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1855, Harrison married his first wife, the former Sophie Preston. Together they had ten children, six of whom died at a young age. She died in Europe in 1876.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After being widowed, Harrison married Margarette (or Margaret) E. Stearns in 1882. He was widowed again when she died in 1887.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At the time of his assassination, Harrison was engaged to a young New Orleans heiress named Annie Howard, daughter of Louisiana State Lottery Company organizer Charles T. Howard, who was worth an estimated $3,000,000.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 1482864, 33948586 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 149 ], [ 160, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Carter H. Harrison Medal is one of two medals \"granted to sworn members of the fire and police departments who have performed distinguished acts of bravery in the protection of life or property\", the other being the Lambert Tree Award.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 23405141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 220, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Samuel Gompers", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 327155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of assassinated American politicians", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11185824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Casimir Zeglen", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3065290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Carter Harrison III (1825–1893)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1825_births", "1893_deaths", "1893_murders_in_the_United_States", "19th-century_American_politicians", "American_people_of_English_descent", "Assassinated_American_politicians", "Assassinated_mayors", "Burials_at_Graceland_Cemetery_(Chicago)", "Carter_family_of_Virginia", "Deaths_by_firearm_in_Illinois", "Democratic_Party_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives_from_Illinois", "Harrison_family_of_Virginia", "Mayors_of_Chicago", "Members_of_the_Cook_County_Board_of_Commissioners", "People_murdered_in_Illinois", "Male_murder_victims", "Politicians_from_Lexington,_Kentucky", "Randolph_family_of_Virginia", "Transylvania_University_alumni", "Yale_University_alumni" ]

[ "Carter Henry Harrison III", "Carter Henry Harrison Senior", "Carter Henry Harrison Sr.", "Carter H. Harrison 1825 1893" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Carter Henry Harrison IV (April 23, 1860 – December 25, 1953) was an American newspaper publisher and Democratic politician who served a total of five terms as mayor of Chicago (1897–1905 and 1911–1915) but failed in his attempt to become his party's presidential nominee in 1904. Descended from aristocratic Virginia families and the son of five-term Chicago mayor Carter Harrison Sr., this Carter Harrison (IV) became the first native Chicagoan elected its mayor.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5043544, 310285, 1796364, 40291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 112 ], [ 160, 176 ], [ 296, 326 ], [ 366, 385 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harrison was born on April 23, 1860 in Chicago.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He was a member of many organizations including the Freemasons, Knights Templar, Society of the Cincinnati, Sons of the Revolution, Sons of the American Revolution, Society of Colonial Wars, Veterans of Foreign Wars, American Legion, and the Military Order of the World Wars.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 11227, 16869, 217609, 14959349, 1811597, 23205382, 1208983, 305976, 52908884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 62 ], [ 64, 79 ], [ 81, 106 ], [ 108, 130 ], [ 132, 163 ], [ 165, 189 ], [ 191, 215 ], [ 217, 232 ], [ 242, 274 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Like his father, Carter Harrison Sr., Harrison gained election to five terms as Chicago's mayor. Educated in Saxe-Altenburg, Germany, Harrison returned to Chicago to help his brother run the Chicago Times, which their father bought in 1891. He had been a practicing lawyer before joining his family in running the Chicago Times in 1891. Under the Harrisons the paper became a resolute supporter of the Democratic Party, and was the only local newspaper to support the Pullman strikers in the mid-1890s. Harrison served as the newspapers editor. He stopped working at the newspaper in 1895.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 40291, 582576, 11867, 76487, 17541, 226206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 36 ], [ 109, 123 ], [ 125, 132 ], [ 191, 204 ], [ 266, 272 ], [ 468, 484 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harrison was first elected mayor in the 1897 Chicago mayoral election. He would win election to three consecutive additional two-year terms in 1899, 1901, and 1903.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 59344585, 59345599, 59345926, 59346113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 69 ], [ 143, 147 ], [ 149, 153 ], [ 159, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harrison was sworn in as mayor on April 15, 1897.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Like his father, Harrison did not believe in trying to legislate morality. As mayor, Harrison believed that Chicagoans' two major desires were to make money and to spend it. During his administrations, Chicago's vice districts blossomed, and special maps were printed to enable tourists to find their way from brothel to brothel. The name of one Chicago saloon-keeper of the time supposedly entered the English language as a term for a strong or laced drink intended to render unconsciousness: Mickey Finn.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 206013, 182719 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 310, 317 ], [ 494, 505 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, Harrison was seen as more of a reformer than his father, which helped him garner the middle class votes his father had lacked. One of Harrison's biggest enemies was Charles Yerkes, whose plans to monopolize Chicago's streetcar lines were vigorously attacked by the mayor. This was the beginning of the Chicago Traction Wars, which would become a major focus of his administration. During his final term in office, Harrison established the Chicago Vice Commission and worked to close down the Levee district, starting with the Everleigh Club brothel on October 24, 1911.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 251534, 43810, 30733, 59546165, 2090336, 42228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 106 ], [ 174, 188 ], [ 226, 235 ], [ 311, 332 ], [ 497, 515 ], [ 536, 550 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite prolonged and damaging international press coverage blaming his lax municipal enforcement for the 602 lives lost in the Iroquois Theatre fire on December 30, 1903 (still the deadliest single-building fire in U.S. history), Harrison hoped to become the 1904 Democratic nominee for President of the United States. However, the nomination went to Alton B. Parker, who was soundly defeated by Theodore Roosevelt.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 737262, 12731816, 24113, 368456, 40532, 30535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 149 ], [ 260, 275 ], [ 288, 318 ], [ 352, 367 ], [ 385, 393 ], [ 397, 415 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harrison declined to seek a fifth consecutive mayoral term in 1905, and was succeeded by fellow Democrat Edward Fitzsimmons Dunne on April 10, 1905.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 59265240, 744946 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 66 ], [ 105, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1907, attempting to stage a return to office, Harrison unsuccessfully challenged Dunne for the Democratic mayoral nomination.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 59272311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1911, Harrison was elected to a four-year term as mayor. He as sworn-in for his fifth nonconsecutive term as mayor on April 17, 1911.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 59272204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1914, Harrison convinced the city council to establish a Commission for the Encouragement of Local Art to purchase works of art by Chicago artists. Harrison personally purchased artwork from painters such as Victor Higgins and Walter Ufer.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 7587638, 2156778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 211, 225 ], [ 230, 241 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harrison sought a sixth overall term as mayor in 1915, but was defeated in the Democratic primary by Robert Sweitzer, who went on to lose the general election to Republican William Hale Thompson. Harrison was succeeded in office by Thompson on April 26, 1915.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 59272969, 63384913, 40302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 53 ], [ 101, 116 ], [ 173, 194 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1915, when Harrison left office, Chicago had essentially reached its modern size in land area, and had a population of 2,400,000; the city was moving inexorably into its status as a major modern metropolis. He and his father had collectively been mayors of the city for 21 of the previous 36 years.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From 1933 through 1944, Harrison served as the Internal Revenue Service collector for district of Chicago, having been appointed to the position by president Franklin D. Roosevelt on July 28, 1933.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 23430752, 5503229, 10979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 71 ], [ 72, 81 ], [ 158, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harrison served as the president of a commission which advocated for local arts.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Harrison published two autobiographies. One of these, a memoir entitled Growing Up with Chicago, was published in 1944.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Harrison died on December 25, 1953 in Chicago at his Chicago apartment, and is buried in Graceland Cemetery.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 882465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His papers are held by Chicago's Newberry Library.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 295743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harrison was a descendant of Robert Carter I, Benjamin Harrison IV, William Randolph, and Isham Randolph of Dungeness.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancestry and personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 2658840, 23732436, 2559534, 1660537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 44 ], [ 46, 66 ], [ 68, 84 ], [ 90, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His wife, Edith Ogden Harrison, was a well-known writer of children's books and fairy tales in the first two decades of the 20th century.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancestry and personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 9181168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1907 Harrison became a hereditary member of the Virginia Society of the Cincinnati.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancestry and personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 217609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mayor Carter Henry Harrison Papers at the Newberry Library", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 295743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " (previous page of browse report under 'Harrison, Carter H. (Carter Henry), 1825–1893')", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Carter H. Harrison papers at The Newberry", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 295743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 41 ] ] } ]

[ "1860_births", "1953_deaths", "American_people_of_English_descent", "Burials_at_Graceland_Cemetery_(Chicago)", "Carter_family_of_Virginia", "Harrison_family_of_Virginia", "Mayors_of_Chicago", "Randolph_family_of_Virginia", "Illinois_Democrats", "American_patrons_of_the_arts", "Yale_Law_School_alumni", "Tax_collectors", "Editors_of_Illinois_newspapers" ]

[ "Carter Henry Harrison IV", "Carter Henry Harrison Junior", "Carter Henry Harrison Jr.", "Carter H. Harrison 1860 1953" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Nikkei 225, or , more commonly called the Nikkei or the Nikkei index (), is a stock market index for the Tokyo Stock Exchange (TSE). It has been calculated daily by the Nihon Keizai Shimbun (The Nikkei) newspaper since 1950. It is a price-weighted index, operating in the Japanese Yen (JP¥), and its components are reviewed once a year. The Nikkei measures the performance of 225 large, publicly owned companies in Japan from a wide array of industry sectors.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23408957, 191354, 193064, 41031688, 2582922, 34392 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 100 ], [ 109, 129 ], [ 174, 194 ], [ 224, 228 ], [ 239, 259 ], [ 278, 290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another major index for the Tokyo Stock Exchange is the Tokyo Stock Price Index (TOPIX).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2679198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Nikkei 225 began to be calculated on , retroactively calculated back to May 16th 1949, when the average price of its component stocks was 176.21 yen. Since January 2010, the index is updated every 15seconds during trading sessions.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5626316, 28655813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 90 ], [ 170, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Nikkei 225 Futures, introduced at Singapore Exchange (SGX) in 1986, the Osaka Securities Exchange (OSE) in 1988, Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME) in 1990, is now an internationally recognized futures index.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 840432, 5608717, 1344346, 5603992, 351631, 5603870, 11919097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 56 ], [ 66, 70 ], [ 76, 101 ], [ 111, 115 ], [ 117, 144 ], [ 154, 158 ], [ 197, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Nikkei average has deviated sharply from the textbook model of stock averages, which grow at a steady exponential rate. The average hit its all-time high on 29 December 1989, during the peak of the Japanese asset price bubble, when it reached an intra-day high of 38,957.44, before closing at 38,915.87, having grown sixfold during the decade. Subsequently, it lost nearly all these gains, closing at 7,054.98 on March 10th, 2009 — 81.9% below its peak nearly twenty years earlier.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2729996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 203, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On March 15th 2011, the second working day after the massive earthquake in the northeast part of Japan, the index dropped over 10% to finish at 8605.15, a loss of 1,015 points. The index continued to drop throughout 2011, bottoming out at 8160.01 on November 25th, putting it at its lowest close since March 31st, 2009. The Nikkei fell over 17% in 2011, finishing the year at 8455.35, its lowest year-end closing value in nearly thirty years, when the index finished at 8016.70 in 1982.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 30509098, 31150160, 26554195 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 19 ], [ 54, 103 ], [ 486, 490 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Nikkei started 2013 near 10,600, hitting a peak of 15,942 in May. However, shortly afterward, it plunged by almost 10% before rebounding, making it the most volatile stock market index among the developed markets. By 2015, it has reached over 20,000 mark; marking a gain of over 10,000 in two years, making it one of the fastest growing stock market indexes in the world. However, by 2018, the index growth has been more moderate at around the 22,000 mark.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 39082103, 23408957, 2310659, 43646623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 23 ], [ 171, 189 ], [ 200, 216 ], [ 223, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is concern that the rise since 2013 is artificial and due to purchases by the Bank of Japan (\"BOJ\"). From a start in 2013, by end 2017, The BOJ owned circa 75% of all Japanese Exchange Traded Funds (\"ETFs\"), and are a top 10 shareholder of 90% of the Nikkei 225 constituents.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On February 15, 2021, the Nikkei average breached the 30,000 benchmark, its highest level in 30 years, due to the levels of monetary stimulus and asset purchase programs executed by the Bank of Japan to mitigate the financial effects of the COVID-19 pandemic.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 62750956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 241, 258 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The index is a price-weighted index. As of early 2022, the company with the largest influence on the index is Fast Retailing ().", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Weighting", "target_page_ids": [ 2582922, 68610591, 3706926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 35 ], [ 50, 54 ], [ 111, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following table shows the annual development of the Nikkei 225, which was calculated back to 1914.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Annual returns", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As of October 2021, the Nikkei 225 consists of the following companies: (Japanese securities identification code in parentheses)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Components", "target_page_ids": [ 66247929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nippon Suisan Kaisha, Ltd. ()", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Components", "target_page_ids": [ 4021059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maruha Nichiro Holdings, Inc. 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[ "Nikkei_Inc.", "Japanese_stock_market_indices", "Tokyo_Stock_Exchange" ]

[ "Nikkei Stock Average", "Nikkei index" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Stephen Smale (born July 15, 1930) is an American mathematician, known for his research in topology, dynamical systems and mathematical economics. He was awarded the Fields Medal in 1966 and spent more than three decades on the mathematics faculty of the University of California, Berkeley (1960–1961 and 1964–1995), where he currently is Professor Emeritus, with research interests in algorithms, numerical analysis and global analysis.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18902, 29954, 9087, 18967255, 10859, 31922, 775, 21506, 42027498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 63 ], [ 91, 99 ], [ 101, 117 ], [ 123, 145 ], [ 166, 178 ], [ 255, 289 ], [ 386, 396 ], [ 398, 416 ], [ 421, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Smale was born in Flint, Michigan and entered the University of Michigan in 1948. Initially, he was a good student, placing into an honors calculus sequence taught by Bob Thrall and earning himself A's. However, his sophomore and junior years were marred with mediocre grades, mostly Bs, Cs and even an F in nuclear physics. However, with some luck, Smale was accepted as a graduate student at the University of Michigan's mathematics department. Yet again, Smale performed poorly in his first years, earning a C average as a graduate student. When the department chair, Hildebrandt, threatened to kick Smale out, he began to take his studies more seriously. Smale finally earned his Ph.D. in 1957, under Raoul Bott.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Education and career", "target_page_ids": [ 88021, 31740, 5176, 61882045, 339779, 21285, 36561562, 21031297, 337457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 33 ], [ 50, 72 ], [ 139, 147 ], [ 167, 177 ], [ 217, 226 ], [ 309, 324 ], [ 575, 586 ], [ 688, 693 ], [ 709, 719 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Smale began his career as an instructor at the University of Chicago. In 1958, he astounded the mathematical world with a proof of a sphere eversion. He then cemented his reputation with a proof of the Poincaré conjecture for all dimensions greater than or equal to 5, published in 1961; in 1962 he generalized the ideas in a 107-page paper that established the h-cobordism theorem.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Education and career", "target_page_ids": [ 32127, 478672, 23798, 681049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 68 ], [ 133, 148 ], [ 202, 221 ], [ 362, 381 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After having made great strides in topology, he then turned to the study of dynamical systems, where he made significant advances as well. His first contribution is the Smale horseshoe that started significant research in dynamical systems. He also outlined a research program carried out by many others. Smale is also known for injecting Morse theory into mathematical economics, as well as recent explorations of various theories of computation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Education and career", "target_page_ids": [ 29954, 9087, 449364, 348560, 9223, 5926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 43 ], [ 76, 93 ], [ 170, 185 ], [ 341, 353 ], [ 372, 381 ], [ 437, 448 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1998 he compiled a list of 18 problems in mathematics to be solved in the 21st century, known as Smale's problems. This list was compiled in the spirit of Hilbert's famous list of problems produced in 1900. In fact, Smale's list contains some of the original Hilbert problems, including the Riemann hypothesis and the second half of Hilbert's sixteenth problem, both of which are still unsolved. Other famous problems on his list include the Poincaré conjecture (now a theorem, proved by Grigori Perelman), the P = NP problem, and the Navier–Stokes equations, all of which have been designated Millennium Prize Problems by the Clay Mathematics Institute.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Education and career", "target_page_ids": [ 18831, 8294746, 8302, 19344125, 381750, 23798, 225266, 6115, 6013654, 27599234, 7655 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 56 ], [ 100, 116 ], [ 158, 165 ], [ 294, 312 ], [ 336, 363 ], [ 446, 465 ], [ 492, 508 ], [ 515, 529 ], [ 539, 562 ], [ 598, 623 ], [ 631, 657 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Earlier in his career, Smale was involved in controversy over remarks he made regarding his work habits while proving the higher-dimensional Poincaré conjecture. He said that his best work had been done \"on the beaches of Rio.\" He has been politically active in various movements in the past, such as the Free Speech movement. In 1966, having travelled to Moscow under an NSF grant to accept the Fields Medal, he held a press conference there to denounce the American position in Vietnam, Soviet intervention in Hungary and Soviet maltreatment of intellectuals. After his return to the US, he was unable to renew the grant. At one time he was subpoenaed by the House Un-American Activities Committee.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Education and career", "target_page_ids": [ 38777072, 157427, 32611, 13183936, 223929, 23758960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 305, 325 ], [ 372, 375 ], [ 459, 487 ], [ 489, 519 ], [ 643, 651 ], [ 661, 699 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1960 Smale was appointed an associate professor of mathematics at the University of California, Berkeley, moving to a professorship at Columbia University the following year. In 1964 he returned to a professorship at Berkeley where he has spent the main part of his career. He retired from Berkeley in 1995 and took up a post as professor at the City University of Hong Kong. He also amassed over the years one of the finest private mineral collections in existence. Many of Smale's mineral specimens can be seen in the book—The Smale Collection: Beauty in Natural Crystals.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Education and career", "target_page_ids": [ 31922, 6310, 25587444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 107 ], [ 138, 157 ], [ 349, 377 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 2003 to 2012, Smale was a Professor at the Toyota Technological Institute at Chicago; starting August 1, 2009, he became a Distinguished University Professor at the City University of Hong Kong.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Education and career", "target_page_ids": [ 3211347, 25587444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 89 ], [ 170, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2007, Smale was awarded the Wolf Prize in mathematics.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Education and career", "target_page_ids": [ 370712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lenore Blum, Felipe Cucker, Michael Shub, and Steve Smale. Complexity and real computation. With a foreword by Richard M. Karp. Springer-Verlag, New York, 1998. xvi+453 pp. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Morris W. Hirsch, Stephen Smale, and Robert L. Devaney. Differential equations, dynamical systems, and an introduction to chaos. Third edition. Elsevier/Academic Press, Amsterdam, 2013. xiv+418 pp. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The collected papers of Stephen Smale. Vol. 1–3. Edited by F. Cucker and R. Wong. Singapore University Press, Singapore; World Scientific Publishing Co., Inc., River Edge, NJ, 2000. Vol. 1: xxxiv+488 pp.; Vol. 2: pp. i–xii and 489–1031; Vol. 3: pp. i–xii and 1033–1677. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Steve Smale. The mathematics of time. Essays on dynamical systems, economic processes, and related topics. Springer-Verlag, New York-Berlin, 1980. vi+151 pp. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " *", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Important publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "5-manifold", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7763362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Axiom A", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5471083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Geometric mechanics", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41499924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Homotopy principle", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 481119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mean value problem", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 51264147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Robion Kirby, Stephen Smale: The Mathematician Who Broke the Dimension Barrier, a book review of a biography in the Notices of the AMS.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 2932424, 198822 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 132, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Personal websites at universities", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Steven Smale at the City University of Hong Kong", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 25587444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stephen Smale at the University of Chicago", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 32127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Steve Smale at the University of California, Berkeley", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 31922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 54 ] ] } ]

[ "1930_births", "Living_people", "20th-century_American_mathematicians", "21st-century_American_mathematicians", "American_atheists", "American_computer_scientists", "Columbia_University_faculty", "Dynamical_systems_theorists", "Fields_Medalists", "General_equilibrium_theorists", "Institute_for_Advanced_Study_visiting_scholars", "Mathematical_economists", "Members_of_the_Brazilian_Academy_of_Sciences", "Members_of_the_United_States_National_Academy_of_Sciences", "National_Medal_of_Science_laureates", "Numerical_analysts", "People_from_Flint,_Michigan", "Recipients_of_the_Great_Cross_of_the_National_Order_of_Scientific_Merit_(Brazil)", "Theoretical_computer_scientists", "Topologists", "University_of_California,_Berkeley_College_of_Letters_and_Science_faculty", "University_of_Chicago_faculty", "University_of_Michigan_alumni", "Wolf_Prize_in_Mathematics_laureates", "Sloan_Research_Fellows", "Fellows_of_the_Econometric_Society", "Mathematicians_from_Michigan" ]

[ "Steven Smale" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Hawker Siddeley Nimrod is a retired maritime patrol aircraft developed and operated by the United Kingdom. It was an extensive modification of the de Havilland Comet, the world's first operational jet airliner. It was originally designed by de Havilland's successor firm, Hawker Siddeley; further development and maintenance work was undertaken by Hawker Siddeley's own successor companies, British Aerospace and, later, BAE Systems.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 342941, 182728, 254128, 184429, 318411, 47665, 200128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 64 ], [ 151, 169 ], [ 201, 213 ], [ 245, 257 ], [ 276, 291 ], [ 395, 412 ], [ 425, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Designed in response to a requirement issued by the Royal Air Force (RAF) to replace its fleet of ageing Avro Shackletons, the Nimrod MR1/MR2s were primarily fixed-wing aerial platforms for anti-submarine warfare (ASW) operations; secondary roles included maritime surveillance and anti-surface warfare. It served from the early 1970s until March 2010. The intended replacement was to be extensively rebuilt Nimrod MR2s, designated Nimrod MRA4. Due to considerable delays, repeated cost overruns, and financial cutbacks, the development of the MRA4 was abandoned in 2010.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25679, 289578, 3480866, 5396321, 29573970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 67 ], [ 105, 120 ], [ 190, 212 ], [ 282, 302 ], [ 432, 443 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The RAF also operated a small number of the Nimrod R1, an electronic intelligence gathering (ELINT) variant. A dedicated airborne early warning platform, the Nimrod AEW3, was in development from late 1970s to the mid-1980s; however, much like the MRA4, considerable problems were encountered in development and thus the project was cancelled in 1986 in favour of an off-the-shelf solution in the Boeing E-3 Sentry. All Nimrod variants had been retired by mid-2011.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 54619118, 29122, 236466, 31747163, 10384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 53 ], [ 93, 98 ], [ 121, 143 ], [ 158, 169 ], [ 396, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 4 June 1964, the British Government issued Air Staff Requirement 381, which sought a replacement for the aging Avro Shackleton maritime patrol aircraft of the Royal Air Force (RAF). Such a replacement had been necessitated by the rapidly-approaching fatigue life limitations accumulated across the Shackleton fleet. A great deal of interest in the requirement was received from both British and foreign manufacturers, who offered aircraft including the Lockheed P-3 Orion, the Breguet Atlantic and derivatives of the Hawker Siddeley Trident, BAC One-Eleven, Vickers VC10 and de Havilland Comet. On 2 February 1965, Prime Minister Harold Wilson announced the intention to order Hawker Siddeley's maritime patrol version of the Comet, the HS.801 as a replacement for Shackleton Mk 2.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Development", "target_page_ids": [ 3708623, 289578, 342941, 25679, 162863, 1782998, 10673579, 340288, 338941, 182728, 52271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 71 ], [ 114, 129 ], [ 130, 154 ], [ 162, 177 ], [ 456, 474 ], [ 480, 496 ], [ 520, 543 ], [ 545, 559 ], [ 561, 573 ], [ 578, 596 ], [ 633, 646 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Nimrod design was based on the Comet 4 civil airliner which had reached the end of its commercial life (the first two prototype Nimrods, XV148 and XV147, were built from two final unfinished Comet 4C airframes). The Comet's turbojet engines were replaced by Rolls-Royce Spey turbofans for better fuel efficiency, particularly at the low altitudes required for maritime patrol. Major fuselage changes were made, including an internal weapons bay, an extended nose for radar, a new tail with electronic warfare (ESM) sensors mounted in a bulky fairing, and a MAD (magnetic anomaly detector) boom. After the first flight in May 1967, the RAF ordered 46 Nimrod MR1s. The first example (XV230) entered service in October 1969. A total of five squadrons using the type were established; four were permanently based in the UK and a fifth was initially based in Malta.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Development", "target_page_ids": [ 182728, 181823, 611940, 103077, 342520, 82272, 53135, 6868130, 19137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 42 ], [ 228, 236 ], [ 262, 278 ], [ 279, 287 ], [ 300, 315 ], [ 494, 512 ], [ 566, 591 ], [ 686, 691 ], [ 858, 863 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Three Nimrod aircraft were adapted for the signals intelligence role, replacing the Comet C2s and Canberras of No. 51 Squadron in May 1974. The R1 was visually distinguished from the MR2 by the lack of a MAD boom. It was fitted with an array of rotating dish aerials in the aircraft's bomb bay, with further dish aerials in the tailcone and at the front of the wing-mounted fuel tanks. It had a flight crew of four (two pilots, a flight engineer and one navigator) and up to 25 crew operating the SIGINT equipment.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Development", "target_page_ids": [ 29122, 201787, 53135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 63 ], [ 98, 106 ], [ 204, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Only since the end of the Cold War has the role of the aircraft been officially acknowledged; they were once described as \"radar calibration aircraft\". The R1s have not suffered the same rate of fatigue and corrosion as the MR2s. One R1 was lost in a flying accident since the type's introduction; this occurred in May 1995 during a flight test after major servicing, at RAF Kinloss. To replace this aircraft an MR2 was selected for conversion to R1 standard, and entered service in December 1996.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Development", "target_page_ids": [ 325329, 475006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 34 ], [ 371, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Nimrod R1 was based initially at RAF Wyton, Cambridgeshire, and later at RAF Waddington, Lincolnshire, and flown by 51 Sqn. The two remaining Nimrod R1s were originally planned to be retired at the end of March 2011, but operational requirements forced the RAF to deploy one to RAF Akrotiri, Cyprus on 16 March in support of Operation Ellamy. The last flight of the type was on 28 June 2011 from RAF Waddington, in the presence of the Chief of the Air Staff, ACM Sir Stephen Dalton. XV 249, the former MR2, is now on display at the RAF Museum Cosford, West Midlands. The R1 was replaced by three Boeing RC-135W Rivet Joint aircraft, acquired under the Airseeker project; the first aircraft was delivered in late 2013.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Development", "target_page_ids": [ 1010987, 474984, 1442313, 432784, 31221254, 26501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 46 ], [ 77, 91 ], [ 120, 126 ], [ 282, 294 ], [ 329, 345 ], [ 600, 626 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Starting in 1975, 35 aircraft were upgraded to MR2 standard, being re-delivered from August 1979. The upgrade included extensive modernisation of the aircraft's electronic suite. Changes included the replacement of the 1950s ASV Mk 21 radar used by the Shackleton and Nimrod MR1 with the new EMI Searchwater radar, a new acoustic processor (GEC-Marconi AQS-901) capable of handling more modern sonobuoys, a new mission data recorder (Hanbush) and a new Electronic Support Measures (Yellow Gate) which included new pods on the wingtips.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Development", "target_page_ids": [ 10240502, 41102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 296, 313 ], [ 453, 480 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Provision for in-flight refuelling was introduced during the Falklands War (as the MR2P), as well as hardpoints to allow the Nimrod to carry the AIM-9 Sidewinder missile to counter enemy Argentine Air Force maritime surveillance aircraft. In preparation for operations in the Gulf War theatre, several MR2s were fitted with new communications and ECM equipment to deal with anticipated threats; at the time these modified aircraft were given the designation MR2P(GM) (Gulf Mod).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Development", "target_page_ids": [ 237949, 11523, 18933313, 1073539, 182000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 34 ], [ 61, 74 ], [ 145, 161 ], [ 187, 206 ], [ 276, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Nimrod MR2 carried out three main roles: Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW), Anti-Surface Unit Warfare (ASUW) and Search and Rescue (SAR). Its extended range enabled the crew to monitor maritime areas far to the north of Iceland and up to out into the Western Atlantic. With Air-to-Air Refuelling (AAR), range and endurance was greatly extended. The crew consisted of two pilots and one flight engineer, two navigators (one tactical navigator and a routine navigator), one Air Electronics Officer (AEO), the sonobuoy sensor team of two Weapon System Operators (WSOp ACO) and four Weapon System Operators (WSOp EW) to manage passive and active electronic warfare systems.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Development", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Until 1992, the Nimrod MR2 was based at RAF Kinloss in Scotland (120, 201 and 206 Squadrons), and RAF St Mawgan in Cornwall (42 and 38(R) Squadrons). Following Options for Change, 42 Squadron was disbanded and its number reassigned to 38(R) Squadron. The Nimrod MR2 aircraft was withdrawn on 31 March 2010, a year earlier than planned, for financial reasons. The last official flight of a Nimrod MR2 took place on 26 May 2010, with XV229 flying from RAF Kinloss to Kent International Airport to be used as an evacuation training airframe at the nearby MOD Defence Fire Training and Development Centre.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Development", "target_page_ids": [ 947688, 947633, 462928, 947647, 6333310, 847278, 710837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 68 ], [ 70, 73 ], [ 78, 81 ], [ 125, 127 ], [ 132, 137 ], [ 160, 178 ], [ 465, 491 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the mid-1970s a modified Nimrod was proposed for the Airborne Early Warning (AEW) mission – again as a replacement for the Lancaster-derived, piston-engined Shackleton AEW.2. Eleven existing Nimrod airframes were to be converted by British Aerospace to house the GEC Marconi radars in a bulbous nose and tail. The Nimrod AEW3 project was plagued by cost over-runs and problems with the GEC 4080M computer used. Eventually, the MoD recognised that the cost of developing the radar system to achieve the required level of performance was prohibitive and the probability of success very uncertain, and in December 1986 the project was cancelled. The RAF eventually received seven Boeing E-3 Sentry aircraft instead.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Development", "target_page_ids": [ 236466, 164329, 289578, 47665, 47667, 10466641, 10384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 78 ], [ 126, 135 ], [ 160, 176 ], [ 235, 252 ], [ 266, 277 ], [ 389, 398 ], [ 680, 697 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Nimrod MRA4 was intended to replace the capability provided by the MR2. It was essentially a new aircraft, with current-generation Rolls-Royce BR710 turbofan engines, a new larger wing, and fully refurbished fuselage. The project was subject to delays, cost over-runs, and contract re-negotiations. The type had been originally intended to enter service in 2003 but was cancelled in 2010 as a result of the Strategic Defence and Security Review, at which point it was £789million over-budget; the development airframes were also scrapped. Some functions were allocated to other assets, with Hercules transport aircraft and Sentry Airborne Early Warning aircraft given some tasks, but the cancellation of the MRA4 resulted in a significant gap in long-range maritime patrol and search-and rescue capability.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Development", "target_page_ids": [ 584700, 29259277, 7697, 10384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 152 ], [ 411, 448 ], [ 595, 603 ], [ 627, 633 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 2016, the Ministry of Defence announced the purchase of nine Boeing P-8A Poseidon aircraft for the RAF. The RAF declared the P-8 had reached initial operating capability (IOC) on 1 April 2020, by which time two of the planes had been delivered. The nine aircraft will be based at RAF Lossiemouth.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Development", "target_page_ids": [ 203793, 18933266, 731169, 15447774, 474993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 37 ], [ 69, 75 ], [ 76, 89 ], [ 149, 177 ], [ 288, 303 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Nimrod was the first jet-powered maritime patrol aircraft (MPA) to enter service, being powered by the Rolls-Royce Spey turbofan engine. Aircraft in this role had been commonly propelled by piston or turboprop powerplants instead to maximise fuel economy and enable maximum patrol time on station. Advantages of the Nimrod's turbofan engines included greater speed and altitude capabilities, and it was more capable of evading detection by submarines, as propeller-driven aircraft are more detectable underwater by standard acoustic sensors. The Nimrods had a flight endurance of ten hours without aerial refuelling. The MR2s were later fitted to receive mid-air refuelling in response to demands of the Falklands War.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Design", "target_page_ids": [ 342941, 611940, 103077, 25995, 31039, 103077, 237949, 11523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 61 ], [ 107, 123 ], [ 124, 132 ], [ 194, 200 ], [ 204, 213 ], [ 329, 337 ], [ 602, 619 ], [ 708, 721 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the start of a patrol mission all four engines would normally be running; as the aircraft's weight was reduced by fuel consumption, up to two engines could be shut down, allowing the remaining engines to be operated more efficiently. Instead of relying on ram air to restart an inactive engine, compressor air could be crossfed from a live engine to a starter turbine. The crossfeed duct was later discovered to be a potential fire hazard. Similarly, the two hydraulic systems on board were designed to be powered by the two inner engines that would always be running. Electrical generation was designed to far exceed the consumption of existing equipment to accommodate additional systems installed over the Nimrod's service life.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Design", "target_page_ids": [ 1717863, 65424 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 259, 266 ], [ 462, 478 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The standard Nimrod fleet carried out three basic operational roles during their RAF service: Anti-Submarine Warfare duties typically involved surveillance over an allocated area of the North Atlantic to detect the presence of Soviet submarines in that area and to track their movements. In the event of war, reconnaissance information gathered during these patrols would be shared with other allied aircraft to enable coordinated strikes at both submarines and surface targets. Search and rescue (SAR) missions were another important duty of the RAF's Nimrod fleet, operating under the Air Rescue Coordination Centre at RAF Kinloss, and were a common sight in both military and civil maritime incidents. Throughout the Nimrod's operational life, a minimum of one aircraft was held in a state of readiness to respond to SAR demands at all times.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Design", "target_page_ids": [ 172599, 475006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 479, 496 ], [ 621, 632 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Nimrod featured a crew of up to 25 personnel, although a typical crew numbered roughly 12, most of whom operated the various onboard sensor suites and specialist detection equipment. A significant proportion of the onboard sensor equipment was housed outside the pressure shell inside the Nimrod's distinctive pannier lower fuselage. Sensor systems included radar, sonar, and the magnetic anomaly detector; a 'sniffer' could detect exhaust fumes from diesel submarines as well. The Nimrod and its detection capabilities were an important component of Britain's military defence during the height of the Cold War.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Design", "target_page_ids": [ 533460, 25676, 29438, 53135, 40814324, 325329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 314, 321 ], [ 362, 367 ], [ 369, 374 ], [ 384, 409 ], [ 414, 421 ], [ 607, 615 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Nimrod's navigational functions were computerised, and were managed from a central tactical compartment housed in the forward cabin. Various functions such as weapons control and information from sensors such as the large forward doppler radar were displayed and controlled at the tactical station. The flight systems and autopilot could be directly controlled by navigator's stations in the tactical compartment, giving the navigator nearly complete aircraft control. The navigational systems comprised digital, analogue, and electro-mechanical elements. The computers were integrated with most of the Nimrod's guidance systems such as the air data computer, astrocompass, inertial guidance and doppler radar. Navigation information could also be manually input by the operators.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Design", "target_page_ids": [ 78446, 8276, 1665281, 31322120, 2097814, 2097169, 24050869, 78446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 234, 247 ], [ 508, 515 ], [ 517, 525 ], [ 531, 549 ], [ 645, 662 ], [ 664, 676 ], [ 678, 695 ], [ 700, 713 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Upon entry into service, the Nimrod was hailed as possessing advanced electronic equipment such as onboard digital computers. The increased capability of these electronic systems allowed the RAF's fleet of 46 Nimrod aircraft to provide equal coverage to that of the larger fleet of retiring Avro Shackletons. The design philosophy of these computerised systems was that of a 'man-machine partnership'; while onboard computers performed much of the data sift and analysis processes, decisions and actions on the basis of that data remained in the operator's hands. To support the Nimrod's anticipated long lifespan, onboard computers were designed to be capable of integrating with various new components, systems, and sensors that could be added in future upgrades. After a mission, gathered information could be extracted for review purposes and for further analysis.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Design", "target_page_ids": [ 7878457, 289578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 123 ], [ 291, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Nimrod featured a sizeable bomb bay in which, in addition to armaments such as torpedoes and missiles, could be housed a wide variety of specialist equipment for many purposes, such as up to 150 sonobuoys for ASW purposes or multiple air-deployed dinghies and droppable survival packs such as Lindholme Gear for SAR missions; additional fuel tanks and cargo could also be carried in the bomb bay during ferrying flights. Other armaments equippable in the bomb bay include mines, bombs, and nuclear depth charges; later munitions included the Sting Ray torpedo and Harpoon missile for increased capability.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Design", "target_page_ids": [ 5309658, 31424, 19594, 1173640, 135131, 1941400, 26482972, 22102, 47628, 5298731, 1883693, 24297329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 39 ], [ 83, 90 ], [ 97, 104 ], [ 199, 207 ], [ 251, 258 ], [ 274, 287 ], [ 297, 311 ], [ 476, 480 ], [ 483, 487 ], [ 494, 514 ], [ 546, 563 ], [ 568, 583 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Nimrod could also be fitted with two detachable pylons mounted underneath the wings to be used with missiles such as the Martel; two specialised pylons were later added to enable the equipping of Sidewinder missiles, used for self-defence purposes against hostile aircraft. A powerful remote-controlled searchlight was installed underneath the starboard wing for SAR operations. For reconnaissance missions, the aircraft was also equipped with a pair of downward-facing cameras suited to low and high-altitude photography. In later years a newer electro-optical camera system was installed for greater imaging quality.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Design", "target_page_ids": [ 3063157, 18933313, 41105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 131 ], [ 200, 218 ], [ 550, 565 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Various new ECMs and electronic support systems were retrofitted onto the Nimrod fleet in response to new challenges and to increase the type's defensive capabilities; additional equipment also provided more effective means of identification and communication. A number of modifications were introduced during the 1991 Gulf War; a small number of MR2s were fitted with improved Link 11 datalinks, new defensive ECM equipment including the first operational use of a towed radar decoy, and a forward looking infrared turret under the starboard wing.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Design", "target_page_ids": [ 182000, 2238415, 181389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 319, 327 ], [ 378, 385 ], [ 491, 515 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Nimrod first entered squadron service with the RAF at RAF St Mawgan in Cornwall in October 1969. These initial aircraft, designated as Nimrod MR1, were intended as a stop-gap measure, and thus were initially equipped with many of the same sensors and equipment as the Shackletons they were supplementing. While some improvements were implemented on the MR1 fleet to enhance their detection capabilities, the improved Nimrod MR2 variant entered service in August 1979 following a lengthy development process. The majority of the Nimrod fleet operated from RAF Kinloss in Scotland.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operational history", "target_page_ids": [ 968732, 475006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 71 ], [ 559, 570 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Operationally, each active Nimrod would form a single piece of a complex submarine detection and monitoring mission. An emphasis on real-time intelligence sharing was paramount to these operations; upon detecting a submarine, Nimrod aircrews would inform Royal Navy frigates and other NATO-aligned vessels to pursuit in an effort to continuously monitor Soviet submarines. The safeguarding of the Royal Navy's Resolution-class ballistic missile submarines, which were the launch platform for Britain's nuclear deterrent, was viewed as being of the utmost priority.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operational history", "target_page_ids": [ 26432, 187255, 45959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 410, 426 ], [ 427, 454 ], [ 502, 519 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nimrods were first deployed to Wideawake airfield on Ascension Island on 5 April 1982, the type at first being used to fly local patrols around Ascension to guard against potential Argentine attacks, and to escort the British Task Force as it sailed south towards the Falklands, with Nimrods also being used to provide search and rescue as well as communications relay support of the Operation Black Buck bombing raids by Avro Vulcans. As the Task Force neared what would become the combat theatre and the threat from Argentine submarines rose, the more capable Nimrod MR2s took on operations initially performed by older Nimrod MR1s. Aviation author Chris Chant has claimed that the Nimrod R1 also conducted electronic intelligence missions operating from Punta Arenas in neutral Chile. The Chilean government allowed an RAF Nimrod R1 to fly signals reconnaissance sorties from the Desventuradas Islands, gathering information on Argentine Air Force movements.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operational history", "target_page_ids": [ 932908, 18962604, 417671, 44070, 8857962, 5489, 297353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 49 ], [ 53, 69 ], [ 384, 404 ], [ 422, 433 ], [ 757, 769 ], [ 781, 786 ], [ 884, 905 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The addition of air-to-air refuelling probes allowed operations to be carried out in the vicinity of the Falklands, while the aircraft's armament was supplemented by the addition of 1,000lb (450kg) general-purpose bombs, BL755 cluster bombs and AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles. The use of air-to-air refuelling allowed extremely long reconnaissance missions to be mounted, one example being a 19-hour 5-minute patrol conducted on 15 May 1982 (XV232 Airborne: 0803, Landing: 0308), which passed within 60miles (97km) of the Argentine coast to confirm that Argentine surface vessels were not at sea. Another long-range flight was carried out by an MR2 on the night of 20/21 May, covering a total of 8,453miles (13,609km), the longest distance flight carried out during the Falklands War. In all, Nimrods flew 111 missions from Ascension in support of British operations during the Falklands War.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operational history", "target_page_ids": [ 1123625, 1612236, 79745, 18933313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 218 ], [ 221, 226 ], [ 227, 239 ], [ 245, 261 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A detachment of three Nimrod MR2s was deployed to Seeb in Oman in August 1990 as a result of the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, carrying out patrols over the Gulf of Oman and Persian Gulf. Due to the level of threats present in the Gulf theatre, operational Nimrods were quickly retrofitted with a Marconi towed active decoy. Once hostilities commenced, the Nimrod detachment, by now increased to five aircraft, concentrated on night patrols, with daylight patrols carried out by US Navy Lockheed P-3 Orions. Nimrods were used to guide Westland Lynx helicopters and Grumman A-6 Intruder attack aircraft against Iraqi patrol vessels, being credited with assisting in sinking or damaging 16 Iraqi vessels.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operational history", "target_page_ids": [ 2000971, 2035563, 12896, 24761, 47667, 403758, 162863, 508105, 379613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 54 ], [ 103, 121 ], [ 153, 165 ], [ 170, 182 ], [ 293, 300 ], [ 314, 319 ], [ 483, 501 ], [ 531, 544 ], [ 561, 581 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the ground offensive against Iraqi forces had ended, Britain elected to maintain an RAF presence in the region through assets such as the Nimrod and other aircraft. Nimrod R1s operated from August 1990 to March 1991 from Cyprus, providing almost continuous flying operations from the start of the ground offensive. Each R1 was retrofitted with the same Marconi towed active decoy as well as under wing chaff/flare dispensers, reportedly sourced from the Tornado fleet.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operational history", "target_page_ids": [ 47667, 403758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 359, 366 ], [ 380, 385 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nimrods were again deployed to the Middle East as part of the British contribution to the US-led invasion of Afghanistan; missions in this theatre involved the Nimrods performing lengthy overland flights for intelligence-gathering purposes. On 2 September 2006, 14 UK military personnel were killed when a Nimrod MR2 was destroyed in a midair explosion following an onboard fire over Afghanistan. It was the single greatest loss of British military lives since the Falklands War. The outbreak of the Iraq War in March 2003 saw the RAF's Nimrods being used for operations over Iraq, using the aircraft's sensors to detect hostile forces and to direct attacks by friendly coalition forces.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operational history", "target_page_ids": [ 19666611, 6868130, 5043324, 102512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 120 ], [ 306, 352 ], [ 500, 508 ], [ 670, 679 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While the Nimrod MR1/MR2 was in service, one aircraft from each of the squadrons on rotation was available for search and rescue operations at one-hour standby. The standby aircraft carried two sets of Lindholme Gear in the weapons bay. Usually one other Nimrod airborne on a training mission would also carry a set of Lindholme Gear. As well as using the aircraft sensors to find aircraft or ships in distress, it was used to find survivors in the water, with a capability to search areas of up to . The main role would normally be to act as on-scene rescue coordinator to control ships, fixed-wing aircraft, and helicopters in the search area.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operational history", "target_page_ids": [ 172599, 26482972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 128 ], [ 202, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Nimrod was most often featured in the media in relation to its search-and-rescue role, such as in the reporting of major rescue incidents. In August 1979, several Nimrods were involved in locating yachting competitors during the disaster-stricken 1979 Fastnet race and coordinated with helicopters in searches for survivors from lost vessels. In March 1980, the Alexander L. Kielland, a Norwegian semi-submersible drilling rig, capsized whilst working in the Ekofisk oil field killing 123 people; six different Nimrods searched for survivors and took turns to provide rescue co-ordination, involving the control of 80 surface ships and 20 British and Norwegian helicopters. In an example of its search capabilities, in September 1977 when an attempted crossing of the North Atlantic in a Zodiac inflatable dinghy went wrong, a Nimrod found the collapsed dinghy and directed a ship to it.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operational history", "target_page_ids": [ 2960681, 723188, 1634774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 251, 268 ], [ 366, 387 ], [ 463, 480 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Nimrods were often used to enforce Operation Tapestry. Tapestry is a codeword for the activities by ships and aircraft that protect the United Kingdom's Sovereign Sea Areas, including the protection of fishing rights and oil and gas extraction. Following the establishment of a Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) at the beginning of 1977 the Nimrod fleet was given the task of patrolling the area. The aircraft would locate, identify, and photograph vessels operating in the EEZ. The whole area was routinely patrolled. In addition to surveillance, the aircraft would communicate with all oil and gas platforms. During the Icelandic Cod Wars of 1972 and 1975–1976, the Nimrod fleet closely cooperated with Royal Navy surface vessels to protect British civilian fishing ships.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operational history", "target_page_ids": [ 916345, 185365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 283, 306 ], [ 624, 642 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Royal Air Force", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Operators", "target_page_ids": [ 25679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "38 (R) Squadron – 1970–1992, \"shadow\" squadron identity assigned to 236 OCU, formed from the Maritime Operational Training Unit at RAF St Mawgan, England in 1970 with the MR.1, training role transferred to 42 (Reserve) Squadron in 1992.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Operators", "target_page_ids": [ 6333310, 15516142, 968732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 68, 75 ], [ 131, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "42 Squadron – 1971–2010, converted to the MR.1 from the Shackleton MR.3 at RAF St Mawgan, England in 1971, converted to the MR.2 1983–84, withdrawn as an operational squadron in 1992 it became the Operational Conversion Unit for the Nimrod at RAF Kinloss. The squadron MR.2 aircraft were withdrawn in 2010 and the squadron prepared to train crews for the MRA.4, following the decision to scrap the MRA.4 the squadron disbanded in 2011.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Operators", "target_page_ids": [ 947647, 968732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 75, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "51 Squadron – 1971–2011, R.1s added to fleet in 1971 at RAF Wyton, England to supplement the Comet C.2(R) which were withdrawn in 1975. Moved to RAF Waddington in 1995, the R.1s were the last flying Nimrods when they were withdrawn in 2011.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Operators", "target_page_ids": [ 1442313, 1010987, 474984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 56, 65 ], [ 145, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "120 Squadron – 1970–2010, converted to MR.1 from the Shackleton MR.3 at RAF Kinloss, Scotland in 1970, converted to the MR.2 1981–82, disbanded in 2010 following the withdrawal of the MR.2 from service.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Operators", "target_page_ids": [ 947688, 475006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 72, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "201 Squadron – 1970–2010, converted to MR.1 from the Shackleton MR.3 at RAF Kinloss, Scotland in 1970, converted to the MR.2 1982–83, disbanded in 2010 following the withdrawal of the MR.2 from service.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Operators", "target_page_ids": [ 947633, 475006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 72, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "203 Squadron – 1971–1977, converted to MR.1 from the Shackleton MR.3 at RAF Luqa, Malta in 1971, disbanded in 1977 following the decision to withdraw British forces from Malta.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Operators", "target_page_ids": [ 11700583, 2864142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 72, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "206 Squadron – 1971–2005, converted to MR.1 from the Shackleton MR.3 at RAF Kinloss, Scotland in 1970, converted to MR.2 1980–81, disbanded in 2005.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Operators", "target_page_ids": [ 462928, 475006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 72, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nimrod AEW Joint Trials Unit – 1984–1987, trials unit for the AEW.3 based at RAF Waddington.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Operators", "target_page_ids": [ 474984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "MR2", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Aircraft on display", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "XV226 – Bruntingthorpe Aerodrome", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Aircraft on display", "target_page_ids": [ 693218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "XV231 – Manchester Airport aviation viewing park", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Aircraft on display", "target_page_ids": [ 266959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "XV232 – Coventry airport", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Aircraft on display", "target_page_ids": [ 2119828 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "XV244 – Stored at RAF Kinloss for preservation.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Aircraft on display", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "XV250 – Yorkshire Air Museum", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Aircraft on display", "target_page_ids": [ 1789777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "XV255 – City of Norwich Aviation Museum", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Aircraft on display", "target_page_ids": [ 3212240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "R1", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Aircraft on display", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "XV249 – RAF Museum Cosford", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Aircraft on display", "target_page_ids": [ 24611022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "XW664 – East Midlands Aeropark", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Aircraft on display", "target_page_ids": [ 349437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Five Nimrods were lost in accidents during the type's service with the RAF:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Accidents and incidents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 17 November 1980, a Nimrod MR2 XV256 crashed near RAF Kinloss after three engines failed following multiple birdstrikes. Both pilots were killed but the remaining crew survived.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Accidents and incidents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 3 June 1984, a Nimrod MR2 XV257 stationed at RAF St Mawgan suffered extensive damage when a reconnaissance flare ignited in the bomb bay during flight. The aircraft successfully returned to base but was subsequently written-off due to fire damage. There were no casualties.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Accidents and incidents", "target_page_ids": [ 968732, 37708 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 61 ], [ 95, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 16 May 1995, a Nimrod R1 XW666 ditched in the Moray Firth from Lossiemouth after an engine caught fire during a post-servicing test flight from RAF Kinloss. The Ministry of Defence (MoD) inquiry identified a number of technical issues as the cause. There were no casualties.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Accidents and incidents", "target_page_ids": [ 54640105, 308017, 203793 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 41 ], [ 49, 60 ], [ 165, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 2 September 1995, a Nimrod MR2 XV239 crashed into Lake Ontario while participating in the Canadian International Air Show, killing the seven crew members.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Accidents and incidents", "target_page_ids": [ 62393988, 17947, 1134211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 47 ], [ 53, 65 ], [ 93, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 2 September 2006, a Nimrod MR2 XV230 crashed near Kandahar in Afghanistan, killing all 14 servicemen on board – the largest loss of UK military personnel in a single event since the Falklands War. This was the first Nimrod to enter service, originally as an MR1 but upgraded to MR2 standard in the 1980s. On 23 February 2007, the Ministry of Defence grounded all Nimrod MR2s while fuel pumps were inspected, but stressed that the inspection was not necessarily related to this crash.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Accidents and incidents", "target_page_ids": [ 6868130, 17260, 11523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 47 ], [ 53, 61 ], [ 185, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " On 5 November 2007, XV235 was involved in a midair incident over Afghanistan when the crew noticed a fuel leak during air-to-air refuelling. After transmitting a mayday call, the crew landed the aircraft successfully. The incident came only a month before the issue of the report of a Board of Enquiry into 2 September 2006 fatal accident to XV230 in (likely) similar circumstances. The RAF subsequently suspended air-to-air refuelling operations for this type.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Accidents and incidents", "target_page_ids": [ 237949, 68230, 164536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 140 ], [ 163, 174 ], [ 331, 339 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Brown, David. The Royal Navy and the Falklands War. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1987. .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Burden, Rodney A., Michael A. Draper, Douglas A. Rough, Colin A. Smith and David Wilton. Falklands: The Air War. Twickenham, UK: British Air Review Group, 1996. .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chant, Chris. Air War in the Falklands 1982. Osprey Publishing, 2001. .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chartres, John. BAe Nimrod (Modern Combat Aircraft 24). Shepperton, Surrey, UK: Ian Allan, 1986. .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Donald, David and Jon Lake. Encyclopedia of World Military Aircraft. London: Aerospace Publishing, Single Volume Edition, 1996. .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"A Face-Lift For The Nimrod\". Air International, Volume 21, No 1, July 1981, pp.7–16. ISSN 0306-5634.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fricker, John. MR2 \"Nimrod: ASW Specialist.\" Flight International, 27 April 1972. pp.593–594.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Friedman, Norman. World Naval Weapons Systems, 1997–98. Naval Institute Press, 1997. .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Future Maritime Surveillance: Fifth Report of Session 2012–13: Volume I, Report together with formal minutes, oral and written evidence. House of Commons Defence Committee. London: HMSO, 5 September 2012.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Haddon-Cave, Charles. The Nimrod Review: An Independent Review into the Broader Issues Surrounding the Loss of the RAF Nimrod MR2 Aircraft XV230 in Afghanistan in 2006. London: The Stationery Office, 2009. .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jefford, C.G (ed.). \"Seminar – Maritime Operations.\" Royal Air Force Historical Society, 2005. ISSN 1361-4231.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lake, Jon. \"Nimrod R.1: The RAF's SIGINT Platform Extraordinaire\". Air International, Vol. 61, No. 1, July 2001, pp.29–35. ISSN 0306-5634.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 884396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lake, Jon. \"New Roles for the Mighty Hunter\". Air International, Vol. 69, No. 3, September 2005, pp.52–56. ISSN 0306-5634.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Neal, Molly. \"Nimrod: Systematic Sub Hunter\". Flight International, Vol. 97, No. 3176, 22 January 1970, pp.119–128.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 3080620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rininger, Tyson V. Red Flag: Air Combat for the 21st Century. Zenith Imprint, 2006. .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Wilson, Stewart. Combat Aircraft since 1945. London: Aerospace Publications, 2000. .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Royal Air Force: Nimrod MR2", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Nimrod Was Actually a Fine Hunter: Britain’s MRA4 Program – Defense Industry Daily", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Nimrod production and conversion list", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1960s_British_anti-submarine_aircraft", "1960s_British_patrol_aircraft", "Hawker_Siddeley_aircraft", "United_Kingdom_defence_procurement", "Signals_intelligence", "Quadjets", "Low-wing_aircraft", "Aircraft_first_flown_in_1967", "De_Havilland_Comet" ]

[ "Hawker Siddeley Nimrod", "British Aerospace Nimrod", "BAE Nimrod" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Jean-Claude Killy (born 30 August 1943) is a French former World Cup alpine ski racer. He dominated the sport in the late 1960s, and was a triple Olympic champion, winning the three alpine events at the 1968 Winter Olympics, becoming the most successful athlete there. He also won the first two World Cup titles, in 1967 and 1968.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 183628, 39576, 1473013, 4243082, 4243070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 68 ], [ 69, 85 ], [ 203, 223 ], [ 316, 320 ], [ 325, 329 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Killy was born in Saint-Cloud, a suburb of Paris, during the German occupation of World War II, but was brought up in Val-d'Isère in the Alps, where his family had relocated in 1945 following the war. His father, Robert, was a former Spitfire pilot for the Free French, and opened a ski shop in the Savoie village, and would later operate a hotel. In 1950, his mother Madeline abandoned the family for another man, leaving Robert to raise Jean-Claude, age 7, his older sister (France), and their infant brother (Mic). Jean-Claude was sent to boarding school in Chambéry, down the valley, but he despised being shut up in a classroom.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 383732, 5020586, 349655, 26027181, 145516, 87591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 29 ], [ 61, 78 ], [ 118, 129 ], [ 234, 242 ], [ 257, 268 ], [ 299, 305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Killy turned his attention to skiing rather than school. His father allowed him to drop out at age 15, and he made the French national junior team a year later. As a young racer, Killy was fast, but did not usually complete his races, and the early 1960s were not entirely successful for him.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In December 1961, at age 18, Killy won his first international race, a giant slalom. The event took place in his home village of Val-d'Isère. Killy had started 39th, a position that should have been a severe disadvantage.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The French coach picked Killy for the giant slalom in the 1962 World Championships in Chamonix, France, away in the shadow of Mont Blanc. But Killy, unaware of his selection, was still attempting to qualify for the downhill event in northeastern Italy at Cortina d'Ampezzo. Only three weeks before the world championships, he skied in his typical reckless style. About from the finish, Killy hit a stretch of ice in a compression and went down, rose immediately, then crossed the finish on just one ski—and the fastest time. Unfortunately, his other leg was broken, and he watched the 1962 World Championships on crutches.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early career", "target_page_ids": [ 344836, 11280887, 101618, 44768, 218183, 568829, 3226813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 50 ], [ 58, 82 ], [ 86, 94 ], [ 127, 137 ], [ 216, 224 ], [ 256, 273 ], [ 587, 611 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two years later, at age 20, Killy was entered in all three of the men's events at the 1964 Olympics, because his coach wanted to prepare him for 1968. Unfortunately, Killy was plagued by recurrences of amoebic dysentery and hepatitis, ailments that he had contracted in 1962 during a summer of compulsory service with the French Army in Algeria. His form was definitely off, and he fell a few yards after the start of the downhill, lost a binding in the slalom, and finished fifth in the giant slalom, in which he had been the heavy favorite. Yet a few weeks later, he dominated a giant slalom race at Garmisch-Partenkirchen, in Bavaria, counting for the prestigious Arlberg-Kandahar events, the oldest 'Classic' in the sport. A year later, he also triumphed at another major competition, the slalom of the Hahnenkamm races at Kitzbühel that he clinched three times in a row until 1967.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early career", "target_page_ids": [ 1473018, 1473013, 63764, 38238, 611740 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 99 ], [ 145, 149 ], [ 210, 219 ], [ 224, 233 ], [ 322, 333 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although the first half of the decade was a relative disappointment, Killy began to strongly improve his results afterwards to become one of the best technical ski racers. In August 1966, the Frenchman, nicknamed 'Toutoune' by some of his colleagues and friends, scored his first win in a downhill race against an international field at the 1966 World Championships in Portillo, Chile, and also took gold in the combined. Killy was peaking as the first World Cup season was launched in January 1967, with the 1968 Winter Olympics in France only a year away.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early career", "target_page_ids": [ 39576, 9557070, 9740277, 4149460, 183628, 4243082, 1473013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 289, 297 ], [ 341, 365 ], [ 369, 377 ], [ 412, 420 ], [ 453, 462 ], [ 494, 498 ], [ 509, 529 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 6 titles – (2 overall, 1 DH, 2 GS, 1 SL)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dominance – 1967–68", "target_page_ids": [ 218183, 344836, 8508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 28 ], [ 32, 34 ], [ 38, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 18 wins – (6 DH, 7 GS, 5 SL)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dominance – 1967–68", "target_page_ids": [ 218183, 344836, 8508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 16 ], [ 20, 22 ], [ 26, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 24 podiums – (8 DH, 9 GS, 7 SL)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dominance – 1967–68", "target_page_ids": [ 218183, 344836, 8508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 19 ], [ 23, 25 ], [ 29, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "^ ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dominance – 1967–68", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Killy was the first World Cup champion in 1967, winning 12 of 17 races to easily take the overall title. He also won the season standings in each of the three \"Classic\" alpine disciplines; he won all five of the downhill races and four of the five giant slalom races.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dominance – 1967–68", "target_page_ids": [ 183628, 4243082 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 29 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following year, Killy won the Triple Crown of Alpine Skiing with a sweep of all three Olympic gold medals (downhill, giant slalom, and slalom) in controversial circumstances at the 1968 Winter Olympics in Grenoble, France. By finishing first in all races, he also captured the FIS world championship title in the combined event.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dominance – 1967–68", "target_page_ids": [ 222525, 39576, 344836, 8508, 18375894, 1473013, 50972, 3226813, 4149460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 63 ], [ 111, 119 ], [ 121, 133 ], [ 139, 145 ], [ 147, 177 ], [ 185, 205 ], [ 209, 217 ], [ 285, 303 ], [ 317, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Electrical timing by Omega was accurate to one-hundredth of a second. Killy relied on his upper-body strength to hit the bar while already moving forward, giving himself a slight edge. This spectacular start appears to have helped him to beat his teammate Guy Perillat by a few hundredths in the Olympic downhill.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dominance – 1967–68", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "With the Olympic events included (for the only time) in the World Cup standings, Killy easily defended his title in 1968 as the overall champion, placing first in the giant slalom and second in the downhill and slalom season standings. He retired following the 1968 season, and moved to Geneva, Switzerland, in 1969.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dominance – 1967–68", "target_page_ids": [ 4243070, 12521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 120 ], [ 287, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1962: injured", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "World Championship results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Killy's success in Grenoble could not have come at a more opportune time for him: the 1968 Winter Olympics were the first to be extensively televised, in color, by the American Broadcasting Company. His all-conquering success, combined with his Gallic flair and looks, made him an overnight celebrity in the United States, especially amongst young women. In May 1968, Killy signed with International Management Group, the sports management firm headed by Mark McCormack. After racing on Dynamic VR17 and Rossignol skis during the part of his career when he was dominant, Killy signed a deal with Head Ski in the fall 1968 to endorse a metal and fiberglass ski named for him, the Killy 800. Head, which was acquired by AMF the following year, manufactured a line of Killy skis for at least two years.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Post-Olympic career", "target_page_ids": [ 62027, 1490395, 354888, 619354, 6625061, 174431, 1657269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 197 ], [ 386, 416 ], [ 455, 469 ], [ 504, 513 ], [ 596, 604 ], [ 645, 655 ], [ 718, 721 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In television advertisements, Killy promoted the American Express card. He also became a spokesman for Schwinn bicycles, United Airlines, and Chevrolet automobiles; the last, a role detailed by journalist Hunter S. Thompson in his 1970 article \"The Temptations of Jean-Claude Killy\" for Scanlan's Monthly.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Post-Olympic career", "target_page_ids": [ 326512, 338047, 1094276, 32307, 39848, 14328, 1647785, 2460612 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 65 ], [ 89, 98 ], [ 103, 110 ], [ 121, 136 ], [ 142, 151 ], [ 205, 223 ], [ 245, 281 ], [ 287, 304 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Killy starred as a ski instructor in the 1972 crime movie Snow Job, released in the UK as The Ski Raiders, and US TV as The Great Ski Caper. American children in the early 1970s knew Killy from a TV commercial where he introduces himself, his thick accent making his name into \"Chocolate Kitty.\" Killy played himself in the 1983 movie A Club Med Experience, starring Jim Carrey and Alan Thicke, set at Copper Mountain, Colorado. Killy also stars in the noteworthy TV movie Peggy Fleming at Sun Valley (1971), in which he performs some remarkable skiing tricks alongside the three-time ice skating World Champion Peggy Fleming.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Post-Olympic career", "target_page_ids": [ 40478452, 171622, 5263927, 86665, 611455, 3448788, 5399, 387148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 66 ], [ 325, 329 ], [ 336, 358 ], [ 369, 379 ], [ 384, 395 ], [ 404, 419 ], [ 421, 429 ], [ 614, 627 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jean-Claude Killy also had a short career as a racing driver between 1967 and 1970, participating in several car races including at Monza. Killy entered the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 1969, partnered with Bob Wollek, another former skier turned racing driver. Killy and Wollek's car led its class for a while before pulling out of the race with only four hours to go. In team with fellow Frenchman Bernard Cahier, Killy was 7th overall in the 1967 Targa Florio in a Porsche 911 S and first in the GT classification.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Post-Olympic career", "target_page_ids": [ 1022, 1401596, 4767475, 3650116, 772092, 21553360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 60 ], [ 157, 176 ], [ 180, 184 ], [ 201, 211 ], [ 444, 456 ], [ 462, 473 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In November 1972, Killy came out of ski racing retirement at age 29 to compete on the pro circuit in the U.S. for two seasons. After a spirited challenge from two-time defending champion Spider Sabich, Killy won the 1973 season title, taking $28,625 in race winnings and a $40,000 bonus for the championship.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Post-Olympic career", "target_page_ids": [ 2894694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 187, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He missed the next season, won by Hugo Nindl, due to a recurring stomach ailment, then returned in the fall of 1974. Injuries slowed him and he finished well out of the 1975 standings, won by Hank Kashiwa.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Post-Olympic career", "target_page_ids": [ 35522059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 192, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to trying his skill as a car racer, Killy made two television series. One, The Killy Style, was a thirteen-week series that showcased various ski resorts, and the other, The Killy Challenge, featured him racing against celebrities, who were all given handicaps. He was also sponsored by a champagne company, Moët & Chandon, which paid him to be seen with a bottle of their champagne on his table everywhere he went.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Post-Olympic career", "target_page_ids": [ 859032 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 320, 334 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1974 Killy, as part of this sponsorship deal was paid to ski down the previously unskied eastern slope of Mt Ngauruhoe (Peter Jackson's \"Mt Doom\") in New Zealand. The average slope on this side of the active volcano is 35 degrees. Radar recorded his speed at over , and it took two takes, as cloud cover spoiled the first.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Post-Olympic career", "target_page_ids": [ 635988, 4913064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 121 ], [ 153, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1975 Killy was hired to lead the new ski operations at the Shawnee Inn, a resort in the foothills of the Pocono Mountains in northeastern Pennsylvania. In 1983 Bob Gillen wrote in Ski magazine about the growing reputation of Mt. Shawnee as a ski area. He stated, \"Some of the initial interest was stimulated by hiring Jean-Claude Killy to represent the facility, and for several seasons he spent a number of days there. The first time my wife ever skied with me, I saw Killy flash by at Shawnee—he was fast and smooth and he stopped frequently to check the time on his Rolex.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Post-Olympic career", "target_page_ids": [ 19833388, 1180662, 23332, 402190 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 73 ], [ 108, 124 ], [ 141, 153 ], [ 574, 579 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1977 to 1994, he was a member of the Executive board of the Alpine Skiing Committee of the FIS. Killy served as co-president of the 1992 Winter Olympics, held in Albertville, France, and as the President of the Société du Tour de France cycling race between 1992 and 2001. From 1995 to 2014 he was a member of the International Olympic Committee and chaired the coordination committee for Turin 2006 and Sochi 2014. He has been an Honorary Member since then.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Post-Olympic career", "target_page_ids": [ 175281, 113357, 62905, 30498, 15147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 99 ], [ 137, 157 ], [ 167, 178 ], [ 227, 241 ], [ 319, 350 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Killy tried his hand at distance running and competed in the 1983 New York City Marathon, finishing in 3:58:33.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Post-Olympic career", "target_page_ids": [ 63364026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ski area of Val d'Isère and Tignes in the French Alps was given the name l'Espace Killy, in his honor.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Post-Olympic career", "target_page_ids": [ 179821, 1607928, 981, 8615135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ], [ 32, 38 ], [ 53, 57 ], [ 77, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Killy became Grand Officer of the Légion d'honneur in 2000.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Post-Olympic career", "target_page_ids": [ 160188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Intrawest credits Killy with the design of a ski trail, \"Cupp Run,\" at their Snowshoe resort in West Virginia.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Post-Olympic career", "target_page_ids": [ 919468, 1074948, 32905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 77, 85 ], [ 96, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1973 to 1987, he was married to French actress Danielle Gaubert, until her death from cancer. Together they had a daughter, Émilie; he also adopted her two children from her first marriage to Rhadamés Trujillo, the son of Rafael Trujillo, the assassinated dictator of the Dominican Republic. Gaubert and Trujillo were divorced in 1968 and later that year she met Killy. He is known for being friends with Russian President, Vladimir Putin. In an interview for the 1972 documentary Elvis on Tour, Elvis Presley named Jean-Claude as his favorite skier.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 34752337, 163286, 8409, 8060, 32817, 4989844, 9288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 68 ], [ 227, 242 ], [ 261, 269 ], [ 277, 295 ], [ 429, 443 ], [ 486, 499 ], [ 501, 514 ] ] } ]

[ "1943_births", "French_male_alpine_skiers", "Olympic_gold_medalists_for_France", "Olympic_alpine_skiers_of_France", "Alpine_skiers_at_the_1964_Winter_Olympics", "Alpine_skiers_at_the_1968_Winter_Olympics", "International_Olympic_Committee_members", "Grand_Officiers_of_the_Légion_d'honneur", "French_racing_drivers", "24_Hours_of_Le_Mans_drivers", "World_Sportscar_Championship_drivers", "Living_people", "Olympic_medalists_in_alpine_skiing", "Recipients_of_the_Olympic_Order", "Presidents_of_the_Organising_Committees_for_the_Olympic_Games", "FIS_Alpine_Ski_World_Cup_champions", "Medalists_at_the_1968_Winter_Olympics", "Sportspeople_from_Saint-Cloud" ]

[ "Killy" ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "William Hale Thompson (May 14, 1869 – March 19, 1944) was an American politician who served as mayor of Chicago from 1915 to 1923 and again from 1927 to 1931. Known as \"Big Bill\", he is the most recent Republican to have served as mayor of Chicago. Historians rank him among the most unethical mayors in American history, mainly for his open alliance with Al Capone. However, others recognize the effectiveness of his political methods and publicity-oriented campaigning, acknowledging him as a \"Political Chameleon\" and an effective political machine. Time magazine said in 1931, \"chief credit for creating 20th Century Politics Chicago Style\" should go to William Thompson.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 310285, 32070, 6886, 3212, 175442, 31600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 111 ], [ 202, 212 ], [ 240, 247 ], [ 356, 365 ], [ 506, 515 ], [ 553, 566 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thompson was known for his over-the-top campaigning and uncensored language that, along with his towering height and weight, earned him the nickname \"Big Bill\". Upon his reelection in 1919, Thompson was at the forefront of the movement for the Chicago Public Library system and education officials to censor and ban many texts and historical recollections coming from the United Kingdom.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 59273058, 710757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 188 ], [ 244, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Though Thompson was a popular figure, his popularity collapsed after his death, when two safe-deposit boxes were found in his name containing over $1.8 million ($ million today) in cash and bonds.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Thompson was born in Boston, Massachusetts to William Hale and Medora Gale Thompson, but his family moved to Chicago when he was nine days old. Despite having been born in Boston, Thompson had strong roots in Chicago. His father, Colonel William Hale Thompson Sr., was a popular businessman within Chicago and had served as colonel in the Second Illinois Guard who had come to Chicago after serving in the United States Navy during the American Civil War. His maternal grandfather, Stephen F. Gale, the first chief of the Chicago Fire Department, had played a large part in drawing up the city's corporation charter in 1837, earning him regard as a \"Chicago pioneer\" by some academic journalists.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 24437894, 20518076, 863, 753323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 42 ], [ 406, 424 ], [ 436, 454 ], [ 522, 545 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thompson attended Chicago Public Schools, and took supplementary courses at the Fessenden School and Metropolitan College.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 1488123, 1588273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 40 ], [ 80, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thompson was meant to attend Yale but instead moved to Wyoming at the age of 14, where he became a cowboy and cattle owner and traveled across Europe, taking up ranching in Texas and New Mexico later on in his life. The experiences influenced him to add Western touches into his campaign, including his sombrero, which became a symbol for his campaign. By the age of twenty-one, he had accumulated a stake of $30,000. He returned to Chicago in 1892 after his father's death to manage his estates. Shortly after returning to Chicago, Thompson joined the Illinois Athletic Club and the Sportsmen's Club of America and quickly was appointed director-general and captain of the water polo and football teams. His six-foot frame and athletic prowess earned him the nickname \"Big Bill,\" which stuck with him throughout his career as a politician.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 504936, 47426, 18951490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 303, 311 ], [ 674, 684 ], [ 689, 697 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thompson served on the Real Estate Board of Chicago.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1900, Thompson narrowly won election as an alderman on the Chicago City Council from the 2nd Ward, his home district. Two years later, he became a member of the Cook County Board of Commissioners, serving from 1902 through 1904. During this period, Thompson formed a political alliance with Frederick Lundin, a Republican city clerk who worked under William Lorimer, a U.S. Representative from Illinois who was known for corrupt election methods. The political duo, according to most citizens, worked very well together earning them the title the \"Gallagher and Shean of Chicago Politics\". Thompson with his outgoing and charismatic personality paired with his towering stature and gentlemanly appearance gave him an undeniable public presence, which was completed by Lundin's cunning political ideas and projects.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early career", "target_page_ids": [ 772102, 4535806, 11595192, 2862298, 532822 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 82 ], [ 164, 198 ], [ 294, 310 ], [ 353, 368 ], [ 551, 570 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1915, Thompson was elected as the 41st Mayor of Chicago, beating County Clerk Robert M. Sweitzer, John H. Hill, Seymour Steadman, and Charles Thompson.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First mayoralty (1915–1923)", "target_page_ids": [ 59272969, 63384913, 3609746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ], [ 81, 99 ], [ 115, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thompson was sworn-in on April 26, 1915. In his inaugural address, Thompson spoke of his ambitions for Chicago to become \"the greatest in the world\", but also that his acts as mayor should not be swayed by corruption. He also emphasized the importance of public safety (as enforced by the Chicago Police Department), the improvement of public transit, secure and permanently lowered gas prices, Chicago being allowed to have Home rule and more efforts being placed into Chicago's commercial interests in order to create jobs and improve the city's economy. His efforts to expand and publicly improve the streets of Chicago earned him another nickname of \"Big Bill the Builder\". In his time as mayor, he oversaw the completion of the Michigan Avenue link bridge, the Twelfth Street widening, and the extension and widening of Ogden Avenue. Along with his big dreams for Chicago's geographical expansion, he wished for Chicago to expand politically and economically. He believed that Chicago should be able to enforce laws on their own terms, particularly without what he claimed to be the interference of British government or totalitarian rule. He ended his inaugural address by declaring, ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First mayoralty (1915–1923)", "target_page_ids": [ 226188, 753103, 174102, 4423755, 22339718, 25318118, 30439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 65 ], [ 289, 314 ], [ 425, 434 ], [ 733, 760 ], [ 825, 837 ], [ 1104, 1122 ], [ 1126, 1138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As Thompson entered the first term of his mayorship, he appointed Fred Lundin as chairman on the committee of patronage. Early in his mayoral career, Thompson began to amass a war chest to support an eventual run for the presidency, by charging city drivers and inspectors $3 per month.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First mayoralty (1915–1923)", "target_page_ids": [ 504974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Early in his mayoralty Thompson had to cut short a July 1915 trip to San Francisco in order to deal with the aftermath of the Eastland disaster. While Thompson was out of town, acting-mayor Moorhouse had turned the Chicago City Hall into a makeshift hospital for first aid and a morgue for bodies recovered from the tragedy. Once Thompson returned to Chicago he organized and heavily promoted a relief fund and ordered an investigation into the casual negligence responsible for the tragedy.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First mayoralty (1915–1923)", "target_page_ids": [ 49728, 42107, 772050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 82 ], [ 126, 143 ], [ 215, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1915, a delegation of civic-oriented women, headed by Mary McDowell, urged Thompson to appoint an well-qualified woman to the city's new office of \"commissioner of public welfare\". Thompson did appoint a woman. However, instead of a woman qualified by a public welfare background, he appointed Louise Osborn Rowe, a Republican Party worker and loyalist. Within a year of her appointment, Rowe was charged with operating a kickback scheme in the department, and was forced to resign in 1916. This post would remain vacant until the mayoralty of Thompson's successor.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First mayoralty (1915–1923)", "target_page_ids": [ 49301442, 35545035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 70 ], [ 425, 433 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thompson gained national attention and condemnation for his neutral attitude toward the events of World War I. By declining the visit of the French Mission to Chicago and refusing to control or act against anti-war or anti-conscription meetings, Thompson is \"credited with characterizing Chicago as the sixth German city of the world,\" also earning the nickname \"Kaiser\" Bill Thompson. Thompson sought to further endear himself to the city's German and Irish populations by positioning himself as anti-British. These facts later went on to hurt his chances in his 1918 U.S. Senate campaign.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First mayoralty (1915–1923)", "target_page_ids": [ 4764461, 152735, 775859, 53642376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 109 ], [ 309, 315 ], [ 453, 458 ], [ 564, 568 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1916, he became a member of the Republican National Committee. He would continue to serve on the committee until 1920.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First mayoralty (1915–1923)", "target_page_ids": [ 326350 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thompson was reelected mayor in 1919, beating out Robert Sweitzer once again along with Adolph S. Carm, John Collins, John Fitzpatrick, and Maclay Hoyne. Thompson was said to have had control of the 75,000 black voters in his day. In his campaign he claimed to be an advocate for the people against public utility companies and the rich who avoided taxes. This inspired Thompson to enforce a five-cent streetcar fare to promote his campaign, which was also used to threaten the action of streetcar companies. Eventually, however, despite his protests, the fare was raised to seven cents.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First mayoralty (1915–1923)", "target_page_ids": [ 59273058, 32416994, 63364289, 4035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 36 ], [ 118, 134 ], [ 140, 152 ], [ 206, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his second inaugural address on April 28, 1919, Thompson looked towards drastically expanding Chicago, saying that \"Chicago is greater than some nations\". This expansion included the extension and widening of streets to cross over more of the city, new post offices, freight terminals, playgrounds, bridges, and more. Also, due to the rapidly changing city, Thompson proposed a zoning bill to regulate and create commercial, industrial, and residential areas. Among the other issues he claimed he would address were telephone prices and service quality, the expansion of the Chicago Police Department, jobs for returning soldiers, lowering the cost of living, and restoring the jobs of Public School representatives who were removed by the Supreme Court.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First mayoralty (1915–1923)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Early into his second term, the city dealt with the Chicago race riot of 1919.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First mayoralty (1915–1923)", "target_page_ids": [ 8665012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the 1920 Republican National Convention Thompson helped to block his one-time ally Frank Lowden from capturing the nomination.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First mayoralty (1915–1923)", "target_page_ids": [ 601182, 755652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 42 ], [ 86, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thompson declined to run for reelection in 1923 and he was succeeded by William Emmett Dever. Thompson left office as Mayor on April 16, 1923.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First mayoralty (1915–1923)", "target_page_ids": [ 984935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While out of office, Thompson was appointed chairman of the Illinois Waterways Commission. He used his position to remain relevant in the media, involving himself in civic suits and campaigning for the Lakes-to-Gulf waterway project: to build a waterway from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico. Promoting both the project and himself, Thompson set off on a \"scientific\" expedition (to be extensively covered by the media), which he set off to the South Seas in order to find a tree-climbing fish on July 5, 1924. Attracting more attention, Thompson placed a $25,000 bet on his success, but no one participated.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Chairman of the Illinois Waterways Commission", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Thompson ran again in 1927 during a citywide gang war, aiming to unseat his successor, William Dever. Always a flamboyant campaigner, Thompson held a primary-election debate between himself and two live rats which he used to portray his opponents. Pledging to clean up Chicago and remove the crooks, Thompson instead turned his attention to the reformers, whom he considered the real criminals. According to Thompson, the biggest enemy the United States had was King George V of the United Kingdom. Thompson promised his supporters, many of whom were Irish, that if they ever met, Thompson would punch the king in the nose, or at other times, that he would arrest His Majesty. Upon his victory over Dever, Thompson's floating speakeasy, outwardly known as the Fish Fans Club, docked at Belmont Harbor. It was flooded with his supporters, so many so that the boat itself sank beneath the weight.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Second mayoralty (1927–1931)", "target_page_ids": [ 46823, 50811491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 462, 475 ], [ 786, 800 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his inaugural address on April 18, 1927, Thompson addressed the importance of remedying crime in Chicago, saying,", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Second mayoralty (1927–1931)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Thompson expressed his desire to remove Superintendent William McAndrew from the public schooling system, and restore what he called the \"true history of George Washington\" while exposing \"the treason and propaganda which insidiously have been injected into our schools and other educational institutions\". He also went on to enforce other issues he had addressed in previous speeches, like the issue of public transit, playgrounds, and the general upkeep and expansion of Chicago in an effort to aid property owners and increase residential income and revenue for the city as a whole. In August 1927, the Chicago Board of Education, now under Thompson's influence after he appointed a number new members, voted to charge McAndrew with insubordination and lack of patriotism, suspending him pending an administrative hearing held by the board. The administrative hearing would last months, and the Chicago Board of Education would find McAndrew guilty. The Cook County Superior Court would later void this decision.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Second mayoralty (1927–1931)", "target_page_ids": [ 66237098, 48779679, 986842, 69677858, 63367833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 71 ], [ 606, 632 ], [ 736, 751 ], [ 799, 842 ], [ 957, 983 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Al Capone's support was pivotal to Thompson's return to the mayor's office. During Thompson's second term, the \"Pineapple Primary\" took place on April 10, 1928, so-called because of the hand grenades thrown at polling places to disrupt voting. The Pinneaple Primary saw candidates backed by Thompson face Charles Deneen in the Republican primary election. Another infamous instance of gang activity that took place during Thompson's third term was St. Valentine's Day Massacre.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Second mayoralty (1927–1931)", "target_page_ids": [ 3212, 1205533, 1943051, 169131, 42097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 112, 129 ], [ 305, 319 ], [ 338, 354 ], [ 448, 476 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thompson blamed Ruth Hanna McCormick's lack of support for his loss at the 1928 Republican National Convention, and he returned the favor during her 1930 campaign for the United States Senate by endorsing against her in the general election. Thompson had had a longstanding rivalry with the McCormicks. He intensely disliked Robert R. McCormick who published the Chicago Tribune. U.S. Senator Medill McCormick was the publisher's brother, and Ruth Hanna McCormick was Medill McCormick's wife.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Second mayoralty (1927–1931)", "target_page_ids": [ 1802718, 1845311, 54061670, 24909346, 1125056, 60961, 4403244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 36 ], [ 75, 110 ], [ 149, 162 ], [ 171, 191 ], [ 325, 344 ], [ 363, 378 ], [ 393, 409 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amid growing discontent with Thompson's leadership, particularly in the area of cleaning up Chicago's reputation as the capital of organized crime, he was defeated in 1931 by Democrat Anton Cermak. Cermak was an immigrant from Bohemia, and Thompson used this fact to belittle him with ethnic slurs such as:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Second mayoralty (1927–1931)", "target_page_ids": [ 2281745, 40303, 4345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 146 ], [ 184, 196 ], [ 227, 234 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cermak replied, \"He doesn't like my name...It's true I didn't come over on the Mayflower, but I came over as soon as I could,\" which was a sentiment to which ethnic Chicagoans (especially its large Bohemian population) could relate, so Thompson's slurs largely backfired.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Second mayoralty (1927–1931)", "target_page_ids": [ 18622102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Thompson's defeat, the Chicago Tribune wrote, ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Second mayoralty (1927–1931)", "target_page_ids": [ 60961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thompson left office April 9, 1931.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Second mayoralty (1927–1931)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1936, Thompson ran for the office of Illinois governor on the \"Union Progressive\" ballot line against Democratic incumbent Henry Horner and Republican nominee C. Wayland Brooks. He received only three percent of the vote. In 1939, Thompson ran in the Republican primary for mayor of Chicago and was soundly defeated by a 77% to 23% margin against future Governor Dwight Green.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Subsequent career", "target_page_ids": [ 66168490, 1943113, 4063036, 59264196, 1943198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 126, 138 ], [ 162, 179 ], [ 225, 232 ], [ 366, 378 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1901, Thompson married Mary \"Maysie\" Walker Wyse, a secretary in his father's office. The two never had children.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "William Hale Thompson died on March 19, 1944, at the Blackstone Hotel at the age of 74. He was buried in Oak Woods Cemetery in a solid bronze casket.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 3540506, 2050581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 69 ], [ 105, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite the fact that many loved Thompson and enjoyed his various political antics, few people attended his funeral, and one reporter noted that there was not \"a flower nor a fern to be seen\".", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Upon Thompson's death, two safe deposit boxes in his name were discovered to contain nearly $1.84 million ($ million today) in cash. Once the money was uncovered, the Internal Revenue Service took their share in taxes, and Maysie Thompson lived off of the rest until her death in 1958.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Mayors_of_Chicago", "Chicago_City_Council_members", "Members_of_the_Cook_County_Board_of_Commissioners", "Businesspeople_from_Chicago", "Al_Capone_associates", "Illinois_Independents", "Illinois_Republicans", "Politicians_from_Boston", "1868_births", "1944_deaths", "American_political_bosses_from_Illinois", "William_Hale_Thompson", "Republican_National_Committee_members" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Anton Joseph Cermak (, ; May 9, 1873 – March 6, 1933) was an American politician who served as the 44th mayor of Chicago, Illinois from April 7, 1931 until his death on March 6, 1933. He was killed by an assassin, whose likely target was President Franklin D. Roosevelt, but the assassin shot Cermak instead after a bystander hit the assassin with a purse.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 310285, 6886, 199182, 24113, 10979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 112 ], [ 113, 130 ], [ 201, 212 ], [ 238, 247 ], [ 248, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cermak was born to a mining family in Kladno, Austria-Hungary (now in the Czech Republic), the son of Antonín Čermák and Kateřina née Frank(ová).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 319952, 2983, 5321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 44 ], [ 46, 61 ], [ 74, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He emigrated with his parents to the United States in 1874, and grew up in the town of Braidwood, Illinois, where he was educated before beginning to work full time while still a teenager. He followed his father into coal mining, and labored at mines in Will and Grundy counties. After moving to Chicago at age 16, Cermak worked as a tow boy for the horse-drawn streetcar line, and then tended horses in the stables of Chicago's Pilsen neighborhood. During the early years of his working life, Cermak supplemented his education with evening high school and business college classes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 112048, 82176, 96243, 8587844, 1362692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 107 ], [ 255, 259 ], [ 264, 270 ], [ 363, 372 ], [ 430, 449 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After saving enough money to buy his own horse and cart, he went into business selling firewood, and he subsequently expanded his venture into a haulage business. As he became more politically active, Cermak served in municipal government jobs, including as a clerk in the city police court, and as a bailiff for the Municipal Court of Chicago. As his political fortunes began to rise, Cermak was able to avail himself of other business opportunities, including interests in real estate, insurance, and banking.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 3693908, 220689, 63367887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 152 ], [ 301, 308 ], [ 317, 343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He began his political career as a Democratic Party precinct captain, and in 1902, he was elected to the Illinois House of Representatives. Seven years later, he became alderman of the 12th Ward (serving two terms: one from 1909 through 1912, and another from 1919 through 1922). Cermak was elected President of the Cook County Board of Commissioners in 1922, chairman of the Cook County Democratic Party in 1928, and mayor of Chicago in 1931.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 861662, 65705873, 310285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 138 ], [ 299, 350 ], [ 418, 434 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1928, he ran for the United States Senate, but was defeated by Republican Otis F. Glenn, after Cermak received only 46% of the vote.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 54075944, 24909346, 2862211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 24, 44 ], [ 77, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cermak's mayoral victory came in the wake of the Great Depression, the deep resentment many Chicagoans had of Prohibition, and the increasing violence resulting from organized crime's control of Chicago—typified by the St. Valentine's Day Massacre.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1931–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 19283335, 24856, 2281745, 42097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 65 ], [ 110, 121 ], [ 166, 181 ], [ 219, 247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The many ethnic groups, such as Czechs, Poles, Ukrainians, Jews, Italians, and African Americans, that began to settle in Chicago in the early 1900s were mostly detached from the political system, due in part to a lack of organization, which led to underrepresentation in the City Council. As an immigrant himself, Cermak recognized Chicago’s relatively new immigrants as a significant population of disenfranchised voters, which had the potential to be a large power base for Cermak and his local Democratic organization.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1931–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 7050925, 387623, 5938693, 1131183, 125320, 2154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 38 ], [ 40, 45 ], [ 47, 57 ], [ 59, 63 ], [ 65, 73 ], [ 79, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before Cermak, the Democratic party in Cook County was run by Irish Americans. The Irish first became successful in politics since they spoke English, and because, coming from an island on the edge of Europe, they had few ancestral enemies. As the old saying went: “A Lithuanian won’t vote for a Pole, and a Pole won’t vote for a Lithuanian. A German won’t vote for either of them. But all three will vote for a turkey—an Irishman.” As Cermak climbed the local political ladder, the resentment of the party leadership grew. When the bosses rejected his bid to become the mayoral candidate, Cermak swore revenge. He formed his political army from the non-Irish elements, and even persuaded the black politician, William L. Dawson, to switch from the Republican to the Democratic Party.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1931–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 5125916, 46284800, 1183764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 50 ], [ 62, 77 ], [ 711, 728 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dawson later became a U.S. Representative (from the 1st District), and soon the most powerful black politician in Illinois. Cermak’s political and organizational skills helped create one of the most influential political organizations of his day. With support from Franklin D. Roosevelt on the national level, Cermak gradually wooed members of Chicago’s growing black community into the Democratic fold. Walter Wright, the superintendent of parks and aviation for the city of Chicago, aided Cermak in stepping into office.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1931–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 19468510, 7835078, 10979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 41 ], [ 52, 64 ], [ 265, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Cermak challenged the incumbent, William “Big Bill” Hale Thompson, in the 1931 mayor's race, Thompson, who represented Chicago's existing Irish-dominated power structure, responded with ethnic slurs:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1931–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 40302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "I won’t take a back seat to that Bohunk, Chairmock, Chermack, or whatever his name is.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1931–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 11014515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tony, Tony, where’s your pushcart at?", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1931–1933)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Can you picture a World’s Fair mayor with a name like that?", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1931–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 42219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cermak replied, “He doesn’t like my name… it’s true I didn’t come over on the Mayflower, but I came over as soon as I could.” It was a sentiment to which ethnic Chicagoans could relate, and Thompson’s prejudicial insults largely backfired.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1931–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 18622102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thompson’s reputation as a buffoon, many voters’ disgust with the corruption of his political machine, and his inability or unwillingness to clean up organized crime in Chicago were cited as major factors in Cermak capturing 58% of the vote in the mayoral election on April 6, 1931. Cermak’s victory finished Thompson as a political power, and largely ended the Republican Party's influence in Chicago; indeed, all the mayors of Chicago since 1931 have been members of the Democratic Party. For nearly his entire administration, Cermak had to deal with a major tax revolt. From 1931 to 1933, the Association of Real Estate Taxpayers mounted a “tax strike.”", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1931–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 407940, 2281745, 310285, 1670509, 5873606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 101 ], [ 150, 176 ], [ 411, 447 ], [ 561, 571 ], [ 596, 632 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At its height, the association, which was headed by John M. Pratt and James E. Bistor, had over 30,000 members. Much to Cermak’s dismay, it successfully slowed down the collection of real estate taxes through litigation and the promotion of the refusal to pay. In the meantime, the city found it difficult to pay teachers and maintain services. Cermak had to meet President-elect Roosevelt to “mend fences,” and to request money to fund essential city services.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1931–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 16492806, 16495263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 65 ], [ 70, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On February 15, 1933, while shaking hands with President-elect Franklin D. Roosevelt at Bayfront Park in Miami, Florida, Cermak was shot in the lung and mortally wounded by Giuseppe Zangara, who was attempting to assassinate Roosevelt. At the critical moment, Lillian Cross, a woman standing near Zangara, hit Zangara's arm with her purse, and spoiled his aim. In addition to Cermak, Zangara hit four other people: Margaret Kruis, 21, of Newark, NJ, shot through the hand; Russell Caldwell, 22, of Miami, hit squarely in the forehead by a spent bullet, which embedded itself under the skin; Mabel Gill of Miami, shot in the abdomen; and William Sinnott, a New York police detective, who received a glancing blow to the forehead and scalp. All four of those injuries were minor.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 10979, 38337762, 53846, 199182, 2963, 67234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 84 ], [ 88, 101 ], [ 105, 119 ], [ 173, 189 ], [ 213, 224 ], [ 438, 444 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Once at the hospital, Cermak reportedly uttered the line that was engraved on his tomb, saying to Roosevelt, “I’m glad it was me, not you.” The Chicago Tribune reported the quote without attributing it to a witness, and most scholars doubt that it was ever said.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 60961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Zangara told the police that he hated rich and powerful people, but not Roosevelt personally. Later, rumors circulated that Cermak, not Roosevelt, had been the intended target, as his promise to clean up Chicago’s rampant lawlessness posed a threat to Al Capone and the Chicago organized crime syndicate. One of the first people to suggest the organized crime theory was reporter Walter Winchell, who happened to be in Miami the evening of the shooting. According to Roosevelt biographer Jean Edward Smith, there is no proof for this theory.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 3212, 22625, 184187, 2147642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 252, 261 ], [ 278, 293 ], [ 380, 395 ], [ 489, 506 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Long-time Chicago newsman Len O’Connor offers a different view of the events surrounding the mayor’s assassination. He has written that aldermen Paddy Bauler and Charlie Weber informed him that relations between Cermak and Roosevelt were strained, because Cermak fought Roosevelt’s nomination at the Democratic convention in Chicago.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 46432971, 9027791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 157 ], [ 300, 332 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Author Ronald Humble provides yet another perspective as to why Cermak was killed. In his book Frank Nitti: The True Story of Chicago’s Notorious Enforcer, Humble contends that Cermak was as corrupt as Thompson, and that the Chicago Outfit hired Zangara to kill Cermak in retaliation for Cermak’s attempt to murder Frank Nitti.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 1387001, 1068789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 225, 239 ], [ 315, 326 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cermak died at Jackson Memorial Hospital in Miami on March 6, partly due to his wounds. On March 30, however, his personal physician, Dr. Karl A. Meyer, revealed that the primary cause of Cermak’s death was ulcerative colitis, commenting, “The mayor would have recovered from the bullet wound had it not been for the complication of colitis. The autopsy disclosed the wound had healed ... the other complications were not directly due to the bullet wound.”", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 11705863, 63531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 40 ], [ 207, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Zangara was convicted of murder after Cermak’s death, and was executed in Florida's electric chair on March 20, 1933.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 5902, 75215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 70 ], [ 84, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cermak was interred in a mausoleum at the Bohemian National Cemetery in Chicago. The mayor’s death was followed by a struggle for succession both to his party chairmanship, and for the mayor's office.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 25939748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A plaque honoring Cermak still lies at the site of the assassination in Miami’s Bayfront Park. It is inscribed with Cermak’s alleged words to Roosevelt after he was shot, “I’m glad it was me instead of you.” Following Cermak’s death, 22nd Street—a major east–west artery that traversed Chicago’s West Side, and the close-in suburbs of Cicero and Berwyn, areas with significant Czech populations—was renamed Cermak Road. In 1943, a Liberty ship, the SS A. J. Cermak was named in Cermak’s honor. It was scrapped in 1964.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 38337762, 110961, 110948, 8981588, 198201, 4435739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 93 ], [ 335, 341 ], [ 346, 352 ], [ 407, 418 ], [ 431, 443 ], [ 449, 464 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cermak’s son-in-law, Otto Kerner Jr., served as the 33rd Governor of Illinois, and as a federal circuit judge.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Descendants", "target_page_ids": [ 3366706, 1187206, 253070, 428329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 19 ], [ 21, 36 ], [ 57, 77 ], [ 88, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His grandson, Frank J. Jirka, Jr., who was with him in Miami when he was assassinated, later became an Underwater Demolition Team officer in the United States Navy. Jirka was awarded a Silver Star and Purple Heart for his actions during the Battle of Iwo Jima; the wounds he suffered led to the amputation of both legs below the knee. After World War II, he became a physician, and in 1983, was elected president of the American Medical Association. Cermak’s great niece, Kajon Cermak, is a radio broadcaster. His daughter, Lillian, was married to Richey V. Graham, who served in the Illinois General Assembly.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Descendants", "target_page_ids": [ 13334448, 606406, 20518076, 29539, 25072, 60027, 2992, 32927, 23315, 282197, 49375733, 861658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 33 ], [ 103, 129 ], [ 145, 163 ], [ 185, 196 ], [ 201, 213 ], [ 241, 259 ], [ 295, 305 ], [ 341, 353 ], [ 367, 376 ], [ 420, 448 ], [ 548, 564 ], [ 584, 609 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A hastily-produced movie about Cermak, The Man Who Dared, was released within months of his death. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There was a made-for-TV movie, The Gun of Zangara, about Cermak’s assassination. It was originally a two-part episode of The Untouchables, where it had the title “The Unhired Assassin.” Cermak had a major role in the story as an honest man, and was played by Robert Middleton.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 164342, 362903, 2780632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 29 ], [ 121, 137 ], [ 259, 275 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cermak is mentioned in Stephen Sondheim’s play Assassins during the song “How I Saved Roosevelt.”", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 29268, 46442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 39 ], [ 47, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cermak and his rise to the mayoralty has also been mentioned in Jeffrey Archer’s novel Kane and Abel.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 16336, 1776850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 78 ], [ 87, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Part of the episode “Objects in Motion” of the television series Babylon 5 is based on the circumstances of Cermak’s death.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 401249, 4800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 38 ], [ 65, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cermak is referenced by Kelsey Grammer’s fictional Chicago mayor, Tom Kane, in several episodes of the Starz TV series Boss.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 17130, 31192370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 38 ], [ 119, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In “Red Team III,” the seventh episode in the second season of HBO’s The Newsroom, Will McAvoy (Jeff Daniels) references Anton Cermak.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 4765530, 34158305, 737807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 66 ], [ 69, 81 ], [ 96, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The history-based crime novel True Detective, the first in Max Allan Collins’ Nathan Heller series, includes a fictionalized account of the Cermak slaying.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 75344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In the first episode of the second season of F is for Family, an adult animated sitcom produced for Netflix, the fictional school of Anton Cermak Tech is mentioned during a broadcast.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 44819466, 1939093, 20913980, 175537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 61 ], [ 66, 80 ], [ 81, 87 ], [ 101, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A fictional alternate universe version of Cermak is a main character in the alternate history short story Next Year in Prague by Barbara Newman. The timeline of the story diverges from reality on February 15, 1933, in which Zangara’s bullet misses Cermak as he was trying to shoot Roosevelt, meaning both survive the assassination attempt. Cermak continued serving as the Mayor of Chicago, and gets reelected several times, despite more attempted assassinations on him. Cermak fights a war against Chicago's gangsters at the height of the Mafia's power in the city, even personally taking part in police raids, despite the obvious danger in doing so. The evidence found at the raids meant that Crime boss Al Capone is found guilty on seven charges of murder, and is subsequently executed in 1938 (in real life, Capone was responsible for several murders, but police were unable to prove it beyond the reasonable doubt required by the law, and instead convicted him with proven tax evasion in 1931; he died of cardiac arrest in 1947). Because of the role Cermak played in the Capone trial, he becomes very popular nationally, and the “Cermak Amendment” is enacted in the 1940s, amending the Constitution to remove the Natural-born-citizen requirement for President and Vice-President, in order to allow Czech-born Cermak to run for those positions. Thanks to this, President Roosevelt decides to make Cermak his running mate instead of Harry S. Truman, and replaced Henry A. Wallace as Vice-President for the 1944 election. When Roosevelt dies in office in 1945 (as he did in real life), Cermak becomes President. As the Cold War takes shape in 1948, Cermak personally intervenes in the affairs of his birth country of Czechoslovakia to prevent its Communist takeover. After the Czechoslovak coup d'état by the Communist Party, Cermak writes a threatening letter to Joseph Stalin, which nearly starts World War III, but conflict is narrowly averted by a summit in Prague. Cermak publicly states that Stalin has agreed to withdraw from Czechoslovakia, which will now act as a neutral democracy—not part of any alliance. Secretly, Cermak also agreed to a trade-off, where in return for a democratic Czechoslovakia, the United States would withdraw from South Korea, and allow Communist North Korea to reunify Korea under its Communist government. This part of the deal was only discovered a week after it was signed when it was revealed by Cermak's opponents in Congress. As the agreement came into force, a major issue in the presidential election that year was whether it was ethical or not to pay for the freedom of one country (Czechoslovakia) in exchange for the occupation of another (Korea), with such arguments often leading to violence between supporters and opponents of the deal. Cermak barely gets re-elected, and it is implied that his second term will be much harder for him than his first.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 174653, 1203, 45300034, 594156, 2029109, 3212, 1548556, 2256795, 31644, 5596597, 216817, 3418303, 92220, 40560, 325329, 5322, 13965819, 422214, 15641, 65307, 27019, 21255, 61104, 40562, 37584570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 31 ], [ 77, 94 ], [ 130, 144 ], [ 540, 545 ], [ 695, 705 ], [ 706, 715 ], [ 902, 918 ], [ 978, 989 ], [ 1191, 1203 ], [ 1218, 1238 ], [ 1412, 1424 ], [ 1436, 1451 ], [ 1466, 1482 ], [ 1509, 1522 ], [ 1621, 1629 ], [ 1719, 1733 ], [ 1779, 1803 ], [ 1811, 1826 ], [ 1866, 1879 ], [ 1901, 1914 ], [ 2251, 2262 ], [ 2284, 2295 ], [ 2299, 2312 ], [ 2525, 2556 ], [ 2843, 2901 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In The Untouchables TV series (1993–1994), Cermak is assassinated by Zangara—a crazy lone gunman targeting FDR—after Ness prevents the assassin they believe was sent by Capone. After the Untouchables return to Chicago, their further investigation reveals a probable third gunman, whose shot actually is responsible for Cernak's death, and was a Capone hitman. The first half of the next episode partly involves Ness’ Untouchables identifying the actual gunman (a Capone hitman named Charlie Ross), who goes into hiding after a raid by the Untouchables. As the Untouchables arrange to bring him in for testimony, he is gunned down, thereby forever silencing the truth about the mob killing the mayor.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 6968668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of assassinated American politicians", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11185824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Beito, David T. Taxpayers in Revolt: Tax Resistance During the Great Depression. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989. .", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "General sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cermak's tomb at Bohemian National Cemetery", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1873_births", "1933_deaths", "1933_murders_in_the_United_States", "American_people_of_Bohemian_descent", "Assassinated_American_politicians", "Assassinated_mayors", "Attempted_assassinations_of_presidents_of_the_United_States", "Austro-Hungarian_emigrants_to_the_United_States", "Burials_at_Bohemian_National_Cemetery_(Chicago)", "Chicago_City_Council_members", "Deaths_by_firearm_in_Florida", "Deaths_from_peritonitis", "Illinois_Democrats", "Mayors_of_Chicago", "Members_of_the_Illinois_House_of_Representatives", "People_from_the_Kingdom_of_Bohemia", "People_murdered_in_Florida", "Male_murder_victims", "Presidents_of_the_Cook_County_Board_of_Commissioners" ]

[ "Anton Joseph Cermak" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Jane Margaret Byrne (née Burke; May 24, 1933November 14, 2014) was an American politician who was the first woman to be elected mayor of a major city in the United States. She served as the 50th Mayor of Chicago from April 16, 1979, until April 29, 1983. Byrne won the Chicago mayoral election on April 3, 1979, becoming the first female mayor of the city. Prior to her tenure as mayor, Byrne served as Chicago's commissioner of consumer sales from 1969 until 1977.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 310285, 42805733, 18576029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 195, 211 ], [ 277, 293 ], [ 429, 443 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Byrne was born Jane Margaret Burke on May 24, 1933, at John B. Murphy Hospital in the Lake View neighborhood on the north side of Chicago, Illinois, to Katherine Marie Burke (née Nolan), a housewife, and William Patrick Burke, vice president of Inland Steel. Raised on the city's north side, Byrne graduated from Saint Scholastica High School and attended St. Mary of the Woods for her first year of college. Byrne later transferred to Barat College, where she graduated with a bachelor's degree in chemistry and biology in 1955. Byrne entered politics to volunteer in John F. Kennedy's campaign for president in 1960. During that campaign she first met then Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley. After meeting Daley, he appointed her to several positions, beginning in 1964 with a job in a city anti-poverty program In June 1965, she was promoted and worked with the Chicago Committee of Urban Opportunity.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and career", "target_page_ids": [ 359643, 502488, 5397533, 3025725, 4819424, 5119376, 53255606, 40565, 40221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 95 ], [ 189, 198 ], [ 245, 257 ], [ 356, 377 ], [ 436, 449 ], [ 569, 584 ], [ 587, 595 ], [ 613, 617 ], [ 673, 689 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1968, Byrne was appointed head of the City of Chicago's consumer affairs department. She served as a delegate to the 1972 Democratic National Convention (DNC) and chairperson of the DNC resolutions committee in 1973. Byrne was appointed co-chairperson of the Cook County Democratic Central Committee by Daley, over the objection of a majority of Democratic leaders, in 1975. The committee ousted Byrne shortly after Daley's death in late 1976. Shortly thereafter, Byrne accused the newly appointed mayor Michael Bilandic of being unfair to citizens of the city by approving an increase in regulated taxi fares, which Byrne charged was the result of a \"backroom deal\". Byrne was then dimissed from her post of head of consumer affairs by Bilandic.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and career", "target_page_ids": [ 2430932, 984959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 155 ], [ 507, 523 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Months after her firing as head of the consumer affairs department, Byrne challenged Bilandic in the 1979 Democratic mayoral primary, the real contest in the heavily Democratic Chicago. Officially announcing her mayoral campaign in August 1977, Byrne partnered with Chicago journalist and political consultant Don Rose, who served as her campaign manager. At first, political observers believed her to have little chance of winning. A memorandum inside the Bilandic campaign said it should portray her as \"a shrill, charging, vindictive person—and nothing makes a woman look worse\". However, the Chicago Blizzard of 1979 in January paralyzed the city and caused Bilandic to be seen as an ineffective leader. Jesse Jackson endorsed Byrne. Many Republican voters voted in the Democratic primary to beat Bilandic. Infuriated voters in the North Side and Northwest Side retaliated against Bilandic for the Democratic Party's slating of only South Side candidates for the mayor, clerk, and treasurer (the outgoing city clerk, John C. Marcin, was from the Northwest Side). These four factors combined to give Byrne a 51% to 49% victory over Bilandic in the primary. Positioning herself as a reformer, Byrne then won the main election with 82.1% of the vote, still the largest margin in a Chicago mayoral election.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1979–1983)", "target_page_ids": [ 17564892, 18603579, 1265165, 1265165, 12670114, 42805733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 596, 620 ], [ 708, 721 ], [ 836, 846 ], [ 851, 865 ], [ 937, 947 ], [ 1214, 1227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Byrne made inclusive moves as mayor, such as shepherding the hiring the city's first African-American and female school superintendent Ruth B. Love, and she was the first mayor to recognize the gay community. Byrne helped to make Chicago more welcoming to the gay community. She ended the police department's practice of raiding gay bars, and declared the city's first official \"Gay Pride Parade Day\" in 1981. However, during her tenure, Byrne drifted away from many of the progressive tenets she had campaigned on. Byrne began to collaborate with aldermen such as Edward M. Burke and Ed Vrdolyak, who, during her 1979 campaign, she had denounced as an \"evil cabal\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1979–1983)", "target_page_ids": [ 3305241, 42502808, 43954264, 501560, 2035730, 1545652, 1215165 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 101 ], [ 135, 147 ], [ 194, 207 ], [ 329, 336 ], [ 474, 485 ], [ 565, 580 ], [ 585, 596 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1982, she supported the Cook County Democratic Party's replacement of its chairman, County Board President George Dunne, with her city council ally, Alderman Edward Vrdolyak.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1979–1983)", "target_page_ids": [ 18502752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Byrne and the Cook County Democratic Party endorsed Senator Ted Kennedy for president in 1980, but incumbent President Jimmy Carter won the Illinois Democratic Primary and even carried Cook County and the city of Chicago. Byrne's endorsement was later considered detrimental because of her controversial tenure, and Kennedy's loss in the city was a key moment in the 1980 Democratic Party presidential primaries because of Chicago's role in delivering his brother John F. Kennedy the 1960 Democratic presidential nomination. When Byrne and Kennedy walked in the annual Saint Patrick's Day parade they were sometimes booed by hecklers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1979–1983)", "target_page_ids": [ 184136, 15992, 14713051, 5119376, 2909917, 34445149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 71 ], [ 119, 131 ], [ 367, 411 ], [ 464, 479 ], [ 484, 523 ], [ 569, 588 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Simultaneously, Byrne and the Cook County Democratic Party's candidate in the 1980 election for Cook County State's Attorney (chief local prosecutor), 14th Ward Alderman Edward M. Burke, lost in the Democratic primary to Richard M. Daley, and Daley then unseated GOP incumbent Bernard Carey in the general election.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1979–1983)", "target_page_ids": [ 65625574, 25876218, 1545652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 91 ], [ 96, 124 ], [ 170, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Chicago Sun Times reported that Byrne's enemies publicly mocked her as \"that crazy broad\" and \"that skinny bitch\" and worse.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1979–1983)", "target_page_ids": [ 245107, 48097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ], [ 111, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In her first year in office, significant instances of turnover in prominent city positions led critics to accuse Byrne of running a \"revolving door administration\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1979–1983)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "While Byrne initially made inclusive moves in regards to appointments as mayor, such as shepherding the hiring of the city's first African-American and female school superintendent Ruth B. Love, she later pivoted away from this. Among the later steps that Byrne took that upset many of the progressives and Blacks that had supported her in her 1979 mayoral campaign was replacing Black members of the Chicago Board of Education and Chicago Housing Authority board with White members, some of whom even held stances that critics viewed as racist.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1979–1983)", "target_page_ids": [ 42502808, 48779679, 9580481 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 181, 193 ], [ 401, 427 ], [ 432, 457 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 1979 mayoral election, Byrne pledged to fire Superintendent of the Chicago Police Department James E. O'Grady, accusing him of having \"politicized\" the department. Days after her inauguration as mayor, O'Grady resigned. Later that year, she relieved interim superintendent Joseph DiLeonardi of command. She appointed Samuel Nolan interim superintendent in his place, Nolan was the first African American to serve as head of the Chicago Police Department. In January 1980, Richard J. Brzeczek took office as permanent superintendent, having been appointed by Byrne. On her last day in office, after the resignation of Brzeczek as superintdendent, Byrne appointed James E. O'Grady as interim superintendent. By this time, Byrne had rescinded her past criticisms of O'Grady.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1979–1983)", "target_page_ids": [ 63350180, 64307068, 65747005, 753103, 65742984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 103 ], [ 104, 120 ], [ 328, 340 ], [ 439, 464 ], [ 483, 502 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1980, Byrne appointed William R. Blair as Chicago fire commissioner.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1979–1983)", "target_page_ids": [ 67989794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During her campaign for mayor, Byrne promised to provide strong support to the performing arts. Chicago Tribune art critic Richard Christiansen hailed Byrne for having made, \"the arts and amusements of the city a most significant part of her\" mayoral administration.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1979–1983)", "target_page_ids": [ 22938, 60961, 1166292, 47673261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 94 ], [ 96, 111 ], [ 112, 122 ], [ 123, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As mayor, she provided $200,000 to the Lyric Opera of Chicago for the express purposes of providing family-friendly entertainment. To provided a similar amount to the Auditorium Theatre for them to acquire a new lighting board.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1979–1983)", "target_page_ids": [ 381161, 3434225, 1069443 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 61 ], [ 167, 185 ], [ 212, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As mayor, Byrne funded the construction of the Miró's Chicago sculpture by artist Joan Miró.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1979–1983)", "target_page_ids": [ 11507366, 26714, 63093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 61 ], [ 62, 71 ], [ 82, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Byrne allowed films to use Chicago as a filming location, leading to such movies as The Blues Brothers to shoot in Chicago.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1979–1983)", "target_page_ids": [ 4558294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On March 26, 1981, Byrne decided to move into the crime-ridden Cabrini–Green Homes housing project on the near-north side of Chicago after 37 shootings resulting in 11 murders occurred during a three-month period from January to March 1981. In her 2004 memoir, Byrne reflected about decision to move into Cabrini–Green: \"How could I put Cabrini on a bigger map? ... Suddenly I knew—I could move in there.\" Prior to her move to Cabrini, Byrne closed down several liquor stores in the area, citing the stores as hangout for gangs and murderers. Byrne also ordered the Chicago Housing Authority to evict tenants who were suspected of harboring gang members in their apartments, which totaled approximately 800 tenants. Byrne moved into a 4th floor apartment in a Cabrini extension building on North Sedgwick Avenue with her husband on March 31 at around 8:30p.m. after attending a dinner at the Conrad Hilton hotel. Hours after Byrne moved into the housing project, police raided the building and arrested eleven street gang members who they learned through informants were planning to have a shootout in the mayor's building later that evening. Byrne described her first night there as \"lovely\" and \"very quiet\". Byrne stayed at the housing project for three weeks to bring attention to the housing project's crime and infrastructure problems. Byrne's stay at Cabrini ended on April 18, 1981, following an Easter celebration at the project which drew protests and demonstrators who claimed Byrne's move to the project was just a publicity stunt.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1979–1983)", "target_page_ids": [ 509363, 24428095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 82 ], [ 893, 912 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the crises that Byrne faced in her first year as mayor was a major shortage of funds in both the municipal government and by the Chicago Board of Education (the city's school board). This arose due to questionable past borrowing practices, and necessitated both budget cuts and further borrowing to resolve.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1979–1983)", "target_page_ids": [ 1551300, 48779679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 124 ], [ 136, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In January 1982, Byrne proposed an ordinance effectively banning new handgun registration, which was considered controversial. The ordinance was created to put a freeze on the number of legally owned handguns in Chicago and to required owners of handguns to reregister them annually. The ordinance was approved by a 6–1 vote in February 1982. The ordinance was struck down by the Supreme Court in the 2010 case McDonald v. City of Chicago.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1979–1983)", "target_page_ids": [ 9958966, 23070367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 200, 207 ], [ 411, 438 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Byrne used special events, such as ChicagoFest, to revitalize Navy Pier and the downtown Chicago Theatre. ChicagoFest had first been held the year previous to her election. One of Byrne's first efforts as mayor had instead been an attempt to cancel future editions of the event. But, after facing complaints from citizens and unions, Byrne allowed the festival to continue as an annual event, and formally renamed it \"Mayor Jane M. Byrne's ChicagoFest\". Festivals inaugurated during her tenure included Taste of Chicago. Byrne held a number of smaller-scale events in neighborhoods across the city, titling them with the prefix \"Mayor Byrne's\". As mayor, Byrne was a strong supporter of the planned Chicago 1992 World's Fair.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1979–1983)", "target_page_ids": [ 4142969, 44949, 2921387, 1240103, 53986821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 46 ], [ 62, 71 ], [ 89, 104 ], [ 503, 519 ], [ 699, 724 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In her first year in office, she faced strikes by labor unions as the city's transit workers, public school teachers and firefighters all went on strike.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1979–1983)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There had been plans under Daley and Bilandic to demolish the Loop elevated rail and replace it with subway. Byrne appointed a commission that ultimately recommended that the Loop should be retained, with modernization.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1979–1983)", "target_page_ids": [ 7446395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1981, Byrne disbanded the Chicago Transit Authority's dedicated security force, transferring its duties instead to the Chicago Police Department.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1979–1983)", "target_page_ids": [ 416981, 753103 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 54 ], [ 122, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In November 1981, the Chicago City Council approved a new redistricting map for the city's aldermanic wards which was drawn by Byrne's administration. The U.S. Court of Appeals would find, in 1984, that the map was in violation of the federal Voting Rights Act of 1965.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1979–1983)", "target_page_ids": [ 19371814, 70228, 55791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 71 ], [ 155, 176 ], [ 243, 268 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On November 11, 1981, Dan Goodwin, who had successfully climbed the Sears Tower the previous spring, battled for his life on the side of the John Hancock Center. William Blair, Chicago's fire commissioner, had ordered the Chicago Fire Department to stop Goodwin by directing a full-power fire hose at him and by using fire axes to break window glass in Goodwin's path. Mayor Byrne rushed to the scene and ordered the fire department to stand down. Then, through a smashed out 38th floor window, she told Goodwin, who was hanging from the building's side a floor below, that though she did not agree with his climbing of the John Hancock Center, she certainly opposed the fire department knocking him to the ground below. Byrne then allowed Goodwin to continue to the top.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1979–1983)", "target_page_ids": [ 1457692, 28176, 40420, 753323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 33 ], [ 68, 79 ], [ 141, 160 ], [ 222, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Byrne initiated the idea for creating a unified lakefront museum campus, which was implemented subsequent to her tenure as Museum Campus, as well as the idea of renovating Navy Pier, also implemented subsequent to her tenure.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1979–1983)", "target_page_ids": [ 1884995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Byrne expanded O'Hare International Airport.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1979–1983)", "target_page_ids": [ 248449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In August 1982, Byrne decided that she would seek a second term as mayor. At the beginning of her re-election campaign, she was trailing behind Richard M. Daley, then Cook County State's Attorney, by 3% in a poll done by the Chicago Tribune in July 1982. Unlike the 1979 mayoral election in which Byrne received 59.3% of the African-American vote, Byrne had lost half of that vote.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1979–1983)", "target_page_ids": [ 40222, 60961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 160 ], [ 225, 240 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Byrne was defeated in the 1983 Democratic primary for mayor by Harold Washington; the younger Daley ran a close third. Washington won the Democratic primary with just 36% of the vote; Byrne had 33%. Washington went on to win the general election.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1979–1983)", "target_page_ids": [ 40305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Byrne ran against Washington again in the 1987 Democratic primary, but was narrowly defeated. She endorsed Washington for the general election, in which he defeated two Democrats running under other parties' banners (Edward Vrdolyak and Thomas Hynes) and a Republican.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Later career", "target_page_ids": [ 39886025, 39199984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 65 ], [ 237, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Early into her 1987 campaign, in October 1985, Byrne called for a feasibility study of the potential to construct a third major airport for the city on the site of the South Works. Soon after, Governor James R. Thompson endorsed the idea of immediately planning for a third major airport to serve Chicago. This would be the one of the impetuses of decades-long discussions and studies for a third major airport for the city, including the proposed Chicago south suburban airport.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Later career", "target_page_ids": [ 30232385, 551573, 8088325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 179 ], [ 202, 219 ], [ 439, 478 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Byrne next ran in the 1988 Democratic primary for Cook County Circuit Court Clerk. She faced the Democratic Party's slated candidate, Aurelia Pucinski (who was endorsed by Mayor Washington and is the daughter of then-Alderman Roman Pucinski). Pucinski defeated Byrne in the primary and Vrdolyak, by then a Republican, in the general election. Byrne's fourth run for mayor became a rematch with Daley in the 1991 primary. She received only 5.9 percent of the vote, a distant third behind Daley and Alderman Danny K. Davis.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Later career", "target_page_ids": [ 65611224, 19135231, 60712523, 4439201, 39871090, 412062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 26 ], [ 50, 75 ], [ 134, 150 ], [ 226, 240 ], [ 400, 411 ], [ 506, 520 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1956, she married William P. Byrne, a Marine. The couple had a daughter, Katherine C. Byrne (born 1957). On May 31, 1959, while flying from Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point to Naval Air Station Glenview in a Skyraider, Lt. Byrne attempted to land in a dense fog. After being waved off for landing twice, his plane's wing struck the porch of a nearby house and the plane crashed into Sunset Memorial Park, killing him. Byrne married journalist Jay McMullen in 1978, and they remained married until his death from lung cancer in 1992. Byrne lived in the same apartment building from the 1970s until her death in 2014. She has one grandchild, Willie. Her daughter, Kathy, is a lawyer with a Chicago firm. Mayor Byrne's book, My Chicago (1992) covers her life through her political career. In 2011, Byrne attended the inauguration of the city's new mayor, Rahm Emanuel.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 23838938, 632237, 189577, 412023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 180 ], [ 184, 210 ], [ 216, 225 ], [ 860, 872 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Byrne had entered hospice care and died on November 14, 2014, in Chicago, aged 81, from complications of a stroke she suffered in January 2013. She was survived by her daughter Katherine and her grandson Willie. Her funeral Mass was held at St. Vincent de Paul Church on Monday, November 17, 2014. She was buried at Calvary Catholic Cemetery in Evanston, Illinois.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Death and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 50916467, 56363259, 101753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 241, 267 ], [ 316, 341 ], [ 345, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a dedication ceremony held on August 29, 2014, Governor Pat Quinn renamed the Circle Interchange in Chicago the Jane Byrne Interchange. In July 2014, the Chicago City Council voted to rename the plaza surrounding the historic Chicago Water Tower on North Michigan Avenue the Jane M. Byrne Plaza in her honor.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Death and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1616219, 12643088, 772102, 684988, 503172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 68 ], [ 115, 137 ], [ 157, 177 ], [ 229, 248 ], [ 258, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1979", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [ 42805733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|- bgcolor=\"#E9E9E9\" align=\"center\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! colspan=\"5\" rowspan=\"1\" align=\"center\" |1979 Chicago mayoral Democratic primary", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|- bgcolor=\"#E9E9E9\" align=\"center\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! colspan=\"2\" rowspan=\"1\" align=\"left\" | Candidate", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! width=\"75\" | Votes", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! width=\"30\" | %", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| bgcolor=\"#3333FF\" |", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| align=\"left\" | Jane Byrne", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| bgcolor=\"#3333FF\" |", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| align=\"left\" | Michael A. Bilandic (incumbent)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [ 984959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\" | Turnout", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ||", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|}", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1983", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [ 42438499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|- bgcolor=\"#E9E9E9\" align=\"center\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! colspan=\"5\" rowspan=\"1\" align=\"center\" |1983 Chicago mayoral Democratic primary", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|- bgcolor=\"#E9E9E9\" align=\"center\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! colspan=\"2\" rowspan=\"1\" align=\"left\" | Candidate", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! width=\"75\" | Votes", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! width=\"30\" | %", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| bgcolor=\"#3333FF\" |", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| align=\"left\" | Harold Washington", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [ 40305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| bgcolor=\"#3333FF\" |", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| align=\"left\" | Jane Byrne (incumbent)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| bgcolor=\"#3333FF\" |", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| align=\"left\" | Richard M. Daley", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [ 40222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| bgcolor=\"#3333FF\" |", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| align=\"left\" | Frank R. Ranallo", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| bgcolor=\"#3333FF\" |", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| align=\"left\" | William Markowski", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| bgcolor=\"#3333FF\" |", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| align=\"left\" | Sheila Jones", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\" | Turnout", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ||", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|}", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1987", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [ 39886025 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|- bgcolor=\"#E9E9E9\" align=\"center\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! colspan=\"5\" rowspan=\"1\" align=\"center\" |1987 Chicago mayoral Democratic primary", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|- bgcolor=\"#E9E9E9\" align=\"center\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! colspan=\"2\" rowspan=\"1\" align=\"left\" | Candidate", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! width=\"75\" | Votes", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! width=\"30\" | %", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| bgcolor=\"#3333FF\" |", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| align=\"left\" | Harold Washington (incumbent)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [ 40305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| bgcolor=\"#3333FF\" |", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| align=\"left\" | Jane Byrne", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| bgcolor=\"#3333FF\" |", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| align=\"left\" | Sheila Jones", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\" | Turnout", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| || ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|}", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1991", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Electoral history", "target_page_ids": [ 39871090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Former City Hall Reporter Ray Hanania's online look at the City Hall Press Room and the Byrne Administration, published in the Chicago Reader and later online, themediaoasis.com. Retrieved November 16, 2014.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1933_births", "2014_deaths", "Barat_College_alumni", "Burials_at_Calvary_Cemetery_(Evanston,_Illinois)", "Catholics_from_Illinois", "DePaul_University_alumni", "Illinois_Democrats", "Mayors_of_Chicago", "Women_mayors_of_places_in_Illinois", "Writers_from_Chicago", "21st-century_American_women" ]

[ "Jane Margaret Byrne" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Harold Lee Washington (April 15, 1922 – November 25, 1987) was an American lawyer and politician who was the 51st Mayor of Chicago. Washington became the first African American to be elected as the city's mayor in April 1983. He served as mayor from April 29, 1983 until his death on November 25, 1987. Born in Chicago and raised in the Bronzeville neighborhood, Washington became involved in local 3rd Ward politics under Chicago Alderman and future Congressman Ralph Metcalfe after graduating from Roosevelt University and Northwestern University School of Law. Washington was a member of the U.S. House of Representatives from 1981 to 1983, representing Illinois's first district. Washington had previously served in the Illinois State Senate and the Illinois House of Representatives from 1965 until 1976.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 310285, 1327441, 846945, 2084233, 3893597, 19468510, 7835078, 861667, 861662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 130 ], [ 337, 348 ], [ 463, 477 ], [ 500, 520 ], [ 525, 562 ], [ 595, 624 ], [ 657, 682 ], [ 724, 745 ], [ 754, 787 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest known ancestor of Harold Lee Washington, Isam/Isham Washington, was born a slave in 1832 in North Carolina. In 1864 he enlisted in the 8th United States Colored Heavy Artillery, Company L, in Paducah, Kentucky. Following his discharge in 1866, he began farming with his wife Rebecca Neal in Ballard County, Kentucky. Among their six children was Isam/Isom McDaniel (Mack) Washington, who was born in 1875. In 1896, Mack Washington had married Arbella Weeks of Massac County, who had been born in Mississippi in 1878. In 1897, their first son, Roy L. Washington, father of Mayor Washington was born in Ballard County, Kentucky. In 1903, shortly after both families moved to Massac County, Illinois, the elder Washington died. After farming for a time, Mack Washington became a minister in the African Methodist Episcopal (A.M.E.) Church, serving numerous churches in Illinois until the death of his wife in 1952. Reverend I.M.D. Washington died in 1953.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 96202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 686, 709 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harold Lee Washington was born on April 15, 1922, at Cook County Hospital in Chicago, Illinois, to Roy and Bertha Washington. While still in high school in Lawrenceville, Illinois, Roy met Bertha from nearby Carrier Mills and the two married in 1916 in Harrisburg, Illinois. Their first son, Roy Jr., was born in Carrier Mills before the family moved to Chicago where Roy enrolled in Kent College of Law. A lawyer, he became one of the first black precinct captains in the city, and a Methodist minister. In 1918, daughter Geneva was born and second son Edward was born in 1920. Bertha left the family, possibly to seek her fortune as a singer, and the couple divorced in 1928. Bertha remarried and had seven more children including Ramon Price, who was an artist and eventually became chief curator of The DuSable Museum of African American History. Harold Washington grew up in Bronzeville, a Chicago neighborhood that was the center of black culture for the entire Midwest in the early and middle 20th century. Edward and Harold stayed with their father while Roy Jr. and Geneva were cared for by grandparents. After attending St Benedict the Moor Boarding School in Milwaukee from 1928 to 1932, Washington attended DuSable High School, then a newly established racially segregated public high school, and was a member of its first graduating class. In a 1939 citywide track meet, Washington placed first in the 110-meter high hurdles event, and second in the 220-meter low hurdles event. Between his junior and senior year of high school, Washington dropped out, claiming that he no longer felt challenged by the coursework. He worked at a meatpacking plant for a time before his father helped him get a job at the U.S. Treasury branch in the city. There he met Nancy Dorothy Finch, whom he married soon after; Washington was 19 years old and Dorothy was 17 years old. Seven months later, the U.S. was drawn into World War II with the bombing of Pearl Harbor by the Japanese on Sunday, December 7, 1941.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1747357, 111502, 111859, 111862, 4165356, 20119, 4141282, 1327441, 3939137, 5441736, 53667, 32927, 60098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 73 ], [ 156, 179 ], [ 208, 221 ], [ 253, 273 ], [ 448, 464 ], [ 485, 494 ], [ 804, 850 ], [ 881, 892 ], [ 1220, 1239 ], [ 1266, 1285 ], [ 1720, 1733 ], [ 1918, 1930 ], [ 1940, 1963 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1942, Washington was drafted into the United States Army for the war effort and after basic training, sent overseas as part of a racially segregated unit of the U.S. Army Air Corps unit of Engineers. After the American invasion of the Philippines in 1944, on Leyte Island and later the main Luzon island, Washington was part of a unit building runways for bombers, protective fighter aircraft, refueling planes, and returning damaged aircraft. Eventually, Washington rose to the rank of First Sergeant in the Army Air Forces.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 32087, 25151061, 23869026, 100034, 23440, 194750, 69375, 23623489, 23508196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 59 ], [ 132, 156 ], [ 164, 183 ], [ 192, 201 ], [ 238, 249 ], [ 262, 274 ], [ 294, 299 ], [ 490, 504 ], [ 512, 527 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the summer of 1946, Washington, aged 24 and a war veteran, enrolled at Roosevelt College (now Roosevelt University). Washington joined other groups of students not permitted to enroll in other local colleges. Local estimates placed the student population of Roosevelt College at about 1/8black and 1/2 Jewish. A full 75% of the students had enrolled because of the \"nondiscriminatory progressive principles.\" He chaired a fund-raising drive by students, and then was named to a committee that supported citywide efforts to outlaw \"restrictive covenants\" in housing, the legal means by which ethnic minorities (especially blacks and, to a lesser extent, Jews) were prohibited from purchasing real estate in predominantly white neighborhoods of the city.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 2084233, 2187058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 91 ], [ 535, 556 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 19, after the college had moved to the Auditorium Building, Washington was elected the third president of Roosevelt's student council. Under his leadership, the student council successfully petitioned the college to have student representation on Roosevelt's faculty committees. At the first regional meeting of the newly founded National Student Association in the spring of 1948, Washington and nine other delegates proposed student representation on college faculties, and a \"Bill of Rights\" for students; both measures were roundly defeated. The next year, Washington went to the state capital at Springfield to protest Illinois legislators' coming probe of \"subversives\". The probe of investigation would outlaw the Communist Party and require \"loyalty oaths\" for teachers. He led students' opposition to the bills, although they would pass later in 1949.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 561560, 1393648, 57706, 861658, 452981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 61 ], [ 333, 361 ], [ 604, 615 ], [ 627, 648 ], [ 724, 739 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During his Roosevelt College years, Washington came to be known for his stability. His friends said that he had a \"remarkable ability to keep cool\", reason carefully and walk a middle line. Washington intentionally avoided extremist activities, including street actions and sit-ins against racially segregated restaurants and businesses. Overall, Washington and other radical activists ended up sharing a mutual respect for each other, acknowledging both Washington's pragmatism and the activists' idealism. With the opportunities found only at Roosevelt College in the late 1940s, Washington's time at the Roosevelt College proved to be pivotal. Washington graduated in August 1949, with a Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) degree. In addition to his activities at Roosevelt, he was a member of Phi Beta Sigma fraternity.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 156992, 1795025 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 691, 714 ], [ 786, 800 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Washington then applied for and was admitted to study law at the Northwestern University School of Law in Chicago. During this time, Washington was divorced from Dorothy Finch. By some accounts, Harold and Dorothy had simply grown apart after Washington was sent overseas during the war during the first year of his marriage. Others saw both as young and headstrong, the relationship doomed from the beginning. Another friend of Washington's deemed Harold \"not the marrying kind.\" He would not marry again, but continued to have relationships with other women; his longtime secretary is said to have said, \"If every woman Harold slept with stood at one end of City Hall, the building would sink five inches into LaSalle Street!\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 3893597, 772050, 2407187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 102 ], [ 660, 669 ], [ 712, 726 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At Northwestern Law School, Washington was the only black student in his class (there were six women in the class, one of them being Dawn Clark Netsch). As at Roosevelt, he entered school politics. In 1951, his last year, he was elected treasurer of the Junior Bar Association (JBA). The election was largely symbolic, however, and Washington's attempts to give the JBA more authority at Northwestern were largely unsuccessful. On campus, Washington joined the Nu Beta Epsilon fraternity, largely because he and the other people who were members of ethnic minority groups which constituted the fraternity were blatantly excluded from the other fraternities on campus. Overall, Washington stayed away from the activism that defined his years at Roosevelt. During the evenings and weekends, he worked to supplement his GI Bill income. He received his JD in 1952.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1766073, 10728102, 71255148, 55850, 153041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 150 ], [ 254, 276 ], [ 461, 476 ], [ 817, 824 ], [ 849, 851 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1951 until he was first slated for election in 1965, Washington worked in the offices of the 3rd Ward Alderman, former Olympic athlete Ralph Metcalfe. Richard J. Daley was elected party chairman in 1952. Daley replaced C.C. Wimbush, an ally of William Dawson, on the party committee with Metcalfe. Under Metcalfe, the 3rd Ward was a critical factor in Mayor Daley's 1955 mayoral election victory and ranked first in the city in the size of its Democratic plurality in 1961. While working under Metcalfe, Washington began to organize the 3rd Ward's Young Democrats (YD) organization. At YD conventions, the 3rd Ward would push for numerous resolutions in the interest of blacks. Eventually, other black YD organizations would come to the 3rd Ward headquarters for advice on how to run their own organizations. Like he had at Roosevelt College, Washington avoided radicalism and preferred to work through the party to engender change.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early political career", "target_page_ids": [ 846945, 40221, 1183764, 2267115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 154 ], [ 156, 172 ], [ 249, 263 ], [ 553, 568 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While working with the Young Democrats, Washington met Mary Ella Smith. They dated for the next 20 years, and in 1983 Washington proposed to Smith. In an interview with the Chicago Sun-Times, Smith said that she never pressed Washington for marriage because she knew Washington's first love was politics, saying, \"He was a political animal. He thrived on it, and I knew any thoughts of marriage would have to wait. I wasn't concerned about that. I just knew the day would come.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early political career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1959 Al Janney, Gus Savage, Lemuel Bentley, Bennett Johnson, Luster Jackson and others founded the Chicago League of Negro Voters, one of the first African-American political organizations in the city. In its first election, Bentley drew 60,000 votes for city clerk. The endorsement of the League was deciding factor in the re-election of Leon DesPres who was an independent voice in the City Council. Washington was a close friend of the founders of the League and worked with them from time to time. The League was key in electing Anna Langford, William Cousins and A. A. \"Sammy\" Rayner who were not part of the Daley machine. In 1963 the group moved to racially integrate and formed Protest at the Polls at a citywide conference which Washington independent candidates had gained traction within the black community, winning several aldermanic seats. In 1983, Protest at the Polls was instrumental in Washington's run for mayor. By then, the YDs were losing to ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early political career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "independent candidates.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early political career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After the state legislature failed to reapportion districts as required by the census every ten years, an at-large election was held in January 1965 to elect 177 representatives. With the Republicans and Democrats combining to slate only 118 candidates, independent voting groups seized the opportunity to slate candidates. The League of Negro Voters created a \"Third Slate\" of 59 candidates, announcing the slate on June 27, 1964. Shortly afterwards, Daley put together a slate including Adlai Stevenson III and Washington. The Third Slate was then thrown out by the Illinois Election Board because of \"insufficient signatures\" on the nominating petitions. In the election, Washington received the second-largest number of ballots, behind Stevenson. Washington's years in the Illinois House were marked by tension with Democratic Party leadership. In 1967, he was ranked by the Independent Voters of Illinois (IVI) as the fourth-most independent legislator in the Illinois House and named Best Legislator of the Year. His defiance of the \"idiot card\", a sheet of paper that directed legislators' votes on every issue, attracted the attention of party leaders, who moved to remove Washington from his legislative position. Daley often told Metcalfe to dump Washington as a candidate, but Metcalfe did not want to risk losing the 3rd Ward's Young Democrats, who were mostly aligned with Washington.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legislative career", "target_page_ids": [ 3995387, 861662, 732992, 14343326 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 114 ], [ 162, 177 ], [ 489, 508 ], [ 879, 909 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Washington backed Renault Robinson, a black police officer and one of the founders of the Afro-American Patrolmen's League (AAPL). The aim of the AAPL was to fight racism directed against minority officers by the rest of the predominantly white department. Soon after the creation of the group, Robinson was written up for minor infractions, suspended, reinstated, and then placed on the graveyard shift to a single block behind central police headquarters. Robinson approached Washington to fashion a bill creating a civilian review board, consisting of both patrolmen and officers, to monitor police brutality. Both black independent and white liberal legislators refused to back the bill, afraid to challenge Daley's grip on the police force.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legislative career", "target_page_ids": [ 21253612, 39267776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 34 ], [ 90, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Washington announced he would support the AAPL, Metcalfe refused to protect him from Daley. Washington believed he had the support of Ralph Tyler Smith, Speaker of the House. Instead, Smith criticized Washington and then allayed Daley's anger. In exchange for the party's backing, Washington would serve on the Chicago Crime Commission, the group Daley tasked with investigating the AAPL's charges. The commission promptly found the AAPL's charges \"unwarranted\". An angry and humiliated Washington admitted that on the commission, he felt like Daley's \"showcase ni***r\". In 1969, Daley removed Washington's name from the slate; only by the intervention of Cecil Partee, a party loyalist, was Washington reinstated. The Democratic Party supported Jim Taylor, a former professional boxer, Streets and Sanitation worker, over Washington. With Partee and his own ward's support, Washington defeated Taylor. His years in the House of Representatives were focused on becoming an advocate for black rights. He continued work on the Fair Housing Act, and worked to strengthen the state's Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC). In addition, he worked on a state Civil Rights Act, which would strengthen employment and housing provisions in the federal Civil Rights Act of 1964. In his first session, all of his bills were sent to committee or tabled. Like his time in Roosevelt College, Washington relied on parliamentary tactics (e.g., writing amendments guaranteed to fail in a vote) to enable him to bargain for more concessions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legislative career", "target_page_ids": [ 2824690, 13094134, 11827814, 32759483, 188746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 157 ], [ 159, 179 ], [ 317, 341 ], [ 662, 674 ], [ 1255, 1279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Washington was accused of failure to file a tax return, even though the tax was paid. He was found guilty and sentenced to 36 days in jail. (1971)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legislative career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Washington also passed bills honoring civil rights figures. He passed a resolution honoring Metcalfe, his mentor. He also passed a resolution honoring James J. Reeb, a Unitarian minister who was beaten to death in Selma, Alabama by a segregationist mob. After the 1968 assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., he introduced a series of bills aimed at making King's birthday a state holiday. The first was tabled and later vetoed. The third bill he introduced, which was passed and signed by Gov. Richard Ogilvie, made Dr. King's birthday a commemorative day observed by Illinois public schools. It was not until 1973 that Washington was able, with Partee's help in the Senate, to have the bill enacted and signed by the governor.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legislative career", "target_page_ids": [ 1828906, 100580, 21189400 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 164 ], [ 214, 228 ], [ 269, 308 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Washington ran a largely symbolic campaign for Speaker. He only received votes from himself and from Lewis A. H. Caldwell. However, with a divided Democratic caucus, this was enough to help deny Daley-backed Clyde Choate the nomination, helping to throw it to William A. Redmond after 92 rounds of voting.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legislative career", "target_page_ids": [ 54980244, 15865721, 28110952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 121 ], [ 208, 220 ], [ 260, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Redmond had Washington appointed as chairman of the Judiciary Committee.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legislative career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to Daley's strong-arm tactics, Washington's time in the Illinois House was also marred by problems with tax returns and allegations of not performing services owed to his clients. In her biography, Levinsohn questions whether the timing of Washington's legal troubles was politically motivated. In November 1966, Washington was re-elected to the House over Daley's strong objections; the first complaint was filed in 1964; the second was filed by January 1967. A letter asking Washington to explain the matter was sent on January 5, 1967. After failing to respond to numerous summons and subpoenas, the commission recommend a five-year suspension on March 18, 1968. A formal response to the charges did not occur until July 10, 1969. In his reply, Washington said that \"sometimes personal problems are enlarged out of proportion to the entire life picture at the time and the more important things are abandoned.\" In 1970, the Board of Managers of the Chicago Bar Association ruled that Washington's license be suspended for only one year, not the five recommended; the total amount in question between all six clients was $205.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legislative career", "target_page_ids": [ 10476411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 964, 987 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1971, Washington was charged with failure to file tax returns for four years, although the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) claimed to have evidence for nineteen years. Judge Sam Perry noted that he was \"disturbed that this case ever made it to my courtroom\" — while Washington had paid his taxes, he ended up owing the government a total of $508 as a result of not filing his returns. Typically, the IRS handled such cases in civil court, or within its bureaucracy. Washington pleaded \"no contest\" and was sentenced to forty days in Cook County Jail, a $1,000 fine, and three years of probation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legislative career", "target_page_ids": [ 23430752, 20345674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 118 ], [ 176, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1975, Partee, now President of the Senate and eligible for his pension, decided to retire from the Senate. Although Daley and Taylor declined at first, at Partee's insistence, Washington was ultimately slated for the seat and received the party's support. Daley had been displeased with Washington for having run a symbolic challenge in 1975 to Daley-backed Clyde Choate for Illinois Speaker of the House (Washington had only received two votes). He had also helped ultimately push the vote towards Redmond as a compromise candidate. The United Automobile Workers union, whose backing Washington obtained, were critical in persuading Daley to relent to back his candidacy.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legislative career", "target_page_ids": [ 13102812, 15865721, 320140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 44 ], [ 361, 373 ], [ 541, 566 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Washington defeated Anna Langford by nearly 2,000 votes in the Democratic primary. He went on to win the general election.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legislative career", "target_page_ids": [ 19797480 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Illinois Senate, Washington's main focus worked to pass 1980's Illinois Human Rights Act. Legislators rewrote all of the human rights laws in the state, restricting discrimination based on \"race, color, religion, sex, national origin, ancestry, age, marital status, physical or mental disability, military status, sexual orientation, or unfavorable discharge from military service in connection with employment, real estate transactions, access to financial credit, and the availability of public accommodations.\" The bill's origins began in 1970 with the rewriting of the Illinois Constitution. The new constitution required all governmental agencies and departments to be reorganized for efficiency. Republican governor James R. Thompson reorganized low-profile departments before his re-election in 1978. In 1979, during the early stages of his second term and immediately in the aftermath of the largest vote for a gubernatorial candidate in the state's history, Thompson called for human rights reorganization. The bill would consolidate and remove some agencies, eliminating a number of political jobs. Some Democratic legislators would oppose any measure backed by Washington, Thompson and Republican legislators.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legislative career", "target_page_ids": [ 861667, 3271069, 551573 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 22 ], [ 580, 601 ], [ 729, 746 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For many years, human rights had been a campaign issue brought up and backed by Democrats. Thompson's staffers brought the bill to Washington and other black legislators before it was presented to the legislature. Washington made adjustments in anticipation of some legislators' concerns regarding the bill, before speaking for it in April 1979. On May 24, 1979, the bill passed the Senate by a vote of 59 to 1, with two voting present and six absent. The victory in the Senate was attributed by a Thompson staffer to Washington's \"calm noncombative presentation\". However, the bill stalled in the House. State Representative Susan Catania insisted on attaching an amendment to allow women guarantees in the use of credit cards. This effort was assisted by Carol Moseley Braun, a representative from Hyde Park who would later go on to serve as a U.S. Senator. State Representatives Jim Taylor and Larry Bullock introduced over one hundred amendments, including the text of the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, to try to stall the bill. With Catania's amendment, the bill passed the House, but the Senate refused to accept the amendment. On June 30, 1979, the legislature adjourned.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legislative career", "target_page_ids": [ 54231589, 186833, 278651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 626, 639 ], [ 757, 776 ], [ 800, 809 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1980, Washington was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in Illinois's 1st congressional district. He defeated incumbent Representative Bennett Stewart in the Democratic primary. Anticipating that the Democratic Party would challenge him in his bid for re-nomination in 1982, Washington spent much of his first term campaigning for re-election, often travelling back to Chicago to campaign. Washington missed many House votes, an issue that would come up in his campaign for mayor in 1983. Washington's major congressional accomplishment involved legislation to extend the Voting Rights Act, legislation that opponents had argued was only necessary in an emergency. Others, including Congressman Henry Hyde, had submitted amendments designed to seriously weaken the power of the Voting Rights Act.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legislative career", "target_page_ids": [ 19468510, 7835078, 6098320, 55791, 412034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 68 ], [ 72, 109 ], [ 148, 163 ], [ 585, 602 ], [ 708, 718 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although he had been called \"crazy\" for railing in the House of Representatives against deep cuts to social programs, Associated Press political reporter Mike Robinson noted that Washington worked \"quietly and thoughtfully\" as the time came to pass the act. During hearings in the South regarding the Voting Rights Act, Washington asked questions that shed light on tactics used to prevent African Americans from voting (among them, closing registration early, literacy tests, and gerrymandering). After the amendments were submitted on the floor, Washington spoke from prepared speeches that avoided rhetoric and addressed the issues. As a result, the amendments were defeated, and Congress passed the Voting Rights Act Extension. By the time Washington faced re-election in 1982, he had cemented his popularity in the 1st Congressional District. Jane Byrne could not find one serious candidate to run against Washington for his re-election campaign. He had collected 250,000 signatures to get on the ballot, although only 610 signatures (0.5% of the voters in the previous election) were required. With his re-election to Congress locked up, Washington turned his attention to the next Chicago mayoral election.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legislative career", "target_page_ids": [ 18935732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the February 22, 1983, Democratic mayoral primary, more than 100,000 new voters registered to vote led by a coalition that included the Latino reformed gang Young Lords led by Jose Cha Cha Jimenez. On the North and Northwest Sides, the incumbent mayor Jane Byrne led and future mayor Richard M. Daley, son of the late Mayor Richard J. Daley, finished a close second. Harold Washington had massive majorities on the South and West Sides. Southwest Side voters overwhelmingly supported Daley. Washington won with 37% of the vote, versus 33% for Byrne and 30% for Daley. Although winning the Democratic primary was normally considered tantamount to election in heavily Democratic Chicago, after his primary victory Washington found that his Republican opponent, former state legislator Bernard Epton (earlier considered a nominal stand-in), was supported by many high-ranking Democrats and their ward organizations, including the chairman of the Cook County Democratic Party, Alderman Edward Vrdolyak.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1983–1987)", "target_page_ids": [ 1014772, 27583717, 40304, 40222, 40221, 1058128, 32070, 1201171, 96268, 1215165 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 171 ], [ 179, 199 ], [ 255, 265 ], [ 287, 303 ], [ 327, 343 ], [ 636, 658 ], [ 742, 752 ], [ 787, 800 ], [ 947, 958 ], [ 986, 1001 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Epton's campaign referred to, among other things, Washington's conviction for failure to file income tax returns (he had paid the taxes, but had not filed a return). Washington, on the other hand, stressed reforming the Chicago patronage system and the need for a jobs program in a tight economy. In the April 12, 1983, mayoral general election, Washington defeated Epton by 3.7%, 51.7% to 48.0%, to become mayor of Chicago. Washington was sworn in as mayor on April 29, 1983, and resigned his Congressional seat the following day.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1983–1987)", "target_page_ids": [ 50845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During his tenure as mayor, Washington lived at the Hampton House apartments in the Hyde Park neighborhood of Chicago. He created the city's first environmental-affairs department under the management of longtime Great Lakes environmentalist Lee Botts. Washington's first term in office was characterized by conflict with the city council dubbed \"Council Wars\", referring to the then-recent Star Wars films and caused Chicago to be nicknamed \"Beirut on the Lake\". A 29-alderman City Council majority refused to enact Washington's legislation and prevented him from appointing nominees to boards and commissions. First-term challenges included city population loss and a massive decrease in ridership on the Chicago Transit Authority (CTA). Assertions that the overall crime rate increased were incorrect.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1983–1987)", "target_page_ids": [ 6737496, 278651, 12975183, 3273558, 26678, 37428, 17948, 416981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 65 ], [ 84, 93 ], [ 242, 251 ], [ 347, 359 ], [ 391, 400 ], [ 443, 449 ], [ 457, 461 ], [ 707, 732 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 29, also known as the \"Vrdolyak 29\", were led by Vrdolyak (who was an Alderman in addition to Cook County Democratic Party chairman) and Finance Chair, Alderman Edward Burke. Parks superintendent Edmund Kelly also opposed the mayor. The three were known as \"the Eddies\" and were supported by the younger Daley (now State's Attorney), U.S. Congressmen Dan Rostenkowski and William Lipinski, and much of the Democratic Party. During his first city council meeting, Washington and the 21 supportive aldermen walked out of the meeting after a quorum had been established. Vrdolyak and the other 28 then chose committee chairmen and assigned aldermen to the various committees. Later lawsuits submitted by Washington and others were dismissed by Supreme Court Justice James C. Murray because it was determined that the appointments were legally made. Washington ruled by veto. The 29 lacked the 30th vote they needed to override Washington's veto; female and African American aldermen supported Washington despite pressure from the Eddies. Meanwhile, in the courts, Washington kept the pressure on to reverse the redistricting of city council wards that the city council had created during the Byrne years. During special elections in 1986, victorious Washington-backed candidates in the first round ensured at least 24 supporters in the city council. Six weeks later, when Marlene Carter and Luís Gutiérrez won run-off elections, Washington had the 25 aldermen he needed. His vote as president of the City Council enabled him to break 25–25 tie-votes and enact his programs.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1983–1987)", "target_page_ids": [ 1545652, 663922, 412013, 216429, 2426619, 412017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 165, 177 ], [ 355, 371 ], [ 376, 392 ], [ 745, 766 ], [ 767, 782 ], [ 1393, 1407 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Washington defeated former mayor Jane Byrne in the February 24, 1987 Democratic mayoral primary by 7.2%, 53.5% to 46.3%, and in the April 7, 1987 mayoral general election defeated Vrdolyak (Illinois Solidarity Party) by 11.8%, 53.8% to 42.8%, with Northwestern University business professor Donald Haider (Republican) getting 4.3%, to win reelection to a second term as mayor. Cook County Assessor Thomas Hynes (Chicago First Party), a Daley ally, dropped out of the race 36 hours before the mayoral general election. During Washington's short second term, the Eddies lost much of their power: Vrdolyak became a Republican, Kelly was removed from his powerful parks post, and Burke lost his Finance Committee chairmanship.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1983–1987)", "target_page_ids": [ 40304, 717639, 39199984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 43 ], [ 199, 215 ], [ 398, 410 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From March 1984 to 1987, the Political Education Project (PEP) served as Washington's political arm, organizing both Washington's campaigns and the campaigns of his political allies. Harold Washington established the Political Education Project in 1984. This organization supported Washington's interests in electoral politics beyond the Office of the Mayor. PEP helped organize political candidates for statewide elections in 1984 and managed Washington's participation in the 1984 Democratic National Convention as a \"favorite son\" presidential candidate. PEP used its political connections to support candidates such as Luis Gutiérrez and Jesús \"Chuy\" García through field operations, voter registration and Election Day poll monitoring. Once elected, these aldermen helped break the stalemate between Washington and his opponents in the city council. Due to PEP's efforts, Washington's City Council legislation gained ground and his popularity grew as the 1987 mayoral election approached. In preparation for the 1987 mayoral election, PEP formed the Committee to Re-Elect Mayor Washington. This organization carried out fundraising for the campaign, conducted campaign events, and coordinated volunteers. PEP staff members, such as Joseph Gardner and Helen Shiller, went on to play leading roles in Chicago politics.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1983–1987)", "target_page_ids": [ 412017, 44518105, 1265515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 623, 637 ], [ 642, 661 ], [ 1256, 1269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The organization disbanded upon Harold Washington's death. Harold Washington's Political Education Project Records is an archival collection detailing the organization's work. It is located in the Chicago Public Library Special Collections, Harold Washington Library Center, Chicago, Illinois.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1983–1987)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Washington, during his mayorship, announced a plan to redevelop a commercial site into a DuSable Park, named in honor of Jean Baptiste Point du Sable, the honorary founder of the city. The project has yet to be completed, has experienced a number of bureaucratic reconceptions and roadblocks, and is currently spearheaded by the DuSable Heritage Association.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mayor of Chicago (1983–1987)", "target_page_ids": [ 9372811, 40415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 101 ], [ 121, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On November 25, 1987, at 11:00a.m., Chicago Fire Department paramedics were called to City Hall. Washington's press secretary, Alton Miller, had been discussing school board issues with the mayor when Washington suddenly slumped over on his desk, falling unconscious. After failing to revive Washington in his office, paramedics rushed him to Northwestern Memorial Hospital. Further attempts to revive him failed, and Washington was pronounced dead at 1:36p.m. At Daley Plaza, Patrick Keen, project director for the Westside Habitat for Humanity, announced Washington's official time of death to a separate gathering of Chicagoans. Initial reactions to the pronouncement of his death were of shock and sadness, as many black people believed that Washington was the only top Chicago official who would address their concerns. Thousands of Chicagoans attended his wake in the lobby of City Hall between November 27 and 29, 1987. On November 30, 1987, Reverend B. Herbert Martin officiated Washington's funeral service in Christ Universal Temple at 119th Street and Ashland Avenue in Chicago. After the service, Washington was buried in Oak Woods Cemetery on the South Side of Chicago.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Death and funeral", "target_page_ids": [ 753323, 6524528, 450053, 1418332, 772050, 2050581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 59 ], [ 343, 373 ], [ 525, 545 ], [ 862, 866 ], [ 883, 892 ], [ 1134, 1152 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Immediately after Washington's death, rumors about how Washington died began to surface. On January 6, 1988, Dr. Antonio Senat, Washington's personal physician, denied \"unfounded speculations\" that Washington had cocaine in his system at the time of his death, or that foul play was involved. Cook County Medical Examiner Robert J. Stein performed an autopsy on Washington and concluded that Washington had died of a heart attack. Washington had weighed , and suffered from hypertension, high cholesterol levels, and an enlarged heart. On June 20, 1988, Alton Miller again indicated that drug reports on Washington had come back negative, and that Washington had not been poisoned prior to his death. Dr. Stein stated that the only drug in Washington's system had been lidocaine, which is used to stabilize the heart after a heart attack takes place. The drug was given to Washington either by paramedics or by doctors at Northwestern Memorial Hospital. Bernard Epton, Washington's opponent in the 1983 general election, died 18 days later, on December 13, 1987.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Death and funeral", "target_page_ids": [ 7701, 96268, 1024739, 342334, 77432, 513039, 3219051, 298762, 1201171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 213, 220 ], [ 293, 304 ], [ 305, 321 ], [ 351, 358 ], [ 474, 486 ], [ 488, 504 ], [ 520, 534 ], [ 769, 778 ], [ 954, 967 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At a party held shortly after his re-election on April 7, 1987, Washington said to a group of supporters, \"In the old days, when you told people in other countries that you were from Chicago, they would say, 'Boom-boom! Rat-a-tat-tat!' Nowadays, they say [crowd joins with him], 'How's Harold?'!\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In later years, various city facilities and institutions were named or renamed after the late mayor to commemorate his legacy. The new building housing the main branch of the Chicago Public Library, located at 400 South State Street, was named the Harold Washington Library Center. The Chicago Public Library Special Collections, located on the building's 9th floor, house the Harold Washington Archives and Collections. These archives hold numerous collections related to Washington's life and political career.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 710757, 1446564, 2829575, 710757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 175, 197 ], [ 220, 232 ], [ 248, 280 ], [ 286, 308 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Five months after Washington's sudden death in office, a ceremony was held on April 19, 1988, changing the name of Loop College, one of the City Colleges of Chicago, to Harold Washington College. Harold Washington Elementary School in Chicago's Chatham neighborhood is also named after the former mayor. In August 2004, the Harold Washington Cultural Center opened to the public in the Bronzeville neighborhood. Across from the Hampton House apartments where Washington lived, a city park was renamed Harold Washington Park, which was known for \"Harold's Parakeets\", a colony of feral monk parakeets that inhabited Ash Trees in the park. A building on the campus of Chicago State University is named Harold Washington Hall.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 2836686, 2064432, 11617889, 1327441, 8707704, 42787025, 1622723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 164 ], [ 169, 194 ], [ 325, 358 ], [ 387, 398 ], [ 502, 524 ], [ 586, 599 ], [ 667, 691 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Six months after Washington's death, School of the Art Institute of Chicago student David Nelson painted Mirth & Girth, a full-length portrait depicting Washington wearing women's lingerie. The work was unveiled on May 11, 1988, opening day of SAIC's annual student exhibition. Within hours, City aldermen and members of the Chicago Police Department seized the painting. It was later returned, but with a five-inch (13cm) gash in the canvas. Nelson, assisted by the ACLU, filed a federal lawsuit against the city, claiming that the painting's confiscation and subsequent damaging violated his First Amendment rights. The complainants eventually split a US$95,000 (1994, US$138,000 in 2008) settlement from the city.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 41964, 15482915, 1950, 18717338, 18717338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 75 ], [ 105, 118 ], [ 467, 471 ], [ 654, 657 ], [ 671, 674 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of African-American United States representatives", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 47405383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ed Lee, first Asian American Mayor of San Francisco, who also died in office of a heart attack at the same age as Washington", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 30362351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Events in the Life of Harold Washington (mural)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 25317212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Harold\" Program 84— A This American Life radio story that aired on November 21, 1997. It recounts the political history of Washington's mayoralty. Another program on This American Life is Act 4 \"The Other Guy,\" Program 376: Wrong Side of History. This program recounts the story of Bernie Epton, the opponent in the mayoral race against Harold Washington.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 307025, 1201171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 41 ], [ 284, 296 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "[ The Harold Washington Commemorative Year] ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Harold Washington Archives and Collections at Chicago Public Library", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"The Legacy of Chicago's Harold Washington\", Cheryl Corley, All Things Considered, November 23, 2007. Retrieved November 23, 2007.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 346644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ", video excerpt from a 1986 documentary special on Richard J. Daley", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 40221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harold Washington's Political Education Project Records, Black Metropolis Research Consortium", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Young Lords in Lincoln Park Neighborhood Collection", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "African-American_mayors_in_Illinois", "Mayors_of_Chicago", "1922_births", "1987_deaths", "African-American_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives", "African-American_United_States_Army_personnel", "African-American_state_legislators_in_Illinois", "United_States_Army_Air_Forces_personnel_of_World_War_II", "Illinois_lawyers", "Illinois_state_senators", "Members_of_the_Illinois_House_of_Representatives", "Roosevelt_University_alumni", "Northwestern_University_Pritzker_School_of_Law_alumni", "United_States_Army_Air_Forces_soldiers", "Democratic_Party_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives_from_Illinois", "African-American_Methodists", "20th-century_African-American_people", "20th-century_American_lawyers", "20th-century_American_politicians", "African-American_history_in_Chicago", "African_Americans_in_World_War_II" ]

[ "Harold Lee Washington" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The stability of a plasma is an important consideration in the study of plasma physics. When a system containing a plasma is at equilibrium, it is possible for certain parts of the plasma to be disturbed by small perturbative forces acting on it. The stability of the system determines if the perturbations will grow, oscillate, or be damped out.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25916521, 25916521, 92290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 86 ], [ 115, 121 ], [ 128, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In many cases, a plasma can be treated as a fluid and its stability analyzed with magnetohydrodynamics (MHD). MHD theory is the simplest representation of a plasma, so MHD stability is a necessity for stable devices to be used for nuclear fusion, specifically magnetic fusion energy. There are, however, other types of instabilities, such as velocity-space instabilities in magnetic mirrors and systems with beams. There are also rare cases of systems, e.g. the field-reversed configuration, predicted by MHD to be unstable, but which are observed to be stable, probably due to kinetic effects.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 40310, 21544, 1690634, 548173, 40234, 1722757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 102 ], [ 231, 245 ], [ 260, 282 ], [ 319, 332 ], [ 374, 389 ], [ 462, 490 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Plasma instabilities can be divided into two general groups:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "hydrodynamic instabilities", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "kinetic instabilities.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Plasma instabilities are also categorised into different modes (e.g. with reference to a particle beam):", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Buneman instability,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Farley–Buneman instability,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 46631677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jeans–Buneman instability,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Relativistic Buneman instability,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cherenkov instability,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 253253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Coalescence instability,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Non-linear coalescence instability", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chute instability, ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Collapse instability, ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cyclotron instabilities, including:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alfven cyclotron instability", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cyclotron maser instability,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Electron cyclotron instability", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Electrostatic ion cyclotron Instability", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ion cyclotron instability", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnetoacoustic cyclotron instability", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Proton cyclotron instability", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Non-resonant beam-type cyclotron instability", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Relativistic ion cyclotron instability", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Whistler cyclotron instability", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Diocotron instability, (similar to the Kelvin-Helmholtz fluid instability).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 13833363, 567946 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 40, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Disruptive instability (in tokamaks)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 31439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Double emission instability, ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Edge-localized modes,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 8934267 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Explosive instability (or Ballooning instability),", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 30667415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Double plasma resonance instability,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Drift instability (a.k.a. drift-wave instability, or universal instability)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 65879198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lower hybrid (drift) instability (in the Critical ionization velocity mechanism)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 3127858 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnetic drift instability,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Slow Drift Instability", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Electrothermal instability", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 18935256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fan instability,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Firehose instability (a.k.a. hose instability), not to be confused with the similarly named Firehose instability in galactic dynamics", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 22615385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fish instability, ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Free electron maser instability, ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gyrotron instability, ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Helical (Helix) instability, ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jeans instability,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 4741089 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnetorotational instability (in accretion disks)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 12010787, 48400112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ], [ 35, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnetothermal instability (Laser-plasmas), ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Modulational instability", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 23602727 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Non-Abelian instability,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Pair instability (in supernovae)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 11127278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Parker instability (magnetic buoyancy instability),", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Peratt instability (stacked toroids)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 35537033, 14973218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 29, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pinch instability (a.k.a. Bennett pinch instability),", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sausage instability (m=0)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kink instability (m=1)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 17192773 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Helical kink instability (a.k.a. helical instability)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rayleigh–Taylor instability (RTI, a.k.a. gravitational instability)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 1749848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Interchange instability (a.k.a. flute instability),", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 53193155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rotating instability, ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tearing mode instability (or resistive tearing instability)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Two-stream instability (a.k.a. beam-plasma instability, counter-streaming instability)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 2485805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Beam acoustic instability", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bump-on-tail instability", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ion beam instability", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Weak beam instability", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Weibel instability", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 14510148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chromo–Weibel instability (i.e. non-abelian instability)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 14498600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Filamentation instability (a.k.a. beam-Weibel instability),", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plasma instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Beta is a ratio of the plasma pressure over the magnetic field strength.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "MHD Instabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 7023931, 36563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 48, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "MHD stability at high beta is crucial for a compact, cost-effective magnetic fusion reactor. Fusion power density varies roughly as at constant magnetic field, or as at constant bootstrap fraction in configurations with externally driven plasma current. (Here is the normalized beta.) In many cases MHD stability represents the primary limitation on beta and thus on fusion power density. MHD stability is also closely tied to issues of creation and sustainment of certain magnetic configurations, energy confinement, and steady-state operation. Critical issues include understanding and extending the stability limits through the use of a", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "MHD Instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "variety of plasma configurations, and developing active means for reliable operation near those limits. Accurate predictive capabilities are needed, which will require the addition of new physics to existing MHD models. Although a wide range of magnetic configurations exist, the underlying MHD physics is common to all. Understanding of MHD stability gained in one configuration can benefit others, by verifying analytic theories, providing benchmarks for predictive MHD stability codes, and advancing the development of active control techniques.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "MHD Instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The most fundamental and critical stability issue for magnetic fusion is simply that MHD instabilities often limit performance at high beta. In most cases the important instabilities are long wavelength, global modes, because of their ability to cause severe degradation of energy confinement or termination of the plasma. Some important examples that are common to many magnetic configurations are ideal kink modes, resistive wall modes, and neoclassical tearing modes. A possible consequence of violating stability boundaries is a disruption, a sudden loss of thermal energy often followed by termination of the discharge. The key issue thus includes understanding the nature of the beta limit in the various configurations, including the associated thermal and magnetic stresses, and finding ways to avoid the limits or mitigate the consequences. A wide range of approaches to preventing such instabilities is under investigation, including optimization of the configuration of the plasma and its confinement device, control of the internal structure of the plasma, and active control of the MHD instabilities.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "MHD Instabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 7023931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 685, 695 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ideal MHD instabilities driven by current or pressure gradients represent the ultimate operational limit for most configurations. The long-wavelength kink mode and short-wavelength ballooning mode limits are generally well understood and can in principle be avoided.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "MHD Instabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Intermediate-wavelength modes (n ~ 510 modes encountered in tokamak edge plasmas, for example) are less well understood due to the computationally intensive nature of the stability calculations. The extensive beta limit database for tokamaks is consistent with ideal MHD stability limits, yielding agreement to within about 10% in beta for cases where the internal profiles of the plasma are accurately measured. This good agreement provides confidence in ideal stability calculations for other configurations and in the design of prototype fusion reactors.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "MHD Instabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 31439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Resistive wall modes (RWM) develop in plasmas that require the presence of a perfectly conducting wall for stability. RWM stability is a key issue for many magnetic configurations. Moderate beta values are possible without a nearby wall in the tokamak, stellarator, and other configurations, but a nearby conducting wall can significantly improve ideal kink mode stability in most configurations, including the tokamak, ST, reversed field pinch (RFP), spheromak, and possibly the FRC. In the advanced tokamak and ST, wall stabilization is critical for operation with a large bootstrap fraction. The spheromak requires wall stabilization to avoid the low-m, n tilt and shift modes, and possibly bending modes. However, in the presence of a non-ideal wall, the slowly growing RWM is unstable. The resistive wall mode has been a long-standing issue for the RFP, and has more recently been observed in tokamak experiments. Progress in understanding the physics of the RWM and developing the means to stabilize it could be directly applicable to all magnetic configurations. A closely related issue is to understand plasma rotation, its sources and sinks, and its role in stabilizing the RWM.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "MHD Instabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 31439, 29591, 30519868, 274120, 1997197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 244, 251 ], [ 253, 264 ], [ 420, 422 ], [ 424, 444 ], [ 452, 461 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Resistive instabilities are an issue for all magnetic configurations, since the onset can occur at beta values well below the ideal limit. The stability of neoclassical tearing modes (NTM) is a key issue for magnetic configurations with a strong bootstrap current. The NTM is a metastable mode; in certain plasma configurations, a sufficiently large deformation of the bootstrap current produced by a “seed island” can contribute to the growth of the island. The NTM is already an important performance-limiting factor in many tokamak experiments, leading to degraded confinement or disruption. Although the basic mechanism is well established, the capability to predict the onset in present and future devices requires better understanding of the damping mechanisms which determine the threshold island size, and of the mode coupling by which other instabilities (such as sawteeth in tokamaks) can generate seed islands. Resistive Ballooning Mode, similar to ideal ballooning, but with finite resistivity taken into consideration, provides another example of a resistive instability.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "MHD Instabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 30154962, 13307983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 246, 263 ], [ 922, 947 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The configuration of the plasma and its confinement device represent an", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Opportunities for Improving MHD Stability", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "opportunity to improve MHD stability in a robust way. The benefits of discharge shaping and low aspect ratio for ideal MHD stability have been clearly demonstrated in tokamaks and STs, and will continue to be investigated in experiments such as DIII-D, Alcator C-Mod, NSTX, and MAST. New stellarator experiments such as NCSX (proposed) will test the prediction that addition of appropriately designed helical coils can stabilize ideal kink modes at high beta, and lower-beta tests", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Opportunities for Improving MHD Stability", "target_page_ids": [ 2649013, 3540994, 4365438, 1908560, 4365725 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 245, 251 ], [ 253, 266 ], [ 268, 272 ], [ 278, 282 ], [ 320, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "of ballooning stability are possible in HSX. The new ST experiments provide an opportunity to test predictions that a low aspect ratio yields improved stability to tearing modes, including neoclassical, through a large stabilizing “Glasser effect” term associated with a large Pfirsch-Schlüter current. Neoclassical tearing modes can be avoided by minimizing the bootstrap current in quasi-helical and quasi-omnigenous stellarator configurations. Neoclassical tearing modes are also stabilized with the appropriate relative signs of the bootstrap current and the magnetic shear; this prediction is supported by the absence of NTMs in central negative shear regions of tokamaks. Stellarator configurations such as the proposed NCSX, a quasi-axisymmetric stellarator design, can be created with negative magnetic shear and positive bootstrap current to achieve stability to the NTM. Kink mode stabilization by a resistive wall has been demonstrated in RFPs and tokamaks, and will be investigated in other configurations including STs (NSTX) and spheromaks (SSPX). A new proposal to stabilize resistive wall modes by a flowing liquid lithium wall needs further evaluation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Opportunities for Improving MHD Stability", "target_page_ids": [ 3810122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 232, 246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Control of the internal structure of the plasma allows more active avoidance of MHD instabilities. Maintaining the proper current density profile, for example, can help to maintain stability to tearing modes. Open-loop optimization of the pressure and current density profiles with external heating and current drive sources is routinely used in many devices. Improved diagnostic measurements along with localized heating and current drive sources, now becoming available, will allow active feedback control of the internal profiles in the near future.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Opportunities for Improving MHD Stability", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Such work is beginning or planned in most of the large tokamaks (JET, JT–60U, DIII–D, C–Mod, and ASDEX–U) using RF heating and current drive. Real-time analysis of profile data such as MSE current profile measurements and real-time identification of stability boundaries are essential components of profile control. Strong plasma rotation can stabilize resistive wall modes, as demonstrated in tokamak experiments, and rotational shear is also predicted to stabilize resistive modes. Opportunities to test these predictions are provided by configurations such as the ST, spheromak, and FRC, which have a large natural diamagnetic rotation, as well as tokamaks with rotation driven by neutral beam injection. The Electric Tokamak experiment is intended to have a very large driven rotation, approaching Alfvénic regimes where ideal stability may also be influenced. Maintaining sufficient plasma rotation, and the possible role of the RWM in damping the rotation, are important issues that can be investigated in these experiments.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Opportunities for Improving MHD Stability", "target_page_ids": [ 261352, 649485, 2649013, 3540994, 5797354, 42852, 5663769, 907108 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 68 ], [ 70, 76 ], [ 78, 84 ], [ 86, 91 ], [ 97, 104 ], [ 112, 114 ], [ 712, 728 ], [ 802, 810 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Active feedback control of MHD instabilities should allow operation beyond the “passive” stability limits. Localized RF current drive at the rational surface is predicted to reduce or eliminate neoclassical tearing mode islands. Experiments have begun in ASDEXU and COMPASS-D with promising results, and are planned for next year in DIIID. Routine use of such a technique in generalized plasma conditions will require real-time identification of the unstable mode and its radial location. If the plasma rotation needed to stabilize the resistive wall mode cannot be maintained, feedback stabilization with external coils will be required. Feedback experiments have begun in DIIID and HBT-EP, and feedback control should be explored for the RFP and other configurations. Physics understanding of these active control techniques will be directly applicable between configurations.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Opportunities for Improving MHD Stability", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The techniques discussed above for improving MHD stability are the principal means of avoiding disruptions. However, in the event that these techniques do not prevent an instability, the effects of a disruption can be mitigated by various techniques. Experiments in JT60U have demonstrated reduction of electromagnetic stresses through operation at a neutral point for vertical stability. Pre-emptive removal of the plasma energy by injection of a large gas puff or an impurity pellet has been demonstrated in tokamak experiments, and ongoing experiments in CMod, JT60U, ASDEXU, and DIIID will improve the understanding and predictive capability. Cryogenic liquid jets of helium are another proposed technique, which may be required for larger devices. Mitigation techniques developed for tokamaks will be directly applicable to other configurations.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Opportunities for Improving MHD Stability", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "List of plasma physics articles", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 33820413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of hydrodynamic instabilities named after people", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15499236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 53 ] ] } ]

[ "Plasma_instabilities", "Stability_theory" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD; also called magneto-fluid dynamics or hydromagnetics) is the study of the magnetic properties and behaviour of electrically conducting fluids. Examples of such magnetofluids include plasmas, liquid metals, salt water, and electrolytes. The word \"magnetohydrodynamics\" is derived from magneto- meaning magnetic field, hydro- meaning water, and dynamics meaning movement. The field of MHD was initiated by Hannes Alfvén, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1970.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 61580, 10915, 25916521, 29559759, 70663, 48336, 36563, 33306, 165123, 21201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 138, 161 ], [ 162, 167 ], [ 209, 216 ], [ 218, 230 ], [ 233, 243 ], [ 249, 260 ], [ 328, 342 ], [ 359, 364 ], [ 431, 444 ], [ 472, 483 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The fundamental concept behind MHD is that magnetic fields can induce currents in a moving conductive fluid, which in turn polarizes the fluid and reciprocally changes the magnetic field itself. The set of equations that describe MHD are a combination of the Navier–Stokes equations of fluid dynamics and Maxwell’s equations of electro­magnetism. These differential equations must be solved simultaneously, either analytically or numerically.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 65888, 48395, 11034, 19737, 9532, 1424309, 249617, 21506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 69 ], [ 259, 282 ], [ 286, 300 ], [ 305, 324 ], [ 328, 345 ], [ 353, 374 ], [ 391, 405 ], [ 430, 441 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first recorded use of the word magnetohydrodynamics is by Hannes Alfvén in 1942:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 165123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ebbing salty water flowing past London's Waterloo Bridge interacts with the Earth's magnetic field to produce a potential difference between the two river-banks. Michael Faraday called this effect \"magneto-electric induction\" and tried this experiment in 1832 but the current was too small to measure with the equipment at the time, and the river bed contributed to short-circuit the signal. However, by a similar process the voltage induced by the tide in the English Channel was measured in 1851.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 360367, 146983, 19727 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 60 ], [ 80, 102 ], [ 167, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Faraday carefully omitted the term of hydrodynamics in this work.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The simplest form of MHD, Ideal MHD, assumes that the fluid has so little resistivity that it can be treated as a perfect conductor. This is the limit of infinite magnetic Reynolds number. In ideal MHD, Lenz's law dictates that the fluid is in a sense tied to the magnetic field lines. To explain, in ideal MHD a small rope-like volume of fluid surrounding a field line will continue to lie along a magnetic field line, even as it is twisted and distorted by fluid flows in the system. This is sometimes referred to as the magnetic field lines being \"frozen\" in the fluid. The connection between magnetic field lines and fluid in ideal MHD fixes the topology of the magnetic field in the fluid—for example, if a set of magnetic field lines are tied into a knot, then they will remain so as long as the fluid/plasma has negligible resistivity. This difficulty in reconnecting magnetic field lines makes it possible to store energy by moving the fluid or the source of the magnetic field. The energy can then become available if the conditions for ideal MHD break down, allowing magnetic reconnection that releases the stored energy from the magnetic field.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideal and resistive MHD", "target_page_ids": [ 61580, 2635006, 3201650, 187461, 45058796, 29954, 1166647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 85 ], [ 114, 131 ], [ 164, 188 ], [ 204, 214 ], [ 551, 572 ], [ 651, 659 ], [ 1080, 1101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ideal MHD equations consist of the continuity equation, the Cauchy momentum equation, Ampere's Law neglecting displacement current, and a temperature evolution equation. As with any fluid description to a kinetic system, a closure approximation must be applied to highest moment of the particle distribution equation. This is often accomplished with approximations to the heat flux through a condition of adiabaticity or isothermality.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideal and resistive MHD", "target_page_ids": [ 410793, 16408009, 199304, 67088, 1419, 409951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 58 ], [ 64, 88 ], [ 90, 102 ], [ 142, 172 ], [ 411, 423 ], [ 427, 440 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The main quantities which characterize the electrically conducting fluid are the bulk plasma velocity field , the current density , the mass density , and the plasma pressure . The flowing electric charge in the plasma is the source of a magnetic field and electric field . All quantities generally vary with time . Vector operator notation will be used, in particular is gradient, is divergence, and is curl.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideal and resistive MHD", "target_page_ids": [ 11885926, 5498706, 8429, 23619, 36563, 41092, 418352, 12461, 8328, 6123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 107 ], [ 114, 129 ], [ 136, 148 ], [ 166, 174 ], [ 238, 252 ], [ 258, 272 ], [ 317, 332 ], [ 374, 382 ], [ 388, 398 ], [ 408, 412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mass continuity equation is", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideal and resistive MHD", "target_page_ids": [ 410793 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Cauchy momentum equation is", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideal and resistive MHD", "target_page_ids": [ 16408009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Lorentz force term can be expanded using Ampère's law and the vector calculus identity", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideal and resistive MHD", "target_page_ids": [ 18631, 199304, 3114930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 46, 58 ], [ 67, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "to give", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideal and resistive MHD", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where the first term on the right hand side is the magnetic tension force and the second term is the magnetic pressure force.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideal and resistive MHD", "target_page_ids": [ 4585250, 4175003 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 73 ], [ 101, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ideal Ohm's law for a plasma is given by", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideal and resistive MHD", "target_page_ids": [ 49090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Faraday's law is", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideal and resistive MHD", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The low-frequency Ampère's law neglects displacement current and is given by", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideal and resistive MHD", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The magnetic divergence constraint is", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideal and resistive MHD", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The energy equation is given by", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideal and resistive MHD", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is the ratio of specific heats for an adiabatic equation of state. This energy equation is only applicable in the absence of shocks or heat conduction as it assumes that the entropy of a fluid element does not change.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideal and resistive MHD", "target_page_ids": [ 28420, 1419, 9908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 36 ], [ 45, 54 ], [ 55, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ideal MHD is only strictly applicable when:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideal and resistive MHD", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The plasma is strongly collisional, so that the time scale of collisions is shorter than the other characteristic times in the system, and the particle distributions are therefore close to Maxwellian.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideal and resistive MHD", "target_page_ids": [ 19830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 190, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The resistivity due to these collisions is small. In particular, the typical magnetic diffusion times over any scale length present in the system must be longer than any time scale of interest.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideal and resistive MHD", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Interest in length scales much longer than the ion skin depth and Larmor radius perpendicular to the field, long enough along the field to ignore Landau damping, and time scales much longer than the ion gyration time (system is smooth and slowly evolving).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideal and resistive MHD", "target_page_ids": [ 4501325, 4729841, 698720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 62 ], [ 67, 80 ], [ 147, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In an imperfectly conducting fluid the magnetic field can generally move through the fluid following a diffusion law with the resistivity of the plasma serving as a diffusion constant. This means that solutions to the ideal MHD equations are only applicable for a limited time for a region of a given size before diffusion becomes too important to ignore. One can estimate the diffusion time across a solar active region (from collisional resistivity) to be hundreds to thousands of years, much longer than the actual lifetime of a sunspot—so it would seem reasonable to ignore the resistivity. By contrast, a meter-sized volume of seawater has a magnetic diffusion time measured in milliseconds.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideal and resistive MHD", "target_page_ids": [ 645335, 11671, 20907718 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 116 ], [ 165, 183 ], [ 402, 421 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Even in physical systems—which are large and conductive enough that simple estimates of the Lundquist number suggest that the resistivity can be ignored—resistivity may still be important: many instabilities exist that can increase the effective resistivity of the plasma by factors of more than 109. The enhanced resistivity is usually the result of the formation of small scale structure like current sheets or fine scale magnetic turbulence, introducing small spatial scales into the system over which ideal MHD is broken and magnetic diffusion can occur quickly. When this happens, magnetic reconnection may occur in the plasma to release stored magnetic energy as waves, bulk mechanical acceleration of material, particle acceleration, and heat.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideal and resistive MHD", "target_page_ids": [ 13363621, 548173, 27176781, 1711075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 108 ], [ 194, 207 ], [ 433, 443 ], [ 718, 739 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Magnetic reconnection in highly conductive systems is important because it concentrates energy in time and space, so that gentle forces applied to a plasma for long periods of time can cause violent explosions and bursts of radiation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideal and resistive MHD", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When the fluid cannot be considered as completely conductive, but the other conditions for ideal MHD are satisfied, it is possible to use an extended model called resistive MHD. This includes an extra term in Ohm's Law which models the collisional resistivity. Generally MHD computer simulations are at least somewhat resistive because their computational grid introduces a numerical resistivity.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideal and resistive MHD", "target_page_ids": [ 2785821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 374, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another limitation of MHD (and fluid theories in general) is that they depend on the assumption that the plasma is strongly collisional (this is the first criterion listed above), so that the time scale of collisions is shorter than the other characteristic times in the system, and the particle distributions are Maxwellian. This is usually not the case in fusion, space and astrophysical plasmas. When this is not the case, or the interest is in smaller spatial scales, it may be necessary to use a kinetic model which properly accounts for the non-Maxwellian shape of the distribution function. However, because MHD is relatively simple and captures many of the important properties of plasma dynamics it is often qualitatively accurate and is therefore often the first model tried.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideal and resistive MHD", "target_page_ids": [ 19830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 314, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Effects which are essentially kinetic and not captured by fluid models include double layers, Landau damping, a wide range of instabilities, chemical separation in space plasmas and electron runaway. In the case of ultra-high intensity laser interactions, the incredibly short timescales of energy deposition mean that hydrodynamic codes fail to capture the essential physics.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideal and resistive MHD", "target_page_ids": [ 13651046, 698720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 92 ], [ 94, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In many MHD systems most of the electric current is compressed into thin nearly-two-dimensional ribbons termed current sheets. These can divide the fluid into magnetic domains, inside of which the currents are relatively weak. Current sheets in", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structures in MHD systems", "target_page_ids": [ 2635884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "the solar corona are thought to be between a few meters and a few kilometers in thickness, which is quite thin compared to the magnetic domains (which are thousands to hundreds of thousands of kilometers across). Another example is in the Earth's magnetosphere, where current sheets separate topologically distinct domains, isolating most of the Earth's ionosphere from the solar wind.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structures in MHD systems", "target_page_ids": [ 20479, 15097, 28538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 247, 260 ], [ 354, 364 ], [ 374, 384 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The wave modes derived using MHD plasma theory are called magnetohydrodynamic waves or MHD waves. In general there are three MHD wave modes:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Waves", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Pure (or oblique) Alfvén wave", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Waves", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Slow MHD wave", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Waves", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fast MHD wave", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Waves", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "All these waves have constant phase velocities for all frequencies, and hence there is no dispersion. At the limits when the angle between the wave propagation vector and magnetic field is either 0° (180°) or 90°, the wave modes are called:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Waves", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The phase velocity depends on the angle between the wave vector and the magnetic field . An MHD wave propagating at an arbitrary angle with respect to the time independent or bulk field will satisfy the dispersion relation", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Waves", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Waves", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "is the Alfvén speed. This branch corresponds to the shear Alfvén mode. Additionally the dispersion equation gives", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Waves", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Waves", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "is the ideal gas speed of sound. The plus branch corresponds to the fast-MHD wave mode and the minus branch corresponds to the slow-MHD wave mode.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Waves", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The MHD oscillations will be damped if the fluid is not perfectly conducting but has a finite conductivity, or if viscous effects are present.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Waves", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "MHD waves and oscillations are a popular tool for the remote diagnostics of laboratory and astrophysical plasmas, for example, the corona of the Sun (Coronal seismology).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Waves", "target_page_ids": [ 7839, 18176668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 137 ], [ 150, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Resistive", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Extensions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Resistive MHD describes magnetized fluids with finite electron diffusivity (). This diffusivity leads to a breaking in the magnetic topology; magnetic field lines can 'reconnect' when they collide. Usually this term is small and reconnections can be handled by thinking of them as not dissimilar to shocks; this process has been shown to be important in the Earth-Solar magnetic interactions.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Extensions", "target_page_ids": [ 9080192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 302, 308 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Extended", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Extensions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Extended MHD describes a class of phenomena in plasmas that are higher order than resistive MHD, but which can adequately be treated with a single fluid description. These include the effects of Hall physics, electron pressure gradients, finite Larmor Radii in the particle gyromotion, and electron inertia.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Extensions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Two-fluid", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Extensions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Two-fluid MHD describes plasmas that include a non-negligible Hall electric field. As a result, the electron and ion momenta must be treated separately. This description is more closely tied to Maxwell's equations as an evolution equation for the electric field exists.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Extensions", "target_page_ids": [ 41092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hall", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Extensions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In 1960, M. J. Lighthill criticized the applicability of ideal or resistive MHD theory for plasmas. It concerned the neglect of the \"Hall current term\", a frequent simplification made in magnetic fusion theory. Hall-magnetohydrodynamics (HMHD) takes into account this electric field description of magnetohydrodynamics. The most important difference is that in the absence of field line breaking, the magnetic field is tied to the electrons and not to the bulk fluid.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Extensions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Electron MHD", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Extensions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Electron Magnetohydrodynamics (EMHD) describes small scales plasmas when electron motion is much faster than the ion one. The main effects are changes in conservation laws, additional resistivity, importance of electron inertia. Many effects of Electron MHD are similar to effects of the Two fluid MHD and the Hall MHD. EMHD is especially important for z-pinch, magnetic reconnection, ion thrusters, neutron stars, and plasma switches. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Extensions", "target_page_ids": [ 1019222, 1166647, 37839, 21869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 354, 361 ], [ 363, 384 ], [ 386, 399 ], [ 401, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Collisionless", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Extensions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " MHD is also often used for collisionless plasmas. In that case the MHD equations are derived from the Vlasov equation.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Extensions", "target_page_ids": [ 1991528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Reduced", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Extensions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " By using a multiscale analysis the (resistive) MHD equations can be reduced to a set of four closed scalar equations. This allows for, amongst other things, more efficient numerical calculations.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Extensions", "target_page_ids": [ 23923990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Beneath the Earth's mantle lies the core, which is made up of two parts: the solid inner core and liquid outer core. Both have significant quantities of iron. The liquid outer core moves in the presence of the magnetic field and eddies are set up into the same due to the Coriolis effect. These eddies develop a magnetic field which boosts Earth's original magnetic field—a process which is self-sustaining and is called the geomagnetic dynamo.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 14734, 7783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 157 ], [ 272, 287 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Based on the MHD equations, Glatzmaier and Paul Roberts have made a supercomputer model of the Earth's interior. After running the simulations for thousands of years in virtual time, the changes in Earth's magnetic field can be studied. The simulation results are in good agreement with the observations as the simulations have correctly predicted that the Earth's magnetic field flips every few hundred thousand years. During the flips, the magnetic field does not vanish altogether—it just gets more complex.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some monitoring stations have reported that earthquakes are sometimes preceded by a spike in ultra low frequency (ULF) activity. A remarkable example of this occurred before the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake in California, although a subsequent study indicates that this was little more than a sensor malfunction. On December 9, 2010, geoscientists announced that the DEMETER satellite observed a dramatic increase in ULF radio waves over Haiti in the month before the magnitude 7.0Mw 2010 earthquake. Researchers are attempting to learn more about this correlation to find out whether this method can be used as part of an early warning system for earthquakes.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 10106, 887766, 261671, 5407, 5548750, 13373, 25804468 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 55 ], [ 93, 112 ], [ 179, 206 ], [ 210, 220 ], [ 367, 374 ], [ 438, 443 ], [ 484, 499 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "MHD applies to astrophysics, including stars, the interplanetary medium (space between the planets), and possibly within the interstellar medium (space between the stars) and jets. Most astrophysical systems are not in local thermal equilibrium, and therefore require an additional kinematic treatment to describe all the phenomena within the system (see Astrophysical plasma).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 361897, 1352320, 69453, 1358453, 2254029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 27 ], [ 50, 71 ], [ 125, 144 ], [ 175, 179 ], [ 356, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sunspots are caused by the Sun's magnetic fields, as Joseph Larmor theorized in 1919. The solar wind is also governed by MHD. The differential solar rotation may be the long-term effect of magnetic drag at the poles of the Sun, an MHD phenomenon due to the Parker spiral shape assumed by the extended magnetic field of the Sun.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 27616, 665108, 28538, 1359541, 3205338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 53, 66 ], [ 90, 100 ], [ 143, 157 ], [ 257, 270 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Previously, theories describing the formation of the Sun and planets could not explain how the Sun has 99.87% of the mass, yet only 0.54% of the angular momentum in the Solar System. In a closed system such as the cloud of gas and dust from which the Sun was formed, mass and angular momentum are both conserved. That conservation would imply that as the mass concentrated in the center of the cloud to form the Sun, it would spin faster, much like a skater pulling their arms in. The high speed of rotation predicted by early theories would have flung the proto-Sun apart before it could have formed. However, magnetohydrodynamic effects transfer the Sun's angular momentum into the outer solar system, slowing its rotation.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 2839, 26903, 402048, 6956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 161 ], [ 169, 181 ], [ 188, 201 ], [ 302, 311 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Breakdown of ideal MHD (in the form of magnetic reconnection) is known to be the likely cause of solar flares. The magnetic field in a solar active region over a sunspot can store energy that is released suddenly as a burst of motion, X-rays, and radiation when the main current sheet collapses, reconnecting the field.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 54648, 20907718, 34197, 25856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 108 ], [ 141, 154 ], [ 235, 240 ], [ 247, 256 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Magnetohydrodynamic sensors are used for precision measurements of angular velocities in inertial navigation systems such as in aerospace engineering. Accuracy improves with the size of the sensor. The sensor is capable of surviving in harsh environments.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 65927, 24050869, 21732545 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 85 ], [ 89, 115 ], [ 128, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "MHD is related to engineering problems such as plasma confinement, liquid-metal cooling of nuclear reactors, and electromagnetic casting (among others).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 55017, 22151, 9532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 65 ], [ 91, 106 ], [ 113, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A magnetohydrodynamic drive or MHD propulsor is a method for propelling seagoing vessels using only electric and magnetic fields with no moving parts, using magnetohydrodynamics. The working principle involves electrification of the propellant (gas or water) which can then be directed by a magnetic field, pushing the vehicle in the opposite direction. Although some working prototypes exist, MHD drives remain impractical.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 182734 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first prototype of this kind of propulsion was built and tested in 1965 by Steward Way, a professor of mechanical engineering at the University of California, Santa Barbara. Way, on leave from his job at Westinghouse Electric, assigned his senior-year undergraduate students to develop a submarine with this new propulsion system. In the early 1990s, a foundation in Japan (Ship & Ocean Foundation (Minato-ku, Tokyo)) built an experimental boat, the Yamato-1, which used a magnetohydrodynamic drive incorporating a superconductor cooled by liquid helium, and could travel at 15km/h.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 211917, 238338, 5952388, 26884, 13256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 176 ], [ 209, 230 ], [ 456, 464 ], [ 521, 535 ], [ 546, 559 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "MHD power generation fueled by potassium-seeded coal combustion gas showed potential for more efficient energy conversion (the absence of solid moving parts allows operation at higher temperatures), but failed due to cost-prohibitive technical difficulties. One major engineering problem was the failure of the wall of the primary-coal combustion chamber due to abrasion.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 1502835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In microfluidics, MHD is studied as a fluid pump for producing a continuous, nonpulsating flow in a complex microchannel design.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 18906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "MHD can be implemented in the continuous casting process of metals to suppress instabilities and control the flow.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 3174561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Industrial MHD problems can be modeled using the open-source software EOF-Library. Two simulation examples are 3D MHD with a free surface for electromagnetic levitation melting, and liquid metal stirring by rotating permanent magnets.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 33565171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An important task in cancer research is developing more precise methods for delivery of medicine to affected areas. One method involves the binding of medicine to biologically compatible magnetic particles (such as ferrofluids), which are guided to the target via careful placement of permanent magnets on the external body. Magnetohydrodynamic equations and finite element analysis are used to study the interaction between the magnetic fluid particles in the bloodstream and the external magnetic field.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Computational magnetohydrodynamics", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9441268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Electrohydrodynamics", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1323240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Electromagnetic pump", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28532992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ferrofluid", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 533793 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of plasma physics articles", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 33820413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lorentz force velocity meter", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 35408416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnetic flow meter", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2368803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnetohydrodynamic generator", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1502835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnetohydrodynamic turbulence", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27176781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Molten salt", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7661723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Plasma stability", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 40307 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shocks and discontinuities (magnetohydrodynamics)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9080192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bansal, J. L. (1994) Magnetofluiddynamics of Viscous Fluids Jaipur Publishing House, Jaipur, India, ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Biskamp, Dieter. Nonlinear Magnetohydrodynamics. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1993. 378 p.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Calvert, James B. (20 October 2002) \"Magnetohydrodynamics: The dynamics of conducting fluids in an electromagnetic field\" (self published by an Associate Professor Emeritus of Engineering, University of Denver, U.S.A.)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Davidson, Peter Alan (May 2001) An Introduction to Magnetohydrodynamics Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Faraday, M. (1832). \"Experimental Researches in Electricity.\" First Series, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, pp.125–162.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ferraro, Vincenzo Consolato Antonio and Plumpton, Charles. An Introduction to Magneto-Fluid Mechanics, 2nd ed.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galtier, Sebastien. \"Introduction to Modern Magnetohydrodynamics\", Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, 2016. 288 p. ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Haverkort, J.W. (2009) Magnetohydrodynamics short introduction for fluid dynamicists, Magnetohydrodynamics ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hughes, William F. and Young, Frederick J. (1966) The Electromagnetodynamics of Fluids John Wiley, New York, ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kulikovskiy, Andreĭ G. and Lyubimov, Grigoriĭ A. (1965)Magnetohydrodynamics. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lorrain, Paul ; Lorrain, François and Houle, Stéphane (2006) Magneto-fluid dynamics: fundamentals and case studies of natural phenomena Springer, New York, ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Pai, Shih-I (1962) Magnetogasdynamics and Plasma Dynamics Springer-Verlag, Vienna, ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Roberts, Paul H. (1967) An Introduction to Magnetohydrodynamics Longmans Green, London, ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rosa, Richard J. (1987) Magnetohydrodynamic Energy Conversion (2nd edition) Hemisphere Publishing, Washington, D.C., ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sritharan, S. S. and Sundar, P. (1999) \"The stochastic magneto-hydrodynamic system\" Infinite Dimensional Analysis, Quantum Probability and Related Topics (e-journal) 2(2): pp.241–265.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Stern, David P. \"The Sun's Magnetic Cycle\" In Stern, David P. The Great Magnet, the Earth United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 18426568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sutton, George W., and Sherman, Arthur (1965) Engineering Magnetohydrodynamics, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Van Wie, D. M. (2005) Future Technologies – Application of Plasma Devices for Vehicle Systems, The Johns Hopkins University, Applied Physics Laboratory – Laurel, Maryland, USA – NATO Document", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 21133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 179, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Magnetohydrodynamics\" In Zumerchik, John (editor) (2001) Macmillan Encyclopedia of Energy Macmillan Reference USA, New York, ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Magnetohydrodynamics", "Plasma_physics" ]

[ "MHD" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Great Chicago Fire was a conflagration that burned in the American city of Chicago during October 8–10, 1871. The fire killed approximately 300 people, destroyed roughly of the city including over 17,000 structures, and left more than 100,000 residents homeless. The fire began in a neighborhood southwest of the city center. A long period of hot dry windy conditions, and the wooden construction prevalent in the city, led to the conflagration. The fire leapt the south branch of the Chicago River and destroyed much of central Chicago and then leapt the main branch of the river, consuming the Near North Side. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 676811, 6886, 41962, 761806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 42 ], [ 79, 86 ], [ 491, 504 ], [ 602, 617 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Help flowed to the city from near and far after the fire. The city government improved building codes to stop the rapid spread of future fires and rebuilt rapidly to those higher standards. A donation from the United Kingdom spurred the establishment of the Chicago Public Library, a free public library system, a contrast to the private, fee-for-membership libraries common before the fire.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1551300, 152256, 710757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 77 ], [ 210, 224 ], [ 258, 280 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The fire is claimed to have started at about 8:30p.m. on October8, in or around a small barn belonging to the O'Leary family that bordered the alley behind 137 DeKoven Street. The shed next to the barn was the first building to be consumed by the fire. City officials never determined the cause of the blaze, but the rapid spread of the fire due to a long drought in that year's summer, strong winds from the southwest, and the rapid destruction of the water pumping system, explain the extensive damage of the mainly wooden city structures. There has been much speculation over the years on a single start to the fire. The most popular tale blames Mrs. O'Leary's cow, who allegedly knocked over a lantern; others state that a group of men were gambling inside the barn and knocked over a lantern. Still other speculation suggests that the blaze was related to other fires in the Midwest that day.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 1446518, 623464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 174 ], [ 649, 663 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The fire's spread was aided by the city's use of wood as the predominant building material in a style called balloon frame. More than two-thirds of the structures in Chicago at the time of the fire were made entirely of wood, with most of the houses and buildings being topped with highly flammable tar or shingle roofs. All of the city's sidewalks and many roads were also made of wood. Compounding this problem, Chicago received only of rain from July4 to October9, causing severe drought conditions before the fire, while strong southwest winds helped to carry flying embers toward the heart of the city.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 2071443, 1566231, 2601203, 37335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 122 ], [ 299, 302 ], [ 306, 313 ], [ 484, 491 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1871, the Chicago Fire Department had 185 firefighters with just 17 horse-drawn steam pumpers to protect the entire city. The initial response by the fire department was timely, but due to an error by the watchman, Matthias Schaffer, the firefighters were initially sent to the wrong place, allowing the fire to grow unchecked. An alarm sent from the area near the fire also failed to register at the courthouse where the fire watchmen were, while the firefighters were tired from having fought numerous small fires and one large fire in the week before. These factors combined to turn a small barn fire into a conflagration.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 753323, 146303, 32124338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 36 ], [ 45, 56 ], [ 83, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When firefighters finally arrived at DeKoven Street, the fire had grown and spread to neighboring buildings and was progressing toward the central business district. Firefighters had hoped that the South Branch of the Chicago River and an area that had previously thoroughly burned would act as a natural firebreak. All along the river, however, were lumber yards, warehouses, and coal yards, and barges and numerous bridges across the river. As the fire grew, the southwest wind intensified and became superheated, causing structures to catch fire from the heat and from burning debris blown by the wind. Around midnight, flaming debris blew across the river and landed on roofs and the South Side Gas Works.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spread", "target_page_ids": [ 1032659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 305, 314 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the fire across the river and moving rapidly toward the heart of the city, panic set in. About this time, Mayor Roswell B. Mason sent messages to nearby towns asking for help. When the courthouse caught fire, he ordered the building to be evacuated and the prisoners jailed in the basement to be released. At 2:30a.m. on the 9th, the cupola of the courthouse collapsed, sending the great bell crashing down. Some witnesses reported hearing the sound from a mile (1.6km) away.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spread", "target_page_ids": [ 984910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As more buildings succumbed to the flames, a major contributing factor to the fire's spread was a meteorological phenomenon known as a fire whirl. As overheated air rises, it comes into contact with cooler air and begins to spin, creating a tornado-like effect. These fire whirls are likely what drove flaming debris so high and so far. Such debris was blown across the main branch of the Chicago River to a railroad car carrying kerosene. The fire had jumped the river a second time and was now raging across the city's north side.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spread", "target_page_ids": [ 2664780, 41962, 220118, 16992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 145 ], [ 389, 402 ], [ 408, 420 ], [ 430, 438 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite the fire spreading and growing rapidly, the city's firefighters continued to battle the blaze. A short time after the fire jumped the river, a burning piece of timber lodged on the roof of the city's waterworks. Within minutes, the interior of the building was engulfed in flames and the building was destroyed. With it, the city's water mains went dry and the city was helpless. The fire burned unchecked from building to building, block to block.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spread", "target_page_ids": [ 684928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 208, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Finally, late into the evening of October 9, it started to rain, but the fire had already started to burn itself out. The fire had spread to the sparsely populated areas of the north side, having consumed the densely populated areas thoroughly.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spread", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Once the fire had ended, the smoldering remains were still too hot for a survey of the damage to be completed for many days. Eventually, the city determined that the fire destroyed an area about long and averaging wide, encompassing an area of more than . Destroyed were more than of roads, of sidewalk, 2,000 lampposts, 17,500 buildings, and $222 million in property, which was about a third of the city's valuation in 1871.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aftermath", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On October 11, 1871, General Philip H. Sheridan came quickly to the aid of the city and was placed in charge by a proclamation, given by mayor Roswell B. Mason: \"The Preservation of the Good Order and Peace of the city is hereby intrusted to Lieut. General P.H. Sheridan, U.S. Army.\"To protect the city from looting and violence, the city was put under martial law for two weeks under Gen. Sheridan's command structure with a mix of regular troops, militia units, police, and a specially organized civilian group \"First Regiment of Chicago Volunteers.\" Former Lieutenant-Governor William Bross, and part owner of the Tribune, later recollected his response to the arrival of Gen. Sheridan and his soldiers: \"Never did deeper emotions of joy overcome me. Thank God, those most dear to me and the city as well are safe.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aftermath", "target_page_ids": [ 213144, 984910, 50477 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 47 ], [ 143, 159 ], [ 353, 364 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For two weeks Sheridan's men patrolled the streets, guarded the relief warehouses, and enforced other regulations. On October 24 the troops were relieved of their duties and the volunteers were mustered out of service.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aftermath", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Of the approximately 324,000 inhabitants of Chicago in 1871, 90,000 Chicago residents (1 in 3 residents) were left homeless. 120 bodies were recovered, but the death toll may have been as high as 300. The county coroner speculated that an accurate count was impossible, as some victims may have drowned or had been incinerated, leaving no remains.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aftermath", "target_page_ids": [ 1907135, 95356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 28 ], [ 212, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the days and weeks following the fire, monetary donations flowed into Chicago from around the country and abroad, along with donations of food, clothing, and other goods. These donations came from individuals, corporations, and cities. New York City gave $450,000 along with clothing and provisions, St. Louis gave $300,000, and the Common Council of London gave 1,000 guineas, as well as £7,000 from private donations. In Greenock, Scotland (pop. 40,000) a town meeting raised £518 on the spot. Cincinnati, Cleveland, and Buffalo, all commercial rivals, donated hundreds and thousands of dollars. Milwaukee, along with other nearby cities, helped by sending fire-fighting equipment. Food, clothing and books were brought by train from all over the continent. Mayor Mason placed the Chicago Relief and Aid Society in charge of the city's relief efforts.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aftermath", "target_page_ids": [ 27687, 12644454, 351234, 18522615, 5951, 3985, 53117, 35556471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 303, 312 ], [ 336, 360 ], [ 426, 434 ], [ 499, 509 ], [ 511, 520 ], [ 526, 533 ], [ 601, 610 ], [ 787, 817 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Operating from the First Congregational Church, city officials and aldermen began taking steps to preserve order in Chicago. Price gouging was a key concern, and in one ordinance, the city set the price of bread at 8¢ for a loaf. Public buildings were opened as places of refuge, and saloons closed at 9 in the evening for the week following the fire. Many people who were left homeless after the incident were never able to get their normal lives back since all their personal papers and belongings burned in the conflagration.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aftermath", "target_page_ids": [ 11966417, 286925, 879011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 46 ], [ 67, 75 ], [ 125, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the fire, A. H. Burgess of London proposed an \"English Book Donation\", to spur a free library in Chicago, in their sympathy with Chicago over the damages suffered. Libraries in Chicago had been private with membership fees. In April 1872, the City Council passed the ordinance to establish the free Chicago Public Library, starting with the donation from the United Kingdom of more than 8,000 volumes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aftermath", "target_page_ids": [ 710757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 305, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The fire also led to questions about development in the United States. Due to Chicago's rapid expansion at that time, the fire led to Americans reflecting on industrialization. Based on a religious point of view, some said that Americans should return to a more old-fashioned way of life, and that the fire was caused by people ignoring traditional morality. On the other hand, others believed that a lesson to be learned from the fire was that cities needed to improve their building techniques. Frederick Law Olmsted observed that poor building practices in Chicago were a problem:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aftermath", "target_page_ids": [ 53321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 497, 518 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chicago had a weakness for \"big things\", and liked to think that it was outbuilding New York. It did a great deal of commercial advertising in its house-tops. The faults of construction as well as of art in its great showy buildings must have been numerous. Their walls were thin, and were overweighted with gross and coarse misornamentation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aftermath", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Olmsted also believed that with brick walls, and disciplined firemen and police, the deaths and damage caused would have been much less.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aftermath", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Almost immediately, the city began to rewrite its fire standards, spurred by the efforts of leading insurance executives, and fire-prevention reformers such as Arthur C. Ducat. Chicago soon developed one of the country's leading fire-fighting forces.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aftermath", "target_page_ids": [ 22873392 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Business owners, and land speculators such as Gurdon Saltonstall Hubbard, quickly set about rebuilding the city. The first load of lumber for rebuilding was delivered the day the last burning building was extinguished. By the World's Columbian Exposition 22 years later, Chicago hosted more than 21 million visitors. The Palmer House hotel burned to the ground in the fire 13 days after its grand opening. Its developer, Potter Palmer, secured a loan and rebuilt the hotel to higher standards, across the street from the original, proclaiming it to be \"The World's First Fireproof Building\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aftermath", "target_page_ids": [ 7828960, 41960, 1265443, 1145754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 72 ], [ 226, 254 ], [ 321, 333 ], [ 421, 434 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1956, the remaining structures on the original O'Leary property at 558 W. DeKoven Street were torn down for construction of the Chicago Fire Academy, a training facility for Chicago firefighters, known as the Quinn Fire Academy or Chicago Fire Department Training Facility. A bronze sculpture of stylized flames, entitled Pillar of Fire by sculptor Egon Weiner, was erected on the point of origin in 1961.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aftermath", "target_page_ids": [ 1446518, 26714, 22370506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 91 ], [ 286, 295 ], [ 352, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following structures from the burned district are still standing:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Surviving structures", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "St. Michael's Church, Old Town", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Surviving structures", "target_page_ids": [ 7720055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chicago Water Tower", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Surviving structures", "target_page_ids": [ 684988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chicago Avenue Pumping Station ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Surviving structures", "target_page_ids": [ 11282391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "St. Ignatius College Prep.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Surviving structures", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Police Constable Bellinger's cottage at 21 Lincoln Place (2121 North Hudson, today). ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Surviving structures", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2323 and 2339 North Cleveland Avenue also survived the blaze.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Surviving structures", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "St. Michael's Church and the Pumping Station were both gutted in the fire, but their exteriors survived, and the buildings were rebuilt using the surviving walls. Additionally, though the inhabitable portions of the building were destroyed, the bell tower of St. James Cathedral survived the fire and was incorporated into the rebuilt church. The stones near the top of the tower are still blackened from the soot and smoke.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Surviving structures", "target_page_ids": [ 10308706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 259, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Almost from the moment the fire broke out, various theories about its cause began to circulate. The most popular and enduring legend maintains that the fire began in the O'Leary barn as Mrs. O’Leary was milking her cow. The cow kicked over a lantern (or an oil lamp in some versions), setting fire to the barn. The O'Leary family denied this, stating that they were in bed before the fire started, but stories of the cow began to spread across the city. Catherine O'Leary seemed the perfect scapegoat: she was a poor, Irish Catholic immigrant. During the latter half of the 19th century, anti-Irish sentiment was strong throughout the United States and in Chicago. This was intensified as a result of the growing political power of the city's Irish population. Furthermore, the United States had been distrustful of Catholics (or papists, as they were often called) since its beginning, carrying over attitudes in England in the 17th century; as an Irish Catholic, Mrs. O'Leary was a target of both anti-Catholic and anti-Irish sentiment. This story was circulating in Chicago even before the flames had died out, and it was noted in the Chicago Tribune'''s first post-fire issue. In 1893 the reporter Michael Ahern retracted the \"cow-and-lantern\" story, admitting it was fabricated, but even his confession was unable to put the legend to rest. Although the O'Learys were never officially charged with starting the fire, the story became so engrained in local lore that Chicago's city council officially exonerated them—and the cow—in 1997.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Precise start", "target_page_ids": [ 623464, 26132634, 6445961, 316175, 60961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 454, 471 ], [ 491, 500 ], [ 588, 608 ], [ 830, 837 ], [ 1138, 1153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amateur historian Richard Bales has suggested the fire started when Daniel \"Pegleg\" Sullivan, who first reported the fire, ignited hay in the barn while trying to steal milk. Part of Bales's evidence includes an account by Sullivan, who claimed in an inquiry before the Fire Department of Chicago on November 25, 1871, that he saw the fire coming through the side of the barn and ran across DeKoven Street to free the animals from the barn, one of which included a cow owned by Sullivan's mother. Bales's account does not have consensus. The Chicago Public Library staff criticized his account in their web page on the fire. Despite this, the Chicago city council was convinced of Bales's argument and stated that the actions of Sullivan on that day should be scrutinized after the O'Leary family was exonerated in 1997.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Precise start", "target_page_ids": [ 1446518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 391, 405 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anthony DeBartolo reported evidence in two articles of the Chicago Tribune (October 8, 1997, and March 3, 1998, reprinted in Hyde Park Media) suggesting that Louis M. Cohn may have started the fire during a craps game. Following his death in 1942, Cohn bequeathed $35,000 which was assigned by his executors to the Medill School of Journalism at Northwestern University. The bequest was given to the school on September 28, 1944, and the dedication contained a claim by Cohn to have been present at the start of the fire. According to Cohn, on the night of the fire, he was gambling in the O'Learys' barn with one of their sons and some other neighborhood boys. When Mrs. O'Leary came out to the barn to chase the gamblers away at around 9:00, they knocked over a lantern in their flight, although Cohn states that he paused long enough to scoop up the money. The argument is not universally accepted.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Precise start", "target_page_ids": [ 303851, 174216, 12567477 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 315, 342 ], [ 346, 369 ], [ 610, 627 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An alternative theory, first suggested in 1882 by Ignatius L. Donnelly in The Age of Fire and Gravel, is that the fire was caused by a meteor shower. This was described as a \"fringe theory\" concerning Biela's Comet. At a 2004 conference of the Aerospace Corporation and the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, engineer and physicist Robert Wood suggested that the fire began when a fragment of Biela's Comet impacted the Midwest. Biela's Comet had broken apart in 1845 and had not been observed since. Wood argued that four large fires took place, all on the same day, all on the shores of Lake Michigan (see Related events), suggesting a common root cause. Eyewitnesses reported sighting spontaneous ignitions, lack of smoke, \"balls of fire\" falling from the sky, and blue flames. According to Wood, these accounts suggest that the fires were caused by the methane that is commonly found in comets. Meteorites are not known to start or spread fires and are cool to the touch after reaching the ground, so this theory has not found favor in the scientific community. Methane-air mixtures become flammable only when the methane concentration exceeds 5%, at which point the mixtures also become explosive, a situation unlikely to occur from meteorites. Methane gas is lighter than air and thus does not accumulate near the ground; any localized pockets of methane in the open air rapidly dissipate. Moreover, if a fragment of an icy comet were to strike the Earth, the most likely outcome, due to the low tensile strength of such bodies, would be for it to disintegrate in the upper atmosphere, leading to an air burst explosion analogous to that of the Tunguska event.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Precise start", "target_page_ids": [ 239320, 157819, 632103, 704658, 632103, 17948, 18582230, 19937, 237207, 1372949, 30669 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 70 ], [ 136, 149 ], [ 202, 215 ], [ 275, 325 ], [ 411, 424 ], [ 607, 620 ], [ 875, 882 ], [ 917, 926 ], [ 1520, 1536 ], [ 1624, 1633 ], [ 1669, 1683 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The specific choice of Biela's Comet does not match with the dates in question, as the 6-year period of the comet's orbit did not intersect that of the Earth until 1872, one full year after the fire, when a large meteor shower was indeed observed.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Precise start", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A common cause for the fires in the Midwest in late 1871 is that the area had suffered through a tinder-dry summer, so that winds from the front that moved in that evening were capable of generating rapidly expanding blazes from available ignition sources, which were plentiful in the region.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Precise start", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On that hot, dry, and windy autumn day, three other major fires occurred along the shores of Lake Michigan at the same time as the Great Chicago Fire. Some to the north, the Peshtigo Fire consumed the town of Peshtigo, Wisconsin, along with a dozen other villages. It killed 1,200 to 2,500 people and charred approximately 1.5 million acres (6,000km2). The Peshtigo Fire remains the deadliest in American history but the remoteness of the region meant it was little noticed at the time, due to the fact that one of the first things that burned were the telegraph lines to Green Bay.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related events", "target_page_ids": [ 17948, 275359, 337470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 106 ], [ 175, 188 ], [ 210, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Across the lake to the east, the town of Holland, Michigan, and other nearby areas burned to the ground. Some to the north of Holland, the lumbering community of Manistee also went up in flames in what became known as the Great Michigan Fire.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related events", "target_page_ids": [ 150536, 118039, 14688841 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 58 ], [ 163, 171 ], [ 223, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Farther east, along the shore of Lake Huron, the Port Huron Fire swept through Port Huron, Michigan and much of Michigan's \"Thumb\". On October 9, 1871, a fire swept through the city of Urbana, Illinois, south of Chicago, destroying portions of its downtown area. Windsor, Ontario, likewise burned on October 12.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related events", "target_page_ids": [ 51056, 9752934, 119125, 18859, 868657, 110893, 33596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 43 ], [ 49, 64 ], [ 79, 99 ], [ 112, 120 ], [ 123, 130 ], [ 185, 201 ], [ 264, 280 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city of Singapore, Michigan, provided a large portion of the lumber to rebuild Chicago. As a result, the area was so heavily deforested that the land deteriorated into barren sand dunes that buried the town, and the town had to be abandoned.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Related events", "target_page_ids": [ 5679304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The University of Illinois at Chicago athletic teams are named the Flames since 1982, in commemoration of the Great Chicago Fire.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 340787, 13617231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 38 ], [ 68, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Although set in Philadelphia, Theodore Dreiser's 1912 novel The Financier portrays the nationwide impact the 1871 Chicago fire had on the stock markets and the financial world.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 44213, 8202045 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 47 ], [ 61, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The 1938 film In Old Chicago is centered on the fire, with a highly fictionalized portrayal of the O'Leary family as the main characters.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 61527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 1974, the Chicago Fire football team played in the short-lived World Football League. Another Chicago Fire played in the American Football Association.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1013154, 65523, 27795845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 26 ], [ 67, 88 ], [ 125, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Events of the 1986 novel Illinois! by Noel Gerson writing as Dana Fuller Ross occur around the Great Chicago Fire.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 39387956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The 1987 Williams pinball \"Fire!\" was inspired by the Great Chicago Fire.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 870373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The 1995 book The Great Fire by Jim Murphy tells the story of the fire for children, and was a Newbery Honor book in 1996.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 46750629, 3417535, 199946 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 29 ], [ 33, 43 ], [ 96, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A 1998 episode of the American television series Early Edition depicted Gary Hobson finding himself back in time in 1871 trying to prevent the fire. While he initially succeeds and stops the fire after the lantern is kicked over, subsequent events lead to the fire restarting, preserving the historical event while changing its origin.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 486122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Major League Soccer team Chicago Fire was founded on October 8, 1997, the 126th anniversary of the Great Chicago Fire.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 71802, 245694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 24 ], [ 30, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 2014, the city of Chicago and Redmoon Theater partnered to create The Great Chicago Fire Festival. Held on October 4, 2014, the event fell victim to technical difficulties as replicas of 1871 houses on floating barges in the Chicago River failed to ignite properly due to electrical problems and heavy rain on the preceding days.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Beach Boys' instrumental track titled \"Mrs. O'Leary's Cow\" was inspired by the fabled cause of the Great Chicago Fire, and served as the representation for the classical element fire on their abandoned project Smile.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 4477, 6314, 37859086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 165, 187 ], [ 215, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dwight L. Moody – 19th-century evangelist whose church was burned down in the fire", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8459 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Horatio Spafford – author of hymn \"It Is Well With My Soul\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4036356, 3168507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 35, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chicago and the Great Conflagration – Elias Colbert and Everett Chamberlin, 1871, 528 pp.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " History of the Great Fires in Chicago and the West. Rev. Edgar J. Goodspeed, D.D., 677 pp.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 961022, 569138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 77 ], [ 79, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Morris, Roy, Jr., Sheridan: The Life and Wars of General Phil Sheridan, Crown Publishing, 1992, .", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"People & Events: The Great Fire of 1871\". The Public Broadcasting System (PBS) Website . Retrieved September 3, 2004.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Great Conflagration'' – James W. Sheahan and George P. Upton, 1871, 458 pp.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Mrs. O'Leary's Comet: Cosmic Causes of the Great Chicago Fire\" by Mel Waskin (1985)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Great Chicago Fire 1996, Chicago Historical Society", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Great Chicago Fire & the Web of Memory", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Great_Chicago_Fire", "1871_fires", "1871_in_Illinois", "Urban_fires_in_the_United_States", "History_of_Chicago", "Chicago_Landmarks", "Fires_in_Illinois", "1870s_in_Chicago", "October_1871_events" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Universal grammar (UG), in modern linguistics, is the theory of the genetic component of the language faculty, usually credited to Noam Chomsky. The basic postulate of UG is that there are innate constraints on what the grammar of a possible human language could be. When linguistic stimuli are received in the course of language acquisition, children then adopt specific syntactic rules that conform to UG. The advocates of this theory emphasize and partially rely on the poverty of the stimulus (POS) argument and the existence of some universal properties of natural human languages. However, the latter has not been firmly established, as some linguists have argued languages are so diverse that such universality is rare. It is a matter of empirical investigation to determine precisely what properties are universal and what linguistic capacities are innate.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 22760983, 12266, 1847118, 21566, 18614, 45068, 2691458, 17524 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 45 ], [ 68, 75 ], [ 93, 109 ], [ 131, 143 ], [ 321, 341 ], [ 372, 386 ], [ 469, 496 ], [ 570, 585 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The theory of universal grammar proposes that if human beings are brought up under normal conditions (not those of extreme sensory deprivation), then they will always develop language with certain properties (e.g., distinguishing nouns from verbs, or distinguishing function words from content words). The theory proposes that there is an innate, genetically determined language faculty that knows these rules, making it easier and faster for children to learn to speak than it otherwise would be. This faculty does not know the vocabulary of any particular language (so words and their meanings must be learned), and there remain several parameters which can vary freely among languages (such as whether adjectives come before or after nouns) which must also be learned. Evidence in favor of this idea can be found in studies like Valian (1986), which show that children of surprisingly young ages understand syntactic categories and their distribution before this knowledge shows up in production.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Argument", "target_page_ids": [ 294793, 37495, 37354, 179660, 1563600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 142 ], [ 230, 234 ], [ 241, 245 ], [ 266, 279 ], [ 286, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As Chomsky puts it, \"Evidently, development of language in the individual must involve three factors: genetic endowment, which sets limits on the attainable languages, thereby making language acquisition possible; external data, converted to the experience that selects one or another language within a narrow range; [and] principles not specific to the Faculty of Language.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Argument", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Occasionally, aspects of universal grammar seem describable in terms of general details regarding cognition. For example, if a predisposition to categorize events and objects as different classes of things is part of human cognition, and directly results in nouns and verbs showing up in all languages, it could be assumed that rather than this aspect of universal grammar being specific to language, it is more generally a part of human cognition. To distinguish properties of languages that can be traced to other facts regarding cognition from properties of languages that cannot, the abbreviation UG* can be used. UG is the term often used by Chomsky for those aspects of the human brain which cause language to be the way that it is (i.e. are universal grammar in the sense used here), but here for the purposes of discussion, it is used for those aspects which are furthermore specific to language (thus UG, as Chomsky uses it, is just an abbreviation for universal grammar, but UG* as used here is a subset of universal grammar).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Argument", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the same article, Chomsky casts the theme of a larger research program in terms of the following question: \"How little can be attributed to UG while still accounting for the variety of 'I-languages' attained, relying on third factor principles?\" (I-languages meaning internal languages, the brain states that correspond to knowing how to speak and understand a particular language, and third factor principles meaning \"principles not specific to the Faculty of Language\" in the previous quote). Chomsky has speculated that UG might be extremely simple and abstract, for example only a mechanism for combining symbols in a particular way, which he calls \"merge\". The following quote shows that Chomsky does not use the term \"UG\" in the narrow sense UG* suggested above:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Argument", "target_page_ids": [ 12964043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 657, 662 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"The conclusion that merge falls within UG holds whether such recursive generation is unique to FL (faculty of language) or is appropriated from other systems.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Argument", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In other words, merge is seen as part of UG because it causes language to be the way it is, universal, and is not part of the environment or general properties independent of genetics and environment. Merge is part of universal grammar whether it is specific to language, or whether, as Chomsky suggests, it is also used for example in mathematical thinking. The distinction is the result of the long history of argument about UG*: whereas some people working on language agree that there is universal grammar, many people assume that Chomsky means UG* when he writes UG (and in some cases he might actually mean UG* [though not in the passage quoted above]).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Argument", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some students of universal grammar study a variety of grammars to extract generalizations called linguistic universals, often in the form of \"If X holds true, then Y occurs.\" These have been extended to a variety of traits, such as the phonemes found in languages, the word orders which different languages choose, and the reasons why children exhibit certain linguistic behaviors. Other linguists who have influenced this theory include Richard Montague, who developed his version of this theory as he considered issues of the argument from poverty of the stimulus to arise from the constructivist approach to linguistic theory. The application of the idea of universal grammar to the study of second language acquisition (SLA) is represented mainly in the work of McGill linguist Lydia White.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Argument", "target_page_ids": [ 893696, 610182, 2691458, 5553903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 117 ], [ 438, 454 ], [ 528, 565 ], [ 782, 793 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Syntacticians generally hold that there are parametric points of variation between languages, although heated debate occurs over whether UG constraints are essentially universal due to being \"hard-wired\" (Chomsky's principles and parameters approach), a logical consequence of a specific syntactic architecture (the generalized phrase structure approach) or the result of functional constraints on communication (the functionalist approach).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Argument", "target_page_ids": [ 1710381, 37531624, 616743, 2019227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 215, 240 ], [ 254, 273 ], [ 316, 344 ], [ 417, 430 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In an article entitled \"The Faculty of Language: What Is It, Who Has It, and How Did It Evolve?\" Hauser, Chomsky, and Fitch present the three leading hypotheses for how language evolved and brought humans to the point where they have a universal grammar.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Relation to the evolution of language", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The first hypothesis states that the faculty of language in the broad sense (FLb) is strictly homologous to animal communication. This means that homologous aspects of the faculty of language exist in non-human animals.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Relation to the evolution of language", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The second hypothesis states that the FLb is a derived and uniquely human adaptation for language. This hypothesis holds that individual traits were subject to natural selection and came to be specialized for humans.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Relation to the evolution of language", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The third hypothesis states that only the faculty of language in the narrow sense (FLn) is unique to humans. It holds that while mechanisms of the FLb are present in both human and non-human animals, the computational mechanism of recursion is recently evolved solely in humans. This is the hypothesis which most closely aligns to the typical theory of universal grammar championed by Chomsky.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Relation to the evolution of language", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The term \"universal grammar\" predates Noam Chomsky, but pre-Chomskyan ideas of universal grammar are different. For Chomsky, UG is \"[the] theory of the genetically based language faculty\", which makes UG a theory of language acquisition, and part of the innateness hypothesis. Earlier grammarians and philosophers thought about universal grammar in the sense of a universally shared property or grammar of all languages. The closest analog to their understanding of universal grammar in the late 20th century are Greenberg's linguistic universals.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18614, 16571023, 27692880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 216, 236 ], [ 254, 275 ], [ 513, 546 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The idea of a universal grammar can be traced back to Roger Bacon's observations in his Overview of Grammar and Greek Grammar that all languages are built upon a common grammar, even though it may undergo incidental variations; and the 13th century speculative grammarians who, following Bacon, postulated universal rules underlying all grammars. The concept of a universal grammar or language was at the core of the 17th century projects for philosophical languages. An influential work in that time was Grammaire générale by Claude Lancelot and Antoine Arnauld. They tried to describe a general grammar for languages, coming to the conclusion that grammar has to be universal. There is a Scottish school of universal grammarians from the 18th century, as distinguished from the philosophical language project, which included authors such as James Beattie, Hugh Blair, James Burnett, James Harris, and Adam Smith. The article on grammar in the first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1771) contains an extensive section titled \"Of Universal Grammar\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 25879, 48302620, 1419264, 1850174, 9482691, 20808812, 228442, 263544, 225945, 981728, 1029255, 1814, 9508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 65 ], [ 89, 108 ], [ 251, 270 ], [ 445, 467 ], [ 507, 525 ], [ 529, 544 ], [ 549, 564 ], [ 845, 858 ], [ 860, 870 ], [ 872, 885 ], [ 887, 899 ], [ 905, 915 ], [ 968, 991 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This tradition was continued in the late 19th century by Wilhelm Wundt and in the early 20th century by linguist Otto Jespersen. Jespersen disagreed with early grammarians on their formulation of \"universal grammar\", arguing that they tried to derive too much from Latin, and that a UG based on Latin was bound to fail considering the breadth of worldwide linguistic variation. He does not fully dispense with the idea of a \"universal grammar\", but reduces it to universal syntactic categories or super-categories, such as number, tenses, etc. Jespersen does not discuss whether these properties come from facts about general human cognition or from a language specific endowment (which would be closer to the Chomskyan formulation). As this work predates molecular genetics, he does not discuss the notion of a genetically conditioned universal grammar.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 34128, 22756, 339838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 70 ], [ 113, 127 ], [ 757, 775 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the rise of behaviorism, the idea of a universal grammar (in either sense) was discarded. In the early 20th century, language was usually understood from a behaviourist perspective, suggesting that language acquisition, like any other kind of learning, could be explained by a succession of trials, errors, and rewards for success. In other words, children learned their mother tongue by simple imitation, through listening and repeating what adults said. For example, when a child says \"milk\" and the mother will smile and give her child milk as a result, the child will find this outcome rewarding, thus enhancing the child's language development. UG reemerged to prominence and influence in modern linguistics with the theories of Chomsky and Montague in the 1950s–1970s, as part of the \"linguistics wars\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 540801, 12439119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 175 ], [ 799, 815 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2016 Chomsky and Berwick co-wrote their book titled Why Only Us, where they defined both the minimalist program and the strong minimalist thesis and its implications to update their approach to UG theory. According to Berwick and Chomsky, the strong minimalist thesis states that \"The optimal situation would be that UG reduces to the simplest computational principles which operate in accord with conditions of computational efficiency. This conjecture is ... called the Strong Minimalist Thesis (SMT).\" The significance of SMT is to significantly shift the previous emphasis on universal grammars to the concept which Chomsky and Berwick now call \"merge\". \"Merge\" is defined in their 2016 book when they state \"Every computational system has embedded within it somewhere an operation that applies to two objects X and Y already formed, and constructs from them a new object Z. Call this operation Merge.\" SMT dictates that \"Merge will be as simple as possible: it will not modify X or Y or impose any arrangement on them; in particular, it will leave them unordered, an important fact... Merge is therefore just set formation: Merge of X and Y yields the set {X, Y}.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Chomsky argued that the human brain contains a limited set of constraints for organizing language. This implies in turn that all languages have a common structural basis: the set of rules known as \"universal grammar\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Chomsky's theory", "target_page_ids": [ 490620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Speakers proficient in a language know which expressions are acceptable in their language and which are unacceptable. The key puzzle is how speakers come to know these restrictions of their language, since expressions that violate those restrictions are not present in the input, indicated as such. Chomsky argued that this poverty of stimulus means that Skinner's behaviourist perspective cannot explain language acquisition. The absence of negative evidence—evidence that an expression is part of a class of ungrammatical sentences in a given language—is the core of his argument. For example, in English, an interrogative pronoun like what cannot be related to a predicate within a relative clause:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Chomsky's theory", "target_page_ids": [ 2691458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 324, 343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " *\"What did John meet a man who sold?\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Chomsky's theory", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Such expressions are not available to language learners: they are, by hypothesis, ungrammatical. Speakers of the local language do not use them, and would note them as unacceptable to language learners. Universal grammar offers an explanation for the presence of the poverty of the stimulus, by making certain restrictions into universal characteristics of human languages. Language learners are consequently never tempted to generalize in an illicit fashion.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Chomsky's theory", "target_page_ids": [ 3230705 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 328, 352 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The presence of creole languages is sometimes cited as further support for this theory, especially by Bickerton's controversial language bioprogram theory. Creoles are languages that develop and form when disparate societies come together and are forced to devise a new system of communication. The system used by the original speakers is typically an inconsistent mix of vocabulary items, known as a pidgin. As these speakers' children begin to acquire their first language, they use the pidgin input to effectively create their own original language, known as a creole. Unlike pidgins, creoles have native speakers (those with acquisition from early childhood) and make use of a full, systematic grammar.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Presence of creole languages", "target_page_ids": [ 49823, 774935, 10261226, 24915, 49823, 263257 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 31 ], [ 102, 113 ], [ 128, 154 ], [ 401, 407 ], [ 564, 570 ], [ 601, 615 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Bickerton, the idea of universal grammar is supported by creole languages because certain features are shared by virtually all in the category. For example, their default point of reference in time (expressed by bare verb stems) is not the present moment, but the past. Using pre-verbal auxiliaries, they uniformly express tense, aspect, and mood. Negative concord occurs, but it affects the verbal subject (as opposed to the object, as it does in languages like Spanish). Another similarity among creoles can be seen in the fact that questions are created simply by changing the intonation of a declarative sentence, not its word order or content.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Presence of creole languages", "target_page_ids": [ 51685, 12947, 12948, 23534467, 194143, 26825 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 300, 311 ], [ 336, 341 ], [ 343, 349 ], [ 355, 359 ], [ 361, 377 ], [ 476, 483 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, extensive work by Carla Hudson-Kam and Elissa Newport suggests that creole languages may not support a universal grammar at all. In a series of experiments, Hudson-Kam and Newport looked at how children and adults learn artificial grammars. They found that children tend to ignore minor variations in the input when those variations are infrequent, and reproduce only the most frequent forms. In doing so, they tend to standardize the language that they hear around them. Hudson-Kam and Newport hypothesize that in a pidgin-development situation (and in the real-life situation of a deaf child whose parents are or were disfluent signers), children systematize the language they hear, based on the probability and frequency of forms, and not that which has been suggested on the basis of a universal grammar. Further, it seems to follow that creoles would share features with the languages from which they are derived, and thus look similar in terms of grammar.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Presence of creole languages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Many researchers of universal grammar argue against a concept of relexification, which says that a language replaces its lexicon almost entirely with that of another. This goes against universalist ideas of a universal grammar, which has an innate grammar.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Presence of creole languages", "target_page_ids": [ 2378958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Geoffrey Sampson maintains that universal grammar theories are not falsifiable and are therefore pseudoscientific. He argues that the grammatical \"rules\" linguists posit are simply post-hoc observations about existing languages, rather than predictions about what is possible in a language. Similarly, Jeffrey Elman argues that the unlearnability of languages assumed by universal grammar is based on a too-strict, \"worst-case\" model of grammar, that is not in keeping with any actual grammar. In keeping with these points, James Hurford argues that the postulate of a language acquisition device (LAD) essentially amounts to the trivial claim that languages are learnt by humans, and thus, that the LAD is less a theory than an explanandum looking for theories.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Criticisms", "target_page_ids": [ 12067437, 11283, 23047, 6223690, 1690954, 14222722 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 67, 78 ], [ 97, 113 ], [ 302, 315 ], [ 569, 596 ], [ 729, 740 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Morten H. Christiansen and Nick Chater have argued that the relatively fast-changing nature of language would prevent the slower-changing genetic structures from ever catching up, undermining the possibility of a genetically hard-wired universal grammar. Instead of an innate universal grammar, they claim, \"apparently arbitrary aspects of linguistic structure may result from general learning and processing biases deriving from the structure of thought processes, perceptuo-motor factors, cognitive limitations, and pragmatics\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Criticisms", "target_page_ids": [ 49261452 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wolfram Hinzen summarizes the most common criticisms of universal grammar:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Criticisms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Universal grammar has no coherent formulation and is indeed unnecessary.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Criticisms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Universal grammar is in conflict with biology: it cannot have evolved by standardly accepted neo-Darwinian evolutionary principles.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Criticisms", "target_page_ids": [ 43050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " There are no linguistic universals: universal grammar is refuted by abundant variation at all levels of linguistic organization, which lies at the heart of human faculty of language.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Criticisms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In addition, it has been suggested that people learn about probabilistic patterns of word distributions in their language, rather than hard and fast rules (see Distributional hypothesis). For example, children overgeneralize the past tense marker \"ed\" and conjugate irregular verbs as if they were regular, producing forms like goed and eated and correct these deviancies over time. It has also been proposed that the poverty of the stimulus problem can be largely avoided, if it is assumed that children employ similarity-based generalization strategies in language learning, generalizing about the usage of new words from similar words that they already know how to use.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Criticisms", "target_page_ids": [ 7302228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Language acquisition researcher Michael Ramscar has suggested that when children erroneously expect an ungrammatical form that then never occurs, the repeated failure of expectation serves as a form of implicit negative feedback that allows them to correct their errors over time such as how children correct grammar generalizations like goed to went through repetitive failure. This implies that word learning is a probabilistic, error-driven process, rather than a process of fast mapping, as many nativists assume.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Criticisms", "target_page_ids": [ 18614, 213328, 1104562 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 211, 228 ], [ 478, 490 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the domain of field research, the Pirahã language is claimed to be a counterexample to the basic tenets of universal grammar. This research has been led by Daniel Everett. Among other things, this language is alleged to lack all evidence for recursion, including embedded clauses, as well as quantifiers and colour terms. According to the writings of Everett, the Pirahã showed these linguistic shortcomings not because they were simple-minded, but because their culture—which emphasized concrete matters in the present and also lacked creation myths and traditions of art making—did not necessitate it. ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Criticisms", "target_page_ids": [ 222171, 5062775, 25407, 1031209, 7959499, 5921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 52 ], [ 159, 173 ], [ 245, 254 ], [ 266, 282 ], [ 295, 306 ], [ 311, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some other linguists have argued, however, that some of these properties have been misanalyzed, and that others are actually expected under current theories of universal grammar. Chomsky himself has called Everett a charlatan, and other experts have even accused him of purposely ignoring instances of recursion. Other linguists have attempted to reassess Pirahã to see if it did indeed use recursion. In a corpus analysis of the Pirahã language, linguists failed to disprove Everett's arguments against universal grammar and the lack of recursion in Pirahã. However, they also stated that there was \"no strong evidence for the lack of recursion either\" and they provided \"suggestive evidence that Pirahã may have sentences with recursive structures\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Criticisms", "target_page_ids": [ 325961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 216, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Daniel Everett has argued that even if a universal grammar is not impossible in principle, it should not be accepted because we have equally or more plausible theories that are simpler. In his words, \"universal grammar doesn't seem to work, there doesn't seem to be much evidence for [it]. And what can we put in its place? A complex interplay of factors, of which culture, the values human beings share, plays a major role in structuring the way that we talk and the things that we talk about.\" Michael Tomasello, a developmental psychologist, also supports this claim, arguing that \"although many aspects of human linguistic competence have indeed evolved biologically, specific grammatical principles and constructions have not. And universals in the grammatical structure of different languages have come from more general processes and constraints of human cognition, communication, and vocal-auditory processing, operating during the conventionalization and transmission of the particular grammatical constructions of particular linguistic communities.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Criticisms", "target_page_ids": [ 1804290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 496, 513 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Applicative universal grammar", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16956936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Broca's area", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 40166 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Native language", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 263257 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Optimality theory", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38693641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Origin of language", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 620396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Psychological nativism", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3719355 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Universal language", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1214877 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Universal Networking Language", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Baker, Mark C. The Atoms of Language: The Mind's Hidden Rules of Grammar. Oxford University Press, 2003. .", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Beattie, James. \"Of Universal Grammar\". Section II, The Theory of Language (1788). Rpt in Dissertations Moral and Critical (1783, 1986.)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Blair, Hugh. Lecture 6, 7, and 8, Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres, (1783). Rpt New York: Garland, 1970.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Burnett, James. Of the Origin and Progress of Language. Edinburgh, 1774–1792.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Chomsky, N. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. MIT Press, 1965. .", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Elman, J., Bates, E. et al. Rethinking innateness. MIT Press, 1996.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Harris, James. Hermes or A Philosophical Inquiry Concerning Universal Grammar. (1751, 1771.)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Kliesch, C. (2012). Making sense of syntax– Innate or acquired? Contrasting universal grammar with other approaches to language acquisition. Journal of European Psychology Students, 3, 88–94,", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Of Universal Grammar\". In \"Grammar\". Encyclopædia Britannica, (1771).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pesetsky, David. \"Linguistic Universals and Universal Grammar\". In The MIT Encyclopedia of the Cognitive Sciences. Ed. Robert A. Wilson and Frank C. Keil Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 1999.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sampson, G. The \"Language Instinct\" Debate. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2005. .", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Smith, Adam. \"Considerations Concerning the First Formation of Languages\". In Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres. Ed. J. C. Bryce. Indianapolis: Liberty Press, 1983, 203–226.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Smith, Adam. \"Of the Origin and Progress of Language\". Lecture 3, Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres. Ed. J. C. Bryce. Indianapolis: Liberty Press, 1983, 9–13.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tomasello, M. Constructing a Language: A Usage-Based Theory of Language Acquisition. Harvard University Press, 2003. .", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 1804290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Window on Humanity. A Concise Introduction to Anthropology. Conrad Phillip Kottak. Ed. Kevin Witt, Jill Gordon. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 2005.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "White, Lydia. \"Second Language Acquisition and Universal Grammar\". Cambridge University Press, 2003. ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Zuidema, Willem. How the poverty of stimulus solves the poverty of stimulus''. \"Evolution of Language: Fourth International Conference\", Harvard University, March 2002.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Philosophy_of_language", "Linguistic_theories_and_hypotheses", "Cognitive_science", "Language_acquisition", "Linguistic_universals" ]

[ "UG" ]

[ { "plaintext": "A Munro () is defined as a mountain in Scotland with a height over , and which is on the Scottish Mountaineering Club (SMC) official list of Munros; there is no explicit topographical prominence requirement. The best known Munro is Ben Nevis (Beinn Nibheis), the highest mountain in the British Isles at .", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1085774, 751115, 4917, 3736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 117 ], [ 170, 194 ], [ 232, 241 ], [ 287, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Munros are named after Sir Hugh Munro, 4th Baronet (1856–1919), who produced the first list of such hills, known as Munro's Tables, in 1891. Also included were what Munro considered lesser peaks, now known as Munro Tops, which are also over 3,000 feet but are lower than the nearby primary mountain. The publication of the original list is usually considered to be the epoch event of modern peak bagging. The list has been the subject of subsequent variation and as of 10 December 2020, the Scottish Mountaineering Club has listed 282 Munros and 226 Munro Tops.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1099893, 41113, 751245, 1085774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 50 ], [ 369, 380 ], [ 391, 403 ], [ 491, 519 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Munro bagging\" is the activity of climbing all the listed Munros. As of 31 December 2021, 7,098 people had reported completing a round. The first continuous round was completed by Hamish Brown in 1974, whilst the record for the fastest continuous round is currently held by Donnie Campbell, who completed a round in just under 32 days in September 2020. Furths are mountains in England, Wales or Ireland recognized by the SMC as meeting the Munro classification.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6825737, 38402431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 181, 193 ], [ 355, 361 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before the publication of Munro's Tables in 1891, there was much uncertainty about the number of Scottish peaks over 3,000 feet. Estimates ranged from 31 (in M.J.B. Baddeley's guides) to 236 (listed in Robert Hall's third edition of The Highland Sportsman and Tourist, published in 1884). When the Scottish Mountaineering Club was formed in 1889, one of its aims was to remedy this by accurately documenting all of Scotland's mountains over 3,000 feet. Sir Hugh Munro, a founding member of the club, took on the task using his own experience as a mountaineer, as well as detailed study of the Ordnance Survey six inches to the mile (1:10,560) and one-inch to the mile (1:63,360) maps.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1099893, 19344100 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 453, 467 ], [ 593, 608 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Munro researched and produced a set of tables that were published in the Scottish Mountaineering Club Journal in September 1891. The tables listed 538 summits over 3,000 feet, 282 of which were regarded as \"separate mountains\". The term Munro applies to separate mountains, while the lesser summits are known as Munro Tops. Munro did not set any measure of topographic prominence by which a peak qualified as a separate mountain, so there has been much debate about how distinct two hills must be if they are to be counted as two separate Munros.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1085774, 751115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 101 ], [ 357, 379 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Scottish Mountaineering Club has revised the tables, both in response to new height data on Ordnance Survey maps and to address the perceived inconsistency as to which peaks qualify for Munro status. In 1992, the publication of Alan Dawson's book Relative Hills of Britain, showed that three Munro Tops not already considered summits, had a prominence of more than . Given this they would have qualified as Corbett summits had they been under 3,000 feet. In the 1997 tables these three Munro Tops, on Beinn Alligin, Beinn Eighe and Buachaille Etive Beag, gained full Munro summit status. Dawson's book also highlighted a number of significant Munro Tops with as much as of prominence which were not listed as Munro Tops. The 1997 tables promoted five of these to full Munro status.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19344100, 58722220, 810357, 826979, 1554438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 111 ], [ 411, 418 ], [ 505, 518 ], [ 520, 531 ], [ 536, 557 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A total of 197 Munros have a topographic prominence of over and are regarded by Peakbaggers as Real Munros. 130 Scottish mountains over 1000m, with a topographic prominence of over have been termed Metric Munros.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 751115, 751245, 751115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 51 ], [ 81, 92 ], [ 151, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other classification schemes in Scotland, such as the Corbetts and Grahams , require a peak to have a prominence of at least for inclusion. The Munros, however, lack a rigid set of criteria for inclusion, with many summits of lesser prominence listed, principally because their summits are hard to reach.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 58722475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During May and July 2009 the Munro Society re-surveyed several mountains that are known to be close to the 3,000ft figure to determine their height more accurately. On 10 September 2009 the society announced that the mountain Sgùrr nan Ceannaichean, south of Glen Carron, had a height of . Therefore, the Scottish Mountaineering Club removed the Munro status of Sgùrr nan Ceannaichean and this mountain is now a Corbett. In a Summer 2011 height survey by The Munro Society, Beinn a' Chlaidheimh was found to be and thus short of the Munro mark. On 6 September 2012, the Scottish Mountaineering Club demoted it from Munro to Corbett status. On 26 August 2020, the SMC confirmed that Beinn a' Chroin West Top at 938m was deleted as a Munro Top and Beinn a' Chroin East Top became the new Munro Top at 940.1m. The summit height of Beinn a' Chroin was also changed to 941.4m. As of 10 December 2020, there were 226 Scottish Munro Tops after Stob Coire na Cloiche, a Munro Top to Parent Peak Sgùrr nan Ceathramhnan, was surveyed at 912.5m and was deleted as a Munro Top and downgraded to a Corbett Top.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 9194523, 8659017, 58722220, 60774321, 11895670, 7167141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 226, 248 ], [ 259, 270 ], [ 412, 419 ], [ 474, 494 ], [ 829, 844 ], [ 988, 1010 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of 10 December 2020, the Scottish Mountaineering Club lists 282 Munros and 226 Munro Tops. The current SMC list; totals 508 summits.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 58705117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most famous Munro is Ben Nevis (Beinn Nibheis) in the Lochaber area. It is the highest peak in the British Isles, with an elevation of 4,413ft (1,345 m)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Notable peaks", "target_page_ids": [ 4917, 347260, 3736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 34 ], [ 58, 66 ], [ 103, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other well-known Munros include:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Notable peaks", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ben Macdui (Beinn Macduibh), 4,295ft (1,309 m), is the second highest peak in the British Isles; Braeriach (Am Bràigh Riabhach), 4,252ft (1,296 m), is the third highest peak in the British Isles and Cairn Gorm (An Càrn Gorm), 4,084ft (1,244.8 m), is the sixth highest peak in the British Isles. These three Munros are located together in the Cairngorms", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Notable peaks", "target_page_ids": [ 1054387, 1204461, 867430, 497963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 98, 107 ], [ 200, 210 ], [ 343, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Beinn Teallach, 3,001ft (914.6 m), in Lochaber is the smallest Munro", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Notable peaks", "target_page_ids": [ 60863012, 347260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 39, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ben Hope (Beinn Hòb), 3,041ft (927 m), in Sutherland is the most northerly Munro", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Notable peaks", "target_page_ids": [ 3587534, 390789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 43, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mount Keen (Monadh Caoin), 3,081ft (939 m), in Glen Mark is the most easterly Munro", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Notable peaks", "target_page_ids": [ 8484657, 23763070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 48, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ben Lomond (Beinn Laomainn), 3,195ft (973.7 m), at Loch Lomond and The Trossachs National Park is the most southerly Munro", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Notable peaks", "target_page_ids": [ 626645, 624988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 52, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sgùrr na Banachdaich, 3,166ft (965 m), in the Black Cuillin on the Isle of Skye is the most westerly Munro", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Notable peaks", "target_page_ids": [ 6943695, 301353, 21387608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 53, 60 ], [ 68, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Schiehallion (Sìdh Chailleann), 3,553ft (1,083 m), in Perth and Kinross, is a Munro often described as lying at the centre of Scotland", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Notable peaks", "target_page_ids": [ 1398835, 143548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 55, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bidean nam Bian, 3,771ft (1,149.4 m); Buachaille Etive Mòr (Buachaille Èite Mòr) (Stob Dearg), 3,351ft (1021.4 m), at the entrance to Glen Coe, is the most photographed mountain in the British Isles/Buachaille Etive Mòr (Buachaille Èite Mòr) (Stob na Bròige), 3,128ft (953.4 m); Aonach Eagach (Sgor nam Fiannaidh), 3,175ft (967.7 m)/Aonach Eagach (Meall Dearg), 3,124ft (952.3 m), are regarded as the two most difficult Munros for extreme exposure while scrambling including the longest and narrowest ridge on mainland Britain, though it competes with Liathach and An Teallach for this title; and finally Buachaille Etive Beag (Buachaille Èite Beag) (Stob Dubh), 3,143ft (958 m)/Buachaille Etive Beag (Buachaille Èite Beag) (Stob Coire Raineach), 3,033ft (924.5 m). These seven Munros are located together in Glen Coe", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Notable peaks", "target_page_ids": [ 1543939, 309247, 769070, 309247, 842170, 842170, 822186, 1462167, 1554438, 1554438, 769070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 39, 59 ], [ 135, 143 ], [ 200, 220 ], [ 280, 293 ], [ 334, 347 ], [ 553, 561 ], [ 566, 577 ], [ 606, 627 ], [ 680, 701 ], [ 810, 818 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sgùrr Alasdair, 3,255ft (992 m); Sgùrr Dearg – Inaccessible Pinnacle, 3,234ft (985.8 m), is the hardest Munro and the only Munro with a peak that can only be reached by rock climbing and abseiling; Sgùrr a' Ghreadaidh, 3,189ft (972.1 m); Sgùrr nan Gillean, 3,170ft (966.1 m); Bruach na Frìthe, 3,146ft (958.8 m); Sgùrr Mhic Choinnich, 3,111ft (948.1 m); Sgùrr Dubh Mòr, 3,097ft (944 m); Am Basteir (Am Baisteir), 3,064ft (934 m); Sgùrr nan Eag, 3,039ft (926.3 m) and Sgùrr a' Mhadaidh, 3,012ft (918 m). These ten Munros including one other (Sgùrr na Banachdaich, as shown above) provide part of the most spectacular, toughest and longest single mountaineering challenge anywhere in the British Isles and are located together in the Black Cuillin on the Isle of Skye", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Notable peaks", "target_page_ids": [ 830767, 636739, 7301403, 508758, 6943785, 8480052, 66166236, 3126504, 66183284, 7301716, 6943695, 301353, 21387608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 34, 45 ], [ 199, 218 ], [ 239, 256 ], [ 277, 293 ], [ 314, 334 ], [ 355, 369 ], [ 388, 398 ], [ 431, 444 ], [ 468, 485 ], [ 542, 562 ], [ 739, 746 ], [ 754, 766 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Blà Bheinn (Blaven), 3,048ft (929 m), in the Black Cuillin Outlier (Blaven group) on the Isle of Skye", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Notable peaks", "target_page_ids": [ 847340, 301353, 21387608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 52, 59 ], [ 90, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Liathach (Spidean a' Choire Lèith), 3,461ft (1,054.8 m)/Liathach (Mullach an Rathain), 3,359ft (1,023.8 m); Beinn Eighe (Ruadh-stac Mòr), 3,314ft (1,010 m)/Beinn Eighe (Spidean Coire nan Clach), 3,258ft (993 m) and Beinn Alligin (Beinn Àilleagan) (Sgùrr Mhòr), 3,235ft (986 m)/Beinn Alligin (Beinn Àilleagan) (Tom na Gruagaich), 3,025ft (922 m). These six Munros are located together in Torridon", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Notable peaks", "target_page_ids": [ 822186, 822186, 826979, 826979, 810357, 810357, 5696641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 57, 65 ], [ 109, 120 ], [ 157, 168 ], [ 216, 229 ], [ 278, 291 ], [ 388, 396 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " An Teallach (Bidean a' Ghlas Thuill), 3,486ft (1,062.5 m)/An Teallach (Sgùrr Fiona), 3,473ft (1,058.7 m). These two Munros are located together in Dundonnell", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Notable peaks", "target_page_ids": [ 1462167, 1462167, 21312464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 59, 70 ], [ 148, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sgùrr na Cìche, 3,413ft (1,040.2 m) and Ladhar Bheinn, 3,346ft (1,020 m). These two Munros are located in Knoydart", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Notable peaks", "target_page_ids": [ 3991300, 4854067, 327202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 41, 54 ], [ 107, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Saddle (An Dìollaid), 3,319ft (1,011.5 m), in Glen Shiel", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Notable peaks", "target_page_ids": [ 1635094, 20390145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 51, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A' Mhaighdean, 3,173ft (967 m), and Slioch (Sleaghach), 3,219ft (981 m). These two Munros are located together in Wester Ross between the Fisherfield Forest and Letterewe Forest", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Notable peaks", "target_page_ids": [ 20327910, 6278770, 1758919, 1462176, 18108572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 37, 43 ], [ 115, 126 ], [ 139, 157 ], [ 162, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ben Cruachan (Cruach na Beinne), 3,698ft (1,127 m), at Loch Awe, gives its name to the Cruachan Power Station (also known as the Cruachan Dam), a pumped-storage hydroelectric power station located in a cavern inside the mountain", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Notable peaks", "target_page_ids": [ 1774589, 619922, 28200503, 277237, 212141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 56, 64 ], [ 88, 110 ], [ 147, 175 ], [ 176, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Compared with some continental ranges, Scottish mountains might be modest in height, but walking and climbing in them can be treacherous because of their latitude and exposure to Atlantic and Arctic weather systems . Even in summer, conditions can be atrocious; thick fog, strong winds, driving rain and freezing summit temperatures are not unusual.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Peak bagging", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Winter ascents of some Munros are serious undertakings due to the unpredictable weather, the likelihood of ice and snow, and poor visibility. Some walkers are unprepared for extreme weather on the exposed tops and fatalities are recorded every year, often resulting from slips on wet rock or ice.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Peak bagging", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some hillwalkers aim to climb every Munro, known as \"Munro bagging\". Munro-bagging is a form of peak bagging. A walker who has climbed all Munros is entitled to be called a Munroist.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Peak bagging", "target_page_ids": [ 18824506, 751245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 16 ], [ 96, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 31 December 2021, 7,098 people had completed the Munros. The Scottish Mountaineering Club, who maintain a list of those Munroists who have reported completing the Munros, have attempted to popularise the archaic spelling of .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Peak bagging", "target_page_ids": [ 1085774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hugh Munro never completed his own list, missing out on Càrn an Fhidhleir and Càrn Cloich-mhuillin (downgraded to a Munro Top in 1981). Sir Hugh is said to have missed the Inaccessible Pinnacle of Sgùrr Dearg, on the Isle of Skye, which he never climbed. However the \"In Pinn\", as it is known colloquially within Scottish mountaineering, was only listed as a Munro Top on his list (despite being several metres higher than Sgùrr Dearg, which was listed as the main Munro Top).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Peak bagging", "target_page_ids": [ 636739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 197, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first \"completionist\" was to be the Reverend A. E. Robertson, in 1901, later minister at Braes of Rannoch from 1907. However, research has cast doubt on this claim, and it is not certain that he reached the summit of Ben Wyvis. Also it is known that Robertson did not climb the Inaccessible Peak of Sgùrr Dearg. If Robertson is discounted, the first Munroist is Ronald Burn, who completed in 1923. Burn is also (indisputably) the first person to climb all the Munro Tops.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Peak bagging", "target_page_ids": [ 35503501, 35503429, 2038979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 64 ], [ 93, 109 ], [ 221, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The person with the most rounds of Munros is Steven Fallon from Edinburgh, who has completed 16 rounds as of 1 October 2019.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Peak bagging", "target_page_ids": [ 9602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chris Smith became the first Member of Parliament to complete the Munros when he reached the summit of Sgùrr nan Coireachan on 27 May 1989.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Peak bagging", "target_page_ids": [ 304477 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ben Fleetwood is probably the youngest person to have completed a round. He climbed the final Munro of his round – Ben More – on 30 August 2011 at the age of 10 years and 3 months. The youngest completionist to have done the round without the presence of a parent or a guardian is probably Andy Nisbet, who finished his round in 1972 aged 18 years and 1 month.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Peak bagging", "target_page_ids": [ 937434 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamish Brown did the first continuous self-propelled round of the Munros (except for the Skye and Mull ferries) between 4 April and 24 July 1974 with of ascent and mostly walking – just were on a bicycle. The journey is fully documented in his book Hamish's Mountain Walk. The average time taken to bag all the Munros is eight years.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Peak bagging", "target_page_ids": [ 6825737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first reported completion of all the Munros plus the Munro Tops in one continuous expedition was by Chris Townsend in 1996. His trip lasted between 18 May and 12 September (118 days), he covered a distance of ( by bicycle) with of ascent. The round was broken twice for spells at the office, which could be regarded as stretching the meaning of \"continuous\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Peak bagging", "target_page_ids": [ 5706308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first person to complete a winter round (all the Munros in one winter season) was Martin Moran in 1984–85. His journey lasted between 21 December 1984 and 13 March 1985 (83 days), he walked with of ascent. He used motor transport (campervan) to link his walk.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Peak bagging", "target_page_ids": [ 603977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 237, 246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the winter of 2005–06, Steve Perry completed a continuous unsupported round entirely on foot (and ferry). He is also the first person to have completed two continuous Munro rounds, having also walked Land's End to John O'Groats via every mainland 3,000ft mountain between 18 February 2003 and 30 September 2003.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Peak bagging", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1990, international fell runner and maths teacher Hugh Symonds of Sedbergh, Yorkshire, ran all 277 Munros starting from Ben Hope. It took him 66 days and 22 hours. This also included running the other 3,000 foot peaks in Great Britain. Having achieved this in the short time of 83 days, when his target had been a hundred, he decided to add the Republic of Ireland tops to the list and still finished all 303 peaks in 97 days.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Peak bagging", "target_page_ids": [ 2107245, 3587534, 14560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 88 ], [ 123, 131 ], [ 348, 367 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 1992, Andrew Johnstone of Aberdeen and Rory Gibson of Edinburgh completed their mountain triathlon across the Munros, the 277 Scottish peaks over 3,000ft, beating the existing record by five days. They began on 29 May and finished at 8.30pm on 15 July on the summit of Ben Hope, the most northerly Munro, completing a journey which began 51 days and 10 hours earlier on the Isle of Mull. After swimming lochs, cycling highland roads and running across some of the most desolate and dangerous terrain in Britain, they covered 1,400 miles.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Peak bagging", "target_page_ids": [ 1627, 9602, 410328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 42 ], [ 62, 71 ], [ 382, 394 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charlie Campbell, a former postman from Glasgow, held the record for the fastest round of the Munros between 2000 and 2010. He completed his round in 48 days, 12 hours and 0 minutes, finishing on 16 July 2000, on Ben Hope. He cycled and swam between Munros; no motorised transport was used.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Peak bagging", "target_page_ids": [ 68736, 3587534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 47 ], [ 213, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Campbell's record was broken by Stephen Pyke of Stone, Staffordshire, in 2010 who completed the round in 39 days, 9 hours and 6 minutes. Pyke's round started on the Isle of Mull on 25 April 2010 and finished on Ben Hope in Sutherland on 3 June 2010. He cycled and kayaked between Munros; no motorised transport was used. He was backed by a support team in a motor home, but had to camp out in the more remote areas.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Peak bagging", "target_page_ids": [ 418945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 2 September 2020, Pyke's record was broken by Donnie Campbell of Inverness. He completed his round in 31 days, 23 hours and 2 minutes, starting on the Isle of Mull on 1 August 2020 and finished on Ben Hope on 2 September 2020. Campbell ran the 282 Munros and cycled and kayaked between them. On day 29, he was joined by previous record holder Stephen Pyke. Whilst ticking off Moruisg in the cloud, he mistook the big cairn for the summit and had to head back up and so climbed the Munro twice. On day 31, he completed 18 Munros. He was supported by a crew travelling in his motorhome, who also shuttled his bike for him to follow a more linear route.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Peak bagging", "target_page_ids": [ 144968, 8941097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 77 ], [ 379, 386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The women's self-propelled, continuous record is held by Libby Kerr and Lisa Trollope. They completed their round on 17 September 2017, in 76 days and 10 hours.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Peak bagging", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 18 September 2011 Alex Robinson and Tom O'Connell finished a self-propelled continuous round on Ben Hope in a time of 48 days, 6 hours and 56 minutes. At the age of just 21, Alex became the youngest person to have completed a continuous round without the use of any motorised transport.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Peak bagging", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The SMC recognises six peaks in England, fifteen in Wales and thirteen in Ireland that would be Munros or Munro Tops if they were in Scotland. These are referred to as Furth Munros, i.e. the Munros furth of Scotland. The first recorded Furthist is James Parker, who completed on Tryfan (Snowdonia) on 19 April 1929.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Furths", "target_page_ids": [ 38402431, 909671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 179 ], [ 279, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of mountains of the British Isles by height", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 58694823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Munros and Munro Tops in Scotland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 58705117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Munros in Scotland by Section", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1490016 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Murdos (mountains)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 58697851 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lists of mountains and hills in the British Isles", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5576209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mountains and hills of Scotland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3338080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Munros (SMC Guide), Donald Bennet et al., ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Scottish Mountaineering Club – The SMC maintain the lists of Munros, Munro Tops, Furths, Corbetts and Donalds. They also keep a record of Completionists.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Walkhighlands guide to the Munros – Features podcasts giving the correct pronunciation and place-name meanings, a 3D visualisation of every route, gradient profiles and route downloads for GPS devices.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " MunroMagic.com – Munro, Corbett and Graham descriptions, pictures, location maps, walking routes and weather reports.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hill Bagging – the online version of the Database of British and Irish Hills – Survey reports, the change control database and the GPS database are on Hill Bagging.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Munros and Tops 1891–1997 – Spreadsheet showing changes in successive editions of Munros Tables.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ordnance Survey Munro Blog – OS is Britain's mapping agency. They make the most up-to-date and accurate maps of the United Kingdom. They have also produced a blog on the Munros.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Harold Street Munros Lists of GPS waypoints + Grid References for walking in UK mountains and hills in various GPS file formats.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ScottishHills.com – Hillwalking forum with Munro, Corbett, Graham and Donald, Sub 200's log, maps and trip reports.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 360Routes.com – Virtual Tours over the Scottish Mountains.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Munros", "Peak_bagging", "Tourist_attractions_in_Scotland" ]

[ "Munros" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Kurdish (, ) is a language or a group of languages spoken by Kurds in the geo-cultural region of Kurdistan and the Kurdish diaspora. Kurdish constitute a dialect continuum, belonging to Western Iranian languages in the Indo-European language family. The main three dialects or languages of Kurdish are Northern Kurdish (), Central Kurdish (), and Southern Kurdish ().", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 17068, 80777, 3979351, 370878, 5128010, 14848, 1618414, 181778, 1244951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 66 ], [ 97, 106 ], [ 115, 131 ], [ 154, 171 ], [ 186, 211 ], [ 219, 248 ], [ 302, 318 ], [ 323, 338 ], [ 347, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A separate group of non-Kurdish Northwestern Iranian languages, the Zaza–Gorani languages, are also spoken by several million ethnic Kurds. The majority of the Kurds speak Kurmanji, and most Kurdish texts are written in Kurmanji and Sorani. Kurmanji is written in the Hawar alphabet, a derivation of the Latin script, and Sorani is written in the Sorani alphabet, a derivation of Arabic script.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1001221, 1618414, 1618414, 181778, 1230576, 6683766, 1230576, 6685329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 89 ], [ 172, 180 ], [ 220, 228 ], [ 233, 239 ], [ 268, 282 ], [ 304, 316 ], [ 347, 362 ], [ 380, 393 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The classification of Laki as a dialect of Southern Kurdish or as a fourth language under Kurdish is a matter of debate, but the differences between Laki and other Southern Kurdish dialects are minimal.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1276622, 1244951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 26 ], [ 43, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The literary output in Kurdish was mostly confined to poetry until the early 20th century, when more general literature became developed. Today, the two principal written Kurdish dialects are Kurmanji and Sorani. Sorani is, along with Arabic, one of the two official languages of Iraq and is in political documents simply referred to as \"Kurdish\".", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 803, 7515928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 235, 241 ], [ 280, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Kurdish languages belong to the Iranian branch of the Indo-European family. They are generally classified as Northwestern Iranian languages, or by some scholars as intermediate between Northwestern and Southwestern Iranian. Martin van Bruinessen notes that \"Kurdish has a strong South-Western Iranian element\", whereas \"Zaza and Gurani [...] do belong to the north-west Iranian group\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification and origin", "target_page_ids": [ 3402027, 14848, 5472539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 50 ], [ 58, 78 ], [ 228, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ludwig Paul concludes that Kurdish seems to be a Northwestern Iranian language in origin, but acknowledges that it shares many traits with Southwestern Iranian languages like Persian, apparently due to longstanding and intense historical contacts.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification and origin", "target_page_ids": [ 11600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 175, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Windfuhr identified Kurdish dialects as Parthian, albeit with a Median substratum. Windfuhr and Frye assume an eastern origin for Kurdish and consider it as related to eastern and central Iranian dialects.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification and origin", "target_page_ids": [ 2570653, 1389764, 1804168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 48 ], [ 64, 70 ], [ 96, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The present state of knowledge about Kurdish allows, at least roughly, drawing the approximate borders of the areas where the main ethnic core of the speakers of the contemporary Kurdish dialects was formed. The most argued hypothesis on the localisation of the ethnic territory of the Kurds remains D.N. Mackenzie's theory, proposed in the early 1960s (Mackenzie 1961). Developing the ideas of P. Tedesco (1921: 255) and regarding the common phonetic isoglosses shared by Kurdish, Persian, and Baluchi, Mackenzie concluded that the speakers of these three languages may once have been in closer contact.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification and origin", "target_page_ids": [ 10392441, 61128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 300, 314 ], [ 495, 502 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kurdish is divided into three or four groups, where dialects from different groups are not mutually intelligible without acquired bilingualism.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Subdivisions", "target_page_ids": [ 871470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Northern Kurdish (Kurmanji) is the largest dialect group, spoken by an estimated 15 to 20 million Kurds in Turkey, Syria, northern Iraq, and northwest and northeast Iran.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Subdivisions", "target_page_ids": [ 1618414, 4314285, 3821855, 35423251, 3821779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 107, 113 ], [ 115, 120 ], [ 122, 135 ], [ 141, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Central Kurdish (Sorani) is spoken by an estimated 6 to 7 million Kurds in much of Iraqi Kurdistan and the Iranian Kurdistan Province. Sorani is a written standard of Central Kurdish developed in the 1920s (named after the historical Soran Emirate) and was later adopted as the standard orthography of Kurdish as an official language of Iraq.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Subdivisions", "target_page_ids": [ 181778, 679693, 448112, 181778, 4252191, 1230576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 83, 98 ], [ 115, 133 ], [ 135, 141 ], [ 234, 247 ], [ 287, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Southern Kurdish (Pehlewani) is spoken in the Kermanshah, Ilam and Lorestan provinces of Iran and in the Khanaqin district of eastern Iraq. Laki and Kurdali (Palai) are often included in Southern Kurdish, but they have some distinct features.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Subdivisions", "target_page_ids": [ 1244951, 448078, 448068, 433072, 1037026, 1276622, 69050067 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 46, 56 ], [ 58, 62 ], [ 67, 75 ], [ 105, 113 ], [ 140, 144 ], [ 149, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In historical evolution terms, Kurmanji is less modified than Sorani and Pehlewani in both phonetic and morphological structure. The Sorani group has been influenced by among other things its closer cultural proximity to the other languages spoken by Kurds in the region including the Gorani language in parts of Iranian Kurdistan and Iraqi Kurdistan. The Kermanshahi group has been influenced by among other things its closer cultural proximity to Persian.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Subdivisions", "target_page_ids": [ 839209, 61733686, 679693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 285, 300 ], [ 313, 330 ], [ 335, 350 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Philip G. Kreyenbroek, an expert writing in 1992, says:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Subdivisions", "target_page_ids": [ 68034854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Encyclopaedia of Islam, although Kurdish is not a unified language, its many dialects are interrelated and at the same time distinguishable from other Western Iranian languages. The same source classifies different Kurdish dialects as two main groups, northern and central. The reality is that the average Kurmanji speaker does not find it easy to communicate with the inhabitants of Sulaymaniyah or Halabja.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Subdivisions", "target_page_ids": [ 1791208, 5128010, 653537, 318996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 35 ], [ 164, 189 ], [ 397, 409 ], [ 413, 420 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some linguistic scholars assert that the term \"Kurdish\" has been applied extrinsically in describing the language the Kurds speak, whereas some ethnic Kurds have used the word term to simply describe their ethnicity and refer to their language as Kurmanji, Sorani, Hewrami, Kermanshahi, Kalhori or whatever other dialect or language they speak. Some historians have noted that it is only recently that the Kurds who speak the Sorani dialect have begun referring to their language as Kurdî, in addition to their identity, which is translated to simply mean Kurdish.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Subdivisions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mokriani dialect of Central Kurdish is widely spoken in Mokrian. Piranshahr and Mahabad are two principal cities of the Mokrian dialect area.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Subdivisions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Zaza–Gorani languages, which are spoken by communities in the wider area who identify as ethnic Kurds, are not linguistically classified as Kurdish. Zaza-Gorani is classified as adjunct to Kurdish, although authorities differ in the details. Windfuhr (2009) groups Kurdish with Zaza Gorani within a \"Northwestern I\" group, while Glottolog based on Encyclopædia Iranica prefers an areal grouping of \"Central dialects\" (or \"Kermanic\") within Northwest Iranic, with Kurdish but not Zaza-Gorani grouped with \"Kermanic\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Zazaki and Gorani", "target_page_ids": [ 1001221, 42229472, 1081351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 329, 338 ], [ 348, 368 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gorani is distinct from Northern and Central Kurdish, yet shares vocabulary with both of them and there are some grammatical similarities with Central Kurdish. The Hawrami dialects of Gorani includes a variety that was an important literary language since the 14th century, but it was replaced by Central Kurdish in the 20th century.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Zazaki and Gorani", "target_page_ids": [ 839209, 839209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 164, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "European scholars have maintained that Gorani is separate from Kurdish and that Kurdish is synonymous with the Northern Kurdish group, whereas ethnic Kurds maintain that Kurdish encompasses any of the unique languages or dialects spoken by Kurds that are not spoken by neighbouring ethnic groups.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Zazaki and Gorani", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Gorani is classified as part of the Zaza–Gorani branch of Indo-Iranian languages. The Zaza language, spoken mainly in Turkey, differs both grammatically and in vocabulary and is generally not understandable by Gorani speakers but it is considered related to Gorani. Almost all Zaza-speaking communities, as well as speakers of the closely related Shabaki dialect spoken in parts of Iraqi Kurdistan, identify themselves as ethnic Kurds.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Zazaki and Gorani", "target_page_ids": [ 700677, 9726324, 679693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 99 ], [ 347, 362 ], [ 382, 397 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Geoffrey Haig and Ergin Öpengin in their recent study suggest grouping the Kurdish languages into Northern Kurdish, Central Kurdish, Southern Kurdish, Zaza, and Gorani, and avoid the subgrouping Zaza–Gorani.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Zazaki and Gorani", "target_page_ids": [ 700677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The notable professor Zare Yusupova has carried out a lot of work and research into the Gorani dialect (as well as many other minority/ancient Kurdish dialects).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Zazaki and Gorani", "target_page_ids": [ 49197549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During his stay in Damascus, historian Ibn Wahshiyya came across two books on agriculture written in Kurdish, one on the culture of the vine and the palm tree, and the other on water and the means of finding it out in unknown ground. He translated both from Kurdish into Arabic in the early 9th century AD.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 8914, 2566793 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 27 ], [ 39, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Among the earliest Kurdish religious texts is the Yazidi Black Book, the sacred book of Yazidi faith. It is considered to have been authored sometime in the 13th century AD by Hassan bin Adi (b. 1195 AD), the great-grandnephew of Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir (d. 1162), the founder of the faith. It contains the Yazidi account of the creation of the world, the origin of man, the story of Adam and Eve and the major prohibitions of the faith. From the 15th to 17th centuries, classical Kurdish poets and writers developed a literary language. The most notable classical Kurdish poets from this period were Ali Hariri, Ahmad Khani, Malaye Jaziri and Faqi Tayran.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1474130, 20557247, 3775581, 4345275, 5852297, 3263095, 3288550, 3296263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 67 ], [ 88, 94 ], [ 383, 387 ], [ 392, 395 ], [ 600, 610 ], [ 612, 623 ], [ 625, 638 ], [ 643, 654 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Italian priest Maurizio Garzoni published the first Kurdish grammar titled Grammatica e Vocabolario della Lingua Kurda in Rome in 1787 after eighteen years of missionary work among the Kurds of Amadiya. This work is very important in Kurdish history as it is the first acknowledgment of the widespread use of a distinctive Kurdish language. Garzoni was given the title Father of Kurdology by later scholars. The Kurdish language was banned in a large portion of Kurdistan for some time. After the 1980 Turkish coup d'état until 1991 the use of the Kurdish language was illegal in Turkey.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 385155, 25458, 1660963, 993141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 11 ], [ 126, 130 ], [ 198, 205 ], [ 501, 525 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Today, Sorani is an official language in Iraq. In Syria, on the other hand, publishing materials in Kurdish is forbidden, though this prohibition is not enforced any more due to the Syrian civil war.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Current status", "target_page_ids": [ 181778, 7515928, 7515849, 30741795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 13 ], [ 41, 45 ], [ 50, 55 ], [ 182, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before August 2002, the Turkish government placed severe restrictions on the use of Kurdish, prohibiting the language in education and broadcast media. In March 2006, Turkey allowed private television channels to begin airing programming in Kurdish. However, the Turkish government said that they must avoid showing children's cartoons, or educational programs that teach Kurdish, and could broadcast only for 45 minutes a day or four hours a week. The state-run Turkish Radio and Television Corporation (TRT) started its 24-hour Kurdish television station on 1 January 2009 with the motto \"we live under the same sky\". The Turkish Prime Minister sent a video message in Kurdish to the opening ceremony, which was attended by Minister of Culture and other state officials. The channel uses the X, W, and Q letters during broadcasting. However, most of these restrictions on private Kurdish television channels were relaxed in September 2009. In 2010, Kurdish municipalities in the southeast began printing marriage certificates, water bills, construction and road signs, as well as emergency, social and cultural notices in Kurdish alongside Turkish. Also Imams began to deliver Friday sermons in Kurdish and Esnaf price tags in Kurdish. Many mayors were tried for issuing public documents in Kurdish language. The Kurdish alphabet is not recognized in Turkey, and prior to 2013 the use of Kurdish names containing the letters X, W, and Q, which do not exist in the Turkish alphabet, was not allowed. In 2012, Kurdish-language lessons became an elective subject in public schools. Previously, Kurdish education had only been possible in private institutions.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Current status", "target_page_ids": [ 7165, 20867553, 6024347, 261002, 165648, 16744822, 201417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 327, 334 ], [ 522, 556 ], [ 1006, 1026 ], [ 1059, 1068 ], [ 1186, 1193 ], [ 1209, 1214 ], [ 1466, 1482 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Iran, though it is used in some local media and newspapers, it is not used in public schools. In 2005, 80 Iranian Kurds took part in an experiment and gained scholarships to study in Kurdish in Iraqi Kurdistan.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Current status", "target_page_ids": [ 14653, 679693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 7 ], [ 197, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Kyrgyzstan, of the Kurdish population speak Kurdish as their native language. In Kazakhstan, the corresponding percentage is 88.7%.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Current status", "target_page_ids": [ 170131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Kurdish language has been written using four different writing systems. In Iraq and Iran it is written using an Arabic script, composed by Sa'id Kaban Sedqi. More recently, it is sometimes written with a Latin alphabet in Iraq. In Turkey, Syria, and Armenia, it is now written using a Latin script. Kurdish was also written in the Arabic script in Turkey and Syria until 1932. There is a proposal for a unified international recognized Kurdish alphabet based on ISO-8859-1 called Yekgirtú. Kurdish in the former USSR is written with a Cyrillic alphabet. Kurdish has even been written in the Armenian alphabet in Soviet Armenia and in the Ottoman Empire (a translation of the Gospels in 1857 and of all New Testament in 1872).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Writing system", "target_page_ids": [ 7515928, 14653, 1230576, 1230576, 10918072, 1230576, 15019, 26779, 5639, 23690734, 380353, 22278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 83 ], [ 88, 92 ], [ 116, 129 ], [ 208, 222 ], [ 254, 261 ], [ 289, 301 ], [ 466, 476 ], [ 516, 520 ], [ 539, 556 ], [ 595, 612 ], [ 616, 630 ], [ 642, 656 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kurdish people", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kurdish culture", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3913469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kurdish literature", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3912775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kurdish Wikipedia", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4348376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kurdish Institute of Paris", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4325063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kurdish Institute of Istanbul", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4325358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of countries by Kurdish-speaking population", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3979351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wîkîferheng (Kurdish Wiktionary)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 156658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " VejinBooks, collection of Kurdish literary and historical texts", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Vejin Dictionaries, collection of Kurdish dictionaries (written in Arabic script)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Kurdish Academy of Language (unofficial)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kurdînûs, a tool for writing in Kurdish and to convert texts from Arabic script to Latin script and vice versa", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Egerîn, Kurdish (Kurmanji) search engine", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " inKurdish: English–Kurdish Translation", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dictio: English–Kurdish (Sorani) Dictionary", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Kurdish Institute of Paris: Language and Literature", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kurdish Language and Linguistics, at Encyclopedia Iranica (article written by Ludwig Paul)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Reference Grammar with Selected Readings both for Sorani and Kurmanji, written by W. M. Thackston (Harvard University)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " History of Kurdish Written Literature, at Encyclopedia Iranica (article written by Philip G. Kryeenbroek)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kurdish Language Initiative of Seywan Institute", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kurdish Institute of Istanbul", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " KAL: The Kurdish Academy of Language", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Grammar of a Less Familiar Language (MIT OpenCourseWare)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Southern Kurdish phonetic", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gorani Influence on Central Kurdish", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Kurdish_language", "Languages_of_Armenia", "Languages_of_Azerbaijan", "Languages_of_Turkey", "Languages_of_Iran", "Languages_of_Iraq", "Languages_of_Israel", "Languages_of_Lebanon", "Languages_of_Syria", "Subject–object–verb_languages", "Iranian_languages", "Articles_citing_Nationalencyklopedin", "Languages_of_Kurdistan" ]

[ "ku", "Kurdi", "Kurdish language", "Kurdish dialects", "Kurdish languages" ]

[ { "plaintext": "UTF-16 (16-bit Unicode Transformation Format) is a character encoding capable of encoding all 1,112,064 valid code points of Unicode (in fact this number of code points is dictated by the design of UTF-16). The encoding is variable-length, as code points are encoded with one or two 16-bit code units. UTF-16 arose from an earlier obsolete fixed-width 16-bit encoding, now known as UCS-2 (for 2-byte Universal Character Set), once it became clear that more than 216 (65,536) code points were needed.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23592304, 31742, 5295, 2102354, 1307226, 23431060 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 14 ], [ 15, 22 ], [ 51, 69 ], [ 110, 120 ], [ 223, 238 ], [ 382, 387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "UTF-16 is used by systems such as the Microsoft Windows API, the Java programming language and JavaScript/ECMAScript. It is also sometimes used for plain text and word-processing data files on Microsoft Windows. It is rarely used for files on Unix-like systems. Since May 2019, Microsoft has begun supporting UTF-8 (as well as UTF-16) and encouraging its use.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18890, 15881, 9845, 25030, 21347057, 32188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 55 ], [ 65, 90 ], [ 95, 105 ], [ 148, 158 ], [ 243, 252 ], [ 309, 314 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "UTF-16 is the only web-encoding incompatible with ASCII and never gained popularity on the web, where it is used by under 0.002% (little over 1 thousandth of 1 percent) of web pages. UTF-8, by comparison, accounts for 98% of all web pages. The Web Hypertext Application Technology Working Group (WHATWG) considers UTF-8 \"the mandatory encoding for all [text]\" and that for security reasons browser applications should not use UTF-16.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 586, 32188, 14747267 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 55 ], [ 183, 188 ], [ 244, 303 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is used by SMS (i.e. the variable-length UTF-16 needed to support all emoji characters, the SMS standard specifies its predecessor fixed-width UCS-2 which do not support most of them).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23752827, 513844, 23431060 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 17 ], [ 73, 78 ], [ 146, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the late 1980s, work began on developing a uniform encoding for a \"Universal Character Set\" (UCS) that would replace earlier language-specific encodings with one coordinated system. The goal was to include all required characters from most of the world's languages, as well as symbols from technical domains such as science, mathematics, and music. The original idea was to replace the typical 256-character encodings, which required 1 byte per character, with an encoding using 65,536 (216) values, which would require 2 bytes (16 bits) per character.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23431060 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two groups worked on this in parallel, ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 2 and the Unicode Consortium, the latter representing mostly manufacturers of computing equipment. The two groups attempted to synchronize their character assignments so that the developing encodings would be mutually compatible. The early 2-byte encoding was originally called \"Unicode\", but is now called \"UCS-2\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 41356362, 203906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 57 ], [ 66, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When it became increasingly clear that 216 characters would not suffice, IEEE introduced a larger 31-bit space and an encoding (UCS-4) that would require 4 bytes per character. This was resisted by the Unicode Consortium, both because 4 bytes per character wasted a lot of memory and disk space, and because some manufacturers were already heavily invested in 2-byte-per-character technology. The UTF-16 encoding scheme was developed as a compromise and introduced with version 2.0 of the Unicode standard in July 1996. It is fully specified in RFC 2781, published in 2000 by the IETF.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 56938, 183928, 203906, 15285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 77 ], [ 128, 133 ], [ 202, 220 ], [ 580, 584 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the UTF-16 encoding, code points less than 216 are encoded with a single 16-bit code unit equal to the numerical value of the code point, as in the older UCS-2. The newer code points greater than or equal to 216 are encoded by a compound value using two 16-bit code units. These two 16-bit code units are chosen from the UTF-16 surrogate range which had not previously been assigned to characters. Values in this range are not used as characters, and UTF-16 provides no legal way to code them as individual code points. A UTF-16 stream, therefore, consists of single 16-bit code points outside the surrogate range for code points in the Basic Multilingual Plane (BMP), and pairs of 16-bit values within the surrogate range for code points above the BMP.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 10633237, 14579836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 324, 346 ], [ 641, 665 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "UTF-16 is specified in the latest versions of both the international standard ISO/IEC 10646 and the Unicode Standard. \"UCS-2 should now be considered obsolete. It no longer refers to an encoding form in either 10646 or the Unicode Standard.\" UTF-16 will never be extended to support a larger number of code points or to support the code points that were replaced by surrogates, as this would violate the Unicode Stability Policy with respect to general category or surrogate code points. (Any scheme that remains a self-synchronizing code would require allocating at least one BMP code point to start a sequence. Changing the purpose of a code point is disallowed.)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23431060, 41687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 91 ], [ 515, 538 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Each Unicode code point is encoded either as one or two 16-bit code units. How these 16-bit codes are stored as bytes then depends on the endianness of the text file or communication protocol.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 43026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 138, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A \"character\" may need from as few as two bytes to fourteen or even more bytes to be recorded. For instance an emoji flag character takes 8 bytes, since it is \"constructed from a pair of Unicode scalar values\" (and those values are outside the BMP and require 4 bytes each).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 31398151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Both UTF-16 and UCS-2 encode code points in this range as single 16-bit code units that are numerically equal to the corresponding code points. These code points in the Basic Multilingual Plane (BMP) are the only code points that can be represented in UCS-2. As of Unicode 9.0, some modern non-Latin Asian, Middle-Eastern, and African scripts fall outside this range, as do most emoji characters.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 14579836, 513844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 169, 193 ], [ 379, 384 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Code points from the other planes (called Supplementary Planes) are encoded as two 16-bit code units called a surrogate pair, by the following scheme:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 14579836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 0x10000 is subtracted from the code point (U), leaving a 20-bit number (U') in the hex number range 0x00000–0xFFFFF. Note for these purposes, U is defined to be no greater than 0x10FFFF.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The high ten bits (in the range 0x000–0x3FF) are added to 0xD800 to give the first 16-bit code unit or high surrogate (W1), which will be in the range .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The low ten bits (also in the range 0x000–0x3FF) are added to 0xDC00 to give the second 16-bit code unit or low surrogate (W2), which will be in the range .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Illustrated visually, the distribution of U between W1 and W2 looks like:The high surrogate and low surrogate are also known as \"leading\" and \"trailing\" surrogates, respectively, analogous to the leading and trailing bytes of UTF-8.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since the ranges for the high surrogates (), low surrogates (), and valid BMP characters (0x0000–0xD7FF, 0xE000–0xFFFF) are disjoint, it is not possible for a surrogate to match a BMP character, or for two adjacent code units to look like a legal surrogate pair. This simplifies searches a great deal. It also means that UTF-16 is self-synchronizing on 16-bit words: whether a code unit starts a character can be determined without examining earlier code units (i.e. the type of code unit can be determined by the ranges of values in which it falls). UTF-8 shares these advantages, but many earlier multi-byte encoding schemes (such as Shift JIS and other Asian multi-byte encodings) did not allow unambiguous searching and could only be synchronized by re-parsing from the start of the string (UTF-16 is not self-synchronizing if one byte is lost or if traversal starts at a random byte).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 39359, 546310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 132 ], [ 636, 645 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because the most commonly used characters are all in the BMP, handling of surrogate pairs is often not thoroughly tested. This leads to persistent bugs and potential security holes, even in popular and well-reviewed application software (e.g. ).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Supplementary Planes contain emoji, historic scripts, less used symbols, less used Chinese ideographs, etc. Since the encoding of Supplementary Planes contains 20 significant bits (10 of 16 bits in each of the high and low surrogates), 220 code points can be encoded, divided into 16 planes of 216 code points each. Including the separately-handled Basic Multilingual Plane, there are a total of 17 planes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 14579836, 513844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 24 ], [ 33, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Unicode standard reserves these code point values for the high and low surrogates, and they will never be assigned a character, so there should be no reason to encode them. The official Unicode standard says that no UTF forms, including UTF-16, can encode these code points. However, Windows allows unpaired surrogates in filenames and other places, which generally means they have to be supported by software in spite of their exclusion from the Unicode standard.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "UCS-2, UTF-8, and UTF-32 can encode these code points in trivial and obvious ways, and a large amount of software does so, even though the standard states that such arrangements should be treated as encoding errors.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 183928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is possible to unambiguously encode an unpaired surrogate (a high surrogate code point not followed by a low one, or a low one not preceded by a high one) in the format of UTF-16 by using a code unit equal to the code point. The result is not valid UTF-16, but the majority of UTF-16 encoder and decoder implementations do this then when translating between encodings.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To encode U+10437 (𐐷) to UTF-16:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Subtract 0x10000 from the code point, leaving 0x0437.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " For the high surrogate, shift right by 10 (divide by 0x400), then add 0xD800, resulting in 0x0001 + 0xD800 = 0xD801.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " For the low surrogate, take the low 10 bits (remainder of dividing by 0x400), then add 0xDC00, resulting in 0x0037 + 0xDC00 = 0xDC37.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To decode U+10437 (𐐷) from UTF-16:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Take the high surrogate (0xD801) and subtract 0xD800, then multiply by 0x400, resulting in 0x0001 × 0x400 = 0x0400.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Take the low surrogate (0xDC37) and subtract 0xDC00, resulting in 0x37.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Add these two results together (0x0437), and finally add 0x10000 to get the final decoded UTF-32 code point, 0x10437.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The following table summarizes this conversion, as well as others. The colors indicate how bits from the code point are distributed among the UTF-16 bytes. Additional bits added by the UTF-16 encoding process are shown in black.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "UTF-16 and UCS-2 produce a sequence of 16-bit code units. Since most communication and storage protocols are defined for bytes, and each unit thus takes two 8-bit bytes, the order of the bytes may depend on the endianness (byte order) of the computer architecture.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Byte-order encoding schemes", "target_page_ids": [ 43026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 211, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To assist in recognizing the byte order of code units, UTF-16 allows a byte order mark (BOM), a code point with the value U+FEFF, to precede the first actual coded value. (U+FEFF is the invisible zero-width non-breaking space/ZWNBSP character.) If the endian architecture of the decoder matches that of the encoder, the decoder detects the 0xFEFF value, but an opposite-endian decoder interprets the BOM as the value U+FFFE reserved for this purpose. This incorrect result provides a hint to perform byte-swapping for the remaining values.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Byte-order encoding schemes", "target_page_ids": [ 105412, 16498555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 86 ], [ 196, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If the BOM is missing, RFC 2781 recommends that big-endian (BE) encoding be assumed. In practice, due to Windows using little-endian (LE) order by default, many applications assume little-endian encoding. It is also reliable to detect endianness by looking for null bytes, on the assumption that characters less than U+0100 are very common. If more even bytes (starting at 0) are null, then it is big-endian.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Byte-order encoding schemes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The standard also allows the byte order to be stated explicitly by specifying UTF-16BE or UTF-16LE as the encoding type. When the byte order is specified explicitly this way, a BOM is specifically not supposed to be prepended to the text, and a U+FEFF at the beginning should be handled as a ZWNBSP character. Most applications ignore a BOM in all cases despite this rule.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Byte-order encoding schemes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For Internet protocols, IANA has approved \"UTF-16\", \"UTF-16BE\", and \"UTF-16LE\" as the names for these encodings (the names are case insensitive). The aliases UTF_16 or UTF16 may be meaningful in some programming languages or software applications, but they are not standard names in Internet protocols.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Byte-order encoding schemes", "target_page_ids": [ 14539, 84022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ], [ 24, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Similar designations, UCS-2BE and UCS-2LE, are used to show versions of UCS-2'''.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Byte-order encoding schemes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "UTF-16 is used for text in the OSAPI of all currently supported versions of Microsoft Windows (and including at least all since Windows CE/2000/XP/2003/Vista/7) including Windows 10. In Windows XP, no code point above U+FFFF is included in any font delivered with Windows for European languages. Older Windows NT systems (prior to Windows 2000) only support UCS-2. Files and network data tend to be a mix of UTF-16, UTF-8, and legacy byte encodings.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 18890, 230360, 33941, 33879, 208068, 2289648, 326123, 43989914, 21291483, 23431060 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 93 ], [ 128, 138 ], [ 139, 143 ], [ 144, 146 ], [ 147, 151 ], [ 152, 157 ], [ 158, 159 ], [ 171, 181 ], [ 302, 312 ], [ 358, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While there's been some UTF-8 support for even Windows XP, it was improved (in particular the ability to name a file using UTF-8) in Windows 10 insider build 17035 and the April 2018 update. As of May 2019 Microsoft recommends software use UTF-8 instead of UTF-16.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 32242091, 45470892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 74 ], [ 144, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The IBM i operating system designates CCSID (code page) 13488 for UCS-2 encoding and CCSID 1200 for UTF-16 encoding, though the system treats them both as UTF-16.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 248005, 2778969, 194376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 9 ], [ 38, 43 ], [ 45, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "UTF-16 is used by the Qualcomm BREW operating systems; the .NET environments; and the Qt cross-platform graphical widget toolkit.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 639649, 25143203, 25204, 222558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 35 ], [ 59, 63 ], [ 86, 88 ], [ 114, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Symbian OS used in Nokia S60 handsets and Sony Ericsson UIQ handsets uses UCS-2. iPhone handsets use UTF-16 for Short Message Service instead of UCS-2 described in the 3GPP TS 23.038 (GSM) and IS-637 (CDMA) standards.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 25686223, 457487, 8841749, 28207, 23752827, 12808, 481213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 56, 59 ], [ 81, 87 ], [ 112, 133 ], [ 168, 182 ], [ 184, 187 ], [ 201, 205 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Joliet file system, used in CD-ROM media, encodes file names using UCS-2BE (up to sixty-four Unicode characters per file name).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 15145, 18959902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 22 ], [ 32, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Python language environment officially only uses UCS-2 internally since version 2.0, but the UTF-8 decoder to \"Unicode\" produces correct UTF-16. Since Python 2.2, \"wide\" builds of Unicode are supported which use UTF-32 instead; these are primarily used on Linux. Python 3.3 no longer ever uses UTF-16, instead an encoding that gives the most compact representation for the given string is chosen from ASCII/Latin-1, UCS-2, and UTF-32.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 23862, 183928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ], [ 216, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Java originally used UCS-2, and added UTF-16 supplementary character support in J2SE 5.0.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 15881, 42871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 80, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "JavaScript may use UCS-2 or UTF-16. As of ES2015, string methods and regular expression flags have been added to the language that permit handling strings from an encoding-agnostic perspective.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 9845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In many languages, quoted strings need a new syntax for quoting non-BMP characters, as the C-style syntax explicitly limits itself to 4 hex digits. The following examples illustrate the syntax for the non-BMP character \"𝄞\" (U+1D11E, MUSICAL SYMBOL G CLEF). The most common (used by C++, C#, D, and several other languages) is to use an upper-case 'U' with 8 hex digits such as . In Java 7 regular expressions, ICU, and Perl, the syntax must be used; similarly, in ECMAScript 2015 (JavaScript), the escape format is . In many other cases (such as Java outside of regular expressions), the only way to get non-BMP characters is to enter the surrogate halves individually, for example: for U+1D11E.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 72038, 2356196, 243881, 1296785, 188515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 285, 288 ], [ 290, 292 ], [ 294, 295 ], [ 413, 416 ], [ 468, 478 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "String implementations based on UTF-16 typically define lengths of the string and allow indexing in terms of these 16-bit code units, not in terms of code points. Neither code points nor code units correspond to anything an end user might recognize as a “character”; the things users identify as characters may in general consist of a base code point and a sequence of combining characters (or might be a sequence of code points of some other kind, for example Hangul conjoining jamos) Unicode refers to this construct as a grapheme cluster'' and as such, applications dealing with Unicode strings, whatever the encoding, must cope with the fact that this limits their ability to arbitrarily split and combine strings.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "UCS-2 is also supported by the PHP language and MySQL.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 24131, 19545 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 34 ], [ 48, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Swift, version 5, Apple's preferred application language, switched from UTF-16 to UTF-8 as the preferred encoding.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 42946389, 856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 18, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Comparison of Unicode encodings", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2433279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Plane (Unicode)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14579836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " UTF-8", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " UTF-32", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 183928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A very short algorithm for determining the surrogate pair for any code point", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Unicode Technical Note #12: UTF-16 for Processing", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Unicode FAQ: What is the difference between UCS-2 and UTF-16?", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Unicode Character Name Index", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " : UTF-16, an encoding of ISO 10646", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " java.lang.String documentation, discussing surrogate handling", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Encodings", "Character_encoding", "Unicode_Transformation_Formats", "Computer-related_introductions_in_1991" ]

[ "16-bit Unicode Transformation Format", "Unicode Transformation Format – 16-bit", "Unicode Transformation Format - 16-bit", "UTF16", "UTF_16" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general use around the world as a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar, stucco, and non-specialty grout. It was developed from other types of hydraulic lime in England in the early 19th century by Joseph Aspdin, and is usually made from limestone. It is a fine powder, produced by heating limestone and clay minerals in a kiln to form clinker, Cement grinding the clinker, and adding 2 to 3 percent of gypsum. Several types of portland cement are available. The most common, called ordinary portland cement (OPC), is grey, but white Portland cement is also available. Its name is derived from its resemblance to Portland stone which was quarried on the Isle of Portland in Dorset, England. It was named by Joseph Aspdin who obtained a patent for it in 1824. However, his son William Aspdin is regarded as the inventor of \"modern\" portland cement due to his developments in the 1840s.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6670, 5371, 324498, 697519, 407480, 1958905, 553644, 17748, 47863549, 17361, 7548442, 13040, 10106707, 249594, 249601, 37589, 553644, 7278952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 49 ], [ 107, 115 ], [ 117, 123 ], [ 125, 131 ], [ 151, 156 ], [ 195, 209 ], [ 250, 263 ], [ 290, 299 ], [ 314, 320 ], [ 375, 379 ], [ 388, 395 ], [ 455, 461 ], [ 581, 602 ], [ 666, 680 ], [ 707, 723 ], [ 727, 733 ], [ 760, 773 ], [ 829, 843 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The low cost and widespread availability of the limestone, shales, and other naturally-occurring materials used in portland cement make it one of the lowest-cost materials widely used over the last century. The most common use for portland cement is in the production of concrete. Concrete is a composite material consisting of aggregate (gravel and sand), cement, and water. Concrete produced from Portland cement is one of the world's most versatile construction materials, and has changed the world in almost every observable aspect. It is one of the most widely used substances on Earth, and as such, portland cement manufacturing is currently vital to the world's economy. It is one of the construction industry's largest cause of climate changing carbon dioxide emissions.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 44211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Portland cement was developed from natural cements made in Britain beginning in the middle of the 18th century. Its name is derived from its similarity to Portland stone, a type of building stone quarried on the Isle of Portland in Dorset, England.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 249594, 249601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 169 ], [ 212, 228 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The development of modern portland cement (sometimes called ordinary or normal portland cement) began in 1756, when John Smeaton experimented with combinations of different limestones and additives, including trass and pozzolanas, relating to the planned construction of a lighthouse, now known as Smeaton's Tower. In the late 18th century, Roman cement was developed and patented in 1796 by James Parker. Roman cement quickly became popular, but was largely replaced by portland cement in the 1850s. In 1811, James Frost produced a cement he called British cement. James Frost is reported to have erected a manufactory for making of an artificial cement in 1826. In 1811 Edgar Dobbs of Southwark patented a cement of the kind invented 7 years later by the French engineer Louis Vicat. Vicat's cement is an artificial hydraulic lime, and is considered the \"principal forerunner\" of portland cement.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 151584, 2964733, 965020, 1434727, 13548775, 6834952, 11558961, 2161117, 1958905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 128 ], [ 209, 214 ], [ 219, 228 ], [ 298, 313 ], [ 341, 353 ], [ 392, 404 ], [ 511, 522 ], [ 774, 785 ], [ 819, 833 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The name portland cement is recorded in a directory published in 1823 being associated with a William Lockwood and possibly others. In his 1824 cement patent, Joseph Aspdin called his invention \"portland cement\" because of its resemblance to Portland stone. However, Aspdin's cement was nothing like modern portland cement, but was a first step in the development of modern portland cement, and has been called a \"proto-portland cement\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 553644, 249594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 159, 172 ], [ 242, 256 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "William Aspdin had left his father's company, to form his own cement manufactury. In the 1840s William Aspdin, apparently accidentally, produced calcium silicates which are a middle step in the development of portland cement. In 1848, William Aspdin further improved his cement. Then, in 1853, he moved to Germany, where he was involved in cement making. William Aspdin made what could be called \"meso-portland cement\" (a mix of portland cement and hydraulic lime). Isaac Charles Johnson further refined the production of \"meso-portland cement\" (middle stage of development), and claimed to be the real father of portland cement.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7278952, 479575, 7221693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 145, 161 ], [ 466, 487 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1859, John Grant of the Metropolitan Board of Works, set out requirements for cement to be used in the London sewer project. This became a specification for portland cement. The next development in the manufacture of portland cement was the introduction of the rotary kiln, patented by Frederick Ransome in 1885 (U.K.) and 1886 (U.S.); which allowed a stronger, more homogeneous mixture and a continuous manufacturing process. The Hoffmann \"endless\" kiln which was said to give \"perfect control over combustion\" was tested in 1860, and showed the process produced a better grade of cement. This cement was made at the Portland Cementfabrik Stern at Stettin, which was the first to use a Hoffmann kiln. The Association of German Cement Manufacturers issued a standard on portland cement in 1878.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 494405, 6632266, 18841957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 126 ], [ 264, 275 ], [ 289, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Portland cement had been imported into the United States from Germany and England, and in the 1870s and 1880s, it was being produced by Eagle Portland cement near Kalamazoo, Michigan. In 1875, the first portland cement was produced in the Coplay Cement Company Kilns under the direction of David O. Saylor in Coplay, Pennsylvania. By the early 20th century, American-made portland cement had displaced most of the imported portland cement.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 34993926, 132986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 239, 266 ], [ 309, 329 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ASTM C150 defines portland cement as:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Composition", "target_page_ids": [ 852442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The European Standard EN 197-1 uses the following definition:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Composition", "target_page_ids": [ 627291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "(The last two requirements were already set out in the German Standard, issued in 1909).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Composition", "target_page_ids": [ 8062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Clinkers make up more than 90% of the cement, along with a limited amount of calcium sulfate (CaSO4, which controls the set time), and up to 5% minor constituents (fillers) as allowed by various standards. Clinkers are nodules (diameters, ) of a sintered material that is produced when a raw mixture of predetermined composition is heated to high temperature. The key chemical reaction which defines portland cement from other hydraulic limes occurs at these high temperatures (>) as belite (Ca2SiO4) combines with calcium oxide (CaO) to form alite (Ca3SiO5).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Composition", "target_page_ids": [ 595183, 7358462, 7358334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 92 ], [ 484, 490 ], [ 543, 548 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Portland cement clinker is made by heating, in a cement kiln, a mixture of raw materials to a calcining temperature of above and then a fusion temperature, which is about for modern cements, to sinter the materials into clinker. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Manufacturing", "target_page_ids": [ 7240939, 1170793, 145020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 60 ], [ 94, 103 ], [ 196, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The materials in cement clinker are alite, belite, tricalcium aluminate, and tetracalcium alumino ferrite. The aluminium, iron, and magnesium oxides are present as a flux allowing the calcium silicates to form at a lower temperature, and contribute little to the strength. For special cements, such as low heat (LH) and sulfate resistant (SR) types, it is necessary to limit the amount of tricalcium aluminate (3CaO·Al2O3) formed. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Manufacturing", "target_page_ids": [ 9270912, 493521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 71 ], [ 166, 170 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The major raw material for the clinker-making is usually limestone (CaCO3) mixed with a second material containing clay as source of alumino-silicate. Normally, an impure limestone which contains clay or SiO2 is used. The CaCO3 content of these limestones can be as low as 80%. Secondary raw materials (materials in the raw mix other than limestone) depend on the purity of the limestone. Some of the materials used are clay, shale, sand, iron ore, bauxite, fly ash, and slag. When a cement kiln is fired by coal, the ash of the coal acts as a secondary raw material.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Manufacturing", "target_page_ids": [ 17748, 36980, 44211, 18994037, 145352, 3760, 1331549, 250438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 66 ], [ 420, 424 ], [ 426, 431 ], [ 433, 437 ], [ 439, 447 ], [ 449, 456 ], [ 458, 465 ], [ 471, 475 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To achieve the desired setting qualities in the finished product, a quantity (2–8%, but typically 5%) of calcium sulfate (usually gypsum or anhydrite) is added to the clinker, and the mixture is finely ground to form the finished cement powder. This is achieved in a cement mill. The grinding process is controlled to obtain a powder with a broad particle size range, in which typically 15% by mass consists of particles below 5 μm diameter, and 5% of particles above 45 μm. The measure of fineness usually used is the 'specific surface area', which is the total particle surface area of a unit mass of cement. The rate of initial reaction (up to 24 hours) of the cement on addition of water is directly proportional to the specific surface area. Typical values are 320–380m2·kg−1 for general purpose cements, and 450–650m2·kg−1 for 'rapid hardening' cements. The cement is conveyed by belt or powder pump to a silo for storage. Cement plants normally have sufficient silo space for one to 20 weeks of production, depending upon local demand cycles. The cement is delivered to end users either in bags, or as bulk powder blown from a pressure vehicle into the customer's silo. In industrial countries, 80% or more of cement is delivered in bulk.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Manufacturing", "target_page_ids": [ 13040, 881856, 9577146, 11815157, 11817965, 81863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 136 ], [ 140, 149 ], [ 267, 278 ], [ 347, 366 ], [ 520, 541 ], [ 695, 716 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cement sets when mixed with water by way of a complex series of chemical reactions still only partly understood. The different constituents slowly crystallise, and the interlocking of their crystals gives cement its strength. Carbon dioxide is slowly absorbed to convert the portlandite (Ca(OH)2) into insoluble calcium carbonate. After the initial setting, immersion in warm water will speed up setting. Gypsum is added as an inhibitor to prevent flash (or quick) setting.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Setting and hardening", "target_page_ids": [ 5906, 9320833, 44731, 13040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 226, 240 ], [ 275, 286 ], [ 312, 329 ], [ 405, 411 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most common use for portland cement is in the production of concrete. Concrete is a composite material consisting of aggregate (gravel and sand), cement, and water. As a construction material, concrete can be cast in almost any shape desired, and once hardened, can become a structural (load bearing) element. Concrete can be used in the construction of structural elements like panels, beams, and street furniture, or may be cast-in situ for superstructures like roads and dams. These may be supplied with concrete mixed on site, or may be provided with 'ready-mixed' concrete made at permanent mixing sites. Portland cement is also used in mortars (with sand and water only), for plasters and screeds, and in grouts (cement/water mixes squeezed into gaps to consolidate foundations, road-beds, etc.).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Use", "target_page_ids": [ 7096085, 167120, 18994037, 371452, 58044999, 5371, 324498, 331731, 8646876, 407480 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 130 ], [ 132, 138 ], [ 143, 147 ], [ 402, 418 ], [ 430, 442 ], [ 560, 571 ], [ 646, 652 ], [ 686, 693 ], [ 699, 705 ], [ 715, 720 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When water is mixed with portland cement, the product sets in a few hours, and hardens over a period of weeks. These processes can vary widely, depending upon the mix used and the conditions of curing of the product, but a typical concrete sets in about 6hours and develops a compressive strength of 8MPa in 24hours. The strength rises to 15MPa at 3days, 23MPa at 1week, 35MPa at 4weeks, and 41MPa at 3months. In principle, the strength continues to rise slowly as long as water is available for continued hydration , but concrete is usually allowed to dry out after a few weeks and this causes strength growth to stop.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Use", "target_page_ids": [ 335109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 276, 296 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Five types of portland cements exist, with variations of the first three according to ASTM C150.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Type I portland cement is known as common or general-purpose cement. It is generally assumed unless another type is specified. It is commonly used for general construction, especially when making precast, and precast-prestressed concrete that is not to be in contact with soils or ground water. The typical compound compositions of this type are:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "55% (C3S), 19% (C2S), 10% (C3A), 7% (C4AF), 2.8% MgO, 2.9% (SO3), 1.0% ignition loss, and 1.0% free CaO (utilizing Cement chemist notation).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 9984661, 507305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 84 ], [ 115, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A limitation on the composition is that the (C3A) shall not exceed 15%.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Type II provides moderate sulfate resistance, and gives off less heat during hydration. This type of cement costs about the same as type I. Its typical compound composition is:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "51% (C3S), 24% (C2S), 6% (C3A), 11% (C4AF), 2.9% MgO, 2.5% (SO3), 0.8% ignition loss, and 1.0% free CaO.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A limitation on the composition is that the (C3A) shall not exceed 8%, which reduces its vulnerability to sulfates. This type is for general construction exposed to moderate sulfate attack, and is meant for use when concrete is in contact with soils and ground water, especially in the western United States due to the high sulfur content of the soils. Because of similar price to that of type I, type II is much used as a general purpose cement, and the majority of portland cement sold in North America meets this specification.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Note: Cement meeting (among others) the specifications for types I and II has become commonly available on the world market.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Type III has relatively high early strength. Its typical compound composition is: ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "57% (C3S), 19% (C2S), 10% (C3A), 7% (C4AF), 3.0% MgO, 3.1% (SO3), 0.9% ignition loss, and 1.3% free CaO. ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This cement is similar to type I, but ground finer. Some manufacturers make a separate clinker with higher C3S and/or C3A content, but this is increasingly rare, and the general purpose clinker is usually used, ground to a specific surface area typically 50–80% higher. The gypsum level may also be increased a small amount. This gives the concrete using this type of cement a three-day compressive strength equal to the seven-day compressive strength of types I and II. Its seven-day compressive strength is almost equal to 28-day compressive strengths of types I and II. The only downside is that the six-month strength of type III is the same or slightly less than that of types I and II. Therefore, the long-term strength is sacrificed. It is usually used for precast concrete manufacture, where high one-day strength allows fast turnover of molds. It may also be used in emergency construction and repairs, and construction of machine bases and gate installations.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 8390819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 223, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Type IV portland cement is generally known for its low heat of hydration. Its typical compound composition is: ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "28% (C3S), 49% (C2S), 4% (C3A), 12% (C4AF), 1.8% MgO, 1.9% (SO3), 0.9% ignition loss, and 0.8% free CaO. ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The percentages of (C2S) and (C4AF) are relatively high and (C3S) and (C3A) are relatively low. A limitation on this type is that the maximum percentage of (C3A) is seven, and the maximum percentage of (C3S) is thirty-five. This causes the heat given off by the hydration reaction to develop at a slower rate. However, as a consequence the strength of the concrete develops slowly. After one or two years the strength is higher than the other types after full curing. This cement is used for very large concrete structures, such as dams, which have a low surface to volume ratio. This type of cement is generally not stocked by manufacturers, but some might consider a large special order. This type of cement has not been made for many years, because portland-pozzolan cements and ground granulated blast furnace slag addition offer a cheaper and more reliable alternative.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 240960, 6503797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 262, 280 ], [ 782, 818 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Type V is used where sulfate resistance is important. Its typical compound composition is: ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "38% (C3S), 43% (C2S), 4% (C3A), 9% (C4AF), 1.9% MgO, 1.8% (SO3), 0.9% ignition loss, and 0.8% free CaO. ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This cement has a very low (C3A) composition which accounts for its high sulfate resistance. The maximum content of (C3A) allowed is 5% for type V portland cement. Another limitation is that the (C4AF) + 2(C3A) composition cannot exceed 20%. This type is used in concrete to be exposed to alkali soil and ground water sulfates which react with (C3A) causing disruptive expansion. It is unavailable in many places, although its use is common in the western United States and Canada. As with type IV, type V portland cement has mainly been supplanted by the use of ordinary cement with added ground granulated blast furnace slag or tertiary blended cements containing slag and fly ash.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 2955, 84726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 289, 295 ], [ 318, 326 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Types Ia, IIa, and IIIa have the same composition as types I, II, and III. The only difference is that in Ia, IIa, and IIIa, an air-entraining agent is ground into the mix. The air-entrainment must meet the minimum and maximum optional specification found in the ASTM manual. These types are only available in the eastern United States and Canada, only on a limited basis. They are a poor approach to air-entrainment which improves resistance to freezing under low temperatures.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Types II(MH) and II(MH)a have a similar composition as types II and IIa, but with a mild heat.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The European norm EN 197-1 defines five classes of common cement that comprise portland cement as a main constituent. These classes differ from the ASTM classes.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 627291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Constituents that are permitted in portland-composite cements are artificial pozzolans (blast furnace slag (in fact a latent hydraulic binder), silica fume, and fly ashes), or natural pozzolans (siliceous or siliceous aluminous materials such as volcanic ash glasses, calcined clays and shale).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Canadian standards describe six main classes of cement, four of which can also be supplied as a blend containing ground limestone (where a suffix L is present in the class names).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "White Portland cement or white ordinary portland cement (WOPC) is similar to ordinary, grey, portland cement in all respects, except for its high degree of whiteness. Obtaining this colour requires high purity raw materials (low Fe2O3 content), and some modification to the method of manufacture, among others a higher kiln temperature required to sinter the clinker in the absence of ferric oxides acting as a flux in normal clinker. As Fe2O3 contributes to decrease the melting point of the clinker (normally 1450°C), the white cement requires a higher sintering temperature (around 1600°C). Because of this, it is somewhat more expensive than the grey product. The main requirement is to have a low iron content which should be less than 0.5wt.% expressed as Fe2O3 for white cement, and less than 0.9wt.% for off-white cement. It also helps to have the iron oxide as ferrous oxide (FeO) which is obtained via slightly reducing conditions in the kiln, i.e., operating with zero excess oxygen at the kiln exit. This gives the clinker and cement a green tinge. Other metallic oxides such as Cr2O3 (green), MnO (pink), TiO2 (white), etc., in trace content, can also give colour tinges, so for a given project it is best to use cement from a single batch.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 10106707 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bags of cement routinely have health and safety warnings printed on them, because not only is cement highly alkaline, but the setting process is also exothermic. As a result, wet cement is strongly caustic and can easily cause severe skin burns if not promptly washed off with water. Similarly, dry cement powder in contact with mucous membranes can cause severe eye or respiratory irritation. The reaction of cement dust with moisture in the sinuses and lungs can also cause a chemical burn, as well as headaches, fatigue, and lung cancer.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Safety issues", "target_page_ids": [ 2955, 10201, 244585, 233082, 69447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 114 ], [ 150, 160 ], [ 198, 205 ], [ 234, 243 ], [ 329, 344 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The production of comparatively low-alkalinity cements (pH<11) is an area of ongoing investigation.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Safety issues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Scandinavia, France, and the United Kingdom, the level of chromium(VI), which is considered to be toxic and a major skin irritant, may not exceed 2 parts per million (ppm).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Safety issues", "target_page_ids": [ 26740, 5669, 145865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ], [ 61, 73 ], [ 151, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the US, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for portland cement exposure in the workplace as 50 mppcf (million particles per cubic foot) over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 10mg/m3 total exposure and 5mg/m3 respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. At levels of 5000mg/m3, portland cement is immediately dangerous to life and health.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Safety issues", "target_page_ids": [ 227123, 902969, 520540, 12279468, 1367361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 60 ], [ 93, 119 ], [ 242, 295 ], [ 314, 340 ], [ 472, 512 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Portland cement manufacture can cause environmental impacts at all stages of the process. These include emissions of airborne pollution in the form of dust; gases; noise and vibration when operating machinery and during blasting in quarries; consumption of large quantities of fuel during manufacture; release of from the raw materials during manufacture, and damage to countryside from quarrying. Equipment to reduce dust emissions during quarrying and manufacture of cement is widely used, and equipment to trap and separate exhaust gases are coming into increased use. Environmental protection also includes the re-integration of quarries into the countryside after they have been closed down by returning them to nature or re-cultivating them.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Environmental effects", "target_page_ids": [ 34355072, 7240939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 59 ], [ 104, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Portland cement is caustic, so it can cause chemical burns. The powder can cause irritation or, with severe exposure, lung cancer, and can contain a number of hazardous components, including crystalline silica and hexavalent chromium. Environmental concerns are the high energy consumption required to mine, manufacture, and transport the cement, and the related air pollution, including the release of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide, dioxin, , , and particulates. Production of portland cement contributes about 10% of world carbon dioxide emissions. The International Energy Agency has estimated that cement production will increase by between 12 and 23% by 2050 to meet the needs of the world's growing population. There are several ongoing researches targeting a suitable replacement of portland cement by supplementary cementitious materials.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Environmental effects", "target_page_ids": [ 244585, 43710, 2468967, 21350772, 5906, 20658047, 30876688, 9528025, 285292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 26 ], [ 203, 209 ], [ 214, 233 ], [ 407, 421 ], [ 422, 436 ], [ 438, 444 ], [ 454, 466 ], [ 529, 553 ], [ 559, 586 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Epidemiologic Notes and Reports Sulfur Dioxide Exposure in Portland Cement Plants, from the Centers for Disease Control, states:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Environmental effects", "target_page_ids": [ 6811 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An independent research effort of AEA Technology to identify critical issues for the cement industry today concluded the most important environment, health and safety performance issues facing the cement industry are atmospheric releases (including greenhouse gas emissions, dioxin, , , and particulates), accidents, and worker exposure to dust.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Environmental effects", "target_page_ids": [ 869259, 5639702, 9528025 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 48 ], [ 136, 166 ], [ 249, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The associated with portland cement manufacture comes mainly from four sources:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Environmental effects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Overall, with nuclear or hydroelectric power, and efficient manufacturing, generation can be reduced to per kg cement, but can be twice as high. The thrust of innovation for the future is to reduce sources 1 and 2 by modification of the chemistry of cement, by the use of wastes, and by adopting more efficient processes. Although cement manufacturing is clearly a very large emitter, concrete (of which cement makes up about 15%) compares quite favourably with other modern building systems in this regard.. Traditional materials such as lime based mortars as well as timber and earth based construction methods emit significantly less CO2. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Environmental effects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Due to the high temperatures inside cement kilns, combined with the oxidising (oxygen-rich) atmosphere and long residence times, cement kilns are used as a processing option for various types of waste streams; indeed, they efficiently destroy many hazardous organic compounds. The waste streams also often contain combustible materials which allow the substitution of part of the fossil fuel normally used in the process.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cement plants used for waste disposal or processing", "target_page_ids": [ 7240939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Waste materials used in cement kilns as a fuel supplement:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cement plants used for waste disposal or processing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Car and truck tires – steel belts are easily tolerated in the kilns", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cement plants used for waste disposal or processing", "target_page_ids": [ 65037 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Paint sludge from automobile industries", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cement plants used for waste disposal or processing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Waste solvents and lubricants", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cement plants used for waste disposal or processing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Meat and bone meal – slaughterhouse waste due to bovine spongiform encephalopathy contamination concerns", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cement plants used for waste disposal or processing", "target_page_ids": [ 23173129, 55076, 19344418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 21, 35 ], [ 49, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Waste plastics", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cement plants used for waste disposal or processing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sewage sludge", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cement plants used for waste disposal or processing", "target_page_ids": [ 44275839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rice hulls", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cement plants used for waste disposal or processing", "target_page_ids": [ 2481476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sugarcane waste", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cement plants used for waste disposal or processing", "target_page_ids": [ 13873779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Used wooden railroad ties (railway sleepers)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cement plants used for waste disposal or processing", "target_page_ids": [ 529780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Spent cell liner from the aluminium smelting industry (also called spent pot liner)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cement plants used for waste disposal or processing", "target_page_ids": [ 42886528, 42886528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 67, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Portland cement manufacture also has the potential to benefit from using industrial byproducts from the waste stream. These include in particular:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cement plants used for waste disposal or processing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Slag", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cement plants used for waste disposal or processing", "target_page_ids": [ 250438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fly ash (from power plants)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cement plants used for waste disposal or processing", "target_page_ids": [ 1331549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Silica fume (from steel mills)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cement plants used for waste disposal or processing", "target_page_ids": [ 1575834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Synthetic gypsum (from desulfurisation)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cement plants used for waste disposal or processing", "target_page_ids": [ 13040, 6588491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 16 ], [ 23, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " American Concrete Institute", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15440560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Calcium silicate hydrate", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15358528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Energetically modified cement", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39204523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Environmental impact of concrete", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 34355072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lime mortar", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4036703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Marl ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 46196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Portland Cement Association", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 52216103 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Portland Cement Works Precinct", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 58713530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "World Production of Hydraulic Cement, by Country", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Alpha The Guaranteed Portland Cement Company: 1917 Trade Literature from Smithsonian Institution Libraries", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cement Sustainability Initiative ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A cracking alternative to cement", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aerial views of the world's largest concentration of cement manufacturing capacity, Saraburi Province, Thailand, at ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 331310, 30128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 101 ], [ 103, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Zement", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Cement", "Concrete", "English_inventions", "Limestone", "Isle_of_Portland", "Building_materials", "19th-century_inventions" ]

[ "OPC", "Cemento Portland Ordinario", "cemento hidraulico", "silicato de cemento portland", "Pruebas de cemento" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Sarah Elizabeth Hughes (born May 2, 1985) is a former American competitive figure skater. She is the 2002 Olympic Champion and the 2001 World bronze medalist in ladies' singles.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11152, 39635, 12882416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 88 ], [ 101, 122 ], [ 131, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hughes was born in Great Neck, New York, a suburb on Long Island. Her father, John Hughes, was a Canadian of Irish descent and was one of the captains of the undefeated and untied NCAA champion 1969–70 Cornell University ice hockey team. Her mother, Amy Pastarnack, is Jewish and is a breast cancer survivor. This led Hughes to become an advocate for breast cancer awareness. She appeared in a commercial for General Electric promoting breast cancer awareness and research. Hughes stated: \"I always said that if I can get one person to get a mammogram, I've accomplished something.\" Among the other causes Hughes supports are Figure Skating in Harlem, which provides free ice skating lessons and academic tutoring for girls in the Harlem community in New York City. Hughes has supported this program for over ten years.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 126711, 775859, 60706, 7954422, 24291552, 25955086, 12730, 262039, 54861, 645042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 39 ], [ 109, 114 ], [ 180, 184 ], [ 202, 220 ], [ 221, 231 ], [ 269, 275 ], [ 409, 425 ], [ 542, 551 ], [ 731, 737 ], [ 751, 764 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hughes attended Great Neck North High School. In 2003, she began her studies at Yale University where she was in Timothy Dwight College. On May 25, 2009, Hughes graduated from Yale and received a bachelor's degree in American studies with a concentration in U.S. politics and communities. She graduated from the University of Pennsylvania Law School on May 15, 2018.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 3773699, 34273, 1300602, 176400 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 44 ], [ 80, 95 ], [ 113, 135 ], [ 312, 349 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sarah Hughes is the fourth of six children. One of her younger sisters, Emily, is also a figure skater and competed at the 2006 Winter Olympics. She is the cousin of Gregg \"Opie\" Hughes, from the Opie and Anthony radio show.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 1878184, 77743, 4851478, 2787862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 77 ], [ 123, 143 ], [ 166, 185 ], [ 196, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hughes began skating at the age of three. Robin Wagner, who also choreographed for her from 1994, became her head coach in January 1998.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 1345562 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hughes won the junior title at the 1998 U.S. Championships in the 1997–1998 season. The following season, she competed on the ISU Junior Grand Prix and won the silver medal at the 1998–1999 Junior Grand Prix Final. She also took silver at the 1999 World Junior Championships held in November 1998. At the 1999 U.S. Championships, Hughes won the pewter medal in her senior-level debut. As the fourth-place finisher, Hughes would not normally have received one of the three spots for U.S. ladies at the 1999 World Championships, however, Naomi Nari Nam, the silver medalist, was not age-eligible for the event according to ISU rules. Hughes was likewise not age-eligible, but at the time a loophole existed for skaters who had medaled at Junior Worlds. Hughes was sent to senior Worlds and finished 7th in her debut.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 21026815, 7172268, 11065920, 11458905, 17674688, 2157712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 58 ], [ 126, 147 ], [ 243, 274 ], [ 305, 328 ], [ 501, 525 ], [ 536, 550 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1999–2000 season, Hughes made her Grand Prix debut, winning the bronze medal at the 1999 Trophée Lalique. She won the bronze medal at the 2000 U.S. Championships and was credited with a triple-salchow-triple-loop combination. She placed 5th at the 2000 World Championships.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 15111352, 13029238, 12883372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 111 ], [ 145, 168 ], [ 255, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2000–2001 season, Hughes won three medals on the Grand Prix circuit and won the bronze medal at the 2000–2001 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final. She won the silver medal at the 2001 U.S. Championships. At the 2001 World Championships, she won the bronze medal.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 19777916, 14797224, 12882416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 151 ], [ 185, 208 ], [ 217, 241 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2001–2002 season, Hughes again competed on the Grand Prix, winning the 2001 Skate Canada International while placing second at her other two events. She won her second consecutive bronze medal at the Grand Prix Final and won the bronze medal at the 2002 U.S. Championships to qualify for the 2002 Winter Olympics.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 12879084, 14797169, 38678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 109 ], [ 256, 279 ], [ 299, 319 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The week before the opening of the 2002 Olympics, Hughes appeared on the cover of Time magazine.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 31600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the 2002 Olympics, Hughes won the gold medal in what was widely considered one of the biggest upsets in figure skating history. She was the youngest skater in the competition, and was not expected to seriously challenge the favorites, teammate Michelle Kwan and Russia's Irina Slutskaya. Hughes became the first woman in Olympic history to land two triple jump-triple jump combinations in a 4-minute free skate. Kwan, Slutskaya, and Sasha Cohen (the three skaters that finished ahead of Hughes in the short program), all made significant mistakes in the free skate, clearing the way for Hughes to win gold.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 39635, 142556, 559880, 1040267 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ], [ 247, 260 ], [ 274, 289 ], [ 436, 447 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After her Olympic win, Hughes was honored with a parade in her hometown of Great Neck. Senator Hillary Clinton spoke at the event and declared it Sarah Hughes Day. She received the James E. Sullivan Award as the top amateur athlete in the U.S. She became the third figure skater to win this award after Dick Button (1949) and Michelle Kwan (2001).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 126711, 5043192, 746197, 728326, 142556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 85 ], [ 95, 110 ], [ 181, 204 ], [ 303, 314 ], [ 326, 339 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hughes did not compete at the 2002 World Championships. In the 2002–2003 season, she won the silver medal at the 2003 U.S. Championships and placed sixth at the 2003 World Championships.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 9859994, 9590146, 12880955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 54 ], [ 113, 136 ], [ 161, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hughes took the 2004–2005 year off from college and skated professionally with the Smuckers Stars on Ice tour company. She was inducted into the International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame in 2005.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 571691, 2053609, 2834950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 91 ], [ 92, 104 ], [ 145, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Richard Krawiec wrote a biography about her, Sudden Champion: The Sarah Hughes Story (2002).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 14996795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hughes employed a variety of triple-triple jump combinations, including a triple loop-triple loop, triple salchow-triple loop, and a triple toe-triple loop. Her best jump was perhaps the triple loop which she often completed out of and following a back spiral. She was known for her camel spin with a change of edge as well as her spiral position.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Skating technique", "target_page_ids": [ 1919791, 915322, 1037148, 5000923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 85 ], [ 106, 113 ], [ 140, 143 ], [ 283, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "GP: Grand Prix; JGP: Junior Grand Prix", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 5379772, 7172268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 21, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of notable Jewish figure skaters", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2457206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] } ]

[ "American_female_single_skaters", "American_people_of_Canadian_descent", "Figure_skaters_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "American_people_of_Irish_descent", "James_E._Sullivan_Award_recipients", "Jewish_American_sportspeople", "Olympic_figure_skaters_of_the_United_States", "Olympic_gold_medalists_for_the_United_States_in_figure_skating", "People_from_Great_Neck,_New_York", "Yale_University_alumni", "Timothy_Dwight_College_alumni", "1985_births", "Living_people", "Sportspeople_from_New_York_(state)", "World_Figure_Skating_Championships_medalists", "World_Junior_Figure_Skating_Championships_medalists", "Medalists_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "Great_Neck_North_High_School_alumni", "University_of_Pennsylvania_Law_School_alumni", "21st-century_American_Jews", "21st-century_American_women" ]

[ "Sarah Elizabeth Hughes" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Soundgarden was an American rock band formed in Seattle, Washington, in 1984 by singer and drummer Chris Cornell, lead guitarist Kim Thayil (both of whom are the only members to appear in every incarnation of the band), and bassist Hiro Yamamoto; Cornell switched to rhythm guitar in 1985, replaced on drums initially by Scott Sundquist, and later by Matt Cameron in 1986. Yamamoto left in 1990 and was replaced initially by Jason Everman and shortly thereafter by Ben Shepherd. The band dissolved in 1997 and re-formed in 2010. Following Cornell's death in 2017 and a year of uncertainty regarding the band's future, Thayil declared in October 2018 that Soundgarden had disbanded once again, though they did reunite in January 2019 for a one-off concert in tribute to Cornell.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25423, 11388236, 222165, 719076, 1771813, 738431, 408301, 936126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 32 ], [ 48, 67 ], [ 99, 112 ], [ 129, 139 ], [ 232, 245 ], [ 351, 363 ], [ 425, 438 ], [ 465, 477 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The band helped to popularize grunge music, a style of alternative rock that developed in the American Pacific Northwest in the mid-1980s, alongside such Seattle contemporaries as Alice in Chains, Pearl Jam, and Nirvana. They were the first of a number of grunge bands to sign to the Seattle-based record label Sub Pop, through which they released an EP in both 1987 and 1988. California-based independent label SST Records released Soundgarden's debut album, Ultramega OK, which, although it did not sell well nationally, garnered critical acclaim and was nominated for a Grammy award in 1990. Their second album, Louder Than Love, was recorded independently, but, after they signed with A&M Records in 1989 (making them one of the first grunge bands to sign to a major label), the album became their major-label debut. While Ultramega OK had failed to chart and Louder Than Love peaked at number 108 on the Billboard 200 album chart, the band's third album, Badmotorfinger, buoyed by the success of the singles \"Jesus Christ Pose\", \"Outshined\", and \"Rusty Cage\", reached number 39 on the Billboard 200 and has been certified double-platinum by the RIAA.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 51580, 167409, 78147, 50214, 5068852, 21231, 144539, 156702, 147713, 222169, 44635, 681529, 18885017, 730350, 222653, 1690380, 2146299, 552584, 18949819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 36 ], [ 55, 71 ], [ 103, 120 ], [ 180, 195 ], [ 197, 206 ], [ 212, 219 ], [ 311, 318 ], [ 351, 353 ], [ 412, 423 ], [ 460, 472 ], [ 573, 579 ], [ 615, 631 ], [ 689, 700 ], [ 909, 922 ], [ 960, 974 ], [ 1014, 1031 ], [ 1035, 1044 ], [ 1052, 1062 ], [ 1150, 1154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soundgarden achieved its biggest success with the 1994 album Superunknown, which debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 and yielded the Grammy Award-winning singles \"Spoonman\" and \"Black Hole Sun\". The band experimented with new sonic textures on their follow-up album Down on the Upside, which debuted at number 2 on the Billboard 200 in 1996 and spawned several hit singles of its own, including \"Burden in My Hand\" and \"Blow Up the Outside World\". In 1997, the band broke up due to internal strife over its creative direction and exhaustion from touring. After more than a decade of working on projects and other bands, they reunited in 2010, and Republic Records released their sixth and final studio album, King Animal, two years later.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 222639, 730350, 44635, 1056589, 1055577, 621439, 4468741, 2595795, 1574153, 36795146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 73 ], [ 110, 123 ], [ 140, 152 ], [ 170, 178 ], [ 185, 199 ], [ 273, 291 ], [ 403, 420 ], [ 427, 452 ], [ 654, 670 ], [ 716, 727 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of 2019, Soundgarden had sold more than 14 million records in the United States, and an estimated 30 million worldwide. VH1 ranked Soundgarden at number 14 in their special 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 215619 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soundgarden's origins began with a band called the Shemps, which performed around Seattle in the early 1980s, and featured bassist Hiro Yamamoto and drummer and singer Chris Cornell. Following Yamamoto's departure, the band recruited guitarist Kim Thayil as its new bassist. Thayil moved to Seattle from Park Forest, Illinois, with Yamamoto and Bruce Pavitt, who would later start the independent record label Sub Pop. Cornell and Yamamoto stayed in contact, and after the Shemps broke up Cornell and Yamamoto started jamming together, and were eventually joined by Thayil.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1771813, 222165, 719076, 111036, 3606801, 47863329, 144539, 1964717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 144 ], [ 168, 181 ], [ 244, 254 ], [ 304, 325 ], [ 345, 357 ], [ 385, 409 ], [ 410, 417 ], [ 518, 525 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soundgarden formed in 1984 and included Cornell (drums and vocals), Yamamoto (bass), and Thayil (guitar). The band named themselves after a wind-channeling pipe sculpture titled A Sound Garden, on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration property at 7600 Sand Point Way, next to Magnuson Park in Seattle. Cornell originally played drums while singing, but in 1985 the band enlisted Scott Sundquist to allow Cornell to concentrate on vocals. The band traveled around playing various concerts with this lineup for about a year. Their first recordings were three songs that appeared on the 1986 compilation album for C/Z Records called Deep Six—\"Heretic\", \"Tears to Forget\" and \"All Your Lies\". It also featured songs by fellow grunge pioneers Green River, Skin Yard, Malfunkshun, the U-Men, and the Melvins. In 1986, Cornell's then-girlfriend and future wife, Susan Silver started managing Soundgarden. In the same year, Sundquist left the band to spend time with his family and was replaced by Skin Yard's drummer, Matt Cameron.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21144045, 37876, 921081, 40321, 2697289, 30860460, 356824, 1615998, 1052067, 3875264, 159481, 59459329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 178, 192 ], [ 197, 244 ], [ 286, 299 ], [ 389, 404 ], [ 621, 632 ], [ 640, 648 ], [ 748, 759 ], [ 761, 770 ], [ 772, 783 ], [ 785, 794 ], [ 804, 811 ], [ 865, 877 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A Soundgarden performance one night impressed KCMU DJ Jonathan Poneman who later said: \"I saw this band that was everything rock music should be.\" Poneman offered to fund a release by the band, so Thayil suggested he team up with Bruce Pavitt. Poneman offered to contribute $20,000 in funding for Sub Pop, effectively turning it into a full-fledged record label. Soundgarden signed to Sub Pop, and the label released \"Hunted Down\" in 1987 as the band's first single. The B-side of \"Hunted Down\", \"Nothing to Say\", appeared on the KCMU compilation tape Bands That Will Make Money, which was distributed to record companies, many of whom showed interest in Soundgarden. Through Sub Pop, the band released the Screaming Life EP in 1987, and the Fopp EP in 1988, and a combination of the two, Screaming Life/Fopp, in 1990.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 728746, 38428571, 2116560, 156541, 2055873, 156702, 2740470, 222156 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 50 ], [ 54, 70 ], [ 418, 429 ], [ 471, 477 ], [ 707, 721 ], [ 722, 724 ], [ 742, 746 ], [ 789, 808 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Though major labels were courting the band, in 1988 they signed to the independent label SST Records for their debut album, Ultramega OK, released on October 31, 1988. Cornell said the band \"made a huge mistake with Ultramega OK\" because they used a producer suggested by SST who \"didn't know what was happening in Seattle\". According to Steve Huey of AllMusic, Soundgarden demonstrates, a \"Stooges/MC5-meets-Zeppelin/Sabbath sound\" on the album. Mark Miremont directed the band's first music video for \"Flower\", which aired regularly on MTV's 120 Minutes. Soundgarden promoted Ultramega OK on a tour in the United States in the spring of 1989, and a tour in Europe, which began in May 1989—the band's first overseas tour. Ultramega OK earned the band a Grammy Award nomination for Best Metal Performance in 1990.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 147713, 222169, 697535, 146021, 146045, 17909, 4314, 46811201, 1986730, 18856, 1565235, 44635, 617944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 100 ], [ 124, 136 ], [ 352, 360 ], [ 391, 398 ], [ 399, 402 ], [ 409, 417 ], [ 418, 425 ], [ 447, 460 ], [ 504, 510 ], [ 538, 541 ], [ 544, 555 ], [ 754, 766 ], [ 782, 804 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After touring to promote Ultramega OK, the band signed with A&M Records, which caused a rift between Soundgarden and its traditional audience. Thayil said, \"In the beginning, our fans came from the punk rock crowd. They abandoned us when they thought we sold out the punk tenets, getting on a major label and touring with Guns N' Roses. There were fashion issues and social issues, and people thought we no longer belonged to their scene, to their particular sub-culture.\" The band later began work on its first album for a major label, but personnel difficulties caused a shift in the band's songwriting process, according to Cornell: \"At the time Hiro [Yamamoto] excommunicated himself from the band and there wasn't a free-flowing system as far as music went, so I ended up writing a lot of it.\" On September 5, 1989, the band released its debut major-label album, Louder Than Love, which saw it take \"a step toward the metal mainstream\", according to Steve Huey of AllMusic, describing it as \"a slow, grinding, detuned mountain of Sabbath/Zeppelin riffs and Chris Cornell wailing\". Because of some of the lyrics, most notably on \"Hands All Over\" and \"Big Dumb Sex\", the band faced various retail and distribution problems upon the album's release. Louder Than Love became the band's first album to chart on the Billboard 200, peaking at number 108 on the chart in 1990.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18885017, 2773076, 681529, 2117564, 730350 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 71 ], [ 322, 335 ], [ 868, 884 ], [ 1134, 1148 ], [ 1315, 1328 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A month before touring for Louder Than Love was to begin, bassist Hiro Yamamoto, who was becoming frustrated that he was not making much of a contribution, left the band to return to college. Jason Everman, formerly of Nirvana, replaced him on bass. The band toured North America from December 1989 to March 1990, opening for Voivod, who were supporting their album Nothingface, with Faith No More and the Big F also serving as opening acts at the beginning and end of the tour. The band then went on to tour Europe. The band fired Everman in mid-1990 immediately after completing its promotional tour for Louder Than Love. Thayil said that \"Jason just didn't work out.\" Louder Than Love spawned the EP Loudest Love and the video compilation Louder Than Live, both released in 1990.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 408301, 21231, 305135, 3438292, 142806, 49646054, 6264434, 5596630 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 192, 205 ], [ 219, 226 ], [ 326, 332 ], [ 366, 377 ], [ 384, 397 ], [ 402, 411 ], [ 703, 715 ], [ 742, 758 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bassist Ben Shepherd replaced Jason Everman and the new lineup recorded Soundgarden's third album in 1991. Cornell said that Shepherd brought a \"fresh and creative\" approach to the recording sessions, and the band as a whole said that his knowledge of music and writing skills redefined the band. The band released the resulting album, Badmotorfinger, on October 8, 1991. Steve Huey of AllMusic said that the songwriting on Badmotorfinger \"takes a quantum leap in focus and consistency\". He added, \"It's surprisingly cerebral and arty music for a band courting mainstream metal audiences.\" Thayil suggested that the album's lyrics are \"like reading a novel [about] man's conflict with himself and society, or the government, or his family, or the economy, or anything\". The first single from Badmotorfinger, \"Jesus Christ Pose\", garnered attention when MTV decided to ban its music video in 1991. The song and its video outraged many listeners who perceived it as anti-Christian. The band received death threats while on tour in the United Kingdom in support of the album. Cornell explained that the lyrics criticize public figures who use religion (particularly the image of Jesus Christ) to portray themselves as being persecuted. Although eclipsed at the time of its release by the sudden popularity of Nirvana's Nevermind, the focus of attention brought by Nevermind to the Seattle scene helped Soundgarden gain wider attention. The singles \"Outshined\" and \"Rusty Cage\" were able to find an audience on alternative rock radio and MTV. Badmotorfinger was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance in 1992, and was among the 100 top-selling albums of the year.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 936126, 222653, 1690380, 1095706, 143294, 2146299, 552584, 167409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 20 ], [ 336, 350 ], [ 809, 826 ], [ 1176, 1188 ], [ 1316, 1325 ], [ 1446, 1455 ], [ 1462, 1472 ], [ 1507, 1523 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the release of Badmotorfinger, Soundgarden went on a North American tour in October and November 1991. Afterward, Guns N' Roses personally selected the band as its opening act for their Use Your Illusion Tour. The band also opened for Skid Row in North America in February 1992 on its Slave to the Grind tour, and then headed to Europe for a month-long headlining theater tour. The band returned for a tour in the United States, and then rejoined Guns N' Roses in the summer of 1992 in Europe as part of the Use Your Illusion Tour along with fellow opening act Faith No More. Describing opening for Guns N' Roses, Cornell said, \"It wasn't a whole lot of fun going out in front of 40,000 people for 35 minutes every day. Most of them never heard our songs and didn't care about them. It was a bizarre thing.\" The band played the 1992 Lollapalooza tour with the Red Hot Chili Peppers, Pearl Jam, Ministry and Ice Cube among others. In anticipation of the band's appearance at Lollapalooza, they released a limited edition of Badmotorfinger in 1992 with a second disc containing the EP Satanoscillatemymetallicsonatas (a palindrome), featuring Soundgarden's cover of Black Sabbath's \"Into the Void\", titled \"Into the Void (Sealth)\", which was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance in 1993. The band later released the video compilation Motorvision, filmed at Seattle's Paramount Theatre in 1992. The band appeared in the movie Singles, performing \"Birth Ritual\". The song is included on the soundtrack, as is a Cornell solo song, \"Seasons\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2773076, 731286, 1690020, 157469, 270602, 26589, 5068852, 214179, 148328, 24147, 4314, 4369010, 214753, 15358351, 5086634, 577663, 1138664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 137 ], [ 196, 218 ], [ 245, 253 ], [ 295, 313 ], [ 843, 855 ], [ 870, 891 ], [ 893, 902 ], [ 904, 912 ], [ 917, 925 ], [ 1128, 1138 ], [ 1174, 1187 ], [ 1191, 1204 ], [ 1230, 1236 ], [ 1361, 1372 ], [ 1394, 1411 ], [ 1452, 1459 ], [ 1473, 1485 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1993, the band contributed the track \"Show Me\" to the AIDS-Benefit album No Alternative, produced by the Red Hot Organization.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4361813, 3545710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 90 ], [ 108, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soundgarden began working on its fourth album after touring in support of Badmotorfinger. Cornell said that while working on the album, the band allowed each other more freedom than on past records, and Thayil observed that the band spent a lot more time working on the recording of the songs than on previous records. Released on March 8, 1994, Superunknown became the band's breakthrough album, debuting at number one on the Billboard 200 album chart and being driven by the singles \"Spoonman\", \"The Day I Tried to Live\", \"Black Hole Sun\", \"My Wave\", and \"Fell on Black Days\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 222639, 1056589, 2147199, 1055577, 2657238, 2785781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 346, 358 ], [ 486, 494 ], [ 498, 521 ], [ 525, 539 ], [ 543, 550 ], [ 558, 576 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The songs on Superunknown captured the creativity and heaviness of the band's earlier works, while showcasing the group's newly evolving style. Lyrically, the album was quite dark and mysterious, and it is often interpreted to be dealing with substance abuse, suicide, and depression. At the time, Sylvia Plath inspired Cornell's writing. The album was also more experimental than previous releases, with some songs incorporating Middle-Eastern or Indian music. J. D. Considine of Rolling Stone said Superunknown \"demonstrates far greater range than many bands manage in an entire career\". He also stated, \"At its best, Superunknown offers a more harrowing depiction of alienation and despair than anything on [Nirvana's final studio album] In Utero.\" The music video for \"Black Hole Sun\" became a hit on MTV, and received the award for Best Metal/Hard Rock Video at the 1994 MTV Video Music Awards, and in 1995 the Clio Award for Alternative Music Video. Soundgarden won two Grammy Awards in 1995—\"Black Hole Sun\" received the award for Best Hard Rock Performance and \"Spoonman\" received the award for Best Metal Performance. The album was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rock Album in 1995. Superunknown has been certified six times Platinum in the United States and remains Soundgarden's most successful album.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 28699, 8981681, 25441, 379971, 477259, 295217, 707024, 205132, 958179, 308159 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 298, 310 ], [ 462, 477 ], [ 481, 494 ], [ 741, 749 ], [ 837, 863 ], [ 876, 898 ], [ 916, 926 ], [ 1038, 1064 ], [ 1157, 1189 ], [ 1231, 1249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The band began touring in January 1994 in Oceania and Japan, areas where the record came out early and where the band had never toured before. This round of touring ended in February 1994. In March 1994 the band moved on to Europe. They began a theater tour of the United States, first with a stop on May 27, 1994 at the PNE Forum in Vancouver, with the opening acts Tad and Eleven. In late 1994, after touring in support of Superunknown, doctors discovered that Cornell had severely strained his vocal cords, and Soundgarden canceled several shows to avoid causing any permanent damage. Cornell said, \"I think we kinda overdid it! We were playing five or six nights a week and my voice pretty much took a beating. Towards the end of the American tour I felt like I could still kinda sing, but I wasn't really giving the band a fair shake. You don't buy a ticket to see some guy croak for two hours! That seemed like kind of a rip off.\" The band made up the dates later in 1995. Superunknown spawned the EP Songs from the Superunknown and the CD-ROM Alive in the Superunknown, both released in 1995.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 22621, 8095131, 32706, 820886, 4226879, 32807, 681914, 18959902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 49 ], [ 321, 330 ], [ 334, 343 ], [ 367, 370 ], [ 375, 381 ], [ 497, 508 ], [ 1007, 1034 ], [ 1043, 1049 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the worldwide tour in support of Superunknown, the band began working on what would become their last studio album for over 15 years, choosing to produce the record themselves. However, tensions within the group reportedly arose during the sessions, with Thayil and Cornell allegedly clashing over Cornell's desire to shift away from the heavy guitar riffing that had become the band's trademark. Cornell said, \"By the time we were finished, it felt like it had been kind of hard, like it was a long, hard haul. But there was stuff we were discovering.\" The band's fifth album, Down on the Upside, was released on May 21, 1996. It was notably less heavy than the group's earlier albums, and marked a further departure from the band's grunge roots. At the time, Soundgarden explained that they wanted to experiment with other sounds, including acoustic instrumentation. David Browne of Entertainment Weekly said, \"Few bands since Led Zeppelin have so crisply mixed instruments both acoustic and electric.\" The overall mood of the album's lyrics is less dark than on previous Soundgarden albums, with Cornell describing some songs as \"self-affirming\". The album spawned several singles, including \"Pretty Noose\", \"Burden in My Hand\", and \"Blow Up the Outside World\". \"Pretty Noose\" was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock Performance in 1997. The album did not match the sales or critical praise of Superunknown.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 621439, 3628115, 541239, 17909, 2329511, 4468741, 2595795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 588, 606 ], [ 853, 877 ], [ 895, 915 ], [ 939, 951 ], [ 1206, 1218 ], [ 1222, 1239 ], [ 1247, 1272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The band took a slot on the 1996 Lollapalooza tour with Metallica, who had insisted on Soundgarden's appearance on the tour. After Lollapalooza, the band embarked on a world tour, and already-existing tensions increased during it. When asked whether the band hated touring, Cornell replied: \"We really enjoy it to a point, and then it gets tedious, because it becomes repetitious. You feel like fans have paid their money and they expect you to come out and play them your songs like the first time you ever played them. That's the point where we hate touring.\" At the tour's last stop in Honolulu, Hawaii on February 9, 1997, Shepherd threw his bass into the air in frustration after suffering equipment failure, and then stormed off the stage. The band retreated, with Cornell returning to end the show with a solo encore. On April 9, 1997, the band announced it was disbanding. Thayil said, \"It was pretty obvious from everybody's general attitude over the course of the previous half year that there was some dissatisfaction.\" Cameron later said that Soundgarden was \"eaten up by the business\". The band released a greatest hits collection entitled A-Sides on November 4, 1997, composed of 17 songs, including the previously-unreleased \"Bleed Together\", which had been recorded during the Down on the Upside recording sessions.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18787, 13887, 625378, 5833589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 65 ], [ 589, 597 ], [ 1153, 1160 ], [ 1241, 1255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cornell released a solo album in September 1999, entitled Euphoria Morning, which featured Matt Cameron on the track \"Disappearing One\". By May 2001, Cornell joined the platinum-selling supergroup Audioslave with Tom Morello, Tim Commerford and Brad Wilk, then-former members of Rage Against the Machine, which recorded three albums: Audioslave (2002), Out of Exile (2005), and Revelations (2006). Cornell left Audioslave in early 2007, resulting in the band's break-up. His second solo album, Carry On, was released in June 2007, and his third solo album, Scream, produced by Timbaland, was released in March 2009, both to mixed commercial and critical success. Cornell also wrote the lyrics and provided vocals for the song \"Promise\" on Slash's debut solo album Slash, released in 2010.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 223093, 195437, 213394, 222217, 317257, 80027, 213382, 1640884, 4535872, 9618124, 18620574, 401017, 97778, 22619583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 74 ], [ 197, 207 ], [ 213, 224 ], [ 226, 240 ], [ 245, 254 ], [ 279, 303 ], [ 334, 344 ], [ 353, 365 ], [ 378, 389 ], [ 494, 502 ], [ 557, 563 ], [ 577, 586 ], [ 739, 744 ], [ 764, 769 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thayil joined forces with former Dead Kennedys singer Jello Biafra, former Nirvana bassist Krist Novoselic, and drummer Gina Mainwal for one show, performing as The No WTO Combo during the WTO ministerial conference in Seattle on December 1, 1999. Thayil contributed guitar tracks to Steve Fisk's 2001 album, 999 Levels of Undo, as well as Dave Grohl's 2004 side-project album, Probot. In 2006, Thayil played guitar on the album Altar, the collaboration between the bands Sunn O))) and Boris.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7954, 15616, 52724, 16495001, 865800, 33873, 273925, 8099, 582977, 6853962, 963960, 2390362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 46 ], [ 54, 66 ], [ 91, 106 ], [ 120, 132 ], [ 161, 177 ], [ 189, 192 ], [ 284, 294 ], [ 340, 350 ], [ 378, 384 ], [ 429, 434 ], [ 472, 481 ], [ 486, 491 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cameron initially turned his efforts to his side-project Wellwater Conspiracy, to which both Shepherd and Thayil have contributed. He then worked briefly with the Smashing Pumpkins on the band's 1998 album, Adore. In 1998, he played drums for Pearl Jam's Yield Tour following Jack Irons's departure, and later joined Pearl Jam as an official member. He has recorded six albums as the band's drummer: Binaural (2000), Riot Act (2002), Pearl Jam (2006), Backspacer (2009), Lightning Bolt (2013) and Gigaton (2020). Cameron also played percussion on Geddy Lee's album My Favourite Headache. In 2017, he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Pearl Jam.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2529667, 31463, 505664, 9589877, 561272, 262620, 262622, 4242826, 23057508, 39936673, 62820318, 12964, 755137, 58902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 77 ], [ 159, 180 ], [ 207, 212 ], [ 255, 265 ], [ 276, 286 ], [ 400, 408 ], [ 417, 425 ], [ 434, 443 ], [ 452, 462 ], [ 471, 485 ], [ 497, 504 ], [ 547, 556 ], [ 565, 586 ], [ 622, 648 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shepherd was the singer on Wellwater Conspiracy's 1997 debut studio album, Declaration of Conformity, but left the band in 1998. He has toured with Mark Lanegan and played bass on two of Lanegan's albums, I'll Take Care of You (1999), and Field Songs (2001). Shepherd and Cameron lent a hand with recording Tony Iommi's album IOMMI (2000). While they were members of Soundgarden they were part of the side-project band Hater, and in 2005 Shepherd released the band's long-delayed second album, The 2nd.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 15704266, 658547, 11952745, 9575871, 395736, 4101279, 2794047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 100 ], [ 148, 160 ], [ 205, 226 ], [ 239, 250 ], [ 307, 317 ], [ 326, 331 ], [ 419, 424 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a July 2009 interview with Rolling Stone, Cornell shot down rumors of a reunion, saying that conversations between the band members had been limited to discussion about the release of a box set or B-sides album of Soundgarden rarities, and that there had been no discussion of a reunion at all. The band's interest in new releases emerged from a 2008 meeting about their shared properties, both financial and legal, where they realized Soundgarden lacked online presence such as a website or a Facebook page. As Thayil summed up, \"we kind of had neglected our merchandise over the last decade\". Eventually the musicians decided to create an official site handled by Pearl Jam's Ten Club, relaunch their catalog, and according to Cameron, seek \"a bunch of unreleased stuff we wanted to try to put out\". On March 2009, Thayil, Shepherd and Cameron got onstage during a concert by Tad Doyle in Seattle and played some Soundgarden songs. Cornell stated that the moment \"sort of sparked the idea: If Matt, Kim, and Ben can get in a room, rehearse a couple songs, and play, maybe we all could do that as Soundgarden.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 246038, 7529378, 820886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 189, 196 ], [ 497, 505 ], [ 881, 890 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On October 6, 2009, all the members of Soundgarden attended Night 3 of Pearl Jam's four-night stand at the Gibson Amphitheatre in Universal City, CA. During an encore, Temple of the Dog reunited for the first time since Pearl Jam's show at the Santa Barbara Bowl on October 28, 2003. Chris Cornell joined the band to sing \"Hunger Strike\". It was the first public appearance of Soundgarden since their breakup in April 1997. Consequently, rumors of an impending reunion were circulating on the Internet.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1728708, 222661, 222165, 4186072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 126 ], [ 168, 185 ], [ 284, 297 ], [ 323, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On January 1, 2010, Cornell alluded to a Soundgarden reunion on his Twitter account writing: \"The 12-year break is over and school is back in session. Sign up now. Knights of the Soundtable ride again!\" The message linked to a website that featured a picture of the group performing live and a place for fans to enter their e-mail addresses to get updates on the reunion. Entering that information unlocked a video for the song \"Get on the Snake\", from 1989's Louder Than Love. On March 1, 2010, Soundgarden announced to their e-mail subscribers that they would be re-releasing an old single \"Hunted Down\" with the song \"Nothing to Say\" on a 7-inch vinyl record. It was released on April 17, Record Store Day. They released \"Spoonman\" live at the Del Mar Fairgrounds in San Diego, California from 1996. Soundgarden played their first show since 1997 on April 16 at the Showbox at the Market in the band's hometown of Seattle. The band headlined Lollapalooza on August 8.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 9988187, 681529, 21611071, 3055173, 27253114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 75 ], [ 460, 476 ], [ 692, 708 ], [ 747, 766 ], [ 869, 890 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A Retrospective, a new Soundgarden compilation album, was packaged with initial shipments of the Warriors of Rock video game and released on September 28, 2010, one week before the CD's availability in stores on October 5, 2010. An expanded version of Telephantasm consisting of two CDs and one DVD is available for sale. A previously unreleased Soundgarden song—\"Black Rain\"—debuted on the Guitar Hero video game and appears on the compilation album, which achieved platinum certification status after its first day of retail availability. \"Black Rain\" hit rock radio stations on August 10, 2010, and was the band's first single since 1997. In November 2010, Soundgarden was the second musical guest on the show Conan, making their first television appearance in 13 years. The band issued a 7-inch vinyl, \"The Telephantasm\", for Black Friday Record Store Day. In March 2011, Soundgarden released their first live album, Live on I-5.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 28257208, 28391718, 1240010, 29753484, 366477, 30465331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 366, 376 ], [ 715, 720 ], [ 809, 825 ], [ 832, 844 ], [ 923, 934 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In February 2011 Soundgarden announced on their homepage that they had started recording a new album. On March 1, 2011, Chris Cornell confirmed that Adam Kasper would produce it. Four days later, the band stated it would consist of material that was \"90 percent new\" with the rest consisting of updated versions of older ideas. They also noted that they had 12 to 14 songs that were \"kind of ready to go\". Although Cameron claimed the album would be released in 2011, the recording was prolonged as Thayil said that \"the more we enjoy it, the more our fans should end up enjoying it\". Thayil also reported that some songs sound \"similar in a sense to Down on the Upside\" and that the album would be \"picking up where we left off. There are some heavy moments, and there are some fast songs.\" The next day, Cornell reported that the new album would not be released until the spring of 2012.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 222165, 4113676, 621439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 133 ], [ 149, 160 ], [ 651, 669 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In April 2011, Soundgarden announced a summer tour consisting of four dates in July. The band headlined for Voodoo Experience at City Park in New Orleans on the 2011 Halloween weekend. In March 2012 a post on the band's official Facebook page said a new song, \"Live to Rise\", would be included on the soundtrack of the upcoming movie The Avengers, based on the Marvel Comics franchise. It was the first newly recorded song the band had released since re-forming in 2010. \"Live to Rise\" was released as a free download on iTunes on April 17. Also in March it was announced that Soundgarden would headline the Friday night of the Hard Rock Calling Festival the following July in London, England. In April, Soundgarden announced the release of a box set titled Classic Album Selection for Europe, containing all of their studio albums except for Ultramega OK, and live album Live on I-5. On May 5, just before The Offspring began playing their set, the band appeared as a special guest at the 20th annual KROQ Weenie Roast in Irvine, California. Later that month, Soundgarden told Rolling Stone they were eyeing an October release for their new album. That June, the band appeared at Download Festival in Donington, England. The band released \"Been Away Too Long\", the first single from their new album King Animal on September 27; the album was released on November 13, 2012. The band released a video for \"By Crooked Steps\", directed by Dave Grohl, in early 2013. \"Halfway There\" was the third single released from the album.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 10002270, 35374785, 22114132, 20966, 21724684, 90422, 637660, 5201333, 25441, 793724, 37044331, 36795146, 38679541, 8099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 125 ], [ 261, 273 ], [ 334, 346 ], [ 361, 374 ], [ 628, 645 ], [ 907, 920 ], [ 1002, 1019 ], [ 1023, 1041 ], [ 1078, 1091 ], [ 1181, 1198 ], [ 1241, 1259 ], [ 1300, 1311 ], [ 1405, 1421 ], [ 1436, 1446 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On November 15, 2013, drummer Matt Cameron announced he would not be touring with Soundgarden in 2014, due to prior commitments promoting Pearl Jam's album Lightning Bolt. On March 16, 2014, Soundgarden and Nine Inch Nails announced they were going to tour North America together, along with opening act Death Grips. Former Pearl Jam drummer Matt Chamberlain replaced Cameron for live shows in South America and Europe on March 27, 2014.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 738431, 39936673, 71966, 33080826, 1070564 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 42 ], [ 156, 170 ], [ 207, 222 ], [ 304, 315 ], [ 342, 358 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soundgarden announced on October 28, 2014, they would release the 3-CD compilation box set, Scattered Tracks Across the Path, on November 24. The set includes rarities, live tracks, and unreleased material spanning the group's history. It includes previously released songs, such as \"Live to Rise\", \"Black Rain\", \"Birth Ritual\", and others, as well as a newly recorded rendition of the song \"The Storm\" from the band's pre-Matt Cameron 1985 demo, now simply titled \"Storm\", which was, like the original, produced by Jack Endino. One day before its official announcement, on October 27, the band posted a copy of \"Storm\" on YouTube.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 38023207, 2976185, 3524766 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 437, 446 ], [ 517, 528 ], [ 624, 631 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thayil mentioned in several interviews it was likely the band would start working on material for a new album in 2015, and in August 2015, Cornell stated they were doing so. On January 19, 2016, The Pulse Of Radio announced that Soundgarden had returned to the studio to continue working on their new album. On July 14, 2016, bassist Ben Shepherd and Cameron stated that the band had written \"six solid tunes\" for the new album, with more writing to be done in August.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 936126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 334, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On May 18, 2017, Cornell was found dead, \"with a band around his neck\", according to his representative, Brian Bumbery. Cornell was in his room at the MGM Grand hotel and casino in Detroit, Michigan, after performing at the Fox Theatre with Soundgarden. From the outset, the investigation into the singer's death was described by a local police spokesperson as that of a \"possible suicide\", based on unspecified details in the room where his body was discovered. Subsequently, the Wayne County Medical Examiner's Office determined the cause of death as suicide by hanging. However, Cornell's widow, Vicky, questioned whether he would deliberately end his own life, and said that the drug Ativan, which her husband was taking, might have led him to commit suicide. She said: \"I know that he loved our children and he would not hurt them by intentionally taking his own life.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2377936, 8687, 1570116, 95029, 27988331, 244115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 160 ], [ 181, 188 ], [ 224, 235 ], [ 481, 493 ], [ 553, 571 ], [ 688, 694 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following Cornell's death, Soundgarden canceled the rest of their 2017 tour, including headlining performances at Rock on the Range and Rocklahoma later that month.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 13734482, 12276423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 131 ], [ 136, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 2017, drummer Matt Cameron told Billboard that he and the other surviving members of Soundgarden had yet to make a decision about the future of the band following Cornell's death. He was quoted as saying, \"I don't think we're ready to say anything other than ... Kim and Ben and I are certainly aware of how much our fans are hurting, and we're certainly hurting right there along with them. But we're extremely private people, and we're all still processing our grief in our own way and on our own time. But we definitely are thinking of our fans and love them very much.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 738431, 18309966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 39 ], [ 45, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 2018, guitarist Kim Thayil told Billboard that he and the other surviving members of Soundgarden were still unsure about the future of the band. He was quoted as saying, \"We often reference rock history and we've often commented on what other bands in similar situations have done, not as a plan or anything but just commenting on how bands have handled situations like this and what bands seem to have been graceful and dignified in how they manage their future musical endeavors and how some maybe were clumsy and callous. We think about those things. We try not to go too deep into these conversations, but stuff comes up after a few beers.\" A month later, Cameron told Rolling Stone that the surviving members of Soundgarden \"would certainly love to try to continue to do something, figure out something to do together.\" Bassist Ben Shepherd added, \"We haven't even gotten a chance to hang out, just us three, yet. We're going through natural healing, then thinking about the natural next step.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 719076, 25441, 936126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 39 ], [ 686, 699 ], [ 846, 858 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In an October 2018 interview with Seattle Times, Thayil stated that the Soundgarden band name would be retired. He explained, \"I don't know really what kind of thing is possible or what we would consider in the future. It's likely nothing. The four of us were that. There were four of us and now there's three of us, so it's just not likely that there's much to be pursued other than the catalog work at this point.\" Thayil also stated that while he does not rule out the possibility of working with Cameron and Shepherd in a different capacity, writing or touring under the Soundgarden banner again was unlikely. \"No, I don't think that's anything we'd give reasonable consideration to at this point. When I say 'at this point,' I mean perhaps ever.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 432610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In January 2019, the remaining members of the band reunited in a tribute concert and fundraiser at The Forum in Inglewood, California, organized by Cornell's widow, Vicky Cornell. Members of Soundgarden, Temple of the Dog, Audioslave, Alice in Chains, Melvins, Foo Fighters, and Metallica together with other notable artists performed songs from Cornell's career. Taylor Momsen, Marcus Durant, Brandi Carlile, and Taylor Hawkins contributed vocals to Soundgarden, who performed \"Rusty Cage\", \"Flower\", \"Outshined\", \"Drawing Flies\", \"Loud Love\", \"I Awake\", \"The Day I Tried to Live\", and \"Black Hole Sun\", making this their only performance since Cornell's death.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 765817, 107640, 222661, 195437, 50214, 159481, 570280, 18787, 1941155, 1213546, 2476333, 210591, 552584, 1986730, 2146299, 222653, 2145771, 681529, 2147199, 1055577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 108 ], [ 112, 133 ], [ 204, 221 ], [ 223, 233 ], [ 235, 250 ], [ 252, 259 ], [ 261, 273 ], [ 279, 288 ], [ 364, 377 ], [ 379, 392 ], [ 394, 408 ], [ 414, 428 ], [ 479, 489 ], [ 493, 499 ], [ 503, 512 ], [ 516, 529 ], [ 533, 542 ], [ 546, 553 ], [ 557, 580 ], [ 588, 602 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 2019, Thayil said in an interview with Music Radar that the surviving members of Soundgarden are trying to finish and release the album they were working on with Cornell. However, the master files of Cornell's vocal recordings are currently being withheld, and when Thayil sought permission to use these files, he was denied.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In December 2019, Cornell's widow, Vicky Cornell, sued the surviving members of Soundgarden over seven unreleased recordings Cornell made before his death in 2017, claiming \"they have “shamelessly conspired to wrongfully withhold hundreds of thousands of dollars indisputably owed to Chris’ widow and minor children in an unlawful attempt to strong-arm Chris’ Estate into turning over certain audio recordings created by Chris before he passed away.\" The lawsuit stated that Cornell made the seven recordings at his personal studio in Florida in 2017, which there was never any explicit agreement that these songs were meant for Soundgarden, and that Cornell was the only owner of tracks. In February 2020, Thayil, Cameron and Shepherd demanded Vicky to hand over the unreleased recordings, claiming that they worked jointly on these final tracks with Chris and that Vicky has no right to withhold from them what they call the \"final Soundgarden album.\" The band members pointed to interviews Chris and his bandmates made at the time confirming they were working together on what would be Soundgarden's eighth album. In March 2020, Soundgarden asked court to dismiss the lawsuit. In May 2020, Soundgarden countersued Vicky claiming that she engaged in \"fraudulent inducement\" by allegedly attempting to use the revenue from the January 2019 \"I Am the Highway: A Tribute to Chris Cornell\" concert, which was meant to go to the Chris and Vicky Cornell Foundation, for \"personal purposes for herself and her family\". The band dropped the benefit concert lawsuit in July 2020. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On August 10, 2020, Nile Rodgers and Merck Mercuriadis's company Hipgnosis Songs Fund acquired 100% of Chris Cornell's catalog of song rights (241 songs), including Soundgarden's catalog. Rodgers is friends with Cornell's widow.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 167787, 51026609, 62090327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 32 ], [ 37, 54 ], [ 65, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On December 1, 2020, Thayil, Shepherd and Cameron performed as \"members of Soundgarden\" alongside Tad Doyle, Mike McCready and Meagan Grandallat at MoPOP Founders Award tribute to Alice in Chains.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 820886, 558528, 102346, 50214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 107 ], [ 109, 122 ], [ 148, 168 ], [ 180, 195 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In February 2021, Vicky Cornell filed another lawsuit claiming that the remaining members of Soundgarden have undervalued her share of the band, offering her “the villainously low figure of less than $300,000.” Vicky claimed the band offered her $300,000 despite receiving a $16 million offer from another investor for the act's master recordings. Vicky said she counter-offered $12 million for the band's collective interests, equaling $4 million per surviving member, which they denied. She then offered them $21 million for the band’s interests, and that offer was also rejected. Soungarden said in a statement that the \"buyout offer that was demanded by the estate has been grossly mischaracterized and we are confident that clarity will come out in court. All offers to buy out our interests have been unsolicited and rejected outright.\" The band also noted that they also haven't had access to their social media accounts, which has resulted in \"misleading and confusing our fans\", leading the band to create new Twitter, Instagram and Facebook accounts under the name \"Nude Dragons\", an anagram for Soundgarden. On March 19, 2021, a federal judge recommended that claims the surviving band members improperly withheld \"hundreds of thousands of dollars\" and that the band's manager breached his duty to look after Vicky's interests be dismissed, citing lack of evidence of the band withholding royalties. On March 25, 2021, Soundgarden demanded the passwords for their social media and website. On June 15, 2021, the band got their website and social media accounts back in a temporary agreement with Vicky.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Soundgarden were pioneers of the grunge music genre, which mixed elements of punk rock and metal to make a sludgy, murky sound through the use of fuzzy-sounding distortion in the guitars. \"Soundgarden are quite good...\" remarked Black Sabbath's Tony Iommi, \"It's very much like the same sort of stuff that we would have done.\" Soundgarden's sound during the early years of the Seattle grunge scene has been described as consisting of \"gnarled neo-Zeppelinisms\". The influence of Led Zeppelin was evident, with Q magazine noting that Soundgarden were \"in thrall to '70s rock, but contemptuous of the genre's overt sexism and machismo.\" According to Sub Pop, the band had \"a hunky lead singer and fused Led Zeppelin and the Butthole Surfers\". The Butthole Surfers' mix of punk, heavy metal and noise rock was a major influence on the early work of Soundgarden. The band was also influenced by the likes of the Ramones, Kiss, Accept, the Melvins and Saint Vitus.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical style and influences", "target_page_ids": [ 23037, 13869, 4314, 395736, 17909, 511253, 144539, 239057, 32216781, 142238, 609351, 159481, 1065542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 86 ], [ 91, 96 ], [ 229, 242 ], [ 245, 255 ], [ 479, 491 ], [ 510, 511 ], [ 648, 655 ], [ 722, 738 ], [ 908, 915 ], [ 917, 921 ], [ 923, 929 ], [ 935, 942 ], [ 947, 958 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The name of the band, according to Thayil, was supposed to include the many roots of their style: that included \"a virtual plethora of cutting edge rock that spans Velvet Underground, Meat Puppets, and Killing Joke\". The band also mentioned \"Metallica Gothicism and sublime poetry. The almost ethereal flavour of the name betrays the brutality of the music but never pins Soundgarden in one corner\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical style and influences", "target_page_ids": [ 19760229, 19709, 393562, 18787, 124877 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 182 ], [ 184, 196 ], [ 202, 214 ], [ 242, 251 ], [ 252, 261 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Black Sabbath also had a huge impact on the band's sound, especially on the guitar riffs and tunings. Joel McIver stated: \"Soundgarden are one of the bands I've heard closest to the original Sabbath sound.\" Soundgarden, like other early grunge bands, were also influenced by British post-punk bands such as Gang of Four and Bauhaus which were popular in the early 1980s Seattle scene. Cornell himself said: \"When Soundgarden formed we were post-punk – pretty quirky. Then somehow we found this neo-Sabbath psychedelic rock that fitted well with who we were.\" Thayil described the band's sound as a \"Sabbath-influenced punk\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical style and influences", "target_page_ids": [ 2892230, 147935, 55013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 113 ], [ 307, 319 ], [ 324, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soundgarden broadened its musical range with its later releases. By 1994's Superunknown, the band began to incorporate more psychedelic influences into its music. As a member of Soundgarden, Cornell became known for his wide vocal range and his dark, existentialist lyrics.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical style and influences", "target_page_ids": [ 222639, 5792557, 542083, 9593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 87 ], [ 124, 135 ], [ 225, 236 ], [ 251, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soundgarden often used alternative tunings in its songs. Many Soundgarden songs were performed in drop D tuning, including \"Jesus Christ Pose\", \"Outshined\", \"Spoonman\", \"Black Hole Sun\", and \"Black Rain\". The E strings of the instruments were at times tuned even lower, such as on \"Rusty Cage\", where the lower E is tuned down to B. Some songs use more unorthodox tunings: \"Been Away Too Long\", \"My Wave\", and \"The Day I Tried to Live\" are all in a E–E–B–B–B–B tuning and \"Burden in My Hand\", \"Head Down\", and \"Pretty Noose\" in a tuning of C-G-C-G-G-E\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical style and influences", "target_page_ids": [ 1771483, 586940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 41 ], [ 98, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soundgarden also used unorthodox time signatures; \"Fell on Black Days\" is in 6/4, \"Limo Wreck\" is played in 15/8, and \"The Day I Tried to Live\" alternates between 7/8 and 4/4 sections. The main guitar riff of \"Circle of Power\" is in 5/4. Thayil has said Soundgarden usually did not consider the time signature of a song until after the band wrote it, and said the use of odd meters was \"a total accident\". He also used the meters as an example of the band's anti-commercial stance, saying that if Soundgarden \"were in the business of hit singles, we'd at least write songs in 4/4 so you could dance to them\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical style and influences", "target_page_ids": [ 30282 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The development of the Seattle independent record label Sub Pop is tied closely to Soundgarden, since Sub Pop co-founder Jonathan Poneman funded Soundgarden's early releases, and the band's success led to the expansion of Sub Pop as a serious record label. Nirvana frontman Kurt Cobain was a fan of Soundgarden's music, and reportedly Soundgarden's involvement with Sub Pop influenced Cobain to sign Nirvana with the label. Cobain also stated that Soundgarden was one of the only Seattle bands that he liked along with Tad and Mudhoney. In rare footage from the 2015 documentary Montage of Heck, Cobain can be seen impersonating Chris Cornell singing \"Outshined\". Alice in Chains guitarist and vocalist, Jerry Cantrell stated that Soundgarden was a big influence on his band.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 38428571, 16707, 820886, 238451, 2146299, 50214, 262550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 137 ], [ 274, 285 ], [ 519, 522 ], [ 527, 535 ], [ 653, 662 ], [ 665, 680 ], [ 705, 719 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soundgarden was the first grunge band to sign to a major label when the band joined the roster of A&M Records in 1989. However, Soundgarden did not achieve success initially, and only with successive album releases did the band meet with increased sales and wider attention. Bassist Ben Shepherd has not been receptive to the grunge label, saying in a 2013 interview \"That's just marketing. It's called rock and roll, or it's called punk rock or whatever. We never were Grunge, we were just a band from Seattle.\" They were ranked No.14 on VH1's 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1994, Electronic Arts contacted Soundgarden's label A&M Records for a bid to license the band's music for a CD-based entry in the Road Rash video game series. Although the label was initially hesitant due to the lack of precedence for licensing music for video games, Cornell and his band members expressed enthusiasm, as they were fans of the games and frequently played them on their bus while touring the country. A&M then obtained the band's permission to use them as leverage to incorporate other alt-rock bands within the A&M label into the game, including Monster Magnet, Paw, Swervedriver, Therapy? and Hammerbox. As a result of Soundgarden's involvement, the 3DO version of Road Rash has been credited with revolutionizing the use of licensed music in video games.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 262933, 65609907, 1082732, 151425, 3924125, 2071751, 212898, 3176451, 36168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 24 ], [ 111, 125 ], [ 133, 142 ], [ 566, 580 ], [ 582, 585 ], [ 587, 599 ], [ 601, 609 ], [ 614, 623 ], [ 671, 674 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Regarding Soundgarden's legacy, in a 2007 interview Cornell said:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"I think, and this is now with some distance in listening to the records, but on the outside looking in with all earnestness I think Soundgarden made the best records out of that scene. I think we were the most daring and experimental and genre-pushing really and I'm really proud of it. And I guess that's why I have trepidation about the idea of re-forming. I don't know what it would mean, or I guess I just have this image of who we were and I had probably a lot of anxiety during the period of being Soundgarden, as we all did, that it was responsibility and it was an important band and music and we didn't want to mess it up and we managed to not, which I feel is a great achievement.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Soundgarden has been praised for its technical musical ability, and the expansion of its sound as the band's career progressed. \"Heavy yet ethereal, powerful yet always-in-control, Soundgarden's music was a study in contrasts,\" said Henry Wilson of Hit Parader. Wilson proclaimed the band's music as \"a brilliant display of technical proficiency tempered by heart-felt emotion\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 5517771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 249, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soundgarden is one of the bands credited with the development of the genre of alternative metal, with Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic stating that \"Soundgarden made a place for heavy metal in alternative rock.\" Ben Ratliff of Rolling Stone defined Soundgarden as the \"standard-bearers\" of the rock riff during the 1990s. The band inspired and influenced a number of metalcore bands such as Between the Buried and Me and the Dillinger Escape Plan. In 2017, Metal Injection ranked Soundgarden at number three on their list of 10 Heaviest Grunge Bands.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 360117, 1747792, 636692, 1391690, 305670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 95 ], [ 102, 125 ], [ 370, 379 ], [ 394, 419 ], [ 424, 449 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kim Thayil– lead guitar (1984–1997, 2010–2019)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [ 719076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chris Cornell– lead vocals (1984–1997, 2010–2017), rhythm guitar (1988–1997, 2010–2017), drums (1984–1985); died 2017", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [ 222165 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hiro Yamamoto– bass, backing vocals (1984–1989)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [ 1771813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Scott Sundquist– drums (1985–1986)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [ 40321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Matt Cameron– drums, backing vocals (1986–1997, 2010–2019)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [ 738431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jason Everman– bass (1989–1990)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [ 408301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ben Shepherd– bass, backing vocals (1990–1997, 2010–2019)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [ 936126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ultramega OK (1988)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [ 222169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louder Than Love (1989)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [ 681529 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Badmotorfinger (1991)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", 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[ "Soundgarden", "Alternative_rock_groups_from_Washington_(state)", "American_alternative_metal_musical_groups", "Grunge_musical_groups", "Hard_rock_musical_groups_from_Washington_(state)", "Heavy_metal_musical_groups_from_Washington_(state)", "Musical_groups_from_Seattle", "Musical_groups_established_in_1984", "Musical_groups_disestablished_in_1997", "Musical_groups_reestablished_in_2010", "Musical_groups_disestablished_in_2019", "A&M_Records_artists", "SST_Records_artists", "Sub_Pop_artists", "C/Z_Records_artists", "Vertigo_Records_artists", "Grammy_Award_winners", "Articles_which_contain_graphical_timelines", "1984_establishments_in_Washington_(state)" ]

[ "Nudedragons" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Theodore Beza (; or de Besze; June 24, 1519 – October 13, 1605) was a French Calvinist Protestant theologian, reformer and scholar who played an important role in the Protestant Reformation. He was a disciple of John Calvin and lived most of his life in Geneva. Beza succeeded Calvin as a spiritual leader of the Republic of Geneva, which was originally founded by John Calvin himself.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 962731, 6024, 25814008, 30503, 1929054, 59301865, 37857, 15930, 12521, 292834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 77 ], [ 78, 87 ], [ 88, 98 ], [ 99, 109 ], [ 111, 119 ], [ 124, 131 ], [ 168, 190 ], [ 213, 224 ], [ 255, 261 ], [ 314, 332 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Theodore Beza was born at Vézelay, in Burgundy, France. His father, Pierre de Beze, royal governor of Vézelay, descended from a Burgundian family of distinction; his mother, Marie Bourdelot, was known for her generosity. Beza's father had two brothers; Nicholas, who was member of Parliament at Paris; and Claude, who was abbot of the Cistercian monastery of Froimont in the diocese of Beauvais.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 5025754, 85451, 766191, 1143, 50409, 45856, 2215807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 33 ], [ 38, 46 ], [ 281, 291 ], [ 322, 327 ], [ 335, 345 ], [ 346, 355 ], [ 375, 394 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nicholas, who was unmarried, during a visit to Vézelay was so pleased with Theodore that, with the permission of his parents, he took him to Paris to educate him there. From Paris, Theodore was sent to Orléans in December 1528 to receive instruction from the famous German teacher Melchior Wolmar. He was received into Wolmar's house, and the day on which this took place was afterward celebrated as a second birthday.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 75818 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 202, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Young Beza soon followed his teacher to Bourges, where the latter was called by the duchess Margaret of Angoulême, sister of Francis I. At the time, Bourges was the focus of the Reformation movement in France. In 1534, after Francis I issued his edict against ecclesiastical innovations, Wolmar returned to Germany. Beza, in accordance with the wish of his father, went back to Orléans to study law, and spent four years there (1535–39). The pursuit of law had little attraction for him; he enjoyed more the reading of the ancient classics, especially Ovid, Catullus, and Tibullus.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 82132, 58255, 2764030, 50012, 37802, 5768, 162217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 47 ], [ 84, 91 ], [ 92, 113 ], [ 125, 134 ], [ 552, 556 ], [ 558, 566 ], [ 572, 580 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He received the degree of licentiate in law August 11, 1539, and, as his father desired, went to Paris, where he began to practice. To support him, his relatives had obtained for him two benefices, the proceeds of which amounted to 700 golden crowns a year; and his uncle had promised to make him his successor.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Beza spent two years in Paris and gained a prominent position in literary circles. To escape the many temptations to which he was exposed, with the knowledge of two friends, he became engaged in the year 1544 to a young girl of humble descent, Claudine Denoese, promising to publicly marry her as soon as his circumstances would allow it.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1548 he published a collection of Latin poetry, Juvenilia, which made him famous, and he was widely considered one of the best writers of Latin poetry of his time. Some cautioned against reading biographical details in his writings. Philip Schaff argued that it was a mistake to \"read between his lines what he never intended to put there\" or to imagine \"offences of which he was not guilty even in thought.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 17730, 22926, 178188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 42 ], [ 43, 49 ], [ 236, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shortly after the publication of his book, he fell ill and his illness, it is reported, revealed to him his spiritual needs. Gradually he came to accept salvation in Christ, which lifted his spirits. He then resolved to sever his connections of the time, and went to Geneva, the French city of refuge for Evangelicals (adherents of the Reformation movement), where he arrived with Claudine on October 23, 1548.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 29473, 12521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 162 ], [ 267, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was received by John Calvin, who had met him already in Wolmar's house, and was married in the church. Beza was at a loss for immediate occupation so he went to Tübingen to see his former teacher Wolmar. On his way home, he visited Pierre Viret at Lausanne, who brought about his appointment as professor of Greek at the academy there in November 1549.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 15930, 1719112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 30 ], [ 235, 247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Beza found time to write a Biblical drama, Abraham Sacrifiant , in which he contrasted Catholicism with Protestantism, and the work was well received. The text of some verses includes directions for musical performance, but no music survives.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 606848, 25814008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 98 ], [ 104, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Clément Marot's death in 1544, John Calvin asked Beza to complete his French metrical translations of the Psalms. Thirty-four of his translations were published in the 1551 edition of the Genevan Psalter, and six more were added to later editions.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 163771, 3596179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 19 ], [ 194, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "About the same time he published Passavantius, a satire directed against Pierre Lizet, the former president of the Parliament of Paris, and principal originator of the \"fiery chamber\" (chambre ardente), who, at the time (1551), was abbot of St. Victor near Paris and publishing a number of polemical writings.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 42687990, 1690624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 85 ], [ 115, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Of a more serious character were two controversies in which Beza was involved at this time. The first concerned the doctrine of predestination and the controversy of Calvin with Jerome Hermes Bolsec. The second referred to the burning of Michael Servetus at Geneva on October 27, 1553. In defense of Calvin and the Genevan magistrates, Beza published, in 1554, the work De haereticis a civili magistratu puniendis (translated into French in 1560).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 23705, 10139017, 191400 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 142 ], [ 178, 198 ], [ 238, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1557, Beza took a special interest in the Waldensians of Piedmont, Italy, who were being harassed by the French government. On their behalf, he went with William Farel to Bern, Zürich, Basel, and Schaffhausen, then to Strasburg, Mömpelgard, Baden, and Göppingen. In Baden and Göppingen, Beza and Farel made a declaration concerning the Waldensians' views on the sacrament on May 14, 1557. The written declaration clearly stated their position and was well received by the Lutheran theologians, but was strongly disapproved of in Bern and Zurich.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 149317, 25061, 14532, 833431, 49749, 40334603, 4911, 174298, 37407, 213548, 40684169, 172249 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 56 ], [ 60, 68 ], [ 70, 75 ], [ 157, 170 ], [ 174, 178 ], [ 180, 186 ], [ 188, 193 ], [ 199, 211 ], [ 221, 230 ], [ 232, 242 ], [ 244, 249 ], [ 255, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the autumn of 1558, Beza undertook a second journey with Farel to Worms by way of Strasburg in the hopes of bringing about an intercession by the Evangelical princes of the empire in favor of the persecuted brethren at Paris. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 33896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With Melanchthon and other theologians then assembled at the Colloquy of Worms, Beza proposed a union of all Protestant Christians, but the proposal was decidedly denied by Zurich and Bern.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 39209, 5143246 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 16 ], [ 61, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "False reports reached the German princes that the hostilities against the Huguenots in France had ceased and no embassy was sent to the court of France. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 75899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a result, Beza undertook another journey with Farel, Johannes Buddaeus, and Gaspard Carmel to Strasburg and Frankfurt, where the sending of an embassy to Paris was resolved upon.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1093175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Upon his return to Lausanne, Beza was greatly disturbed. In union with many ministers and professors in city and country, Viret at last thought of establishing a consistory and of introducing a church discipline which should apply excommunication especially at the celebration of the communion. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 40964735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 162, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "But the Bernese, then in control of Lausanne, would have no Calvinistic church government. This caused many difficulties, and Beza thought it best in 1558, to settle at Geneva.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Here he was given chair of Greek in the newly established academy, and after Calvin's death also that of theology. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He was also obliged to preach.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He completed the revision of Pierre Olivetan's translation of the New Testament, begun some years before. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 10138521, 21433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 44 ], [ 66, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1559, he undertook another journey in the interest of the Huguenots, this time to Heidelberg. At about the same time, he had to defend Calvin against Joachim Westphal in Hamburg and Tilemann Heshusius.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 46743, 9807707, 13467, 28782291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 95 ], [ 153, 169 ], [ 173, 180 ], [ 185, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "More important than this polemical activity was Beza's statement of his own confession. It was originally prepared for his father in justification of his actions and published in revised form to promote Evangelical knowledge among Beza's countrymen. It was printed in Latin in 1560 with a dedication to Wolmar. An English translation was published at London 1563, 1572, and 1585. Translations into German, Dutch, and Italian were also issued.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the meantime, things took such shape in France that the happiest future for Protestantism seemed possible. King Antoine of Navarre, yielding to the urgent requests of Evangelical noblemen, declared his willingness to listen to a prominent teacher of the Church. Beza, a French nobleman and head of the academy in the metropolis of French Protestantism, was invited to Castle Nerac, but he could not plant the seed of Evangelical faith in the heart of the king.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 357712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the following year, 1561, Beza represented the Evangelicals at the Colloquy of Poissy, and in an eloquent manner defended the principles of the Evangelical faith. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 6587621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The colloquy was without result, but Beza as the head and advocate of all Reformed congregations of France was revered and hated at the same time. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The queen insisted upon another colloquy, which was opened at St. Germain Jan. 28, 1562, eleven days after the proclamation of the famous January edict, which granted important privileges to those of the Reformed faith. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "But the colloquy was broken off when it became evident that the Catholic party was preparing (after the Massacre of Vassy, on March 1) to overthrow Protestantism.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 9606020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Beza hastily issued a circular letter (March 25) to all Reformed congregations of the empire, and went to Orléans with the Huguenot leader Conde and his troops. It was necessary to proceed quickly and energetically. But there were neither soldiers nor money. At the request of Conde, Beza visited all Huguenot cities to obtain both. He also wrote a manifesto in which he argued the justice of the Reformed cause. As one of the messengers to collect soldiers and money among his coreligionists, Beza was appointed to visit England, Germany, and Switzerland. He went to Strasburg and Basel, but met with failure. He then returned to Geneva, which he reached September 4. He had hardly been there fourteen days when he was called once more to Orléans by D'Andelot. The campaign was becoming more successful; but the publication of the unfortunate edict of pacification which Conde accepted (Mar. 12,1563) filled Beza and all Protestant France with horror.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 381815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For twenty-two months Beza had been absent from Geneva, and the interests of school and Church there and especially the condition of Calvin made it necessary for him to return, as there was no one to take the place of Calvin, who was sick and unable to work. Calvin and Beza arranged to perform their duties jointly in alternate weeks, but the death of Calvin occurred soon afterward (May 27, 1564). As a matter of course Beza was his successor.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Until 1580, Beza was not only moderator of the Company of Pastors, but also the real soul of the great institution of learning at Geneva which Calvin had founded in 1559, consisting of a gymnasium and an academy. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 40478305, 342348 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 65 ], [ 204, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As long as he lived, Beza was interested in higher education. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Protestant youth for nearly forty years thronged his lecture-room to hear his theological lectures, in which he expounded the purest Calvinistic orthodoxy. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As a counselor he was listened to by both magistrates and pastors. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He founded a law school in Geneva in which François Hotman, Jules Pacius, and Denys Godefroy, the most eminent jurists of the century, lectured in turn (cf. Charles Borgeaud, L'Academie de Calvin, Geneva, 1900).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 313733, 67510824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 58 ], [ 157, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As Calvin's successor, Beza was very successful, not only in carrying on his work but also in giving peace to the Church at Geneva. The magistrates had fully appropriated the ideas of Calvin, and the direction of spiritual affairs, the organs of which were the \"ministers of the word\" and \"the consistory\", was founded on a solid basis. No doctrinal controversy arose after 1564. The discussions concerned questions of a practical, social, or ecclesiastical nature, such as the supremacy of the magistrates over the pastors, freedom in preaching, and the obligation of the pastors to submit to the majority of the Company of Pastors.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Beza did not force his will upon his associates, and took no harsh measures against injudicious or hot-headed colleagues, though sometimes he took their cases in hand and acted as mediator; and yet he often experienced an opposition so extreme that he threatened to resign. Although he was inclined to take the part of the magistrates, he knew how to defend the rights and independence of the spiritual power when occasion arose, without, however, conceding to it such a preponderating influence as did Calvin.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Beza did not believe it wise for the Company of Pastors to have a permanent head. He convinced the Company to petition the Small Council to have limited terms for the position of moderator. In 1580 the Council agreed to a weekly rotating presidency.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "His activity was great. He mediated between the compagnie and the magistracy; the latter continually asked his advice even in political questions. He corresponded with all the leaders of the Reformed party in Europe. After the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572), he used his influence to give to the refugees a hospitable reception at Geneva.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 162947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 227, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1574, he wrote his De jure magistratuum (Right of Magistrates), in which he emphatically protested against tyranny in religious matters, and affirmed that it is legitimate for a people to oppose an unworthy magistracy in a practical manner and if necessary to use weapons and depose them.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1078933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Without being a great dogmatician like his master, nor a creative genius in the ecclesiastical realm, Beza had qualities which made him famous as humanist, exegete, orator, and leader in religious and political affairs, and qualified him to be the guide of the Calvinists in all Europe. In the various controversies into which he was drawn, Beza often showed an excess of irritation and intolerance, from which Bernardino Ochino, pastor of the Italian congregation at Zurich (on account of a treatise which contained some objectionable points on polygamy), and Sebastian Castellio at Basel (on account of his Latin and French translations of the Bible) had especially to suffer.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 4203, 1561537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 411, 428 ], [ 561, 580 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Beza continued to maintain the closest relations with Reformed France. He was the moderator of the general synod which met in April, 1571, at La Rochelle and decided not to abolish church discipline or to acknowledge the civil government as head of the Church, as the Paris minister Jean Morel and the philosopher Pierre Ramus demanded; it also decided to confirm anew the Calvinistic doctrine of the Lord's Supper (by the expression: \"substance of the body of Christ\") against Zwinglianism, which caused a dispute between Beza and Ramus and Heinrich Bullinger.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 3452243, 105048, 311650, 162291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 91 ], [ 142, 153 ], [ 314, 326 ], [ 542, 560 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the following year (May, 1572) he took an important part in the national synod at Nîmes. He was also interested in the controversies which concerned the Augsburg Confession in Germany, especially after 1564, on the doctrine of the Person of Christ and the sacrament, and published several works against Joachim Westphal, Tilemann Heshusius, Nikolaus Selnecker, Johannes Brenz, and Jakob Andrea. This caused him to be hated by all those who adhered to Lutheranism in opposition to Melanchthon, especially after 1571.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 102720, 23883384, 7355, 9807707, 28782291, 3626103, 1819990, 3626385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 90 ], [ 156, 175 ], [ 234, 250 ], [ 306, 322 ], [ 324, 342 ], [ 344, 362 ], [ 364, 378 ], [ 384, 396 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The last polemical conflict of importance Beza encountered from the Lutherans was at the Colloquy of Montbéliard, March 14–27, 1586, (which is also called the Mompelgard Colloquium) to which he had been invited by the Lutheran Count Frederick of Württemberg at the wish of the French-speaking and Reformed residents as well as by French noblemen who had fled to Montbéliard. As a matter of course the intended union which was the purpose of the colloquy was not brought about; nevertheless it called forth serious developments within the Reformed Church.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 213548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When the edition of the acts of the colloquy, as prepared by Jakob Andrea, was published, Samuel Huber, of Burg near Bern, who belonged to the Lutheranizing faction of the Swiss clergy, took so great offense at the supralapsarian doctrine of predestination propounded at Montbéliard by Beza and Musculus that he felt it to be his duty to denounce Musculus to the magistrates of Bern as an innovator in doctrine. To adjust the matter, the magistrates arranged a colloquy between Huber and Musculus (September 2, 1587), in which the former represented the universalism, the latter the particularism, of grace.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As the colloquy was resultless, a debate was arranged at Bern, April 15–18, 1588, at which the defense of the accepted system of doctrine was at the start put into Beza's hands. The three delegates of the Helvetic cantons who presided at the debate declared in the end that Beza had substantiated the teaching propounded at Montbéliard as the orthodox one, and Huber was dismissed from his office.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After that time Beza's activity was confined more and more to the affairs of his home. His wife Claudine had died childless in 1588 after forty years of marriage, a few days before he went to the Bern Disputation. He contracted, on the advice of his friends, a second marriage with Catharina del Piano, a Genoese widow, in order to have a helpmate in his declining years. Up to his sixty-fifth year he enjoyed excellent health, but after that a gradual sinking of his vitality became perceptible. He was active in teaching until January 1597.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The saddest experience in his old days was the conversion of King Henry IV to Catholicism, in spite of his most earnest exhortations (1593). In 1596 a false report was spread by the Jesuits in Germany, France, England, and Italy that Beza and the Church of Geneva had returned into the bosom of Rome, and Beza replied in a satire which showed that he still possessed his old fire of thought and vigor of expression.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 57876 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He died in Geneva. He was not buried, like Calvin, in the general cemetery, Plain-Palais (for the Savoyards had threatened to abduct his body to Rome), but at the direction of the magistrates, in the monastery of St. Pierre.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 12521, 2891220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 17 ], [ 200, 223 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Beza's literary activity as well as in his life, distinction must be made between the period of the humanist (which ended with the publication of his Juvenilia) and that of the ecclesiastic. Combining his pastoral and literary gifts, Beza wrote the first drama produced in French, Abrahm Sacrifiant; a play that is an antecedent to the work of Racine and is still occasionally produced today. Later productions like the humanistic, biting, satirical Passavantius and his Complainte de Messire Pierre Lizet... prove that in later years he occasionally went back to his first love. In his old age he published his Cato censorius (1591), and revised his Poemata, from which he purged juvenile eccentricities.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literary works", "target_page_ids": [ 5135982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Of his historiographical works, aside from his Icones (1580), which have only an iconographical value, mention may be made of the famous Histoire ecclesiastique des Eglises reformes au Royaume de France (1580), and his biography of Calvin, with which must be named his edition of Calvin's Epistolae et responsa (1575).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literary works", "target_page_ids": [ 13276, 523499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 24 ], [ 81, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "But all these humanistic and historical studies are surpassed by his theological productions (contained in Tractationes theologicae). In these Beza appears the perfect pupil or the alter ego of Calvin. His view of life is deterministic and the basis of his religious thinking is the predestinate recognition of the necessity of all temporal existence as an effect of the absolute, eternal, and immutable will of God, so that even the fall of the human race appears to him essential to the divine plan of the world. Beza, in tabular form, thoroughly elucidates the religious views which emanated from a fundamental supralapsarian mode of thought. This he added to his highly instructive treatise Summa totius Christianismi.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literary works", "target_page_ids": [ 1043618 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 286, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Beza's De vera excommunicatione et Christiano presbyterio (1590), written as a response to Thomas Erastus's Explicatio gravissimae quaestionis utrum excommunicatio (1589) contributed an important defense of the right of ecclesiastical authorities (rather than civil authorities) to excommunicate.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literary works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Of no less importance are the contributions of Beza to Biblical scholarship. In 1565 he issued an edition of the Greek New Testament, accompanied in parallel columns by the text of the Vulgate and a translation of his own (already published as early as 1556, though our earliest extant edition dates to 1559). Annotations were added, also previously published, but now he greatly enriched and enlarged them.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literary works", "target_page_ids": [ 21433, 32576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 132 ], [ 185, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the preparation of this edition of the Greek text, but much more in the preparation of the second edition which he brought out in 1582, Beza may have availed himself of the help of two very valuable manuscripts. One is known as the Codex Bezae or Cantabrigensis, and was later presented by Beza to the University of Cambridge, where it remains in the Cambridge University Library; the second is the Codex Claromontanus, which Beza had found in Clermont (now in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France in Paris).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literary works", "target_page_ids": [ 441828, 25978572, 239428, 1643215, 199503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 235, 246 ], [ 306, 329 ], [ 355, 383 ], [ 403, 422 ], [ 469, 501 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It was not, however, to these sources that Beza was chiefly indebted, but rather to the previous edition of the eminent Robert Estienne (1550), itself based in great measure upon one of the later editions of Erasmus. Beza's labours in this direction were exceedingly helpful to those who came after. The same thing may be asserted with equal truth of his Latin version and of the copious notes with which it was accompanied. The former is said to have been published over a hundred times.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literary works", "target_page_ids": [ 39398, 10152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 135 ], [ 208, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although some contend that Beza's view of the doctrine of predestination exercised an overly dominant influence upon his interpretation of the Scriptures, there is no question that he added much to a clear understanding of the New Testament.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literary works", "target_page_ids": [ 23705 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Theodore Beza appears as a character in the Colloqui di Poissy, an historical novel by Agostino di Bondeno (Rome, 2018).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "In fiction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Franciscus Junius (the elder)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3128711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Immanuel Tremellius", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15004675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Monarchomachs", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 883666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Supralapsarianism", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3603922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Publications by and about Theodore Beza in the catalogue Helveticat of the Swiss National Library", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 5756929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Two Parts of the Word of God: Law & Gospel\" from The Christian Faith by Beza", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Faith and Justification\" from The Christian Faith by Beza", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Jesus Christ the Son of God\" from The Christian Faith by Beza", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Concerning the Rights of Rulers Over Their Subjects and the Duty Of Subjects Towards Their Rulers, a treatise by Beza", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Faith & Justification by Beza", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Life of John Calvin by Beza", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Theodori Bezae Vezelii Volumen ... Tractationum Theologicarum\" one of the Beza's theological works in the Olomouc Research Library public catalogue", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Beza's work entitled The Treasure of Gospel Truth, printed in 1576.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1519_births", "1605_deaths", "People_from_Yonne", "Theologians_from_the_Republic_of_Geneva", "French_Calvinist_and_Reformed_theologians", "16th-century_French_writers", "16th-century_male_writers", "16th-century_Calvinist_and_Reformed_theologians", "New_Latin-language_poets", "Translators_of_the_Bible_into_French", "Translators_of_the_Bible_into_Latin", "Calvinist_and_Reformed_hymnwriters", "Converts_to_Calvinism_from_Roman_Catholicism", "Monarchomachs", "French_hymnwriters", "University_of_Geneva_faculty", "University_of_Lausanne_faculty", "16th-century_French_theologians", "French_male_non-fiction_writers", "French_evangelicals", "16th-century_Latin-language_writers", "16th-century_French_translators" ]

[ "Théodore de Bèze", "Theodore de Beze", "Theodore of Beza" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Inertial confinement fusion (ICF) is a fusion energy research program that initiates nuclear fusion reactions by compressing and heating targets filled with thermonuclear fuel. In modern machines, the targets are small spherical pellets about the size of a pinhead typically containing a mixture of about 10 milligrams of deuterium 2H and tritium 3H.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 55017, 21544, 16619, 8524, 31306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 52 ], [ 85, 99 ], [ 308, 318 ], [ 322, 331 ], [ 339, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To compress and heat the fuel, energy is deposited in the outer layer of the target using high-energy beams of photons, electrons or ions, although almost all ICF devices used lasers. The beams heat the outer layer, which explodes outward. This produces a reaction force against the remainder of the target, which accelerates it inwards and compresses the fuel. This process also creates shock waves that travel inward through the target. Sufficiently powerful shock waves can compress and heat the fuel at the center such that fusion occurs.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23535, 9476, 18963787, 146253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 118 ], [ 120, 128 ], [ 133, 136 ], [ 389, 399 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ICF is one of two major branches of fusion energy research, the other is magnetic confinement fusion. When it was first publicly proposed in the early 1970s, ICF appeared to be a practical approach to power production and the field flourished. Experiments during the 1970s and '80s demonstrated that the efficiency of these devices was much lower than expected, and reaching ignition would not be easy. Throughout the 1980s and '90s, many experiments were conducted in order to understand the complex interaction of high-intensity laser light and plasma. These led to the design of newer machines, much larger, that would finally reach ignition energies.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1690634, 34946963, 25916521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 100 ], [ 375, 383 ], [ 547, 553 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The largest operational ICF experiment is the National Ignition Facility (NIF) in the US. In 2021, a test \"shot\" reached 70% of the energy put into it, slightly besting the best results for the magnetic machines set in the 1990s.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 337301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fusion reactions join together smaller atoms to form larger ones. This occurs when two atoms (or ions, atoms stripped of their electrons) come close enough that the nuclear force pulls them together. Atomic nuclei are positively charged, and thus repel each other due to the electrostatic force. Overcoming this repulsion to bring the nuclei close enough requires an input of kinetic energy, known as the Coulomb barrier or fusion barrier energy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 1982496, 26288711, 421121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 165, 178 ], [ 275, 294 ], [ 405, 420 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Less energy is needed to cause lighter nuclei to fuse, as they have less electrical charge and thus a lower barrier energy. This means the barrier is lowest for hydrogen. Conversely, the nuclear force increases with the total number of nuclei, so the isotopes of hydrogen with additional neutrons further reduce the required energy. The easiest fuel to use for fusion production is the combination of deuterium, 2H, and tritium, 3H. This combination is known as D-T.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 19600416, 21272, 8524, 31306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 251, 258 ], [ 288, 295 ], [ 401, 410 ], [ 420, 427 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Even under ideal conditions, the chance that a D and T pair of ions will undergo fusion is very small, the chance is much higher that they will scatter instead. For this reason, the fuel must be held together for a period of time to give the ions many chances to approach other ions. Increasing the density of the fuel also helps, as it means the ions will have more encounters in a given time. Finally, the chance that the reaction will take place is not linear, this cross section is heavily dependent on individual ion energies. It is the combination of these three factors, energy (temperature), density and confinement time that is important. This combination is known as the fusion triple product, and the value of the triple product needed to produce net energy is known as the Lawson criterion.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 164483, 7480, 1018336, 1018336 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 151 ], [ 469, 482 ], [ 681, 702 ], [ 785, 801 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first ICF devices were the hydrogen bombs invented in the early 1950s. A hydrogen bomb consists of two bombs in a single case. The first, the primary stage, is a fission-powered device normally using plutonium. When it explodes it gives off a burst of thermal X-rays that fill the interior of the specially designed bomb casing. These X-rays are absorbed by a special material surrounding the secondary stage, which consists mostly of the fusion fuel. The X-rays heat this material and cause it to explode outward. Due to Newton's Third Law, this causes the fuel inside to be driven inward, compressing and heating it. This causes the fusion fuel to reach the temperature and density where fusion reactions begin.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 2269463, 7987684, 55212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 44 ], [ 204, 213 ], [ 526, 544 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the case of D-T fuel, most of the energy is released in the form of alpha particles and neutrons. Under normal conditions, an alpha can travel about 10mm through the fuel, but in the ultra-dense conditions in the compressed fuel, they can travel about 0.01mm before their electrical charge interacting with the surrounding plasma causes them to lose velocity. This means the majority of the energy released by the alphas will be deposited back in the fuel. This transfer of kinetic energy heats the surrounding particles to the energies they need to undergo fusion as well. This process causes the fusion fuel to burn outward from the center. The electrically neutral neutrons travel longer distances in the fuel mass and do not contribute to this self-heating process. In a bomb, they are instead used to either breed more tritium through reactions in a lithium-deuteride fuel, or are used to fission additional fissionable fuel surrounding the secondary stage, often part of the bomb casing.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 21787470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The requirement that the reaction has to be sparked by a fission bomb makes the method impractical for power generation. Not only would the fission triggers be expensive to produce, but the minimum size of such a bomb is large, defined roughly by the critical mass of the plutonium fuel used. Generally, it seems difficult to build efficient nuclear devices much smaller than about 1 kiloton in yield, and the fusion secondary would add to this yield. This makes it a difficult engineering problem to extract power from the resulting explosions. Project PACER studied solutions to the engineering issues, but also demonstrated that it was not economically feasible. The cost of the bombs was far greater than the value of the resulting electricity.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 175875, 7987684, 1018115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 251, 264 ], [ 272, 281 ], [ 546, 559 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The energy needed to overcome the Coulomb barrier corresponds to the energy of the average particle in a gas heated to 100 million Kelvin. The specific heat of hydrogen is about 14 Joule per gram-Kelvin, so considering a tiny amount of fusion fuel, 1 milligram for instance, the energy needed to raise the mass as a whole to this temperature is 1.4 million Joules, or ~1megajoule (MJ).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 19593121, 28420, 16327, 16327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 137 ], [ 143, 156 ], [ 181, 186 ], [ 357, 362 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the more widely developed magnetic fusion energy (MFE) approach, confinement times are on the order of a second. This is not a physical limit, modern machines can maintain a plasma for minutes. In this case the confinement time represents the amount of time it takes for the energy from the reaction to be lost to the environment through a variety of mechanisms. For a one second confinement, the density needed to meet the Lawson criterion is about 1014 particles per cubic centimetre. For comparison, air at sea level has about 2.7 x 1019 particles per cubic centimetre, so the MFE approach has been described as \"a good vacuum\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 1690634 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Considering a 1 milligram drop of D-T fuel in liquid form, the size is about 1mm and the density is about 4 x 1020. There is nothing holding the fuel together in this case, any heat created within it by fusion events will cause it to expand at the speed of sound, which leads to a confinement time around 2 x 10−10. At liquid density the required confinement time to reach the Lawson criterion is about 2 x 10−7. In this case only about 0.1 percent of the fuel will have fused before the drop is blown apart.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 147853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 248, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The trick to ICF is that the rate of the fusion reactions is a function of density, and density can be improved through compression. If the drop is compressed from 1mm to 0.1mm in diameter, the confinement time drops by the same factor of 10 because the particles have less distance to go before they escape. At the same time the density, which is the cube of the dimensions, increases by 1,000 times. This means the overall rate of fusion increases 1,000 times while the confinement drops by 10 times, a 100-fold improvement. In this case 10% of the fuel undergoes fusion; 10% of 1mg of fuel will produce about 30MJ of energy, 30 times that of the energy needed to compress it to that density.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The other key concept in ICF is that the entire fuel mass does not have to be raised to 100 million K. Recall that in a fusion bomb the reaction continues because the alpha particles released in the interior heat the fuel around it. At liquid density the alphas will travel about 10mm and thus their energy will escape the 1mm fuel. In the 0.1mm compressed fuel, the alphas will have a range of about 0.016mm, meaning that they will stop within the fuel and heat it. In this case a \"propagating burn\" can be caused by heating only the center of the fuel to the needed temperature. This requires far less energy; calculations suggested 1kJ would be enough to reach the compression goal alone.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some method would be needed to heat the interior to fusion temperatures, and do so at the right time when the fuel was compressed and the density was high enough. In modern ICF devices, the density of the resulting fuel mixture is as much as one-thousand times the density of water, or one-hundred times that of lead, around 1000 g/cm3. Much of the work since the 1970s has been on ways to create the central hot-spot that starts off the burning, and dealing with the many practical problems that cropped up while trying to reach the desired densities.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Early calculations suggested that the amount of energy needed to start the propagating burn would be very small; only a tiny amount of fuel had to be raised to the required temperature. This has proven difficult and new methods have emerged in an effort to make this process more efficient.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The initial solution to the heating problem involved the careful \"shaping\" of the energy delivery. The idea was to use an initial lower-energy pulse to vaporize the capsule and cause compression, and then a very short, very powerful pulse near the end of the compression cycle. The goal is to launch a shock wave into the compressed fuel that travels inward to the center. When it reaches the center it meets the same wave travelling in from the other sides. This causes a brief period where the density in the center reaches much higher values, over 800g/cm3.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 146253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 302, 312 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Known as \"central hot spot ignition\", the concept was the first to suggest ICF was not only a practical route to fusion, but relatively simple. This led to numerous efforts to build working systems in the early 1970s. These experiments revealed a number of unexpected loss mechanisms. Early calculations suggested about 4.5x107J/g would be needed, but modern calculations place it closer to 108J/g. Further control of the process on modern machines has led to complex shaping of the pulse into multiple sections in time.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the \"fast ignition\" approach, a separate laser is used to provide the additional energy directly to the center of the fuel. This can be arranged through mechanical means, often using a small metal cone that punctures the outer fuel pellet wall to allow the laser light access to the center. In tests, this approach has failed as the pulse of light has to reach the center at a precise time, when it is obscured by the debris and especially free electrons from the compression pulse. It also has the disadvantage of requiring a second laser pulse, which generally demands a completely separate laser.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Shock ignition\" is similar in concept to the hot-spot technique, but instead of ignition being achieved via compression heating of the hotspot, a final powerful, shock is sent into the fuel at a late time to trigger ignition through a combination of compression and shock heating. This increases the efficiency of the process with an eye to lowering the overall amount of power required.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the simplest conception of the ICF approach, the fuel is arranged as a sphere. This allows it to be pushed inward from all sides. To produce the inward force, the fuel is placed within a thin shell that captures the energy from the driver and explode outward. In practice, the capsules are normally made of a lightweight plastic and the fuel is deposited as a layer on the inside by injecting a gas into the shell and then freezing it.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The idea of having the driver shine directly on the fuel is known as \"direct drive\". In order for the fusion fuel to reach the required conditions, the implosion process must be extremely uniform in order to avoid significant asymmetry due to Rayleigh–Taylor instability and similar effects. For beam energy of 1 MJ, the fuel capsule cannot be larger than about 2mm before these effects destroy the implosion symmetry. This limits the size of the beams, which may be difficult to achieve in practice.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 1749848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 243, 270 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This has led to an alternative concept, \"indirect drive\", where the beam does not shine on the fuel capsule directly. Instead, it shines into a small cylinder of heavy metal, often gold or lead, known as a \"hohlraum\". The beams are arranged so they do not hit the fuel capsule suspended in the center. The energy heats the hohlraum until it begins to give off X-rays. These X-rays fill the interior of the hohlraum and heat the capsule. The advantage of this approach is that the beams can be larger and less accurate, which greatly eases driver design. The disadvantage is that much of the delivered energy is used to heat the hohlraum until it is \"X-ray hot\", so the end-to-end efficiency is much lower than the direct drive concept.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 12240, 17747, 3031620, 34197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 181, 185 ], [ 189, 193 ], [ 323, 331 ], [ 360, 365 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The primary problems with increasing ICF performance are energy delivery to the target, controlling symmetry of the imploding fuel, preventing premature heating of the fuel before sufficient density is achieved, preventing premature mixing of hot and cool fuel by hydrodynamic instabilities, and the formation of a 'tight' shockwave convergence at the fuel center.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 11034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 264, 276 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In order to focus the shock wave on the center of the target, the target must be made with great precision and sphericity with aberrations of no more than a few micrometres over its (inner and outer) surface. Likewise the aiming of the laser beams must be precise in space and time. Beam timing is relatively simple and is solved by using delay lines in the beams' optical path to achieve picosecond timing accuracy. The other major problem plaguing the achievement of high symmetry and high temperatures/densities of the imploding target are so called \"beam-beam\" imbalance and beam anisotropy. These problems are, respectively, where the energy delivered by one beam may be higher or lower than other beams impinging on the target and of \"hot spots\" within a beam diameter hitting a target which induces uneven compression on the target surface, thereby forming Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities in the fuel, prematurely mixing it and reducing heating efficacy at the time of maximum compression. The Richtmyer-Meshkov instability is also formed during the process due to shock waves.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 2628049, 20627, 6993227, 77700, 1264, 1749848, 7314249 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 121 ], [ 161, 172 ], [ 339, 349 ], [ 389, 399 ], [ 584, 594 ], [ 864, 893 ], [ 999, 1028 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All of these problems have been significantly mitigated by beam smoothing techniques and beam energy diagnostics to balance beam to beam energy; however, RT instability remains a major issue. Target design has improved tremendously. Modern cryogenic hydrogen ice targets tend to freeze a thin layer of deuterium on the inside of the shell while irradiating it with a low power IR laser to smooth its inner surface and monitoring it with a microscope equipped camera, thereby allowing the layer to be closely monitored ensuring its \"smoothness\". Cryogenic targets filled with D-T are \"self-smoothing\" due to the small amount of heat created by tritium decay. This is often referred to as \"beta-layering\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 7176, 15022, 19568, 52648, 37872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 240, 249 ], [ 377, 379 ], [ 439, 449 ], [ 459, 465 ], [ 688, 692 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the indirect drive approach the absorption of thermal x-rays by the target is more efficient than the direct absorption of laser light, however the hohlraums take up considerable energy to heat, significantly reducing the energy transfer efficiency. Most often, indirect drive hohlraum targets are used to simulate thermonuclear weapons tests due to the fact that the fusion fuel in them is also imploded mainly by X-ray radiation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 21785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 318, 339 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A variety of ICF drivers are evolving. Lasers have improved dramatically, scaling up from a few joules and kilowatts to megajoules and hundreds of terawatts, using mostly frequency doubled or tripled light from neodymium glass amplifiers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 16327, 21723, 21276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 101 ], [ 171, 205 ], [ 211, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Heavy ion beams are particularly interesting for commercial generation, as they are easy to create, control, and focus. However, it is difficult to achieve the energy densities required to implode a target efficiently, and most ion-beam systems require the use of a hohlraum surrounding the target to smooth out the irradiation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "IFC history began as part of the \"Atoms For Peace\" conference in 1957. This was a large, international UN sponsored conference between the superpowers of the US and the Soviet Union. Some thought was given to using a hydrogen bomb to heat a water-filled cavern. The resulting steam would then be used to power conventional generators, and thereby provide electrical power.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1811772, 26779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 49 ], [ 169, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This meeting led to the Operation Plowshare efforts, formed in June 1957 and formally named in 1961. Three primary concepts were part of Plowshare; energy generation under Project PACER, the use of nuclear explosions for excavation, and for fracking in the natural gas industry. PACER was directly tested in December 1961 when the 3kt Project Gnome device was detonated in bedded salt in New Mexico. While the press looked on, radioactive steam was released from the drill shaft, at some distance from the test site. Further studies led to engineered cavities replacing natural ones, but the Plowshare efforts turned from bad to worse, especially after the failure of 1962's Sedan which produced significant fallout. PACER continued to receive funding until 1975, when a 3rd party study demonstrated that the cost of electricity from PACER would be ten times the cost conventional nuclear plants.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 253892, 32544339, 22131, 7944158, 1599683, 53683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 43 ], [ 241, 249 ], [ 257, 268 ], [ 335, 348 ], [ 675, 680 ], [ 708, 715 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another outcome of the \"Atoms For Peace\" conference was to prompt Nuckolls to consider what happens on the fusion side of the bomb as the fuel mass is reduced. This work suggested that at very small sizes, on the order of milligrams, very little energy would be needed to ignite it, much less than a fission primary. He proposed building, in effect, tiny all-fusion explosives using a tiny drop of D-T fuel suspended in the center of a hohlraum. The shell provided the same effect as the bomb casing in an H-bomb, trapping x-rays inside to irradiate the fuel. The main difference is that the X-rays would not be supplied by a fission bomb, but by some sort of external device that heated the shell from the outside until it was glowing in the x-ray region. The power would be delivered by a then-unidentified pulsed power source he referred to, using bomb terminology, the \"primary\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The main advantage to this scheme is the efficiency of the fusion process at high densities. According to the Lawson criterion, the amount of energy needed to heat the D-T fuel to break-even conditions at ambient pressure is perhaps 100 times greater than the energy needed to compress it to a pressure that would deliver the same rate of fusion. So, in theory, the ICF approach could offer dramatically more gain. This can be understood by considering the energy losses in a conventional scenario where the fuel is slowly heated, as in the case of magnetic fusion energy; the rate of energy loss to the environment is based on the temperature difference between the fuel and its surroundings, which continues to increase as the fuel temperature increases. In the ICF case, the entire hohlraum is filled with high-temperature radiation, limiting losses.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1690634 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 549, 571 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1956 a meeting was organized at the Max Planck Institute in Germany by fusion pioneer Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker. At this meeting Friedwardt Winterberg proposed the non-fission ignition of a thermonuclear micro-explosion by a convergent shock wave driven with high explosives. Further reference to Winterberg's work in Germany on nuclear micro explosions (mininukes) is contained in a declassified report of the former East German Stasi (Staatsicherheitsdienst).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 614753, 1306229, 4088563, 29452 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 59 ], [ 89, 118 ], [ 136, 157 ], [ 437, 442 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1964 Winterberg proposed that ignition could be achieved by an intense beam of microparticles accelerated to a velocity of 1000km/s. And in 1968, he proposed to use intense electron and ion beams, generated by Marx generators, for the same purpose. The advantage of this proposal is that the generation of charged particle beams is not only less expensive than the generation of laser beams but can entrap the charged fusion reaction products due to the strong self-magnetic beam field, drastically reducing the compression requirements for beam ignited cylindrical targets.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1102240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 213, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1967, research fellow Gurgen Askaryan published an article proposing the use of focused laser beams in the fusion of lithium deuteride or deuterium.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7332276, 2196648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 40 ], [ 120, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Through the late 1950s, Nuckolls and collaborators at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) completed computer simulations of the ICF concept. In early 1960, they performed a full simulation of the implosion of 1mg of D-T fuel inside a dense shell. The simulation suggested that a 5 MJ power input to the hohlraum would produce 50 MJ of fusion output, a gain of 10x. This was before the laser and a variety of other possible drivers were considered, including pulsed power machines, charged particle accelerators, plasma guns, and hypervelocity pellet guns.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 39039 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two theoretical advances advanced the field. One came from new simulations that considered the timing of the energy delivered in the pulse, known as \"pulse shaping\", leading to better implosion. The second was to make the shell much larger and thinner, forming a thin shell as opposed to an almost solid ball. These two changes dramatically increased implosion efficiency and thereby greatly lowered the required compression energy. Using these improvements, it was calculated that a driver of about 1 MJ would be needed, a five-fold reduction. Over the next two years, other theoretical advancements were proposed, notably Ray Kidder's development of an implosion system without a hohlraum, the so-called \"direct drive\" approach, and Stirling Colgate and Ron Zabawski's work on systems with as little as 1 μg of D-T fuel.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4563047, 7388812 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 624, 634 ], [ 735, 751 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The introduction of the laser in 1960 at Hughes Research Laboratories in California appeared to present a perfect driver mechanism. Starting in 1962, Livermore's director John S. Foster, Jr. and Edward Teller began a small ICF laser study. Even at this early stage the suitability of ICF for weapons research was well understood and was the primary reason for its funding. Over the next decade, LLNL made small experimental devices for basic laser-plasma interaction studies.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 350169, 34148708, 37782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 69 ], [ 171, 190 ], [ 195, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1967 Kip Siegel started KMS Industries. In the early 1970s he formed KMS Fusion to begin development of a laser-based ICF system. This development led to considerable opposition from the weapons labs, including LLNL, who put forth a variety of reasons that KMS should not be allowed to develop ICF in public. This opposition was funnelled through the Atomic Energy Commission, which demanded funding. Adding to the background noise were rumours of an aggressive Soviet ICF program, new higher-powered CO2 and glass lasers, the electron beam driver concept, and the energy crisis which added impetus to many energy projects.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4913195, 41376642, 51718, 24926282 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 18 ], [ 72, 82 ], [ 354, 378 ], [ 568, 581 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1972 Nuckolls wrote a paper introducing ICF and suggesting that testbed systems could be made to generate fusion with drivers in the kJ range, and high-gain systems with MJ drivers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In spite of limited resources and business problems, KMS Fusion successfully demonstrated fusion from the ICF process on 1 May 1974. However, this success was soon followed by Siegel's death, and the end of KMS fusion about a year later. By this point several weapons labs and universities had started their own programs, notably the solid-state lasers (glass lasers) at LLNL and the University of Rochester, and krypton fluoride excimer lasers systems at Los Alamos and the Naval Research Laboratory.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3184580, 408243, 31918, 2238022, 581704, 38145, 411893 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 334, 351 ], [ 354, 365 ], [ 384, 407 ], [ 413, 429 ], [ 430, 443 ], [ 456, 466 ], [ 475, 500 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "High-energy ICF experiments (multi-hundred joules per shot) began in the early 1970s, when better lasers appeared. Nevertheless, funding for fusion research stimulated by energy crises produced rapid gains in performance, and inertial designs were soon reaching the same sort of \"below break-even\" conditions of the best magnetic systems.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 261316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 171, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "LLNL was, in particular, well funded and started a laser fusion development program. Their Janus laser started operation in 1974, and validated the approach of using Nd:glass lasers for high power devices. Focusing problems were explored in the Long path and Cyclops lasers, which led to the larger Argus laser. None of these were intended to be practical devices, but they increased confidence that the approach was valid. At the time it was believed that making a much larger device of the Cyclops type could both compress and heat targets, leading to ignition. This misconception was based on extrapolation of the fusion yields seen from experiments utilizing the so-called \"exploding pusher\" fuel capsule. During the late 1970s and early 1980s the estimates for laser energy on target needed to achieve ignition doubled almost yearly as plasma instabilities and laser-plasma energy coupling loss modes were increasingly understood. The realization that exploding pusher target designs and single-digit kilojoule (kJ) laser irradiation intensities would never scale to high yields led to the effort to increase laser energies to the 100 kJ level in the UV band and to the production of advanced ablator and cryogenic DT ice target designs.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7266999, 7362109, 7243928, 7229349 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 102 ], [ 245, 254 ], [ 259, 272 ], [ 299, 310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the earliest large scale attempts at an ICF driver design was the Shiva laser, a 20-beam neodymium doped glass laser system at LLNL that started operation in 1978. Shiva was a \"proof of concept\" design intended to demonstrate compression of fusion fuel capsules to many times the liquid density of hydrogen. In this, Shiva succeeded and compressed its pellets to 100 times the liquid density of deuterium. However, due to the laser's strong coupling with hot electrons, premature heating of the dense plasma (ions) was problematic and fusion yields were low. This failure by Shiva to efficiently heat the compressed plasma pointed to the use of optical frequency multipliers as a solution that would frequency triple the infrared light from the laser into the ultraviolet at 351nm. Newly discovered schemes to efficiently triple the frequency of high intensity laser light discovered at the Laboratory for Laser Energetics in 1980 enabled this method of target irradiation to be experimented with in the 24 beam OMEGA laser and the NOVETTE laser, which was followed by the Nova laser design with 10 times the energy of Shiva, the first design with the specific goal of reaching ignition conditions.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2699552, 3600345, 810260, 7299171, 2700382 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 84 ], [ 652, 680 ], [ 898, 929 ], [ 1039, 1052 ], [ 1080, 1090 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nova also failed, this time due to severe variation in laser intensity in its beams (and differences in intensity between beams) caused by filamentation that resulted in large non-uniformity in irradiation smoothness at the target and asymmetric implosion. The techniques pioneered earlier could not address these new issues. This failure led to a much greater understanding of the process of implosion, and the way forward again seemed clear, namely the increase in uniformity of irradiation, the reduction of hot-spots in the laser beams through beam smoothing techniques to reduce Rayleigh–Taylor instabilities imprinting on the target and increased laser energy on target by at least an order of magnitude. Funding for fusion research was severely constrained in the 1980s.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The resulting design, dubbed the National Ignition Facility, started construction at LLNL in 1997. NIF's main objective is to operate as the flagship experimental device of the so-called nuclear stewardship program, supporting LLNLs traditional bomb-making role. Completed in March 2009, NIF has now conducted experiments using all 192 beams, including experiments that set new records for power delivery by a laser. As of October 7, 2013, for the first time a fuel capsule gave off more energy than was applied to it. In June, 2018 the NIF announced attainment of a record production of 54kJ of fusion energy output. On August 8, 2021 the NIF made a significant advancement in production of 1.3MJ of fusion energy output, 25x higher than the 2018 result, generating 70% of the break-even definition of ignition - when energy out equals energy in.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 337301, 998037 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 59 ], [ 187, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The concept of \"fast ignition\" may offer a way to directly heat fuel after compression, thus decoupling the heating and compression phases of the implosion. In this approach the target is first compressed \"normally\" using a laser system. When the implosion reaches maximum density (at the stagnation point or \"bang time\"), a second ultra-short pulse ultra-high power petawatt (PW) laser delivers a single pulse focused on one side of the core, dramatically heating it and starting ignition.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21347693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 367, 375 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The two types of fast ignition are the \"plasma bore-through\" method and the \"cone-in-shell\" method. In plasma bore-through, the second laser is expected to bore straight through the outer plasma of an imploding capsule and to impinge on and heat the dense core. In the cone-in-shell method, the capsule is mounted on the end of a small high-z (high atomic number) cone such that the tip of the cone projects into the core of the capsule. In this second method, when the capsule is imploded, the laser has a clear view straight to the high density core and does not have to waste energy boring through a 'corona' plasma. However, the presence of the cone affects the implosion process in significant ways that are not fully understood. Several projects are currently underway to explore the fast ignition approach, including upgrades to the OMEGA laser at the University of Rochester, the GEKKO XII device in Japan.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 673, 810260, 7299346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 349, 362 ], [ 840, 851 ], [ 888, 897 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "HiPer is a proposed £500 million facility in the European Union. Compared to NIF's 2MJ UV beams, HiPER's driver was planned to be 200kJ and heater 70kJ, although the predicted fusion gains are higher than NIF. It was to employ diode lasers, which convert electricity into laser light with much higher efficiency and run cooler. This allows them to be operated at much higher frequencies. HiPER proposed to operate at 1 MJ at 1Hz, or alternately 100 kJ at 10Hz. The project last produced an update in 2014.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7401066, 9317, 142258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 49, 63 ], [ 227, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It was expected to offer a higher Q with a 10x reduction in construction costs times.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The French Laser Mégajoule achieved its first experimental line in 2002, and its first target shots were conducted in 2014. The machine was roughly 75% complete as of 2016.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6992339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Using a different approach entirely is the z-pinch device. Z-pinch uses massive electric currents switched into a cylinder comprising extremely fine wires. The wires vaporize to form an electrically conductive, high current plasma. The resulting circumferential magnetic field squeezes the plasma cylinder, imploding it, generating a high-power x-ray pulse that can be used to implode a fuel capsule. Challenges to this approach include relatively low drive temperatures, resulting in slow implosion velocities and potentially large instability growth, and preheat caused by high-energy x-rays.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1019222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shock ignition was proposed to address problems with fast ignition. Japan developed the KOYO-F design and laser inertial fusion test (LIFT) experimental reactor. In April 2017, clean energy startup Apollo Fusion began to develop a hybrid fusion-fission reactor technology.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Germany, technology company Marvel Fusion develops a novel quantum-enhanced approach to laser-initiated inertial confinement fusion. The startup adopted a short-pulsed high energy laser and the aneutronic fuel pB11. Founded in Munich 2019, Marvel Fusion aims to build and operate commercial fusion power plants in the range of 1 to 3 GW by 2030.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1631015, 1631015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 197, 207 ], [ 213, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March 2022, Australian company HB11 announced successful fusion using non-thermal laser fusion of hydrogen and boron-11, at a notably higher than predicted rate of alpha particle creation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Practical power plants built using ICF have been studied since the late 1970s; they are known as inertial fusion energy (IFE) plants. These devices would deliver several targets/second to the reaction chamber, and capture the resulting heat and neutron radiation from their implosion and fusion to drive a conventional steam turbine.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "As an energy source", "target_page_ids": [ 29374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 319, 332 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Even if the many technical challenges in reaching ignition were all to be solved, practical problems seem just as difficult to overcome. Laser-driven systems were initially believed to be able to generate commercially useful amounts of energy. However, as estimates of the energy required to reach ignition grew dramatically during the 1970s, these hopes were abandoned. Given the low efficiency of the laser amplification process, about 1 to 1.5%, and the losses in generation, steam-driven turbine systems are typically about 35% efficient, fusion gains would have to be on the order of 125 just to energetically break even.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "As an energy source", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fast ignition and similar approaches changed the situation. In this approach gains of 100 are predicted in the first experimental device, HiPER. Given a gain of about 100 and a laser efficiency of about 1%, HiPER produces about the same amount of fusion energy as electrical energy was needed to create it (and thus will require more gain to produce electricity after considering losses). It also appears that an order of magnitude improvement in laser efficiency may be possible through the use of newer designs that replace flash lamps with laser diodes that are tuned to produce most of their energy in a frequency range that is strongly absorbed. Initial experimental devices offer efficiencies of about 10%, and it is suggested that 20% is possible.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "As an energy source", "target_page_ids": [ 142258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 543, 554 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With \"classical\" devices like NIF about 330MJ of electrical power are used to produce the driver beams, producing an expected yield of about 20MJ, with maximum credible yield of 45MJ. HiPER requires about 270kJ of laser energy, so assuming a first-generation diode laser driver at 10% the reactor would require about 3MJ of electrical power. This is expected to produce about 30MJ of fusion power. Even a poor conversion to electrical energy appears to offer real-world power output, and incremental improvements in yield and laser efficiency appear to be able to offer a commercially useful output.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "As an energy source", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "ICF systems face some of the same secondary power extraction problems as magnetic systems in generating useful power. One of the primary concerns is how to successfully remove heat from the reaction chamber without interfering with the targets and driver beams. Another concern is that the released neutrons react with the reactor structure, causing it to become intensely radioactive, as well as mechanically weakening metals. Fusion plants built of conventional metals like steel would have a fairly short lifetime and the core containment vessels would have to be replaced frequently. Yet another concern is fusion afterdamp: debris left in the reaction chamber which could interfere with following shots. The most obvious such debris is the helium ash produced by fusion, but also unburned hydrogen fuel and other non-fusible elements used in the composition of the fuel pellet. Obviously this potential problem is most troublesome with indirect drive systems with metal hohlraums. There is also the possibility of the driver energy not completely hitting the fuel pellet and striking the containment chamber, sputtering material that could foul the interaction region, or the lenses or focusing elements of the driver.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "As an energy source", "target_page_ids": [ 21272, 27058, 1338507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 299, 306 ], [ 476, 481 ], [ 618, 627 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One concept in dealing with these problems, as shown in the HYLIFE-II design, is to use a \"waterfall\" of FLiBe, a molten mix of fluoride salts of lithium and beryllium, which both protect the chamber from neutrons and carry away heat. The FLiBe is then passed into a heat exchanger where it heats water for use in the turbines. The tritium produced by splitting lithium nuclei can be extracted in order to close the power plant's thermonuclear fuel cycle, a necessity for perpetual operation because tritium is rare and must be manufactured. Another concept, Sombrero, uses a reaction chamber built of carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer which has a low neutron cross section. Cooling is provided by a molten ceramic, chosen because of its ability to absorb the neutrons and its efficiency as a heat transfer agent.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "As an energy source", "target_page_ids": [ 24312061, 155650, 17561, 3378, 153221, 23809352, 7480 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 110 ], [ 128, 136 ], [ 146, 153 ], [ 158, 167 ], [ 267, 281 ], [ 602, 633 ], [ 658, 671 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another factor working against IFE is the cost of the fuel. Even as Nuckolls was developing his earliest calculations, co-workers pointed out that if an IFE machine produces 50 MJ of fusion energy, one might expect that a shot could produce perhaps 10 MJ of power for export. Converted to better known units, this is the equivalent of 2.8 kWh of electrical power. Wholesale rates for electrical power on the grid were about 0.3 cents/kWh at the time, which meant the monetary value of the shot was perhaps one cent. In the intervening 50 years the price of power has remained about even with the rate of inflation, and the rate in 2012 in Ontario, Canada was about 2.8 cents/kWh.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "As an energy source", "target_page_ids": [ 22218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 639, 654 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thus, in order for an IFE plant to be economically viable, fuel shots would have to cost considerably less than ten cents in year 2012 dollars.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "As an energy source", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Direct-drive systems avoid the use of a hohlraum and thereby may be less expensive in fuel terms. However, these systems still require an ablator, and the accuracy and geometrical considerations are critical. The direct-drive approach still may not be less expensive to operate.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "As an energy source", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The very hot and dense conditions encountered during an ICF experiment are similar to those created in a thermonuclear weapon, and have applications to nuclear weapons programs. ICF experiments might be used, for example, to help determine how warhead performance will degrade as it ages, or as part of a program of designing new weapons. Retaining knowledge and expertise inside the nuclear weapons program is another motivation for pursuing ICF. Funding for the NIF in the United States is sourced from the 'Nuclear Weapons Stockpile Stewardship' program, and the goals of the program are oriented accordingly. It has been argued that some aspects of ICF research may violate the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty or the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. In the long term, despite the formidable technical hurdles, ICF research could lead to the creation of a \"pure fusion weapon\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Nuclear weapons program", "target_page_ids": [ 7851, 22107, 2915617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 682, 711 ], [ 719, 751 ], [ 859, 877 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Inertial confinement fusion has the potential to produce orders of magnitude more neutrons than spallation. Neutrons are capable of locating hydrogen atoms in molecules, resolving atomic thermal motion and studying collective excitations of photons more effectively than X-rays. Neutron scattering studies of molecular structures could resolve problems associated with protein folding, diffusion through membranes, proton transfer mechanisms, dynamics of molecular motors, etc. by modulating thermal neutrons into beams of slow neutrons. In combination with fissile materials, neutrons produced by ICF can potentially be used in Hybrid Nuclear Fusion designs to produce electric power.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Neutron source", "target_page_ids": [ 1220790, 1042053, 52085, 11712, 92441, 2765047, 3770784, 20766780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 106 ], [ 279, 297 ], [ 369, 384 ], [ 386, 413 ], [ 415, 441 ], [ 455, 470 ], [ 492, 508 ], [ 629, 650 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magneto-inertial fusion", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 35461390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnetized target fusion (MTF)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15743956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnetic confinement fusion", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1690634 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Antimatter catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 142390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Laboratory for Laser Energetics", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 810260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Leonardo Mascheroni, who proposed using hydrogen fluoride lasers to achieve fusion.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28865880, 3099929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 41, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bubble fusion, a phenomenon claimed– controversially– to provide an acoustic form of inertial confinement fusion.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 42739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of laser articles", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 34620288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of plasma physics articles", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 33820413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pulsed power", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1517190 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Laser Mégajoule", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6992339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dense Plasma Focus", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2744989 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Proton-boron fusion", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1631015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Ignition Facility Project", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Zpinch Home Page", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Europe plans laser-fusion facility (Physicsweb)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Lasers point the way to clean energy (The Guardian)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "National Laser Fusion Energy Development Plan", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Institute of Laser Engineering Osaka University", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Laser Inertial-Confinement Fusion-Fission Energy", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Heavy Ion Fusion", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Inertial_confinement_fusion", "Lawrence_Livermore_National_Laboratory" ]

[ "laser fusion" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Quadratic programming (QP) is the process of solving certain mathematical optimization problems involving quadratic functions. Specifically, one seeks to optimize (minimize or maximize) a multivariate quadratic function subject to linear constraints on the variables. Quadratic programming is a type of nonlinear programming.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 52033, 1126536, 187240, 4171950, 679709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 86 ], [ 87, 95 ], [ 106, 124 ], [ 238, 249 ], [ 303, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Programming\" in this context refers to a formal procedure for solving mathematical problems. This usage dates to the 1940s and is not specifically tied to the more recent notion of \"computer programming.\" To avoid confusion, some practitioners prefer the term \"optimization\" — e.g., \"quadratic optimization.\"", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The quadratic programming problem with variables and constraints can be formulated as follows.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Problem formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Given:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Problem formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " a real-valued, -dimensional vector ,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Problem formulation", "target_page_ids": [ 20646438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " an -dimensional real symmetric matrix ,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Problem formulation", "target_page_ids": [ 126474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " an -dimensional real matrix , and", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Problem formulation", "target_page_ids": [ 20556859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " an -dimensional real vector ,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Problem formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "the objective of quadratic programming is to find an -dimensional vector , that will", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Problem formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "{| cellspacing=\"10\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Problem formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Problem formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| minimize", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Problem formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Problem formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Problem formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| subject to", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Problem formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Problem formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|}", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Problem formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where denotes the vector transpose of , and the notation means that every entry of the vector is less than or equal to the corresponding entry of the vector (component-wise inequality).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Problem formulation", "target_page_ids": [ 173844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a special case when Q is symmetric positive-definite, the cost function reduces to least squares:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Problem formulation", "target_page_ids": [ 40326 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "{| cellspacing=\"10\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Problem formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Problem formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| minimize", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Problem formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Problem formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Problem formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| subject to", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Problem formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Problem formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|}", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Problem formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where follows from the Cholesky decomposition of and . Conversely, any such constrained least squares program can be equivalently framed as a QP, even for generic non-square matrix.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Problem formulation", "target_page_ids": [ 134433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When minimizing a function in the neighborhood of some reference point , is set to its Hessian matrix and is set to its gradient . A related programming problem, quadratically constrained quadratic programming, can be posed by adding quadratic constraints on the variables.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Problem formulation", "target_page_ids": [ 412108, 12461, 9519121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 103 ], [ 124, 132 ], [ 166, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For general problems a variety of methods are commonly used, including", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solution methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "interior point,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solution methods", "target_page_ids": [ 1622862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "active set,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solution methods", "target_page_ids": [ 1560090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "augmented Lagrangian,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solution methods", "target_page_ids": [ 30898832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "conjugate gradient,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solution methods", "target_page_ids": [ 1448821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "gradient projection,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solution methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "extensions of the simplex algorithm.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solution methods", "target_page_ids": [ 349458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the case in which is positive definite, the problem is a special case of the more general field of convex optimization.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solution methods", "target_page_ids": [ 40326, 1674411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 42 ], [ 103, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Quadratic programming is particularly simple when is positive definite and there are only equality constraints; specifically, the solution process is linear. By using Lagrange multipliers and seeking the extremum of the Lagrangian, it may be readily shown that the solution to the equality constrained problem", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solution methods", "target_page_ids": [ 40326, 159974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 71 ], [ 168, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "is given by the linear system", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solution methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is a set of Lagrange multipliers which come out of the solution alongside .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solution methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The easiest means of approaching this system is direct solution (for example, LU factorization), which for small problems is very practical. For large problems, the system poses some unusual difficulties, most notably that the problem is never positive definite (even if is), making it potentially very difficult to find a good numeric approach, and there are many approaches to choose from dependent on the problem.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solution methods", "target_page_ids": [ 6243993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If the constraints don't couple the variables too tightly, a relatively simple attack is to change the variables so that constraints are unconditionally satisfied. For example, suppose (generalizing to nonzero is straightforward). Looking at the constraint equations:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solution methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "introduce a new variable defined by", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solution methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where has dimension of minus the number of constraints. Then", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solution methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and if is chosen so that the constraint equation will be always satisfied. Finding such entails finding the null space of , which is more or less simple depending on the structure of . Substituting into the quadratic form gives an unconstrained minimization problem:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solution methods", "target_page_ids": [ 1072915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "the solution of which is given by:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solution methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Under certain conditions on , the reduced matrix will be positive definite. It is possible to write a variation on the conjugate gradient method which avoids the explicit calculation of .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solution methods", "target_page_ids": [ 1448821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Lagrangian dual of a QP is also a QP. To see this let us focus on the case where and is positive definite. We write the Lagrangian function as ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Lagrangian duality", "target_page_ids": [ 3372717, 159974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 19 ], [ 126, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Defining the (Lagrangian) dual function as , we find an infimum of , using and positive-definiteness of :", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Lagrangian duality", "target_page_ids": [ 39382 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hence the dual function is ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Lagrangian duality", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and so the Lagrangian dual of the QP is", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Lagrangian duality", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Besides the Lagrangian duality theory, there are other duality pairings (e.g. Wolfe, etc.).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Lagrangian duality", "target_page_ids": [ 35887365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For positive definite , the ellipsoid method solves the problem in (weakly) polynomial time. If, on the other hand, is indefinite, then the problem is NP-hard. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Complexity", "target_page_ids": [ 40326, 4331203, 405944, 54681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ], [ 28, 44 ], [ 76, 91 ], [ 153, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There can be several stationary points and local minima for these non-convex problems. In fact, even if has only one negative eigenvalue, the problem is (strongly) NP-hard.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Complexity", "target_page_ids": [ 2161429, 54681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 137 ], [ 165, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are some situations where one or more elements of the vector will need to take on integer values. This leads to the formulation of a mixed-integer quadratic programming (MIQP) problem. Applications of MIQP include water resources and the construction of index funds.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Integer constraints", "target_page_ids": [ 14563, 18581463, 3462036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 96 ], [ 221, 236 ], [ 245, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sequential quadratic programming", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7415899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Linear programming", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 43730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Critical line method", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26394220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A6: MP2, pg.245.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A page about QP", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "NEOS Optimization Guide: Quadratic Programming", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Quadratic Programming", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Optimization_algorithms_and_methods" ]

[ "Quadratic programming, QP" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In mathematics, positive semidefinite may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Positive semidefinite function", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 649616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Positive semidefinite matrix", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 40326 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Positive semidefinite quadratic form", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20437320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Positive semidefinite bilinear form", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20437320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In mathematics, a symmetric matrix with real entries is positive-definite if the real number is positive for every nonzero real column vector where is the transpose of More generally, a Hermitian matrix (that is, a complex matrix equal to its conjugate transpose) is", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18831, 126474, 20646438, 149968, 173844, 189682, 20556859, 217548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ], [ 18, 34 ], [ 41, 45 ], [ 131, 144 ], [ 160, 169 ], [ 192, 208 ], [ 221, 235 ], [ 249, 268 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "positive-definite if the real number is positive for every nonzero complex column vector where denotes the conjugate transpose of ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Positive semi-definite matrices are defined similarly, except that the scalars and are required to be positive or zero (that is, nonnegative). Negative-definite and negative semi-definite matrices are defined analogously. A matrix that is not positive semi-definite and not negative semi-definite is sometimes called indefinite.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A matrix is thus positive-definite if and only if it is the matrix of a positive-definite quadratic form or Hermitian form. In other words, a matrix is positive-definite if and only if it defines an inner product.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20437320, 860138, 14856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 104 ], [ 108, 122 ], [ 199, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Positive-definite and positive-semidefinite matrices can be characterized in many ways, which may explain the importance of the concept in various parts of mathematics. A matrix is positive-definite if and only if it satisfies any of the following equivalent conditions.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " is congruent with a diagonal matrix with positive real entries. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2383040, 174080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 14 ], [ 22, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " is symmetric or Hermitian, and all its eigenvalues are real and positive.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2161429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " is symmetric or Hermitian, and all its leading principal minors are positive.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 262107 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " There exists an invertible matrix with conjugate transpose such that ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 217122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A matrix is positive semi-definite if it satisfies similar equivalent conditions where \"positive\" is replaced by \"nonnegative\", \"invertible matrix\" is replaced by \"matrix\", and the word \"leading\" is removed.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Positive-definite and positive-semidefinite real matrices are at the basis of convex optimization, since, given a function of several real variables that is twice differentiable, then if its Hessian matrix (matrix of its second partial derivatives) is positive-definite at a point , then the function is convex near , and, conversely, if the function is convex near , then the Hessian matrix is positive-semidefinite at .", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1674411, 39783039, 330206, 412108, 245568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 97 ], [ 114, 148 ], [ 163, 177 ], [ 191, 205 ], [ 305, 311 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some authors use more general definitions of definiteness, including some non-symmetric real matrices, or non-Hermitian complex ones.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the following definitions, is the transpose of , is the conjugate transpose of and denotes the n-dimensional zero-vector.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 217548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An symmetric real matrix is said to be positive-definite if for all non-zero in . Formally,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An symmetric real matrix is said to be positive-semidefinite or non-negative-definite if for all in . Formally,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An symmetric real matrix is said to be negative-definite if for all non-zero in . Formally,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An symmetric real matrix is said to be negative-semidefinite or non-positive-definite if for all in . Formally,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An symmetric real matrix which is neither positive semidefinite nor negative semidefinite is called indefinite.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The following definitions all involve the term . Notice that this is always a real number for any Hermitian square matrix .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An Hermitian complex matrix is said to be positive-definite if for all non-zero in . Formally,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An Hermitian complex matrix is said to be positive semi-definite or non-negative-definite if for all in . Formally,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An Hermitian complex matrix is said to be negative-definite if for all non-zero in . Formally,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An Hermitian complex matrix is said to be negative semi-definite or non-positive-definite if for all in . Formally,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An Hermitian complex matrix which is neither positive semidefinite nor negative semidefinite is called indefinite.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since every real matrix is also a complex matrix, the definitions of \"definiteness\" for the two classes must agree.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For complex matrices, the most common definition says that \" is positive-definite if and only if is real and positive for all non-zero complex column vectors \". This condition implies that is Hermitian (i.e. its transpose is equal to its conjugate). To see this, consider the matrices and , so that and . The matrices and are Hermitian, therefore and are individually real. If is real, then must be zero for all . Then is the zero matrix and , proving that is Hermitian.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By this definition, a positive-definite real matrix is Hermitian, hence symmetric; and is positive for all non-zero real column vectors . However the last condition alone is not sufficient for to be positive-definite. For example, if", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "then for any real vector with entries and we have , which is always positive if is not zero. However, if is the complex vector with entries and , one gets", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "which is not real. Therefore, is not positive-definite.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On the other hand, for a symmetric real matrix , the condition \" for all nonzero real vectors \" does imply that is positive-definite in the complex sense.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If a Hermitian matrix is positive semi-definite, one sometimes writes and if is positive-definite one writes . To denote that is negative semi-definite one writes and to denote that is negative-definite one writes .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The notion comes from functional analysis where positive semidefinite matrices define positive operators. If two matrices and satisfy , we can define a non-strict partial order that is reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive; It is not a total order, however, as in general may be indefinite.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 11180, 454936, 23572, 200458, 1176, 200463, 30330 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 41 ], [ 86, 103 ], [ 154, 178 ], [ 188, 197 ], [ 199, 212 ], [ 218, 228 ], [ 242, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A common alternative notation is , , and for positive semi-definite and positive-definite, negative semi-definite and negative-definite matrices, respectively. This may be confusing, as sometimes nonnegative matrices (respectively, nonpositive matrices) are also denoted in this way.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 3945884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Let be an Hermitian matrix (this includes real symmetric matrices). All eigenvalues of are real, and their sign characterize its definiteness:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Eigenvalues", "target_page_ids": [ 189682, 126474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 28 ], [ 49, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " is positive definite if and only if all of its eigenvalues are positive.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Eigenvalues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " is positive semi-definite if and only if all of its eigenvalues are non-negative.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Eigenvalues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " is negative definite if and only if all of its eigenvalues are negative", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Eigenvalues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " is negative semi-definite if and only if all of its eigenvalues are non-positive.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Eigenvalues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " is indefinite if and only if it has both positive and negative eigenvalues.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Eigenvalues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Let be an eigendecomposition of , where is a unitary complex matrix whose columns comprise an orthonormal basis of eigenvectors of , and is a real diagonal matrix whose main diagonal contains the corresponding eigenvalues. The matrix may be regarded as a diagonal matrix that has been re-expressed in coordinates of the (eigenvectors) basis . Put differently, applying to some vector , giving , is the same as changing the basis to the eigenvector coordinate system using , giving , applying the stretching transformation to the result, giving , and then changing the basis back using , giving .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Eigenvalues", "target_page_ids": [ 13576645, 129222, 195063, 2161429, 174080, 194990, 2161429, 1179451, 692458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 29 ], [ 47, 69 ], [ 96, 113 ], [ 117, 128 ], [ 150, 165 ], [ 172, 185 ], [ 213, 223 ], [ 416, 434 ], [ 502, 527 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With this in mind, the one-to-one change of variable shows that is real and positive for any complex vector if and only if is real and positive for any ; in other words, if is positive definite. For a diagonal matrix, this is true only if each element of the main diagonal—that is, every eigenvalue of —is positive. Since the spectral theorem guarantees all eigenvalues of a Hermitian matrix to be real, the positivity of eigenvalues can be checked using Descartes' rule of alternating signs when the characteristic polynomial of a real, symmetric matrix is available.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Eigenvalues", "target_page_ids": [ 123495, 2641493, 218268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 332, 348 ], [ 461, 497 ], [ 507, 532 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Let be an Hermitian matrix.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [ 189682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " is positive semidefinite if and only if it can be decomposed as a product", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "of a matrix with its conjugate transpose.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [ 217548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When is real, can be real as well and the decomposition can be written as ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " is positive definite if and only if such a decomposition exists with invertible.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [ 217122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "More generally, is positive semidefinite with rank if and only if a decomposition exists with a matrix of full row rank (i.e. of rank ).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Moreover, for any decomposition , .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The columns of can be seen as vectors in the complex or real vector space , respectively.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [ 32370, 32370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 54 ], [ 58, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Then the entries of are inner products (that is dot products, in the real case) of these vectors", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [ 14856, 157093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 38 ], [ 49, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In other words, a Hermitian matrix is positive semidefinite if and only if it is the Gram matrix of some vectors .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [ 987959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is positive definite if and only if it is the Gram matrix of some linearly independent vectors.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [ 101863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In general, the rank of the Gram matrix of vectors equals the dimension of the space spanned by these vectors.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [ 56353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The decomposition is not unique: ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "if for some matrix and if is any unitary matrix (meaning ),", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [ 129222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "then for .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "However, this is the only way in which two decompositions can differ: the decomposition is unique up to unitary transformations.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [ 236007 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "More formally, if is a matrix and is a matrix such that ,", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "then there is a matrix with orthonormal columns (meaning ) such that .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When this means is unitary.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [ 129222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This statement has an intuitive geometric interpretation in the real case:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "let the columns of and be the vectors and in .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A real unitary matrix is an orthogonal matrix, which describes a rigid transformation (an isometry of Euclidean space ) preserving the 0 point (i.e. rotations and reflections, without translations). ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [ 105620, 27832980, 856005, 692458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 45 ], [ 65, 85 ], [ 149, 158 ], [ 163, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Therefore, the dot products and are equal if and only if some rigid transformation of transforms the vectors to (and 0 to 0).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A matrix is positive semidefinite if and only if there is a positive semidefinite matrix (in particular is Hermitian, so ) satisfying . This matrix is unique, is called the non-negative square root of , and is denoted with .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [ 2929701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 191, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When is positive definite, so is , hence it is also called the positive square root of .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The non-negative square root should not be confused with other decompositions .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some authors use the name square root and for any such decomposition, or specifically for the Cholesky decomposition,", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [ 134433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "or any decomposition of the form ;", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "other only use it for the non-negative square root.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If then .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A positive semidefinite matrix can be written as , where is lower triangular with non-negative diagonal (equivalently where is upper triangular); this is the Cholesky decomposition.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [ 134433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 162, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If is positive definite, then the diagonal of is positive and the Cholesky decomposition is unique. Conversely if is lower triangular with nonnegative diagonal then is positive semidefinite. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Cholesky decomposition is especially useful for efficient numerical calculations.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A closely related decomposition is the LDL decomposition, , where is diagonal and is lower unitriangular.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Decomposition", "target_page_ids": [ 134433, 374222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 56 ], [ 87, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Let be an real symmetric matrix, and let be the \"unit ball\" defined by . Then we have the following", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other characterizations", "target_page_ids": [ 189682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " is a solid slab sandwiched between .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other characterizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " iff is an ellipsoid, or an ellipsoidal cylinder.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other characterizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " iff is bounded, that is, it is an ellipsoid.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other characterizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " If , then iff ; iff .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other characterizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " If , then for all iff . So, since the polar dual of an ellipsoid is also an ellipsoid with the same principal axes, with inverse lengths, we have That is, if is positive-definite, then for all iff ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other characterizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Let be an Hermitian matrix. The following properties are equivalent to being positive definite:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other characterizations", "target_page_ids": [ 189682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The associated sesquilinear form is an inner product The sesquilinear form defined by is the function from to such that for all and in , where is the conjugate transpose of . For any complex matrix , this form is linear in and semilinear in . Therefore, the form is an inner product on if and only if is real and positive for all nonzero ; that is if and only if is positive definite. (In fact, every inner product on arises in this fashion from a Hermitian positive definite matrix.)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other characterizations", "target_page_ids": [ 860138, 14856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 75 ], [ 280, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Its leading principal minors are all positive The kth leading principal minor of a matrix is the determinant of its upper-left sub-matrix. It turns out that a matrix is positive definite if and only if all these determinants are positive. This condition is known as Sylvester's criterion, and provides an efficient test of positive definiteness of a symmetric real matrix. Namely, the matrix is reduced to an upper triangular matrix by using elementary row operations, as in the first part of the Gaussian elimination method, taking care to preserve the sign of its determinant during pivoting process. Since the kth leading principal minor of a triangular matrix is the product of its diagonal elements up to row , Sylvester's criterion is equivalent to checking whether its diagonal elements are all positive. This condition can be checked each time a new row of the triangular matrix is obtained.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other characterizations", "target_page_ids": [ 262107, 8468, 11437896, 374222, 5897031, 13035, 9811503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 78 ], [ 99, 110 ], [ 270, 291 ], [ 413, 436 ], [ 446, 471 ], [ 501, 521 ], [ 589, 597 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A positive semidefinite matrix is positive definite if and only if it is invertible.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other characterizations", "target_page_ids": [ 217122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A matrix is negative (semi)definite if and only if is positive (semi)definite.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other characterizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The (purely) quadratic form associated with a real matrix is the function such that for all . can be assumed symmetric by replacing it with .", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Quadratic forms", "target_page_ids": [ 251478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A symmetric matrix is positive definite if and only if its quadratic form is a strictly convex function.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Quadratic forms", "target_page_ids": [ 245568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "More generally, any quadratic function from to can be written as where is a symmetric matrix, is a real -vector, and a real constant. In the case, this is a parabola, and just like in the case, we have", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Quadratic forms", "target_page_ids": [ 187240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Theorem: This quadratic function is strictly convex, and hence has a unique finite global minimum, if and only if is positive definite.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Quadratic forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Proof: If is positive definite, then the function is strictly convex. Its gradient is zero at the unique point of , which must be the global minimum since the function is strictly convex. If is not positive definite, then there exists some vector such that , so the function is a line or a downward parabola, thus not strictly convex and not having a global minimum.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Quadratic forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For this reason, positive definite matrices play an important role in optimization problems.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Quadratic forms", "target_page_ids": [ 52033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A symmetric matrix and another symmetric and positive definite matrix can be simultaneously diagonalized, although not necessarily via a similarity transformation. This result does not extend to the case of three or more matrices. In this section we write for the real case. Extension to the complex case is immediate.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Simultaneous diagonalization", "target_page_ids": [ 246325, 341149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 104 ], [ 137, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Let be a symmetric and a symmetric and positive definite matrix. Write the generalized eigenvalue equation as where we impose that be normalized, i.e. . Now we use Cholesky decomposition to write the inverse of as . Multiplying by and letting , we get , which can be rewritten as where . Manipulation now yields where is a matrix having as columns the generalized eigenvectors and is a diagonal matrix of the generalized eigenvalues. Now premultiplication with gives the final result: and , but note that this is no longer an orthogonal diagonalization with respect to the inner product where . In fact, we diagonalized with respect to the inner product induced by .", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Simultaneous diagonalization", "target_page_ids": [ 134433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Note that this result does not contradict what is said on simultaneous diagonalization in the article Diagonalizable matrix, which refers to simultaneous diagonalization by a similarity transformation. Our result here is more akin to a simultaneous diagonalization of two quadratic forms, and is useful for optimization of one form under conditions on the other.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Simultaneous diagonalization", "target_page_ids": [ 246325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For arbitrary square matrices , we write if i.e., is positive semi-definite. This defines a partial ordering on the set of all square matrices. One can similarly define a strict partial ordering . The ordering is called the Loewner order.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 23572, 46706590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 112 ], [ 229, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Every positive definite matrix is invertible and its inverse is also positive definite. If then . Moreover, by the min-max theorem, the kth largest eigenvalue of is greater than the kth largest eigenvalue of .", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 217122, 694952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 44 ], [ 116, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If is positive definite and is a real number, then is positive definite.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " If and are positive-definite, then the sum is also positive-definite.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " If and are positive-semidefinite, then the sum is also positive-semidefinite.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " If is positive-definite and is positive-semidefinite, then the sum is also positive-definite.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " If and are positive definite, then the products and are also positive definite. If , then is also positive definite.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " If is positive semidefinite, then is positive semidefinite for any (possibly rectangular) matrix . If is positive definite and has full column rank, then is positive definite.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The diagonal entries of a positive-semidefinite matrix are real and non-negative. As a consequence the trace, . Furthermore, since every principal sub-matrix (in particular, 2-by-2) is positive semidefinite,", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 43270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "and thus, when ,", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An Hermitian matrix is positive definite if it satisfies the following trace inequalities:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Another important result is that for any and positive-semidefinite matrices, ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If , although is not necessary positive semidefinite, the Hadamard product is, (this result is often called the Schur product theorem).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 34260496, 41167140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 75 ], [ 114, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Regarding the Hadamard product of two positive semidefinite matrices , , there are two notable inequalities:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Oppenheim's inequality: ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " .", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If , although is not necessary positive semidefinite, the Kronecker product .", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 712430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If , although is not necessary positive semidefinite, the Frobenius inner product (Lancaster–Tismenetsky, The Theory of Matrices, p.218).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 52203645 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The set of positive semidefinite symmetric matrices is convex. That is, if and are positive semidefinite, then for any between 0 and 1, is also positive semidefinite. For any vector :", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 6292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This property guarantees that semidefinite programming problems converge to a globally optimal solution.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 4993539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The positive-definiteness of a matrix expresses that the angle between any vector and its image is always :", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " If is a symmetric Toeplitz matrix, i.e. the entries are given as a function of their absolute index differences: , and the strict inequality holds, then is strictly positive definite.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 151569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Let and Hermitian. If (resp., ) then (resp., ).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " If is real, then there is a such that , where is the identity matrix.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 59718 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " If denotes the leading minor, is the kth pivot during LU decomposition.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 6243993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A matrix is negative definite if its k-th order leading principal minor is negative when is odd, and positive when is even.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 262107 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A Hermitian matrix is positive semidefinite if and only if all of its principal minors are nonnegative. It is however not enough to consider the leading principal minors only, as is checked on the diagonal matrix with entries 0 and −1.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A positive matrix may also be defined by blocks:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 457464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where each block is . By applying the positivity condition, it immediately follows that and are hermitian, and .", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "We have that for all complex , and in particular for . Then", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A similar argument can be applied to , and thus we conclude that both and must be positive definite. The argument can be extended to show that any principal submatrix of is itself positive definite.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 20556859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 149, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Converse results can be proved with stronger conditions on the blocks, for instance using the Schur complement.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 372620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A general quadratic form on real variables can always be written as where is the column vector with those variables, and is a symmetric real matrix. Therefore, the matrix being positive definite means that has a unique minimum (zero) when is zero, and is strictly positive for any other .", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 251478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "More generally, a twice-differentiable real function on real variables has local minimum at arguments if its gradient is zero and its Hessian (the matrix of all second derivatives) is positive semi-definite at that point. Similar statements can be made for negative definite and semi-definite matrices.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 12461, 412108 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 120 ], [ 137, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In statistics, the covariance matrix of a multivariate probability distribution is always positive semi-definite; and it is positive definite unless one variable is an exact linear function of the others. Conversely, every positive semi-definite matrix is the covariance matrix of some multivariate distribution.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 26685, 191752, 879637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 13 ], [ 19, 36 ], [ 42, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The definition of positive definite can be generalized by designating any complex matrix (e.g. real non-symmetric) as positive definite if for all non-zero complex vectors , where denotes the real part of a complex number . Only the Hermitian part determines whether the matrix is positive definite, and is assessed in the narrower sense above. Similarly, if and are real, we have for all real nonzero vectors if and only if the symmetric part is positive definite in the narrower sense. It is immediately clear that is insensitive to transposition of M.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Extension for non-Hermitian square matrices", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Consequently, a non-symmetric real matrix with only positive eigenvalues does not need to be positive definite. For example, the matrix has positive eigenvalues yet is not positive definite; in particular a negative value of is obtained with the choice (which is the eigenvector associated with the negative eigenvalue of the symmetric part of ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Extension for non-Hermitian square matrices", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In summary, the distinguishing feature between the real and complex case is that, a bounded positive operator on a complex Hilbert space is necessarily Hermitian, or self adjoint. The general claim can be argued using the polarization identity. That is no longer true in the real case.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Extension for non-Hermitian square matrices", "target_page_ids": [ 455961, 2047965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 91 ], [ 222, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fourier's law of heat conduction, giving heat flux in terms of the temperature gradient is written for anisotropic media as , in which is the symmetric thermal conductivity matrix. The negative is inserted in Fourier's law to reflect the expectation that heat will always flow from hot to cold. In other words, since the temperature gradient always points from cold to hot, the heat flux is expected to have a negative inner product with so that . Substituting Fourier's law then gives this expectation as , implying that the conductivity matrix should be positive definite.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 59438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Covariance matrix", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 191752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "M-matrix", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7939066 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Positive-definite function", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 649616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Positive-definite kernel", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10273855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Schur complement", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 372620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sylvester's criterion", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11437896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Numerical range", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15581094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wolfram MathWorld: Positive Definite Matrix", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Definitheit", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Matrices" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The Magnoliaceae () are a flowering plant family, the magnolia family, in the order Magnoliales. It consists of two subfamilies: Magnolioideae, of which Magnolia is the best-known genus, and Liriodendroidae, a monogeneric subfamily, of which Liriodendron (tulip trees) is the only genus.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18967, 61763, 19342, 151983, 40333, 38493, 412702, 155383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 41 ], [ 79, 84 ], [ 85, 96 ], [ 117, 128 ], [ 154, 162 ], [ 181, 186 ], [ 211, 222 ], [ 243, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike most angiosperms, whose flower parts are in whorls (rings), the Magnoliaceae have their stamens and pistils in spirals on a conical receptacle. This arrangement is found in some fossil plants and is believed to be a basal or early condition for angiosperms. The flowers also have parts not distinctly differentiated into sepals and petals, while angiosperms that evolved later tend to have distinctly differentiated sepals and petals. The poorly differentiated perianth parts that occupy both positions are known as tepals.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18967, 4576465, 29005044, 193031, 2394288, 13353499, 11287648, 211505, 169493, 1770564, 493427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 23 ], [ 31, 37 ], [ 51, 57 ], [ 95, 101 ], [ 107, 114 ], [ 139, 149 ], [ 223, 228 ], [ 328, 333 ], [ 339, 344 ], [ 468, 476 ], [ 523, 528 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The family has about 219 species and ranges across subtropical eastern North America, Mexico and Central America, the West Indies, tropical South America, southern and eastern India, Sri Lanka, Indochina, Malesia, China, Japan, and Korea.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 402679, 21139, 3966054, 6121, 5574915, 26769, 14533, 26750, 52052, 460541, 5405, 15573, 16749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 62 ], [ 71, 84 ], [ 86, 92 ], [ 97, 112 ], [ 118, 129 ], [ 140, 153 ], [ 176, 181 ], [ 183, 192 ], [ 194, 203 ], [ 205, 212 ], [ 214, 219 ], [ 221, 226 ], [ 232, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The number of genera in Magnoliaceae is a subject of debate. Up to 17 have been recognized, including Alcimandra, Lirianthe, Manglietia, Michelia, Pachylarnax, Parakmeria, Talauma and Yulania. However, many recent studies have opted to merge all genera within subfamily Magnolioideae into the genus Magnolia. Thus, Magnoliaceae would include only two extant genera, Magnolia and Liriodendron.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Genera", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The monophyly of Magnoliaceae is supported by a number of shared morphological characters among the various genera in the family. Most have bisexual flowers (with the exception of Kmeria and some species of Magnolia section Gynopodium), showy, fragrant, radial, and with an elongated receptacle. Leaves are alternate, simple, and sometimes lobed. The inflorescence is a solitary, showy flower with indistinguishable petals and sepals. Sepals range from six to many; stamens are numerous and feature short filaments which are poorly differentiated from the anthers. Carpels are usually numerous, distinct, and on an elongated receptacle or torus. The fruit is an etaerio of follicles which usually become closely appressed as they mature and open along the abaxial surface. Seeds have a fleshy coat, aril, and color that ranges from red to orange (except Liriodendron). Magnoliaceae flowers are beetle pollinated, except for Liriodendron, which is bee pollinated. The carpels of Magnolia flowers are especially thick to avoid damage by beetles that land, crawl, and feast on them. The seeds of Magnolioideae are bird-dispersed, while the seeds of Liriodendron are wind-dispersed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 20611, 63528, 211505, 193031, 193031, 2394288, 13353499, 10843, 377759, 7044, 4654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 13 ], [ 352, 365 ], [ 436, 441 ], [ 467, 474 ], [ 557, 564 ], [ 566, 573 ], [ 626, 636 ], [ 651, 656 ], [ 800, 804 ], [ 896, 902 ], [ 949, 952 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to its great age, the geographical distribution of the Magnoliaceae has become disjunct or fragmented as a result of major geologic events such as ice ages, continental drift, and mountain formation. This distribution pattern has isolated some species, while keeping others in close contact.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Biogeography", "target_page_ids": [ 3686698, 15361, 6056, 53879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 91 ], [ 151, 158 ], [ 161, 178 ], [ 184, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Extant species of the Magnoliaceae are widely distributed in temperate and tropical Asia from the Himalayas to Japan and southwest through Malaysia and New Guinea. Asia is home to about two-thirds of the species in Magnoliaceae, with the remainder of the family spread across the Americas with temperate species extending into southern Canada and tropical elements extending into Brazil and the West Indies.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Biogeography", "target_page_ids": [ 37966, 3607937, 20611456, 5042916, 3383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 107 ], [ 139, 147 ], [ 152, 162 ], [ 336, 342 ], [ 380, 386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to the family-wide morphological similarity, no consensus has yet emerged on the number of genera in the family. The development of DNA sequencing at the end of the 20th century had a profound impact on the research of phylogenetic relationships within the family. The employment of ndhF and cpDNA sequences has refuted many of the traditionally accepted phylogenetic relationships within the Magnoliaceae. For example, the genera Magnolia and Michelia were shown to be paraphyletic when the remaining four genera of the Magnolioideae are split out. In fact, even many of the subgenera (Magnolia subg. Magnolia, Magnolia subg. Talauma) have been found to be paraphyletic. Although no completely resolved phylogeny for the family has yet been determined, these technological advances have allowed systematists to broadly circumscribe major lineages.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Systematics", "target_page_ids": [ 7955, 24454, 149326 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 139 ], [ 474, 486 ], [ 708, 717 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a whole, the Magnoliaceae are not an economically significant family. With the exception of ornamental cultivation, the economic significance of magnolias is generally confined to the use of wood from certain timber species and the use of bark and flowers from several species believed to possess medicinal qualities. The wood of the American tuliptree, Liriodendron tulipifera and the wood of the cucumbertree magnolia, Magnolia acuminata, and, to a lesser degree, that of the Frasier magnolia, Magnolia fraseri, are harvested and marketed collectively as \"yellow poplar.\" This is a lightweight and exceptionally fine-grained wood, lending itself to precision woodworking for purposes such as pipe organ building.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economic significance", "target_page_ids": [ 322543, 492178, 1189874, 149996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 358, 381 ], [ 425, 443 ], [ 500, 516 ], [ 698, 708 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Magnolias have a rich cultural tradition in China, where references to their healing qualities go back thousands of years. The Chinese have long used the bark of Magnolia officinalis, a magnolia native to the mountains of China with large leaves and fragrant white flowers, as a remedy for cramps, abdominal pain, nausea, diarrhea, and indigestion. Certain magnolia flowers, such as the buds of Magnolia liliiflora, have been used to treat chronic respiratory and sinus infections and lung congestion. Recently, magnolia bark has become incorporated into alternative medicine in the west, where tablets made from the bark of M. officinalis have been marketed as an aid for anxiety, allergies, asthma, and weight loss. Compounds found in magnolia bark might have antibacterial and antifungal properties, but no large-scale study on the health effects of magnolia bark or flowers has yet been conducted.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economic significance", "target_page_ids": [ 1578145, 502235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 162, 182 ], [ 395, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hunt, D. (ed). 1998. Magnolias and their allies. International Dendrology Society & Magnolia Society. ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cicuzza, D., Newton, A. and Oldfield, S. 2007. The Red List of Magnoliaceae Flora & Fauna International (FFI) and Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) report. ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "F. Xu, P. J. Rudall. Comparative floral anatomy and ontogeny in Magnoliaceae. Plant Systematics and Evolution April 2006, Volume 258, Issue 1-2, pp 1-15", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Magnoliaceae", "Magnoliid_families", "Extant_Berriasian_first_appearances" ]

[ "Magnolia family", "Magnoliaceae" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Cannoli (; ) are Italian pastries consisting of tube-shaped shells of fried pastry dough, filled with a sweet, creamy filling usually containing ricotta—a staple of Sicilian cuisine. They range in size from . In mainland Italy, they are commonly known as cannoli siciliani (Sicilian cannoli).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 67062, 67062, 334546, 708679, 44808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 34 ], [ 77, 83 ], [ 84, 89 ], [ 146, 153 ], [ 166, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In English, cannoli is usually used as a singular, but in Italian, it is grammatically plural; the corresponding singular is cannolo (; ), a diminutive meaning 'little tube', from canna, 'cane' or 'tube'. This form is uncommon in English.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 8569916, 14708, 505892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 10 ], [ 59, 66 ], [ 143, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some food historians place the origins of cannoli in 827–1091 in Caltanissetta in Sicily, by the concubines of princes looking to capture their attention.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 923123, 27619 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 79 ], [ 83, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Author Gaetano Basile merged this legend with other historical traditions to determine that cannoli come from the Palermo and Messina areas and were historically prepared as a treat during Carnival season, possibly as a fertility symbol. The dessert eventually became a year-round staple in Poland.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 38881, 59705, 38483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 121 ], [ 126, 133 ], [ 189, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some similar desserts in Middle Eastern tradition include \"Zaynab's fingers\" (), which are filled with nuts, and qanawāt (), deep-fried dough tubes filled with various sweets, which were a popular pastry. The dish and the name may originate from the Muslim Emirate of Sicily. The minne di Sant'Agata or minni di virgini, cream-filled half spheres with icing and fruit are shaped like a roll in honour of St Agatha. Feddi dû cancillieri (\"chancellor's slices\") are similar cream and apricot jam-filled almond cookies.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4025585, 62296522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 257, 274 ], [ 280, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cannoli World LLC  is known to provide the largest amount of cannoli varieties in America.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Brandy snaps", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Similar desserts", "target_page_ids": [ 17109763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cream horn", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Similar desserts", "target_page_ids": [ 33273067 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Éclair", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Similar desserts", "target_page_ids": [ 1980219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Schaumrolle, also known as Trubochki in Russian and trubičky in Czech", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Similar desserts", "target_page_ids": [ 42722955, 39794808, 25431, 6343 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 28, 37 ], [ 41, 48 ], [ 65, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Torpedo dessert", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Similar desserts", "target_page_ids": [ 39794808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ricotta", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 708679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hyblean ricotta", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 63675190 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] } ]

[ "Italian_pastries", "Cuisine_of_Sicily", "Italian_desserts", "Maltese_cuisine", "Albanian_cuisine", "Polish_desserts", "Venezuelan_cuisine", "Italian-American_cuisine", "Stuffed_desserts", "Cheese_desserts" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Magnolia is a large genus of about 210 to 340 flowering plant species in the subfamily Magnolioideae of the family Magnoliaceae. It is named after French botanist Pierre Magnol.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 38493, 18967, 21780446, 56276, 40330, 962731, 1830969 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 25 ], [ 46, 61 ], [ 62, 69 ], [ 108, 114 ], [ 115, 127 ], [ 147, 153 ], [ 163, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Magnolia is an ancient genus. Appearing before bees evolved, the flowers are theorized to have evolved to encourage pollination by beetles.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4654, 233609, 7044 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 50 ], [ 116, 127 ], [ 131, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To avoid damage from pollinating beetles, the carpels of Magnolia flowers are extremely tough. Fossilized specimens of M. acuminata have been found dating to 20 million years ago, and fossils of plants identifiably belonging to the Magnoliaceae date to 95 million years ago. Another aspect of Magnolia considered to represent an ancestral state is that the flower bud is enclosed in a bract rather than in sepals; the perianth parts are undifferentiated and called tepals rather than distinct sepals and petals. Magnolia shares the tepal characteristic with several other flowering plants near the base of the flowering plant lineage such as Amborella and Nymphaea (as well as with many more recently derived plants such as Lilium).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2394288, 10958, 492178, 612098, 1770564, 493427, 211505, 169493, 11287648, 18967, 275863, 944428, 73421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 52 ], [ 96, 102 ], [ 120, 132 ], [ 386, 391 ], [ 419, 427 ], [ 466, 471 ], [ 494, 499 ], [ 505, 510 ], [ 599, 603 ], [ 611, 626 ], [ 643, 652 ], [ 657, 665 ], [ 725, 731 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The natural range of Magnolia species is a disjunct distribution, with a main center in east and southeast Asia and a secondary center in eastern North America, Central America, the West Indies, and some species in South America.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3686698, 689, 21139, 6121, 5574915, 26769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 64 ], [ 107, 111 ], [ 146, 159 ], [ 161, 176 ], [ 182, 193 ], [ 215, 228 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Magnolias are spreading, evergreen or deciduous trees or shrubs, characterised by large fragrant flowers which may be bowl-shaped or star-shaped, in shades of white, pink, purple, green or yellow. In deciduous species the blooms often appear before the leaves, in spring. Cone-like fruits are often produced in autumn.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As with all Magnoliaceae, the perianth is undifferentiated, with 9–15 tepals in three or more whorls. The flowers are bisexual with numerous adnate carpels and stamens are arranged in a spiral fashion on the elongated receptacle. The fruit dehisces along the dorsal sutures of the carpels. The pollen is monocolpate, and the embryo development is of the Polygonum type.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 40330, 1770564, 493427, 29005044, 24172372, 2394288, 193031, 13353499, 2321613, 46980, 46980, 915247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 24 ], [ 30, 38 ], [ 71, 77 ], [ 95, 101 ], [ 142, 148 ], [ 149, 156 ], [ 161, 168 ], [ 219, 229 ], [ 241, 249 ], [ 295, 301 ], [ 305, 316 ], [ 355, 364 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Taxonomists, including James E. Dandy in 1927, have long had an interest in observing fruits of Magnoliaceae and have often used the differences, or perceived differences, in fruit characters to justify systems for classification.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The name Magnolia first appeared in 1703 in the Genera of Charles Plumier (1646–1704), for a flowering tree from the island of Martinique (talauma). It was named after the French botanist Pierre Magnol. English botanist William Sherard, who studied botany in Paris under Joseph Pitton de Tournefort, a pupil of Magnol, was most probably the first after Plumier to adopt the genus name Magnolia. He was at least responsible for the taxonomic part of Johann Jacob Dillenius's Hortus Elthamensis and of Mark Catesby's Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands. These were the first works after Plumier's Genera that used the name Magnolia, this time for some species of flowering trees from temperate North America. The species that Plumier originally named Magnolia was later described as Annona dodecapetala by Lamarck, and has since been named Magnolia plumieri and Talauma plumieri (and still a number of other names) but is now known as Magnolia dodecapetala.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 38493, 2794074, 19169, 1830969, 3145054, 7586493, 1830969, 30463, 478177, 524066, 18967, 50051, 56999924, 145704 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 54 ], [ 58, 73 ], [ 127, 137 ], [ 188, 201 ], [ 220, 235 ], [ 271, 298 ], [ 311, 317 ], [ 431, 440 ], [ 449, 471 ], [ 500, 512 ], [ 685, 700 ], [ 706, 715 ], [ 805, 824 ], [ 828, 835 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carl Linnaeus, who was familiar with Plumier's Genera, adopted the genus name Magnolia in 1735 in his first edition of Systema Naturae, without a description, but with a reference to Plumier's work. In 1753, he took up Plumier's Magnolia in the first edition of Species Plantarum. There he described a monotypic genus, with the sole species being Magnolia virginiana. Since Linnaeus never saw a herbarium specimen (if there ever was one) of Plumier's Magnolia and had only his description and a rather poor picture at hand, he must have taken it for the same plant which was described by Catesby in his 1730 Natural History of Carolina. He placed it in the synonymy of Magnolia virginiana var. fœtida, the taxon now known as Magnolia grandiflora. Under Magnolia virginiana Linnaeus described five varieties (glauca, fœtida, grisea, tripetala, and acuminata). In the tenth edition of Systema Naturae (1759), he merged grisea with glauca, and raised the four remaining varieties to species status.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 5233, 1478634, 2011017, 412702, 493120, 8166296, 199556, 496263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 119, 134 ], [ 262, 279 ], [ 302, 311 ], [ 347, 366 ], [ 658, 666 ], [ 707, 712 ], [ 726, 746 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the end of the 18th century, botanists and plant hunters exploring Asia began to name and describe the Magnolia species from China and Japan. The first Asiatic species to be described by western botanists were Magnolia denudata, Magnolia liliiflora, Magnolia coco and Magnolia figo. Soon after that, in 1794, Carl Peter Thunberg collected and described Magnolia obovata from Japan and at roughly the same time Magnolia kobus was also first collected.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 1194211, 502235, 68657344, 4350594, 455823, 9505738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 213, 230 ], [ 232, 251 ], [ 253, 266 ], [ 271, 284 ], [ 312, 331 ], [ 413, 427 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the number of species increasing, the genus was divided into the two subgenera Magnolia and Yulania. Magnolia contains the American evergreen species M. grandiflora, which is of horticultural importance, especially in the southeastern United States, and M. virginiana, the type species. Yulania contains several deciduous Asiatic species, such as M. denudata and M. kobus, which have become horticulturally important in their own right and as parents in hybrids. Classified in Yulania, is also the American deciduous M. acuminata (cucumber tree), which has recently attained greater status as the parent responsible for the yellow flower color in many new hybrids.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 216260, 3434750, 66722 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 183, 196 ], [ 240, 253 ], [ 317, 326 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Relations in the family Magnoliaceae have been puzzling taxonomists for a long time. Because the family is quite old and has survived many geological events (such as ice ages, mountain formation, and continental drift), its distribution has become scattered. Some species or groups of species have been isolated for a long time, while others could stay in close contact. To create divisions in the family (or even within the genus Magnolia), solely based upon morphological characters, has proven to be a nearly impossible task.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By the end of the 20th century, DNA sequencing had become available as a method of large-scale research on phylogenetic relationships. Several studies, including studies on many species in the family Magnoliaceae, were carried out to investigate relationships. What these studies all revealed was that genus Michelia and Magnolia subgenus Yulania were far more closely allied to each other than either one of them was to Magnolia subgenus Magnolia. These phylogenetic studies were supported by morphological data.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 1158125, 23962, 958032 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 46 ], [ 107, 133 ], [ 308, 316 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As nomenclature is supposed to reflect relationships, the situation with the species names in Michelia and Magnolia subgenus Yulania was undesirable. Taxonomically, three choices are available:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 391896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " to join Michelia and Yulania species in a common genus, not being Magnolia (for which the name Michelia has priority);", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " to raise subgenus Yulania to generic rank, leaving Michelia names and subgenus Magnolia names untouched, or;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " to join Michelia with genus Magnolia into genus Magnolia s.l. (a big genus).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 11051153 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Magnolia subgenus Magnolia cannot be renamed because it contains M. virginiana, the type species of the genus and of the family.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Not many Michelia species have so far become horticulturally or economically important, apart for their wood. Both subgenus Magnolia and subgenus Yulania include species of major horticultural importance, and a change of name would be very undesirable for many people, especially in the horticultural branch. In Europe, Magnolia even is more or less a synonym for Yulania, since most of the cultivated species on this continent have Magnolia (Yulania) denudata as one of their parents. Most taxonomists who acknowledge close relations between Yulania and Michelia therefore support the third option and join Michelia with Magnolia.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The same goes, mutatis mutandis, for the (former) genera Talauma and Dugandiodendron, which are then placed in subgenus Magnolia, and genus Manglietia, which could be joined with subgenus Magnolia or may even earn the status of an extra subgenus. Elmerrillia seems to be closely related to Michelia and Yulania, in which case it will most likely be treated in the same way as Michelia is now. The precise nomenclatural status of small or monospecific genera like Kmeria, Parakmeria, Pachylarnax, Manglietiastrum, Aromadendron, Woonyoungia, Alcimandra, Paramichelia and Tsoongiodendron remains uncertain. Taxonomists who merge Michelia into Magnolia tend to merge these small genera into Magnolia s.l. as well. Botanists do not yet agree on whether to recognize a big Magnolia or the different small genera. For example, Flora of China offers two choices: a large genus Magnolia which includes about 300 species, everything in the Magnoliaceae except Liriodendron (tulip tree), or 16 different genera, some of them recently split out or re-recognized, each of which contains up to 50 species. The western co-author favors the big genus Magnolia, whereas the Chinese recognize the different small genera.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12921068, 12895800, 40333, 40330, 155383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 64 ], [ 140, 150 ], [ 247, 258 ], [ 930, 942 ], [ 950, 962 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2012, the Magnolia Society published on its website a classification of the genus produced by Richard B. Figlar, based on a 2004 classification by Figlar and Hans Peter Nooteboom. Species of Magnolia were listed under three subgenera, 12 sections, and 13 subsections. Subsequent molecular phylogenetic studies have led to some revisions of this system; for example, the subgenus Magnolia was found not to be monophyletic. A revised classification in 2020, based on a phylogenetic analysis of complete chloroplast genomes, abandoned subgenera and subsections, dividing Magnolia into 15 sections. The relationships among these sections are shown in the following cladogram, as is the paraphyletic status of subgenus Magnolia.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 61530613, 185907, 443120, 149544, 20611, 6355, 12388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 161, 181 ], [ 227, 236 ], [ 241, 248 ], [ 282, 304 ], [ 411, 423 ], [ 504, 515 ], [ 516, 522 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The table below compares the 2012 and 2020 classifications. (The exact circumscriptions of the corresponding taxa may not be the same.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 19387586 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The species lists below are divided according to the Magnolia Society's 2012 classification.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Anthers open by splitting at the front facing the centre of the flower, deciduous or evergreen, flowers produced after the leaves.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 193031, 66722, 66719, 4576465, 18973622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 72, 81 ], [ 85, 94 ], [ 96, 102 ], [ 123, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia grandiflora - ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 496263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia guatemalensis - ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 1304995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia guatemalensis subsp. guatemalensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia guatemalensis subsp. hondurensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia guerrerensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia iltisiana ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12894978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia krusei ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia pacifica ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 52312443 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia pacifica subsp. pacifica ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia pacifica subsp. pugana ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia panamensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12895026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia poasana ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 23558609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Magnolia poqomchi ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia schiedeana ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12895060 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia sharpii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 52312465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia sororum ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia sororum subsp. lutea . ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia sororum subsp. sororum ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia tamaulipana - Mexican evergreen magnolia ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia tarahumara ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 68583925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia vazquezii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia virginiana ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 493120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia yoroconte ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12895098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia albosericea ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia bawangensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia championii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia clemensiorum ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia coco ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 68657344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia delavayi ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 1566654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia fistulosa ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12895033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia henryi ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12894967 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia nana ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 36309239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia odoratissima ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia pterocarpa ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 65489524 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia xiana ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia angatensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia betongensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia gigantifolia ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia hodgsonii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 5504146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia lasia ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia liliifera ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 42569244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia liliifera var. angatensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia liliifera var. beccarii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia liliifera var. liliifera ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia liliifera var. obovata ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia liliifera var. singapurensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia mariusjacobsia ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia persuaveolens ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia persuaveolens subsp. persuaveolens ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia persuaveolens subsp. rigida ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia rabaniana ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia sarawakensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia singapurensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia villosa ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia allenii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia amazonica ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 29987562 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia arcabucoana ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia bankardiorum ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia boliviana ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12894867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia caricifragrans ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12894891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia cespedesii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12894900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia chocoensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia coronata ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia dixonii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12921062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia dodecapetala ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 56529440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia espinalii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12894922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia georgii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12894927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia gilbertoi ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12894938 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia gloriensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia henaoi ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12894961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia hernandezii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12894970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia irwiniana ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia jardinensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 43236823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia katiorum ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12894987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia lacandonica ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia manguillo ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia mexicana ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 65995394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia minor ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12895010 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia morii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia narinensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12895018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia neillii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12921079 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia ovata ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia polyhypsophylla ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12895036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia quetzal ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia rimachii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 30003943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia sambuensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12895051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia santanderiana ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12895053 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia sellowiana ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia silvioi ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 44203637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia venezuelensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia virolinensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12895078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia wolfii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12895085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia argyrothricha ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia calimaensis 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"target_page_ids": [ 12895091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia cristalensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 56990054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia cubensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 41812950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia domingensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia ekmannii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia emarginata ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia hamorii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia pallescens ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 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"section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia calophylloides ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia caveana ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia changhuntana ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia chevalieri ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia conifera ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia conifera var. chingii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia conifera var. conifera ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], 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fordiana ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia fordiana var. forrestii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia fordiana var. kwangtungensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia garrettii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 70894344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia grandis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12895812 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia hongheensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia hookeri ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia insignis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia kwangtungensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia lanuginosoides ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia longipedunculata ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia lucida ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia obovalifolia ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia ovoidea ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12895828 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia patungensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", 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officinalis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia rostrata ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12895044 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia tripetala ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 1035732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia globosa ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 2742366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia sieboldii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 1409303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia sieboldii subsp. japonica ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia sieboldii subsp. sieboldii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { 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", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia campbellii var. mollicomata ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia cylindrica ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12894911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia dawsoniana ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 2487316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia denudata ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 1194211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia kobus ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 9505738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia liliiflora ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 502235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { 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[], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia champaca ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 5664683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia champaca var. champaca ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia champaca var. pubinervia ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia chapensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia citrata ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia compressa ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 68672821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia coriacea ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12898256 ], 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"target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia figo var. figo . ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia figo var. skinneriana ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia flaviflora ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia floribunda . ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia foveolata ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12898244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia fujianensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia fulva ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 70391917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia fulva var. calcicola ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia fulva var. fulva . ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia gioi ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia guangdongensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia guangxiensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia hypolampra ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12898263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia iteophylla ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia kingii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia kisopa ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia koordersiana ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia lacei ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia laevifolia ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 68678336 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia lanuginosa ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia leveilleana ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia macclurei ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia macclurei var. macclurei. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia macclurei var. sublanea ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia mannii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia martinii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia masticata ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia maudiae ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia maudiae var. hunanensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia maudiae var. maudiae ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia maudiae var. platypetala ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia mediocris ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia microcarpa ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia microtricha . ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia montana ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 32441323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia nilagirica ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 46332756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia oblonga . ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia odora ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12898275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia opipara ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia philippinensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia punduana ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12898281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia rajaniana . ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia scortechinii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia shiluensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia sirindhorniae ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 57533504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia sphaerantha ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia subulifera ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia sumatrae ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia xanthantha ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12898294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia platyphylla ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia pubescens ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia sulawesiana ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 47453566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia tsiampacca ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia tsiampacca subsp. mollis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia tsiampacca subsp. tsiampacca ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia tsiampacca subsp. tsiampacca var. glaberrima ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia tsiampacca subsp. tsiampacca var. tsiampacca ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia vrieseana ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 42658024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia annamensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia carsonii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia carsonii var. carsonii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia carsonii var. drymifolia ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia carsonii var. phaulanta ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia cathcartii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia griffithii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12894943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia gustavii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12894954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia macklottii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia macklottii var. beccariana ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia macklottii var. macklottii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia pealiana ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia ashtonii ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia bintuluensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia borneensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia elegans ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 57390166 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia pahangensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia kachirachirai ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12894983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia lotungensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia nitida ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia omeiensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12895022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia yunnanensis ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 33222064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia pleiocarpa ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 44075087 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia praecalva ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12903741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnolia sinica ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 68671751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In general, the genus Magnolia has attracted horticultural interest. Some, such as the shrub M. stellata (star magnolia) and the tree M. × soulangeana (saucer magnolia) flower quite early in the spring, before the leaves open. Others flower in late spring or early summer, including M. virginiana (sweetbay magnolia) and M. grandiflora (southern magnolia).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 502217, 14627569, 493120, 496263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 105 ], [ 135, 151 ], [ 284, 297 ], [ 322, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hybridisation has been immensely successful in combining the best aspects of different species to give plants which flower at an earlier age than the parent species, as well as having more impressive flowers. One of the most popular garden magnolias, M. × soulangeana, is a hybrid of M. liliiflora and M. denudata.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 41244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the eastern United States, five native species are frequently in cultivation: M. acuminata (as a shade tree), M. grandiflora, M. virginiana, M. tripetala, and M. macrophylla. The last two species must be planted where high winds are not a frequent problem because of the large size of their leaves.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The flowers of many species are considered edible. In parts of England, the petals of M. grandiflora are pickled and used as a spicy condiment. In some Asian cuisines, the buds are pickled and used to flavor rice and scent tea. In Japan, the young leaves and flower buds of Magnolia hypoleuca are broiled and eaten as a vegetable. Older leaves are made into a powder and used as seasoning; dried, whole leaves are placed on a charcoal brazier and filled with miso, leeks, daikon, and shiitake, and broiled. There is a type of miso which is seasoned with magnolia, hoba miso.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 9316, 62155, 15573, 1232154, 20889, 180545, 170920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 70 ], [ 133, 142 ], [ 231, 236 ], [ 274, 292 ], [ 459, 463 ], [ 472, 478 ], [ 484, 492 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The bark and flower buds of M. officinalis have long been used in traditional Chinese medicine, where they are known as hou po (厚朴). In Japan, kōboku, M. obovata, has been used in a similar manner.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 5992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The cucumbertree, M. acuminata, grows to large size and is harvested as a timber tree in northeastern US forests. Its wood is sold as \"yellow poplar\" along with that of the tuliptree, Liriodendron tulipifera. The Fraser magnolia, M. fraseri, also attains enough size sometimes to be harvested, as well.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 322543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 184, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Magnolias are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including the giant leopard moth.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 50357, 53307, 2047744 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 46 ], [ 56, 67 ], [ 91, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The aromatic bark contains magnolol, honokiol, 4-O-methylhonokiol, and obovatol. Magnolol and honokiol activate the nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Chemical compounds and bioeffects", "target_page_ids": [ 12029706, 11259189, 37241492, 41484239, 6103321, 12755189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 35 ], [ 37, 45 ], [ 47, 65 ], [ 71, 79 ], [ 116, 132 ], [ 133, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " White or Yulan magnolia (subgenus Yulania) is the official flower of the Chinese metropolis Shanghai.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1194211, 27643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ], [ 93, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Magnolia grandiflora is the official state flower of both Mississippi and Louisiana. The flower's abundance in Mississippi is reflected in its nickname of \"Magnolia State\" and the state flag. The magnolia is also the official state tree of Mississippi. One of the many nicknames for the city of Houston is \"Magnolia City\". Historically, magnolias have been associated with the Southern United States.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 496263, 346404, 16949861, 18130, 436053, 496001, 431030, 13774, 179553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 37, 49 ], [ 58, 69 ], [ 74, 83 ], [ 143, 151 ], [ 186, 190 ], [ 226, 236 ], [ 295, 302 ], [ 378, 400 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Magnolia sieboldii is the national flower of North Korea.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1409303, 21255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 45, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Magnolia sieboldii is the official flower of Gangnam.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1409303, 3517146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 45, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Paul Thomas Anderson created a movie titled Magnolia.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 419280, 231829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 44, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Steel Magnolias is a 1989 American comedy-drama film about the bond among a group of women from Louisiana, who can be as beautiful as magnolias, but are as tough as steel. The name 'magnolia' specifically refers to a magnolia tree about which they are arguing at the beginning.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 600008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The folksong \"Bungong Jeumpa\", from Aceh, Indonesia, means magnolia flower.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 170625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The French song by Salvatore Adamo \"Les collines de Rabiah\" in the 1970s describes the magnolia trees in Beirut and calls for peace.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2262230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Grateful Dead recorded a song titled \"Sugar Magnolia\" that was first released on the 1970 album American Beauty. The song made its live debut on June 7, 1970, at the Fillmore West in San Francisco. The semiofficial 1972 Dead movie Sunshine Daydream has its title taken from the song's coda section.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 12542, 3731820, 178307, 2239406, 49728, 1882118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 18 ], [ 43, 57 ], [ 102, 117 ], [ 173, 186 ], [ 190, 203 ], [ 238, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers second studio album You're Gonna Get It! includes a track called \"Magnolia\", written by Tom Petty.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 148556, 3795809, 61853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ], [ 53, 73 ], [ 121, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " J.J. Cale (1938–2013) wrote a song about a woman named Magnolia, which has been covered by Poco, Beck and Lucinda Williams.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 723359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Scent of Magnolia\" is the first track in David Sylvian's compilation album, Everything and Nothing.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 264430, 3773703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 62 ], [ 82, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 2003, Ohia released The Magnolia Electric Co. This was the last release under that project's name for Jason Molina before renaming his band Magnolia Electric Co. after the album.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1764579, 1089293 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 50 ], [ 145, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Magnolia\" is the fifth track on Australian indie rock group Gang of Youths' debut album, The Positions.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 48823119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Magnolia\" is a hit song by rapper Playboi Carti", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 52054405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In his song titled \"Marry Me\" Thomas Rhett mentions the magnolia flower.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 34909929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In his song titled \"Roller Coaster\" Danny Vera mentions the magnolia flower.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 66220780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Sweet Magnolia Tree\" is the eighth track on Doug Wamble's 2003 CD Country Libations.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 13758892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Singer-songwriter Brian Fallon of The Gaslight Anthem included \"Honey Magnolia\" to his first solo debut album titled Painkillers released in March 2016.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 29836065, 14111532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 31 ], [ 35, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The 1989 movie Steel Magnolias is based on a 1987 play, Steel Magnolias, by Robert Harling.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 28304110, 5924106 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 72 ], [ 77, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In the 1939 song \"Strange Fruit\", originally written as a poem by New York schoolteacher and communist activist Abel Meeropol to condemn the practice of lynching, the magnolia flower was referred to as being associated with the Southern United States, where many lynchings took place:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 573658, 570296, 100416, 179553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 32 ], [ 113, 126 ], [ 154, 162 ], [ 229, 251 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pastoral scene of the gallant south", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The bulging eyes and the twisted mouth", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Scent of magnolias, sweet and fresh,", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Then the sudden smell of burning flesh.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Despite Meeropol's frequent mention of the South and magnolia trees, the horrific image which inspired his poem, Lawrence Beitler's 1930 photograph capturing the lynching of Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith following the robbery and murder of Claude Deteer, actually occurred in Marion, Indiana, where magnolia trees are less common.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2635206, 2635206, 112280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 129 ], [ 174, 202 ], [ 275, 290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In the 1960s, magnolias were a symbol of the South in the popular press: the New York Post noted of Lyndon Johnson that \"A man who wore a ten-gallon Stetson and spoke with a magnolia accent had little hope of winning the Democratic nomination in 1960\", and biographer Robert Caro picks up the symbol by saying that when Johnson became president \"[t]he taint of magnolias still remained to be scrubbed off.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Canadian artist, Sarah Maloney, has created a series of sculptures of magnolia flowers in bronze and steel, entitled First Flowers, in which she draws our attention to the dual symbols of beginnings in the flower, as both an evolutionary archetype and also one of the first trees to flower in spring (see illustration).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " List of AGM magnolias", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38083836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Magnolia images at the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University Plant Image Database", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Friedman, William (Ned). \"Hunting magnolia fruits at the Arboretum.\" Posts from the Collection, Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University website, 20 October 2019. Accessed 29 April 2020.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dosmann, Michael and Nancy Rose. \"Early to Evolve, Early to Flower: Collections Up Close Spotlights the Magnolia Collection.\" Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University website, Spring/Summer 2014. Accessed 29 April 2020.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Magnolia - April Tree of the Month.\" Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, 2014. Accessed 29 April 2020.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Glasser, Larissa. \"Magnolia madness in April.\" Blog of the Arnold Arboretum Horticultural Library, Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University website, 19 April 2017. Accessed 29 April 2020.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Magnolia", "Magnoliales_genera", "Culture_of_the_Southern_United_States", "Medicinal_plants", "National_symbols_of_North_Korea", "Plants_used_in_traditional_Chinese_medicine", "Symbols_of_Louisiana", "Symbols_of_Mississippi" ]

[ "Magnolia tree", "Magnolia" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Salzburg (, ; literally \"Salt-Castle\"; ) is the fourth-largest city in Austria. In 2020, it had a population of 156,872.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 157297, 26964606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 67 ], [ 71, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The town is on the site of the Roman settlement of Iuvavum. Salzburg was founded as an episcopal see in 696 and became a seat of the archbishop in 798. Its main sources of income were salt extraction, trade and gold-mining. The fortress of Hohensalzburg, one of the largest medieval fortresses in Europe, dates from the 11th century. In the 17th century, Salzburg became a center of the Counter-Reformation, with monasteries and numerous Baroque churches built.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 199657, 255366, 7349883, 236236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 100 ], [ 121, 143 ], [ 240, 253 ], [ 387, 406 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Salzburg's historic center (German: Altstadt) is renowned for its Baroque architecture and is one of the best-preserved city-centers north of the Alps. The historic center was enlisted as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996. The city has three universities and a large population of students. Tourists also visit Salzburg to tour the historic center and the scenic Alpine surroundings.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 24263964, 11884, 344140, 21786641, 44940, 981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ], [ 28, 34 ], [ 66, 86 ], [ 190, 196 ], [ 197, 216 ], [ 366, 372 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Traces of human settlements have been found in the area, dating to the Neolithic Age. The first settlements in Salzburg continuous with the present were apparently by the Celts around the 5th century BC.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6084894, 21189, 6546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ], [ 71, 84 ], [ 171, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Around 15BC the Roman Empire merged the settlements into one city. At this time, the city was called \"Juvavum\" and was awarded the status of a Roman municipium in 45 AD. Juvavum developed into an important town of the Roman province of Noricum. After the Norican frontier's collapse, Juvavum declined so sharply that by the late 7th century it nearly became a ruin.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 25507, 1190968, 1400, 314732, 64716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 28 ], [ 149, 159 ], [ 166, 168 ], [ 218, 232 ], [ 236, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Life of Saint Rupert credits the 8th-century saint with the city's rebirth. When Theodo of Bavaria asked Rupert to become bishop c.700, Rupert reconnoitered the river for the site of his basilica. Rupert chose Juvavum, ordained priests, and annexed the manor of Piding. Rupert named the city \"Salzburg\". He travelled to evangelise among pagans.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1655841, 5748164, 4092, 54675, 105796, 23340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 24 ], [ 85, 102 ], [ 126, 132 ], [ 191, 199 ], [ 324, 334 ], [ 341, 347 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The name Salzburg means \"Salt-Castle\" (Latin: Salis Burgium). The name derives from the barges carrying salt on the River Salzach, which were subject to a toll in the 8th century as was customary for many communities and cities on European rivers. Hohensalzburg Fortress, the city's fortress, was built in 1077 by Archbishop Gebhard, who made it his residence. It was greatly expanded during the following centuries.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 17730, 192644, 7349883, 204118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 44 ], [ 122, 129 ], [ 248, 270 ], [ 283, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Independence from Bavaria was secured in the late 14th century. Salzburg was the seat of the Archbishopric of Salzburg, a prince-bishopric of the Holy Roman Empire. As the Reformation movement gained steam, riots broke out among peasants in the areas in and around Salzburg. The city was occupied during the German Peasants' War, and the Archbishop had to flee to the safety of the fortress. It was besieged for three months in 1525.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 148597, 255366, 51270, 13277, 41207308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 25 ], [ 93, 118 ], [ 122, 135 ], [ 146, 163 ], [ 308, 328 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eventually, tensions were quelled, and the city's independence led to an increase in wealth and prosperity, culminating in the late 16th to 18th centuries under the Prince Archbishops Wolf Dietrich von Raitenau, Markus Sittikus, and Paris Lodron. It was in the 17th century that Italian architects (and Austrians who had studied the Baroque style) rebuilt the city-center as it is today along with many palaces.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 22715291, 37084367, 67682796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 184, 210 ], [ 212, 227 ], [ 233, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 31 October 1731, the 214th anniversary of the 95 Theses, Archbishop Count Leopold Anton von Firmian signed an Edict of Expulsion, the Emigrationspatent, directing all Protestant citizens to recant their non-Catholic beliefs. 21,475 citizens refused to recant their beliefs and were expelled from Salzburg. Most of them accepted an offer by King Friedrich Wilhelm I of Prussia, travelling the length and breadth of Germany to their new homes in East Prussia. The rest settled in other Protestant states in Europe and the British colonies in America.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 188050, 255366, 20932558, 25814008, 11794, 242701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 58 ], [ 60, 70 ], [ 77, 102 ], [ 170, 180 ], [ 348, 367 ], [ 371, 378 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1772–1803, under archbishop Hieronymus Graf von Colloredo, Salzburg was a center of late Illuminism. Colloredo is known for being one of the main employers of Mozart. He often had arguments with Mozart and he dismissed him by saying, \"Soll er doch gehen, ich brauche ihn nicht!\" (may he leave; I don't need him!). Mozart would leave Salzburg for Vienna in 1781 with his family, though his father Leopold stayed back as he had a close relationship with Colloredo.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23830180, 30758, 33163 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 60 ], [ 92, 102 ], [ 162, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1803, the archbishopric was secularised by Emperor Napoleon; he transferred the territory to Ferdinando III of Tuscany, former Grand Duke of Tuscany, as the Electorate of Salzburg.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 69880, 679153, 18484256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 62 ], [ 144, 151 ], [ 160, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1805, Salzburg was annexed to the Austrian Empire, along with the Berchtesgaden Provostry.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 266894, 9226948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 52 ], [ 69, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1809, the territory of Salzburg was transferred to the Kingdom of Bavaria after Austria's defeat at Wagram.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3043377, 157767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 76 ], [ 103, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the Congress of Vienna with the Treaty of Munich (1816), Salzburg was definitively returned to Austria, but without Rupertigau and Berchtesgaden, which remained with Bavaria. Salzburg was integrated into the Province of Salzach and Salzburgerland was ruled from Linz.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 44628, 49645756, 3764, 55856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ], [ 38, 61 ], [ 172, 179 ], [ 268, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1850, Salzburg's status was restored as the capital of the Duchy of Salzburg, a crownland of the Austrian Empire. The city became part of Austria-Hungary in 1866 as the capital of a crownland of the Austrian Empire. The nostalgia of the Romantic Era led to increased tourism. In 1892, a funicular was installed to facilitate tourism to Hohensalzburg Fortress.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 8115100, 610038, 266894, 2983, 26094, 50680, 7349883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 79 ], [ 83, 92 ], [ 100, 115 ], [ 141, 156 ], [ 240, 252 ], [ 290, 299 ], [ 339, 361 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following World War I and the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Salzburg, as the capital of one of the Austro-Hungarian territories, became part of the new German Austria. In 1918, it represented the residual German-speaking territories of the Austrian heartlands. This was replaced by the First Austrian Republic in 1919, after the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2983, 6428150, 1076948, 2507138, 464190 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 129 ], [ 166, 180 ], [ 219, 234 ], [ 300, 323 ], [ 343, 381 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Anschluss (the occupation and annexation of Austria, including Salzburg, into the Third Reich) took place on 12 March 1938, one day before a scheduled referendum on Austria's independence. German troops moved into the city. Political opponents, Jewish citizens and other minorities were subsequently arrested and deported to concentration camps. The synagogue was destroyed. After Germany invaded the Soviet Union, several POW camps for prisoners from the Soviet Union and other enemy nations were organized in the city.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18951602, 21212, 51582, 2666510, 145551, 10396793, 48559, 1029985, 26779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 13 ], [ 86, 97 ], [ 155, 165 ], [ 249, 264 ], [ 269, 285 ], [ 317, 325 ], [ 354, 363 ], [ 427, 435 ], [ 460, 472 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Nazi occupation, a Romani camp was built in Salzburg-Maxglan. It was an Arbeitserziehungslager (work 'education' camp), which provided slave-labor to local industry. It also operated as a Zwischenlager (transit camp), holding Roma before their deportation to German camps or ghettos in German-occupied territories in eastern Europe.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 26152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Allied bombing destroyed 7,600 houses and killed 550 inhabitants. Fifteen air strikes destroyed 46 percent of the city's buildings, especially those around Salzburg railway station. Although the town's bridges and the dome of the cathedral were destroyed, much of its Baroque architecture remained intact. As a result, Salzburg is one of the few remaining examples of a town of its style. American troops entered the city on 5 May 1945 and it became the centre of the American-occupied area in Austria. Several displaced persons camps were established in Salzburgamong them Riedenburg, Camp Herzl (Franz-Josefs-Kaserne), Camp Mülln, Bet Bialik, Bet Trumpeldor, and New Palestine.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2198844, 2605078, 2842421, 11137012, 438046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 230, 239 ], [ 389, 404 ], [ 468, 501 ], [ 512, 534 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After World WarII, Salzburg became the capital city of the Federal State of Salzburg (Land Salzburg) and saw the Americans leave the area once Austria had signed a 1955 treaty reestablishing the country as a democratic and independent nation and subsequently declared its perpetual neutrality. In the 1960s, the city became the shooting and setting of the family musical film The Sound of Music. On 27 January 2006, the 250th anniversary of the birth of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, all 35 churches of Salzburg rang their bells after 8:00p.m. (local time) to celebrate the occasion. Major celebrations took place throughout the year.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 55859, 733522, 2998086, 4836239, 33163 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 84 ], [ 164, 241 ], [ 259, 292 ], [ 376, 394 ], [ 454, 477 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of 2017 Salzburg had a GDP per capita of €46,100, which was greater than the average for Austria and for most European countries.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Salzburg is on the banks of the River Salzach, at the northern boundary of the Alps. The mountains to Salzburg's south contrast with the rolling plains to the north. The closest alpine peak, the 1,972‑metre-high Untersberg, is less than from the city-center. The Altstadt, or \"old town\", is dominated by its baroque towers and churches and the massive Hohensalzburg Fortress. This area is flanked by two smaller hills, the Mönchsberg and Kapuzinerberg, which offer green relief within the city. Salzburg is approximately east of Munich, northwest of Ljubljana, Slovenia, and west of Vienna. Salzburg has about the same latitude of Seattle.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 192644, 981, 1144566, 3957, 7349883, 22073750, 19817446, 19058, 42374, 27338, 55866, 11388236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 45 ], [ 79, 83 ], [ 212, 222 ], [ 309, 316 ], [ 353, 375 ], [ 424, 434 ], [ 439, 452 ], [ 531, 537 ], [ 553, 562 ], [ 564, 572 ], [ 587, 593 ], [ 635, 642 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to its proximity to the Austrian-German border, the greater Salzburg urban area has sometimes been regarded as, unofficially, including contiguous parts of Germany, including Freilassing (until 1923 known as Salzburghofen), Ainring and Piding. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 780341, 4914874, 908761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 179, 190 ], [ 228, 235 ], [ 240, 246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Salzburg is part of the temperate zone. The Köppen climate classification specifies the climate as a humid continental climate (Dfb). However, with the isotherm for the coldest month, Salzburg can be classified as having four-season oceanic climate with significant temperature differences between seasons. Due to the location at the northern rim of the Alps, the amount of precipitation is comparatively high, mainly in the summer months. The specific drizzle is called Schnürlregen in the local dialect. In winter and spring, pronounced foehn winds regularly occur.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 50051, 484254, 1225918, 560047, 1980717, 351423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 33 ], [ 44, 73 ], [ 101, 118 ], [ 234, 249 ], [ 454, 461 ], [ 540, 550 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Salzburg's official population significantly increased in 1935 when the city absorbed adjacent municipalities. After World War II, numerous refugees found a new home in the city. New residential space was constructed for American soldiers of the postwar occupation, and could be used for refugees when they left. Around 1950, Salzburg passed the mark of 100,000 citizens, and in 2016, it reached the mark of 150000 citizens.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 19038, 45547, 45547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 109 ], [ 140, 148 ], [ 288, 295 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Salzburg is home to large German, Bosnian, Serbian, and Romanian communities.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Largest groups of immigrants by 1 January 2021 :", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Romanesque and Gothic churches, the monasteries and the early carcass houses dominated the medieval city for a long time. The Cathedral of Archbishop Conrad of Wittelsbach was the largest basilica north of the Alps. The choir of the Franciscan Church, construction was begun by Hans von Burghausen and completed by Stephan Krumenauer, is one of the most prestigious religious gothic constructions of southern Germany. At the end of the Gothic era Nonnberg Abbey, the Margaret Chapel in St Peter's Abbey, St George's Chapel, and the stately halls of the \"Hoher Stock\" in Hohensalzburg Fortress were constructed.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 52686, 54044, 6325, 45856, 18836, 48557, 7559495, 54675, 981, 40736080, 18568651, 4037996, 4482477, 7349883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 19, 25 ], [ 26, 34 ], [ 40, 51 ], [ 95, 103 ], [ 143, 153 ], [ 154, 175 ], [ 192, 200 ], [ 214, 218 ], [ 237, 254 ], [ 282, 301 ], [ 451, 465 ], [ 490, 506 ], [ 574, 596 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Inspired by Vincenzo Scamozzi, Prince Archbishop Wolf Dietrich von Raitenau began to transform the medieval town to the architectural ideals of the late Renaissance. Plans for a massive cathedral by Scamozzi failed to materialize upon the fall of the archbishop. A second cathedral planned by Santino Solari rose as the first early Baroque church in Salzburg. It served as an example for many other churches in Southern Germany and Austria. Markus Sittikus and Paris von Lodron continued to rebuild the city with major projects such as Hellbrunn Palace, the prince archbishop's residence, the university buildings, fortifications, and many other buildings. Giovanni Antonio Daria managed by order of Prince Archbishop Guido von Thun the construction of the residential well. Giovanni Gaspare Zuccalli, by order of the same archbishop, created the Erhard and the Kajetan church in the south of the town. The city's redesign was completed with buildings designed by Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, donated by Prince Archbishop Johann Ernst von Thun.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 434770, 22715291, 25532, 425933, 3957, 11867, 26964606, 7906646, 1000768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 29 ], [ 49, 75 ], [ 153, 164 ], [ 293, 307 ], [ 332, 339 ], [ 420, 427 ], [ 432, 439 ], [ 536, 552 ], [ 964, 998 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the era of Ernst von Thun, the city's expansion came to a halt, which is the reason why there are no churches built in the Rococo style. Sigismund von Schrattenbach continued with the construction of \"Sigmundstor\" and the statue of holy Maria on the cathedral square. With the fall and division of the former \"Fürsterzbistum Salzburg\" (Archbishopric) to Upper Austria, Bavaria (Rupertigau) and Tyrol (Zillertal Matrei) began a long period of urban stagnancy. This era didn't end before the period of promoterism (Gründerzeit) brought new life into urban development. The builder dynasty Jakob Ceconi and Carl Freiherr von Schwarz filled major positions in shaping the city in this era.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 36886, 24484303, 146894, 3764, 31121074, 698982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 135 ], [ 143, 170 ], [ 360, 373 ], [ 375, 382 ], [ 400, 405 ], [ 519, 530 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Buildings of classical modernism and in particular the post-war modernism are frequently encountered in Salzburg. Examples are the Zahnwurzen house (a house in the Linzergasse22 in the right center of the old town), the \"Lepi\" (a public baths in Leopoldskron) (built 1964) and the original 1957 constructed congress-center of Salzburg, which was replaced by a new building in 2001. An important and famous example of architecture of this era is the 1960 opening of the Großes Festspielhaus by Clemens Holzmeister.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 315927, 6876877, 3064711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 32 ], [ 469, 489 ], [ 493, 512 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adding contemporary architecture to Salzburg's old town without risking its UNESCO World Heritage status is problematic. Nevertheless, some new structures have been added: the Mozarteum at the Baroque Mirabell Garden (Architecture Robert Rechenauer), the 2001 Congress House (Architecture: Freemasons), the 2011 Unipark Nonntal (Architecture: Storch Ehlers Partners), the 2001 \"Makartsteg\" bridge (Architecture: HALLE1), and the \"Residential and Studio House\" of the architects Christine and Horst Lechner in the middle of Salzburg's old town (winner of the architecture award of Salzburg 2010). Other examples of contemporary architecture lie outside the old town: the Faculty of Science building (Universität Salzburg – Architecture Willhelm Holzbauer) built on the edge of free green space, the blob architecture of Red Bull Hangar-7 (Architecture: Volkmar Burgstaller) at Salzburg Airport, home to Dietrich Mateschitz's Flying Bulls and the Europark Shopping Centre. (Architecture: Massimiliano Fuksas)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 3970948, 3802047, 21674337, 1671570, 29909402, 1291735, 13332201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 32 ], [ 176, 185 ], [ 201, 216 ], [ 798, 815 ], [ 828, 836 ], [ 902, 921 ], [ 986, 1005 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Salzburg has twenty-four urban districts and three extra-urban populations.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Districts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Urban districts (Stadtteile):", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Districts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Aigen", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Districts", "target_page_ids": [ 21674701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Altstadt", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Districts", "target_page_ids": [ 24263964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Elisabeth-Vorstadt", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Districts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gneis", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Districts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gneis-Süd", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Districts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gnigl", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Districts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Itzling", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Districts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Itzling-Nord", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Districts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kasern", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Districts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Langwied", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Districts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lehen", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Districts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Leopoldskron-Moos", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Districts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Liefering", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Districts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Maxglan", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Districts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Maxglan-West", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Districts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Morzg", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Districts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mülln", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Districts", "target_page_ids": [ 33589334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Neustadt", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Districts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Nonntal", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Districts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Parsch", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Districts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Riedenburg", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Districts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Salzburg-Süd", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Districts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Taxham", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Districts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Schallmoos", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Districts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Extra-urban populations (Landschaftsräume):", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Districts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gaisberg", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Districts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hellbrunn", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Districts", "target_page_ids": [ 22073914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Heuberg", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Districts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Salzburg is a tourist favorite, with the number of visitors outnumbering locals by a large margin in peak times. In addition to Mozart's birthplace noted above, other notable places include:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 159124 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Old Town", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Historic center of the city of Salzburg, a World Heritage Site", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 24263964, 44940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ], [ 44, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Baroque architecture, including many churches", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Felsenreitschule, an open-air theatre built in the quarry used for the construction of Salzburg Cathedral", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 33955828 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Franziskanerkirche, one of Salzburg's oldest buildings, dating from 1208 and used by the Franciscans since 1642", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 40736080, 64176 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 90, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Getreidegasse, a busy narrow shopping street characterized by numerous high townhouses", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 10543690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Großes Festspielhaus, an opera house and concert hall dating from 1960 and built for the annual Salzburg Festival", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 6876877, 320672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 97, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Haus für Mozart, formerly the Kleines Festspielhaus, an opera house and concert hall dating from 1925", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 33955849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hohensalzburg Fortress (Festung Hohensalzburg), overlooking the Old Town, one of the largest castles in Europe", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 7349883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Holy Trinity Church (Dreifaltigkeitskirche), dating from 1694", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 38664927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hotel Goldener Hirsch, a five-star hotel located in a building on Getreidegasse dating back to at least 1407", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 49119512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kollegienkirche, the Baroque style church of the University of Salzburg", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 53991125, 344140, 1267399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 22, 35 ], [ 50, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mirabell Palace (Schloss Mirabell), a pleasure palace built in 1606 with wide gardens and a marble hall", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 21674337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Museum der Moderne Salzburg, a modern art museum with locations in the old city and on the Mönchsberg", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 43749642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mozartplatz, a historic square with monument to Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 69542099, 33163 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 49, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mozart's birthplace (Mozarts Geburtshaus), a house in Getreidegasse that is now a museum dedicated to Mozart", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 40656380 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nonnberg Abbey (Stift Nonnberg), a Benedictine monastery founded c.712/715 ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 4037996, 4240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 36, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Residenz, the former residence of the Prince-Archbishops", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 21673371, 255366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 39, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Residenzgalerie, an art museum in the Residenz", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 21673296 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Residenzplatz, a large square outside the Residenz with a large and ornate fountain", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 22100066 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Salzburg Cathedral (Salzburger Dom)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 2605078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Salzburger Landestheater, a theatre and venue for opera, theatre, and dance, with resident companies of actors, singers and dancers", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 33955903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Salzburger Marionettentheater, a marionette theatre established in 1912", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 12664776, 301264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ], [ 34, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Salzburg Museum, a museum of artistic and cultural history of the city and region of Salzburg", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 21206764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sigmundstor, an eighteenth century tunnel connecting the Altstadt with the Riedenburg quarter through the Mönchsberg", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 61500805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " , a sculpture of a man on a golden sphere (Stephan Balkenhol, 2007)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " St Peter's Abbey (Stift Sankt Peter), a Benedictine monastery founded 696 with a well-known cemetery ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 4482477, 4240, 22073591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 41, 52 ], [ 80, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " (Sebastianskirche), a church consecrated in 1511", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Outside the Old Town", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Schloss Leopoldskron, a rococo palace and national historic monument in Leopoldskron-Moos, a southern district of Salzburg", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 4237162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hellbrunn with its parks and castles", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 22073914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Sound of Music tour companies who operate tours of film locations", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 4836239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hangar-7, a multifunctional building owned by Red Bull, with a collection of historical airplanes, helicopters and Formula One racing cars", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 29909402, 61123, 10854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 47, 55 ], [ 116, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Greater Salzburg area", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Anif Castle, located south of the city in Anif", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 10238805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shrine of Our Lady of Maria Plain, a late Baroque church on the northern edge of Salzburg", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Salzburger Freilichtmuseum Großgmain, an open-air museum containing old farmhouses from all over the state assembled in an historic setting", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Schloss Klessheim, a palace and casino, formerly used by Adolf Hitler", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 12331996, 2731583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 58, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Berghof, Hitler's mountain retreat near Berchtesgaden", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 343975, 40158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 41, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kehlsteinhaus, the only remnant of Hitler's Berghof ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 343979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Salzkammergut, an area of lakes east of the city", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 605517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Untersberg mountain, next to the city on the Austria–Germany border, with panoramic views of Salzburg and the surrounding Alps", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 1144566, 54344163 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 46, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Skiing is an attraction during winter. Salzburg itself has no skiing facilities, but it acts as a gateway to skiing areas to the south. During the winter months its airport receives charter flights from around Europe.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 28478, 2870621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 183, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Salzburg Zoo, located south of the city in Anif", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 22691830, 10238805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Salzburg is a center of education and home to three universities, as well as several professional colleges and gymnasiums (high schools).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 217203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Salzburg University of Applied Sciences", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " University of Salzburg, a federal public university", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 1267399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Paracelsus Medical University", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 21501548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mozarteum University Salzburg, a public music and dramatic arts university", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 3802047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alma Mater Europaea, a private university", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 34821617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " SEAD – Salzburg Experimental Academy of Dance", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Saint Liutberga (died c. 870).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable citizens", "target_page_ids": [ 30886963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, born and raised in Salzburg when it was part of the Prince-Archbishopric of Salzburg within the Holy Roman Empire, was employed as musician at the archbishopal court from 1773 to 1781. His house of birth and residence are tourist attractions. His family is buried in a small church graveyard in the old town, and there are many monuments to \"Wolferl\" in the city.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable citizens", "target_page_ids": [ 33163, 48557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 37 ], [ 186, 196 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The composer Johann Michael Haydn, brother of the composer Joseph Haydn. His works were admired by Mozart and Schubert. He was also the teacher of Carl Maria von Weber and Anton Diabelli and is known for his sacred music.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable citizens", "target_page_ids": [ 157943, 16094, 33163, 44888, 45190, 2313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 34 ], [ 60, 72 ], [ 100, 106 ], [ 111, 119 ], [ 148, 168 ], [ 173, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Christian Doppler, expert on acoustic theory, was born in Salzburg. He is most known for his discovery of the Doppler effect.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable citizens", "target_page_ids": [ 7080, 1198, 8724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 30, 38 ], [ 111, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Josef Mohr, born in Salzburg. Together with Franz Gruber, he composed and wrote the text for \"Silent Night\". As a priest in neighboring Oberndorf he performed the song for the first time on Christmas Eve 1818.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable citizens", "target_page_ids": [ 1128626, 153936, 161636, 2653694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 45, 57 ], [ 95, 107 ], [ 137, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " King Otto of Greece was born Prince Otto Friedrich Ludwig of Bavaria at the Palace of Mirabell, a few days before the city reverted from Bavarian to Austrian rule.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable citizens", "target_page_ids": [ 193686, 57010779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 10 ], [ 14, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Writer Stefan Zweig, lived in Salzburg for about 15 years, until 1934.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable citizens", "target_page_ids": [ 100224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Trapp Family, including Georg von Trapp, Maria von Trapp, and their children lived in Salzburg until they fled to the United States following the Nazi takeover.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable citizens", "target_page_ids": [ 2112284, 62582, 764505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 17 ], [ 29, 44 ], [ 46, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Salzburg is the birthplace of Hans Makart, a 19th-century Austrian painter-decorator and national celebrity. Makartplatz (Makart Square) is named in his honor.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable citizens", "target_page_ids": [ 379951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Writer Thomas Bernhard, raised in Salzburg and spent part of his life there.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable citizens", "target_page_ids": [ 1048113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Herbert von Karajan, notable orchestral conductor. He was born in Salzburg and died in 1989 in neighboring Anif.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable citizens", "target_page_ids": [ 251388, 10238805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 108, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roland Ratzenberger, Formula One driver, was born in Salzburg. He died in practice for the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable citizens", "target_page_ids": [ 343022, 10854, 3297716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 22, 33 ], [ 92, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Joseph Leutgeb, virtuoso on the French horn, was part of the archbishop's court.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable citizens", "target_page_ids": [ 4368064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Paracelsus, Swiss physician, alchemist and astrologer of the German Renaissance, died in Salzburg.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable citizens", "target_page_ids": [ 152487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Klaus Ager, distinguished contemporary composer and Mozarteum professor, was born in Salzburg on 10 May 1946.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable citizens", "target_page_ids": [ 12682544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alex Jesaulenko, former Australian rules soccer-player for Carlton and Australian Soccer Hall of Fame member with \"Legend\" status was born in Salzburg on 2 August 1945.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable citizens", "target_page_ids": [ 3149251, 2403, 3217561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 25, 55 ], [ 72, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Georg Trakl, one of the most important voices in German literature was born in Salzburg.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable citizens", "target_page_ids": [ 60231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Irma von Troll-Borostyani, an Austrian writer, journalist, and campaigner for women's rights.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable citizens", "target_page_ids": [ 68539228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Theodor Herzl, worked in the courts in Salzburg during the year after he earned his law degree in 1884.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable citizens", "target_page_ids": [ 8233758, 75358, 534412 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 30, 36 ], [ 85, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Skydiver and BASE Jumper Felix Baumgartner, who set three world records during the Red Bull Stratos project on 14 October 2012.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable citizens", "target_page_ids": [ 5449624, 28589199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 43 ], [ 84, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hilda Crozzoli, Austria's first female architect and civil engineer.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable citizens", "target_page_ids": [ 64366923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ferdinand Habsburg, racing driver and heir apparent to the headship of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable citizens", "target_page_ids": [ 7487924, 213047, 8261965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 39, 52 ], [ 76, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Salzburg Festival is a famous music and theatre festival that attracts visitors during the months of July and August each year. A smaller Salzburg Easter Festival is held around Easter each year.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 320672, 5894916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 22 ], [ 143, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Europrix multimedia award takes place in Salzburg.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Electric Love Festival takes place in Salzburg", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 45027107 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Salzburg Hauptbahnhof is served by comprehensive rail connections, with frequent east–west trains serving Vienna, Munich, Innsbruck, and Zürich, including daily high-speed ICE services. North–south rail connections also serve popular destinations such as Venice and Prague. The city acts as a hub for south-bound trains through the Alps into Italy.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 27458829, 55866, 19058, 55857, 40334603, 186716, 32616, 23844, 14532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 106, 112 ], [ 114, 120 ], [ 122, 131 ], [ 137, 143 ], [ 172, 175 ], [ 255, 261 ], [ 266, 272 ], [ 342, 347 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Salzburg Airport has scheduled flights to European cities such as Frankfurt, Vienna, London, Rotterdam, Amsterdam, Brussels, Düsseldorf, and Zürich, as well as Hamburg, Edinburgh and Dublin. In addition to these, there are numerous charter flights.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 4434028, 10992, 55866, 17867, 26049, 844, 3708, 65711, 40334603, 13467, 9602, 8504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 66, 75 ], [ 77, 83 ], [ 85, 91 ], [ 93, 102 ], [ 104, 113 ], [ 115, 123 ], [ 125, 135 ], [ 141, 147 ], [ 160, 167 ], [ 169, 178 ], [ 183, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the main city, there is the Salzburg trolleybus system and bus system with a total of more than 20 lines, and service every 10 minutes. Salzburg has an S-Bahn system with four Lines (S1, S2, S3, S11), trains depart from the main station every 30 minutes, and they are part of the ÖBB network. Suburb line number S1 reaches the world-famous Silent Night chapel in Oberndorf in about 25 minutes.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 32743891, 38554284, 367119, 2653694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 57 ], [ 155, 161 ], [ 283, 286 ], [ 366, 375 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1960s, The Sound of Music, based on the true story of Maria von Trapp, who took up with an aristocratic family and fled the German Anschluss, used locations in and around Salzburg and the state of Salzburg as filming locations.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 4836239, 764505, 18951602, 55859, 2272383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 32 ], [ 61, 76 ], [ 138, 147 ], [ 191, 212 ], [ 216, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city briefly appears on the map when Indiana Jones travels through the city in Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 51888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Salzburg is the setting for the Austrian crime series Stockinger.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 16084525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2010 film Knight & Day, Salzburg serves as the backdrop for a large portion of the film.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 24586901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austrian German is widely written and differs from Germany's standard variation only in some vocabulary and a few grammar points. Salzburg belongs to the region of Austro-Bavarian dialects, in particular Central Bavarian. It is widely spoken by young and old alike although professors of linguistics from the Universität Salzburg, Irmgard Kaiser and Hannes Scheutz, have seen over the past few years a reduction in the number of dialect speakers in the city. Although more and more school children are speaking standard German, Scheutz feels it has less to do with parental influence and more to do with media consumption.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Language", "target_page_ids": [ 825, 153500, 1213613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 164, 179 ], [ 204, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The former SV Austria Salzburg reached the UEFA Cup final in 1994. On 6 April 2005 Red Bull bought the club and changed its name into FC Red Bull Salzburg. The home stadium of Red Bull Salzburg is the Wals Siezenheim Stadium in a suburb in the agglomeration of Salzburg and was one of the venues for the 2008 European Football Championship. The FC Red Bull Salzburg plays in the Austrian Bundesliga.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 232175, 5367078, 61123, 2163477, 30860057, 662351, 1946366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 51 ], [ 61, 65 ], [ 83, 91 ], [ 134, 154 ], [ 201, 224 ], [ 304, 339 ], [ 379, 398 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Red Bull had bought the SV Austria Salzburg and changed its name and team colors, some supporters of the club decided to leave and form a new club with the old name and old colors, wanting to preserve the traditions of their club. The reformed SV Austria Salzburg was founded in 2005 and currently plays in the Erste Liga, only one tier below the Bundesliga.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 1946078, 11507795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 250, 269 ], [ 317, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Red Bull also sponsors the local ice hockey team, the EC Salzburg Red Bulls. The team plays in the Erste Bank Eishockey Liga, an Austria-headquartered crossborder league featuring the best teams from Austria, Hungary, Slovenia, Croatia and Italy, as well as one Czech team.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 14790, 6360969, 9760394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 43 ], [ 54, 75 ], [ 99, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Salzburg was a candidate city for the 2010 and 2014 Winter Olympics, but lost to Vancouver and Sochi respectively.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 178749, 893219, 32706, 88314 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 42 ], [ 47, 67 ], [ 81, 90 ], [ 95, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Salzburg is twinned with:", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Reims, Marne, Grand Est, France, since 1964", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 48845, 86872, 45032068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 7, 12 ], [ 14, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Verona, Verona, Veneto, Italy, since 1973", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 263991, 990199, 43780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 8, 14 ], [ 16, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "León, Nicaragua, since 1984", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 272888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Singida, Tanzania, since 1984", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 49076738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Busseto, Parma, Emilia-Romagna, Italy, since 1988", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 1157986, 987110, 162715 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 9, 14 ], [ 16, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vilnius, Lithuania, since 1989", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 32597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dresden, Saxony, Germany, since 1991", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 37410, 28395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 9, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kawasaki, Japan, since 1992", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 6793101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Meran, South Tyrol, Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, Italy, since 2000", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 1093727, 169611, 246766 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 7, 18 ], [ 20, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shanghai, China, since 2004", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 27643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jahrom, Iran, since 2019", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 1266707 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of World Heritage Sites in Austria", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 37723989 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Salzburg, Austria – Travel guide at visit-salzburg.net", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Salzburg Tourist Office– Salzburg city tourist board website", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Salzburg", "15_BC_establishments", "Austrian_state_capitals", "Cities_and_towns_in_Salzburg_(state)", "Displaced_persons_camps_in_the_aftermath_of_World_War_II", "Districts_of_Salzburg_(state)", "World_Heritage_Sites_in_Austria", "Holocaust_locations_in_Austria" ]

[ "Salzburg, Austria" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Rhododendron (; from Ancient Greek rhódon \"rose\" and déndron \"tree\") is a very large genus of about 1,024 species of woody plants in the heath family (Ericaceae). They can be either evergreen or deciduous. Most species are native to eastern Asia and the Himalayan region, but smaller numbers occur elsewhere in Asia, and in North America, Europe and Australia. It is the national flower of Nepal, the state flower of Washington and West Virginia in the United States, the state flower of Nagaland in India, the provincial flower of Jiangxi in China and the state tree of Sikkim and Uttarakhand in India. Most species have brightly colored flowers which bloom from late winter through to early summer.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 148363, 38493, 21780446, 9555, 66719, 66722, 37966, 3328431, 171166, 346404, 13015878, 32905, 408677, 173817, 20817144, 140372, 1429154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 34 ], [ 87, 92 ], [ 108, 115 ], [ 139, 151 ], [ 184, 193 ], [ 197, 206 ], [ 256, 264 ], [ 373, 388 ], [ 392, 397 ], [ 403, 415 ], [ 419, 429 ], [ 434, 447 ], [ 490, 498 ], [ 534, 541 ], [ 559, 569 ], [ 573, 579 ], [ 584, 595 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Azaleas make up two subgenera of Rhododendron. They are distinguished from \"true\" rhododendrons by having only five anthers per flower.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 142813, 193031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 116, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rhododendron is a genus of shrubs and small to (rarely) large trees, the smallest species growing to tall, and the largest, R. protistum var. giganteum, reported to tall. The leaves are spirally arranged; leaf size can range from to over , exceptionally in R. sinogrande. They may be either evergreen or deciduous. In some species, the undersides of the leaves are covered with scales (lepidote) or hairs (indumentum). Some of the best known species are noted for their many clusters of large flowers. There are alpine species with small flowers and small leaves, and tropical species such as section Vireya that often grow as epiphytes. Species in this genus may be part of the heath complex in oak-heath forests in eastern North America.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 61708, 18955875, 18973622, 58676920, 66719, 66722, 3069014, 30960524, 57994, 22320319 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 32 ], [ 62, 66 ], [ 177, 183 ], [ 261, 274 ], [ 295, 304 ], [ 308, 317 ], [ 597, 604 ], [ 605, 611 ], [ 631, 639 ], [ 700, 716 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "They have frequently been divided based on the presence or absence of scales on the abaxial (lower) leaf surface (lepidote or elepidote). These scales, unique to subgenus Rhododendron, are modified hairs consisting of a polygonal scale attached by a stalk.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 18973622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rhododendron are characterised by having inflorescences with scarious (dry) perulae, a chromosome number of x=13, fruit that has a septicidal capsule, an ovary that is superior (or nearly so), stamens that have no appendages, and agglutinate (clumped) pollen.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 63528, 43604, 23219, 10843, 2321613, 310441, 3449340, 193031, 2933956, 46980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 55 ], [ 76, 83 ], [ 87, 104 ], [ 114, 119 ], [ 131, 141 ], [ 142, 149 ], [ 154, 159 ], [ 193, 200 ], [ 230, 241 ], [ 252, 258 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rhododendron is the largest genus in the family Ericaceae, with over 1000 species, (though estimates vary from 850 to 1200) and is morphologically diverse. Consequently, the taxonomy has been historically complex.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 9555, 1099348, 30463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 57 ], [ 132, 147 ], [ 175, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Rhododendrons had been known since the description of Rhododendron hirsutum by Charles de l'Écluse (Clusius) in the sixteenth century, and were known to classical writers (Magor 1990), and referred to as Chamaerhododendron (low-growing rose tree), the genus was first formally described by Linnaeus in his Species Plantarum in 1753. He listed five species under Rhododendron (Rhododendron ferrugineum (type species), R. dauricum, R. hirsutum, R. chamaecistus (now Rhodothamnus chamaecistus (L.) Rchb.) and R. maximum). At that time he considered the then known six species of Azalea that he had described earlier in 1735 in his Systema Naturae as a separate genus.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 19106036, 691873, 5233, 2011017, 4284039, 532379, 43037165, 19106036, 6953404, 142813, 1478634 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 84 ], [ 88, 107 ], [ 299, 307 ], [ 315, 332 ], [ 385, 409 ], [ 411, 423 ], [ 426, 437 ], [ 439, 450 ], [ 515, 525 ], [ 585, 591 ], [ 637, 652 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Linnaeus' six species of Azalea were Azalea indica, A. pontica, A. lutea, A. viscosa, A. lapponica and A. procumbens (now Kalmia procumbens), which he distinguished from Rhododendron by having five stamens, as opposed to ten. As new species of what are now considered Rhododendron were discovered, they were assigned to separate genera if they seemed to differ significantly from the type species. For instance Rhodora (Linnaeus 1763) for Rhododendron canadense, Vireya (Blume 1826) and Hymenanthes (Blume 1826) for Rhododendron metternichii, now R. degronianum. Meanwhile, other botanists such as Salisbury (1796) and Tate (1831) began to question the distinction between Azalea and Rhododendron, and finally in 1836, Azalea was incorporated into Rhododendron and the genus divided into eight sections. Of these Tsutsutsi (Tsutsusi), Pentanthera, Pogonanthum, Ponticum and Rhodora are still used, the other sections being Lepipherum, Booram, and Chamaecistus. This structure largely survived till recently (2004), following which the development of molecular phylogeny led to major re-examinations of traditional morphological classifications, although other authors such as Candolle, who described six sections, used slightly different numeration.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 32221442, 6609938, 8057268, 8872088, 37559032, 32333212, 193031, 2191319, 1161357, 37549202, 633762, 26783038, 6591715, 2191319 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 50 ], [ 52, 62 ], [ 64, 72 ], [ 74, 84 ], [ 86, 98 ], [ 122, 139 ], [ 198, 205 ], [ 439, 461 ], [ 471, 476 ], [ 547, 561 ], [ 598, 607 ], [ 824, 832 ], [ 835, 846 ], [ 874, 881 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soon, as more species became available in the nineteenth century so did a better understanding of the characteristics necessary for the major divisions. Chief amongst these were Maximovicz's Rhododendreae Asiae Orientali and Planchon. Maximovicz used flower bud position and its relationship with leaf buds to create eight \"Sections\". Bentham and Hooker used a similar scheme, but called the divisions \"Series\". It was not until 1893 that Koehne appreciated the significance of scaling and hence the separation of lepidote and elepidote species. The large number of species that were available by the early twentieth century prompted a new approach when Balfour introduced the concept of grouping species into series. The Species of Rhododendron referred to this series concept as the Balfourian system. That system continued up to modern times in Davidian's four volume The Rhododendron Species.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 1050748, 6331503, 4345598, 19779719, 6197509, 1207395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 178, 188 ], [ 225, 233 ], [ 335, 353 ], [ 439, 445 ], [ 654, 661 ], [ 710, 716 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The next major attempt at classification was by Sleumer who from 1934 began incorporating the Balfourian series into the older hierarchical structure of subgenera and sections, according to the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, culminating in 1949 with his \"Ein System der Gattung Rhododendron L.\", and subsequent refinements. Most of the Balfourian series are represented by Sleumer as subsections, though some appear as sections or even subgenera. Sleumer based his system on the relationship of the flower buds to the leaf buds, habitat, flower structure, and whether the leaves were lepidote or non-lepidote. While Sleumer's work was widely accepted, many in the United States and the United Kingdom continued to use the simpler Balfourian system of the Edinburgh group.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 14234788, 396505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 55 ], [ 194, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sleumer's system underwent many revisions by others, predominantly the Edinburgh group in their continuing Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh notes. Cullen of the Edinburgh group, placing more emphasis on the lepidote characteristics of the leaves, united all of the lepidote species into subgenus Rhododendron, including four of Sleumer's subgenera (Rhododendron, Pseudoazalea, Pseudorhodorastrum, Rhodorastrum). In 1986 Philipson & Philipson raised two sections of subgenus Aleastrum (Mumeazalea, Candidastrum) to subgenera, while reducing genus Therorhodion to a subgenus of Rhododendron. In 1987 Spethmann, adding phytochemical features proposed a system with fifteen subgenera grouped into three 'chorus' subgenera.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 1105269, 68987114, 472231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 137 ], [ 430, 439 ], [ 614, 627 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A number of closely related genera had been included together with Rhododendron in a former tribe, Rhodoreae. These have been progressively incorporated into Rhododendron. Chamberlain and Rae moved the monotypic section Tsusiopsis together with the monotypic genus Tsusiophyllum into section Tsutsusi, while Kron & Judd reduced genus Ledum to a subsection of section Rhododendron. Then Judd & Kron moved two species (Rhododendron schlippenbachii, R. quinquefolium) from section Brachybachii, subgenus Tsutsusi and two from section Rhodora, subgenus Pentanthera (R. albrechtii, R. pentaphyllum) into section Sciadorhodion, subgenus Pentanthera. Finally Chamberlain brought the various systems together in 1996, with 1,025 species divided into eight subgenera. For a comparison of the Sleumer and Chamberlain schemata see Table 1 of Goetsch (2005).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 412702, 2684000, 7015465, 70600196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 202, 211 ], [ 334, 339 ], [ 417, 445 ], [ 562, 575 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The era of molecular analysis rather than descriptive features can be dated to the work of Kurashige (1988) and Kron (1997) who used matK sequencing. Later Gao et al. (2002) used ITS sequences to determine a cladistic analysis. They confirmed that the genus Rhododendron was monophyletic, with subgenus Therorhodion in the basal position, consistent with the matK studies. Following publication of the studies of Goetsch et al. (2005) with RPB2, there began an ongoing realignment of species and groups within the genus, based on evolutionary relationships. Their work was more supportive of Sleumer's original system than the later modifications introduced by Chamberlain et al..", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 41206357, 28615, 1226339, 5376, 20611, 11287648, 14118869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 137 ], [ 138, 148 ], [ 179, 182 ], [ 208, 217 ], [ 275, 287 ], [ 323, 337 ], [ 440, 444 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The major finding of Goetsch and colleagues was that all species examined (except R. camtschaticum, subgenus Therorhodion) formed three major clades which they labelled A, B and C, with the subgenera Rhododendron and Hymenanthes nested within clades A and B as monophyletic groups respectively. By contrast subgenera Azaleastrum and Pentanthera were polyphyletic, while R. camtschaticum appeared as a sister to all other rhododendrons. The small polyphyletic subgenera Pentanthera and Azaleastrum were divided between two clades. The four sections of Pentanthera between clades B and C, with two each, while Azaleastrum had one section in each of A and C.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 6682, 20611, 310091, 2438185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 148 ], [ 261, 273 ], [ 350, 362 ], [ 401, 407 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thus subgenera Azaleastrum and Pentanthera needed to be disassembled, and Rhododendron, Hymenanthes and Tsutsusi correspondingly expanded. In addition to the two separate genera included under Rhododendron by Chamberlain (Ledum, Tsusiophyllum), Goetsch et al.. added Menziesia (Clade C). Despite a degree of paraphyly, the subgenus Rhododendron was otherwise untouched with regard to its three sections but four other subgenera were eliminated and one new subgenus created, leaving a total of five subgenera in all, from eight in Chamberlain's scheme. The discontinued subgenera are Pentanthera, Tsutsusi, Candidastrum and Mumeazalea, while a new subgenus was created by elevating subgenus Azaleastrum section Choniastrum to subgenus rank.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 2684000, 6686775, 24454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 222, 227 ], [ 267, 276 ], [ 308, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Subgenus Pentanthera (deciduous azaleas) with its four sections was dismembered by eliminating two sections and redistributing the other two between the existing subgenera in clades B (Hymenanthes) and C (Azaleastrum), although the name was retained in section Pentanthera (14 species) which was moved to subgenus Hymenanthes. Of the remaining three sections, monotypic Viscidula was discontinued by moving Rhododendron nipponicum to Tsutsusi (C), while Rhodora (2 species) was itself polyphyletic and was broken up by moving Rhododendron canadense to section Pentanthera (B) and Rhododendron vaseyi to section Sciadorhodion, which then became a new section of subgenus Azaleastrum (C).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 2191319, 35319798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 526, 548 ], [ 580, 599 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Subgenus Tsutsusi (C) was reduced to section status retaining the name, and included in subgenus Azaleastrum. Of the three minor subgenera, all in C, two were discontinued. The single species of monotypic subgenus Candidastrum (Rhododendron albiflorum) was moved to subgenus Azaleastrum, section Sciadorhodion. Similarly the single species in monotypic subgenus Mumeazalea (Rhododendron semibarbatum) was placed in the new section Tsutsusi, subgenus Azaleastrum. Genus Menziesa (9 species) was also added to section Sciadorhodion. The remaining small subgenus Therorhodion with its two species was left intact. Thus two subgenera, Hymenanthes and Azaleastrum were expanded at the expense of four subgenera that were eliminated, although Azaleastrum lost one section (Choniastrum) as a new subgenus, since it was a distinct subclade in A. In all, Hymenanthes increased from one to two sections, while Azaleastrum, by losing one section and gaining two increased from two to three sections. (See schemata under Subgenera) (Table 1.)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 412702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 195, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Subsequent research has supported the revision by Goetsch, although has largely concentrated on further defining the phylogeny within the subdivisions. In 2011 the two species of Diplarche were also added to Rhododendron, incertae sedis.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 1409922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 222, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This genus has been progressively subdivided into a hierarchy of subgenus, section, subsection, and species.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 38493, 185907, 3069014, 3069014, 21780446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 10 ], [ 65, 73 ], [ 75, 82 ], [ 84, 94 ], [ 100, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Terminology from the Sleumer (1949) system is frequently found in older literature, with five subgenera and is as follows;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Subgenus Lepidorrhodium Koehne: Lepidotes. 3 sections", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Subgenus Eurhododendron Maxim.: Elipidotes. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Subgenus Pseudanthodendron Sleumer: Deciduous azaleas. 3 sections", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Subgenus Anthodendron Rehder & Wilson: Evergreen azaleas. 3 sections", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Subgenus Azaleastrum Planch.: 4 sections", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the later traditional classification, attributed to Chamberlain (1996), and as used by horticulturalists and the American Rhododendron Society, Rhododendron has eight subgenera based on morphology, namely the presence of scales (lepidote), deciduousness of leaves, and the floral and vegetative branching patterns, after Sleumer (1980). These consist of four large and four small subgenera. The first two subgenera (Rhododendron and Hymenanthes) represent the species commonly considered as 'Rhododendrons'. The next two smaller subgenera (Pentanthera and Tsutsusi) represent the 'Azaleas'. The remaining four subgenera contain very few species. The largest of these is subgenus Rhododendron, containing nearly half of all known species and all of the lepidote species.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 216260, 27105536, 185907, 1099348, 66722 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 107 ], [ 116, 145 ], [ 170, 179 ], [ 189, 199 ], [ 243, 256 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Subgenus Rhododendron : Small leaf or lepidotes (scales on the underside of the leaves). 3 sections, 462 species, type species: Rhododendron ferrugineum.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 6593352, 5520588, 532379, 4284039 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 21 ], [ 38, 47 ], [ 114, 126 ], [ 128, 152 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Subgenus Hymenanthes : Large leaf or elepidotes (without scales). 1 section, 224 species, type Rhododendron degronianum.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 6594127, 18973622, 37549202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 20 ], [ 37, 47 ], [ 95, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Subgenus Pentanthera : Deciduous azaleas. 4 sections, 23 species, type Rhododendron luteum.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 6591715, 6609938 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 20 ], [ 71, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Subgenus Tsutsusi : Evergreen azaleas. 2 sections, 80 species, type Rhododendron indicum.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 26783038, 32221442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 17 ], [ 68, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Subgenus Azaleastrum : 2 sections, 16 species, type Rhododendron ovatum.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 43076378, 43076525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 20 ], [ 52, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Subgenus Candidastrum : 1 species, Rhododendron albiflorum.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Subgenus Mumeazalea : 1 species, Rhododendron semibarbatum.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Subgenus Therorhodion : 2 species (Rhododendron camtschaticum, Rhododendron redowskianun).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For a comparison of the Sleumer and Chamberlain systems, see Goetsch et al. (2005) Table 1.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This division was based on a number of what were thought to be key morphological characteristics. These included the position of the inflorescence buds (terminal or lateral), whether lepidote or elepidote, deciduousness of leaves, and whether new foliage was derived from axils from previous year's shoots or the lowest scaly leaves (Table 2.).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 18973622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 272, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the cladistic analysis of Goetsch et al. (2005) this scheme was simplified, based on the discovery of three major clades (A, B, C) as follows.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 5376, 6682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 32 ], [ 124, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Clade A", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Subgenus Rhododendron L.: Small leaf or lepidotes (scales on the underside of the leaves). 3 sections, about 400 species, type species: Rhododendron ferrugineum.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 6593352, 5520588, 532379, 4284039 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ], [ 41, 50 ], [ 123, 135 ], [ 137, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Subgenus Choniastrum Franch. : 11 species", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 43195459 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Clade B", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Subgenus Hymenanthes (Blume) K.Koch: Large leaf or elepidotes (without scales), including deciduous azaleas. 2 sections, about 140–225 species, type Rhododendron degronianum.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 6594127, 18973622, 37549202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ], [ 52, 62 ], [ 150, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Clade C", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Subgenus Azaleastrum Planch.: Evergreen azaleas. 3 sections, about 120 species, type Rhododendron ovatum.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 43076378, 43076525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ], [ 86, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sister taxon", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 2438185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Subgenus Therorhodion (Maxim.) A. Gray: 2 species (Rhododendron camtschaticum, Rhododendron redowskianun).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The larger subgenera are further subdivided into sections and subsections Some subgenera contain only a single section, and some sections only a single subsection. Shown here is the traditional classification, with species number after Chamberlain (1996), but this scheme is undergoing constant revision. Revisions by Goetsch et al. (2005) and by Craven et al. (2008) shown in (parenthetical italics). Older ranks such as Series (groups of species) are no longer used but may be found in the literature, but the American Rhododendron Society still uses a similar device, called Alliances", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Subgenus Rhododendron L. (3 sections, 462 species: increased to five sections in 2008)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "(Discovereya (Sleumer) Argent, raised from Vireya)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pogonathum Aitch. & Hemsl. (13 species; Himalaya and adjacent mountains)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "(Pseudovireya (C.B.Clarke) Argent, raised from Vireya)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Rhododendron L. (149 species in 25 subsections; temperate to subarctic Northern Hemisphere)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Vireya (Blume) Copel.f. (300 species in 2 subsections; tropical southeast Asia, Australasia. At one time considered separate subgenus)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 30960524 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Subgenus Hymenanthes (Blume) K.Koch (1 section, 224 species) (Increased to two sections)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 6594127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ponticum (24 subsections)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "(Pentanthera (2 subsections – new section, moved from subgenus Pentanthera)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 6592329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Subgenus Pentanthera (4 sections, 23 species) (Discontinued)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pentanthera (2 subsections – moved to subgenus Hymenanthes)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 6592329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rhodora (L.) G. Don (2 species; Rhododendron canadense, Rhododendron vaseyi) (Discontinued, redistributed)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 2191319, 2191319, 35319798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 32, 54 ], [ 56, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sciadorhodion Rehder & Wilson (4 species) (Moved to subgenus Azaleastrum)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Viscidula Matsum. & Nakai (1 species; Rhododendron nipponicum) (Discontinued, added to section Tsutsusi, subgenus Azaleastrum)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Subgenus Tsutsusi (Sweet) Pojarkova (2 sections, 80 species) (Discontinued, reduced to section and moved to subgenus Azaleastrum)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Brachycalyx Sweet (3 alliances, 15 species)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 43263882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tsutsusi (Sweet) Pojarkova (65 species)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 26783038 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Subgenus Azaleastrum Planch. (2 sections, 16 species) (Increased to three sections)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Azaleastrum Planch. (5 species)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "(Choniastrum Franch. (11 species) (Raised to subgenus))", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "(Sciadorhodion Rehder & Wilson (4 species) (Moved from subgenus Pentanthera))", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "(Tsutsusi (Sweet) Pojarkova (reduced from subgenus))", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Subgenus Candidastrum Franch. (1 species: Rhododendron albiflorum) (Discontinued, moved to section Sciadorhodion, subgenus Azaleastrum)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Subgenus Mumeazalea (Sleumer) W.R. Philipson & M.N. Philipson (1 species: Rhododendron semibarbatum) (Discontinued, moved to section Tsutsusi, subgenus Azaleastrum)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Subgenus Therorhodion A. Gray (2 species)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "(Subgenus Choniastrum Franch. (11 species))", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Species of the genus Rhododendron are widely distributed between latitudes 80°N and 20°S and are native to areas from North America to Europe, Russia, and Asia, and from Greenland to Queensland, Australia and the Solomon Islands. The centres of diversity are in the Himalayas and Malaysia, with the greatest species diversity in the Sino-Himalayan region, Southwest China and northern Burma, from India – Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Nagaland to Nepal, northwestern Yunnan and western Sichuan and southeastern Tibet. Other significant areas of diversity are in the mountains of Korea, Japan and Taiwan. More than 90% of Rhododendron sensu Chamberlain belong to the Asian subgenera Rhododendron, Hymenanthes and section Tsutsusi. Of the first two of these, the species are predominantly found in the area of the Himalayas and Southwest China (Sino-Himalayan Region).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distribution and habitat", "target_page_ids": [ 9019997, 9239, 25391, 689, 12118, 59051, 4689264, 265083, 19854812, 37966, 3607937, 19457, 14190, 1429154, 140372, 408677, 171166, 166410, 65185, 31516, 16749, 15573, 25734 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 103 ], [ 135, 141 ], [ 143, 149 ], [ 155, 159 ], [ 170, 179 ], [ 183, 193 ], [ 195, 204 ], [ 213, 228 ], [ 234, 254 ], [ 266, 275 ], [ 280, 288 ], [ 385, 390 ], [ 405, 421 ], [ 423, 434 ], [ 436, 442 ], [ 447, 455 ], [ 459, 464 ], [ 479, 485 ], [ 498, 505 ], [ 523, 528 ], [ 591, 596 ], [ 598, 603 ], [ 608, 614 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 300 tropical species within the Vireya section of subgenus Rhododendron occupy the Malay archipelago from their presumed Southeast Asian origin to Northern Australia, with 55 known species in Borneo and 164 in New Guinea. The species in New Guinea are native to subalpine moist grasslands at around 3,000 metres above sea level in the Central Highlands. Subgenera Rhododendron and Hymenanthes, together with section Pentanthera of subgenus Pentanthera are also represented to a lesser degree in the Mountainous areas of North America and Western Eurasia. Subgenus Tsutsusi is found in the maritime regions of East Asia (Japan, Korea, Taiwan, East China), but not in North America or Eurasia.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distribution and habitat", "target_page_ids": [ 456161, 30960524, 503249, 4518, 20611456, 35340561, 198842, 20611107, 19605700, 683693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 16 ], [ 36, 42 ], [ 87, 104 ], [ 196, 202 ], [ 214, 224 ], [ 266, 275 ], [ 282, 292 ], [ 542, 557 ], [ 613, 622 ], [ 646, 656 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the United States, native Rhododendron mostly occur in lowland and montane forests in the Pacific Northwest, California, the Northeast, and the Appalachian Mountains.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distribution and habitat", "target_page_ids": [ 78147, 5407, 431669, 85023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 110 ], [ 112, 122 ], [ 128, 137 ], [ 147, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rhododendron ponticum has become invasive in Ireland and the United Kingdom. It is an introduced species, spreading in woodland areas and replacing the natural understory. R. ponticum is difficult to eradicate, as its roots can make new shoots.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 6598861, 14560, 31717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 45, 52 ], [ 61, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A number of insects either target rhododendrons or will opportunistically attack them. Rhododendron borers and various weevils are major pests of rhododendrons, and many caterpillars will preferentially devour them.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 339399, 48337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 125 ], [ 170, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rhododendron species are used as food plants by the larvae (caterpillars) of some butterflies and moths; see List of Lepidoptera that feed on rhododendrons.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 50357, 48337, 48338, 66633, 4543284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 57 ], [ 60, 72 ], [ 82, 93 ], [ 98, 103 ], [ 109, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Major diseases include Phytophthora root rot, stem and twig fungal dieback; Ohio State University Extension provides information on maintaining health of rhododendrons.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 442575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rhododendron bud blast, a fungal condition that causes buds to turn brown and dry, and not open, is caused by the fungus Pycnostysanus azaleae, which may be brought to the plant by the rhododendron leafhopper, Graphocephala fennahi.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In addition, rhododendrons can easily be suffocated by other plants or evergreen trees that grow up around them and block sunlight.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Both species and hybrid rhododendrons (including azaleas) are used extensively as ornamental plants in landscaping in many parts of the world, including both temperate and subtemperate regions. Many species and cultivars are grown commercially for the nursery trade.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 216428, 374240, 50051, 435078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 98 ], [ 103, 114 ], [ 158, 167 ], [ 252, 259 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rhododendrons can be propagated by air layering or stem cuttings. They can self-propagate by sending up shoots from the roots. Sometimes an attached branch that has drooped to the ground will root in damp mulch, and the resulting rooted plant then can be cut off the parent rhododendron.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Rhododendrons are often valued in landscaping for their structure, size, flowers, and the fact that many of them are evergreen. Azaleas are frequently used around foundations and occasionally as hedges, and many larger-leafed rhododendrons lend themselves well to more informal plantings and woodland gardens, or as specimen plants. In some areas, larger rhododendrons can be pruned to encourage more tree-like form, with some species such as Rhododendron arboreum and R. falconeri eventually growing to a height of or more.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 69831660, 15873366, 51575645 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 292, 307 ], [ 443, 464 ], [ 469, 481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rhododendrons are grown commercially in many areas for sale, and are occasionally collected in the wild, a practice now rare in most areas. Larger commercial growers often ship long distances; in the United States, most of them are on the west coast (Oregon, Washington state and California). Large-scale commercial growing often selects for different characteristics than hobbyist growers might want, such as resistance to root rot when overwatered, ability to be forced into budding early, ease of rooting or other propagation, and saleability.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh, rhododendron flowers have been used for some time to make popular fruit and flower wines. The industry is promoted by the state government with tax benefits, looking to promote this industry as a full-fledged subclass of its economy.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Horticulturally, rhododendrons may be divided into the following groups:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Evergreen rhododendrons - large group of evergreen shrubs that vary greatly in size. Most rhododendron flowers are bell-shaped and have 10 stamens.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Vireya (Malesian) rhododendrons: epiphytic tender shrubs", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 30960524, 460541, 57994, 1135529 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 16 ], [ 34, 43 ], [ 44, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Azaleas – group of shrubs which have smaller and thinner leaves than evergreen rhododendrons. They are generally medium-sized shrubs with smaller funnel-shaped flowers that usually have 5 stamens:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 142813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Deciduous hybrid azaleas:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Exbury hybrids – derived from the Knap Hill hybrids, developed by Lionel de Rothschild at the Exbury Estate in England.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 3365297, 2613325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 87 ], [ 95, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ghent (Gandavense) hybrids – Belgian raised", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Knap Hill hybrids – developed by Anthony Waterer at the Knap Hill Nursery in England.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 8399734 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mollis hybrids – Dutch and Belgian raised", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " New Zealand Ilam hybrids – derived from Knap Hill/Exbury hybrids", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Occidentale hybrids – English raised", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rustica Flore Pleno hybrids – sweet-scented, double-flowered", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Evergreen hybrid azaleas:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gable hybrids – raised by Joseph B. Gable in Pennsylvania.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 23332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Glenn Dale hybrids – US raised complex hybrids", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Indian (Indica) hybrids – mostly of Belgian origin", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kaempferi hybrids – Dutch raised", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kurume hybrids – Japanese raised", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kyushu hybrids – very hardy Japanese azaleas (to −30°C)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Oldhamii hybrids – dwarf hybrids raised at Exbury, England", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 2613322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Satsuki hybrids – Japanese raised, originally for bonsai", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 173276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shammarello hybrids – raised in northern Ohio", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 22199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vuyk (Vuykiana) hybrids – raised in the Netherlands", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Azaleodendrons – semi-evergreen hybrids between deciduous azaleas and rhododendrons", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Like other ericaceous plants, most rhododendrons prefer acid soils with a pH of roughly 4.5–5.5; some tropical Vireyas and a few other rhododendron species grow as epiphytes and require a planting mix similar to orchids. Rhododendrons have fibrous roots and prefer well-drained soils high in organic material. In areas with poorly drained or alkaline soils, rhododendrons are often grown in raised beds using media such as composted pine bark. Mulching and careful watering are important, especially before the plant is established.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 9555, 57994, 22719 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 21 ], [ 164, 172 ], [ 212, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A new calcium-tolerant stock of rhododendrons (trademarked as 'Inkarho') has been exhibited at the RHS Chelsea Flower Show in London (2011). Individual hybrids of rhododendrons have been grafted on to a rootstock on a single rhododendron plant that was found growing in a chalk quarry. The rootstock is able to grow in calcium-rich soil up to a pH of 7.5.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 1919309, 57532, 230704, 14080493, 2613688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 22 ], [ 99, 102 ], [ 103, 122 ], [ 187, 194 ], [ 203, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rhododendrons are extensively hybridized in cultivation, and natural hybrids often occur in areas where species ranges overlap. There are over 28,000 cultivars of Rhododendron in the International Rhododendron Registry held by the Royal Horticultural Society. Most have been bred for their flowers, but a few are of garden interest because of ornamental leaves and some for ornamental bark or stems. Some hybrids have fragrant flowers—such as the Loderi hybrids, created by crossing Rhododendron fortunei and R. griffithianum. Other examples include the PJM hybrids, formed from a cross between Rhododendron carolinianum and R. dauricum, and named after Peter J. Mezitt of Weston Nurseries, Massachusetts.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 167906, 57532, 37549298, 37577339, 43037165 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 150, 158 ], [ 231, 258 ], [ 483, 504 ], [ 595, 620 ], [ 625, 636 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rhododendron species have long been used in traditional medicine. Animal studies and in vitro research have identified possible anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective activities which may be due to the antioxidant effects of flavonoids or other phenolic compounds and saponins the plant contains. Xiong et al. have found that the root of the plant is able to reduce the activity of NF-κB in rats.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 15188, 292340, 29833172, 591668, 2344516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 93 ], [ 225, 234 ], [ 245, 262 ], [ 268, 275 ], [ 382, 387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some species of rhododendron are poisonous to grazing animals because of a toxin called grayanotoxin in their pollen and nectar. People have been known to become ill from eating honey made by bees feeding on rhododendron and azalea flowers. Xenophon described the odd behaviour of Greek soldiers after having consumed honey in a village surrounded by Rhododendron ponticum during the march of the Ten Thousand in 401BCE. Pompey's soldiers reportedly suffered lethal casualties following the consumption of honey made from Rhododendron deliberately left behind by Pontic forces in 67BCE during the Third Mithridatic War. Later, it was recognized that honey resulting from these plants has a slightly hallucinogenic and laxative effect. The suspect rhododendrons are Rhododendron ponticum and Rhododendron luteum (formerly Azalea pontica), both found in northern Asia Minor. Eleven similar cases during the 1980s have been documented in Istanbul, Turkey. Rhododendron is extremely toxic to horses, with some animals dying within a few hours of ingesting the plant, although most horses tend to avoid it if they have access to good forage. The effects of R.ponticum were mentioned in the 2009 film Sherlock Holmes as a proposed way to arrange a fake execution. It was also mentioned in the third episode of Season2 of BBC's Sherlock, speculated to have been a part of Sherlock's fake death scheme.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 23740, 284842, 46980, 3883838, 14361, 4654, 142813, 34155, 42056, 6598861, 1720745, 23867, 1619567, 2363520, 18952932, 168526, 6598861, 6609938, 854, 3391396, 11125639, 19596597, 827638, 20816992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 80 ], [ 88, 100 ], [ 110, 116 ], [ 121, 127 ], [ 178, 183 ], [ 192, 195 ], [ 225, 231 ], [ 241, 249 ], [ 281, 286 ], [ 351, 372 ], [ 397, 409 ], [ 421, 427 ], [ 563, 569 ], [ 597, 618 ], [ 699, 713 ], [ 718, 726 ], [ 765, 786 ], [ 791, 810 ], [ 861, 871 ], [ 935, 943 ], [ 945, 951 ], [ 1195, 1210 ], [ 1242, 1256 ], [ 1321, 1329 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the language of flowers, the Rhododendron symbolizes danger and to beware.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 518268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rhododendron arboreum (lali guransh) is the national flower of Nepal. R. ponticum is the state flower of Indian-administered Kashmir and Pakistan-controlled Kashmir. Rhododendron niveum is the state tree of Sikkim in India. Rhododendron arboreum is also the state tree of the state of Uttarakhand, India. Pink Rhododendron (Rhododendron campanulatum) is the state flower of Himachal Pradesh, India. Rhododendron is also the provincial flower of Jiangxi, China and the state flower of Nagaland, the 16th state of the Indian Union.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 15873366, 171166, 3328431, 51299, 2745, 37577508, 140372, 14533, 1429154, 68001924, 14190, 408677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 63, 68 ], [ 89, 101 ], [ 105, 132 ], [ 137, 164 ], [ 166, 185 ], [ 207, 213 ], [ 217, 222 ], [ 286, 297 ], [ 325, 350 ], [ 375, 391 ], [ 485, 493 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rhododendron maximum, the most widespread rhododendron of the Appalachian Mountains, is the state flower of the US state of West Virginia, and is in the Flag of West Virginia.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 6953404, 85023, 32905, 497296 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 62, 83 ], [ 124, 137 ], [ 153, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rhododendron macrophyllum, a widespread rhododendron of the Pacific Northwest, is the state flower of the US state of Washington.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 8141639, 78147, 13015878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ], [ 60, 77 ], [ 118, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The nineteenth-century American poet and essayist Ralph Waldo Emerson in 1834 wrote a poem titled \"The Rhodora, On Being Asked, Whence Is the Flower\",", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Joyce's Ulysses, rhododendrons play an important role in Leopold and Molly's early courtship: Molly remembers them in her soliloquy – \"the sun shines for you he said the day we were lying among the rhododendrons on Howth head in the grey tweed suit and his straw hat the day I got him to propose to me\". Jasper Fforde a British author, also uses rhododendron as a motif throughout many of his published books. See Thursday Next series, and Shades of Grey.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 15600, 53930, 1037467, 191468, 1117954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 10 ], [ 11, 18 ], [ 218, 223 ], [ 307, 320 ], [ 417, 430 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amongst the Zomi tribes in India and Myanmar, \"Rhododendrons\" called \"Ngeisok\" is used in a poetic manner to signify a lady.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 28227838, 14533, 19457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 16 ], [ 27, 32 ], [ 37, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Daphne Du Maurier's novel Rebecca, the character of Rebecca is associated with \"blood red\" rhododendrons throughout the novel, perhaps due to the toxic roots of the plant mirroring the poisonous character of Rebecca. On the other hand, azaleas (a type of rhododendron) represent the second Mrs. De Winter.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 66877, 1259759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ], [ 29, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the young adult novel Walk Two Moons by Sharon Creech, the protagonist, Sal, and her friend, Phoebe, construct an elaborate story in which they suspect Phoebe's neighbor of murdering her husband and burying his body beneath a rhododendron in her yard. Chapter 14 of the book is entitled \"The Rhododendron\".", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 229058, 385612, 3027752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 18 ], [ 25, 39 ], [ 43, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The rhododendron is the national flower of Nepal, where the flower is considered edible and enjoyed for its sour taste. The pickled flower can last for months and the flower juice is also marketed. The flower, fresh or dried, is added to fish curry in the belief that it will soften the bones. The juice of rhododendron flower is used to make a squash called burans (named after the flower) in the hilly regions of Uttarakhand. It is admired for its distinctive flavor and color.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 171166, 285362, 1429154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 48 ], [ 345, 351 ], [ 415, 426 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The herbal tea called Labrador tea (not a true tea) is made from one of three closely related species: ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 29972, 29969 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 47, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rhododendron tomentosum (Northern Labrador tea, previously Ledum palustre) ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 4134143, 4134143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 60, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rhododendron groenlandicum, (Bog Labrador tea, previously Ledum groenlandicum or Ledum latifolium)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 3173599, 3173599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ], [ 59, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rhododendron neoglandulosum, (Western Labrador tea, or trapper's tea, previously Ledum glandulosum)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 41857236, 41857236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ], [ 82, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the UK the forerunner of the Rhododendron, Camellia and Magnolia Group (RCMG), The Rhododendron Society was founded in 1916. while in Scotland species are being conserved by the Rhododendron Species Conservation Group.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " List of Award of Garden Merit rhododendrons", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38765209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Rhododendron diseases", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9116494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Rhododendron species", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 37540630 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Sections in Subgenus Rhododendron", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 55172056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " (also available online at Gallica)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In four volumes: Vol. I. Lepidotes , Vol. II. Elepidotes. Arboreum-Lacteum , Vol. III. Elepidotes Continued, Neriiflorum-Thomsonii, Azaleastrum and Camtschaticum , Vol. IV. Azaleas .", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " .", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " . A reprint from Flora Malesiana ser. I, vol. 6, part 4. Pages 473 through 674. ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Yearbook of the Rhododendron Species Foundation, Federal Way, WA.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Records of the Rhododendron Society of America reside at the Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library at the University of Virginia.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Additional resources", "target_page_ids": [ 37755134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Rhododendron Discovery & Culture", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rhododendrons from Turkey, Anatolia", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Danish Genebank Rhododendron", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Danish Genebank. Rhododendron in different countries", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " German Genebank Rhododendron", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Description of damage caused by Rhododendrons in the UK", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Information on rhododendrons at the Ericaceae web pages of Dr. Kron at Wake Forest University.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Information on Vireyas", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Information+photos of hybrids and species", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Information on Rhododendrons by Marc Colombel, founder of the Société Bretonne du Rhododendron.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Extensive information on rhododendron species: the history of their discovery, botanical details, toxicity, classification, cultural conditions, care for common problems, and suggestions for companion plants by Steve Henning.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " History of Rhododendrons", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rhododendron in botanical garden Pruhonice-Czech republic", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " USDA Plants Database: Rhododendron", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 70896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ITIS Report: Rhododendron", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 442816 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " eFloras.org", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Flora of North America: Rhododendron", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Flora of China: Rhododendron", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Annotated Checklist of the Flowering Plants of Nepal: Rhododendron", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " American Rhododendron Society", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Quarterly Bulletin of the American Rhododendron Society 1947–1981", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Journal of the American Rhododendron Society (JARS) 1982–", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Information Source: .", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Rhododendron, Camellia & Magnolia Group of the Royal Horticultural Society", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rhododendron Species Foundation and Botanical Garden", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Société Finlandaise du Rhododendron", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Australian Rhododendron Society", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " German Rhododendron Society", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " New Zealand Rhododendron Association", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Danish Rhododendron Society", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fraser South Rhododendron Society", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh: Rhododendrons at the four Gardens ", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " National Rhododendron Gardens Melbourne Australia", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Rhododendron", "Ericaceae_genera", "Plants_used_in_traditional_Chinese_medicine", "National_symbols_of_Nepal", "Taxa_named_by_Carl_Linnaeus", "Extant_Ypresian_first_appearances" ]

[ "Rhododendron" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Fetchmail is an open-source software utility for POSIX-compliant operating systems which is used to retrieve e-mail from a remote POP3, IMAP, or ODMR mail server to the user's local system. It was developed from the popclient program, written by Carl Harris.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 277663, 23305, 9738, 23062, 14837, 1437366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 36 ], [ 49, 54 ], [ 109, 115 ], [ 130, 134 ], [ 136, 140 ], [ 145, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Its chief significance is perhaps that its author, Eric S. Raymond, used it as a model to discuss his theories of open-source software development in a widely read and influential essay on software development methodologies The Cathedral and the Bazaar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9469, 277663, 40351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 66 ], [ 114, 134 ], [ 224, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By design, Fetchmail's only means of delivering messages is by submitting them to the local MTA/Message transfer agent or invoking a mail delivery agent like procmail, maildrop, or sendmail; delivering directly to mail folders such as maildir is not supported.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design", "target_page_ids": [ 20624, 245021, 267615, 32331384, 48600, 60067 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 118 ], [ 133, 152 ], [ 158, 166 ], [ 168, 176 ], [ 181, 189 ], [ 235, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dan Bernstein, getmail creator Charles Cazabon and FreeBSD developer Terry Lambert, have criticized Fetchmail's design, its number of security holes, and that it was prematurely put into \"maintenance mode\". In 2004, a new team of maintainers took over Fetchmail development, and laid out development plans that broke with design decisions that Eric Raymond had made in earlier versions.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design", "target_page_ids": [ 198983, 1631071 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 15, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mail retrieval agent", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11517018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "getmail", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1631071 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "fdm", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 60073593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fetchmail at SourceForge", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Free_email_software", "Mail_delivery_agents" ]

[ "popclient" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The mayor of London is the chief executive of the Greater London Authority. The role was created in 2000 after the Greater London devolution referendum in 1998, and was the first directly elected mayor in the United Kingdom.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 40498, 615625, 3595128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 74 ], [ 115, 151 ], [ 179, 223 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The current mayor is Sadiq Khan, who took office on 9 May 2016. The position was held by Ken Livingstone from the creation of the role on 4 May 2000 until he was defeated in May 2008 by Boris Johnson, who then also served two terms before being succeeded by Khan.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1847198, 18247224, 19065069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 31 ], [ 89, 104 ], [ 186, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mayor is scrutinised by the London Assembly and, supported by their Mayoral Cabinet, directs the entirety of London, including the City of London (for which there is also the Lord Mayor of the City of London). Each London Borough also has a ceremonial mayor or, in Hackney, Lewisham, Newham and Tower Hamlets, an elected mayor.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 355966, 964835, 6883, 40339, 52613, 28959285, 28965830, 28911441, 28814971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 47 ], [ 72, 87 ], [ 135, 149 ], [ 179, 211 ], [ 219, 233 ], [ 266, 276 ], [ 278, 286 ], [ 288, 294 ], [ 299, 312 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Greater London Council, the elected government for Greater London, was abolished in 1986 by the Local Government Act 1985. Strategic functions were split off to various joint arrangements. Londoners voted in a referendum in 1998 to create a new governance structure for Greater London. The directly elected mayor of London was created by the Greater London Authority Act 1999 in 2000 as part of the reforms.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 61268, 858762, 615625, 3898541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 26 ], [ 100, 125 ], [ 212, 232 ], [ 346, 379 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mayor is elected by the supplementary vote method for a fixed term of four years, with elections taking place in May. As with most elected posts in the United Kingdom, there is a deposit (in this case of £10,000), which is returnable on the candidate's winning of at least 5% of the first-choice votes cast.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Elections", "target_page_ids": [ 4457732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most recent London mayoral election was held on 6 May 2021, having been delayed from May 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The results were announced in the evening of 8 May. Sadiq Khan was re-elected for a second term, beating the Conservative Shaun Bailey in the second round.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Elections", "target_page_ids": [ 62750956, 10367798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 126 ], [ 250, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Timeline", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Timeline", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Most powers are derived from the Greater London Authority Act 1999, with additional functions coming from the Greater London Authority Act 2007, the Localism Act 2011 and Police Reform and Social Responsibility Act 2011.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Powers and functions", "target_page_ids": [ 3898541, 26636696, 30139579, 33175803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 66 ], [ 110, 143 ], [ 149, 166 ], [ 171, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mayor's main functions are:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Powers and functions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Strategic planning, including housing, waste management, the environment and production of the London Plan", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Powers and functions", "target_page_ids": [ 3459405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Refuse or permit planning permission on strategic grounds", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Powers and functions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Transport policy, delivered by functional body Transport for London", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Powers and functions", "target_page_ids": [ 31145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fire and emergency planning, delivered by functional body London Fire and Emergency Planning Authority", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Powers and functions", "target_page_ids": [ 4582929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Policing and crime policy, delivered by functional body Mayor's Office for Policing and Crime (before 2012 by functional body Metropolitan Police Authority). The Metropolitan Police has a structure different to most others across the country, reporting to the Mayor of London instead of a police and crime commissioner.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Powers and functions", "target_page_ids": [ 34397040, 1733431, 192450, 34033521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 93 ], [ 126, 155 ], [ 162, 181 ], [ 289, 318 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Economic development, delivered directly by the Greater London Authority through subsidiary company GLA Land and Property (before 2012 by functional body London Development Agency)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Powers and functions", "target_page_ids": [ 41246204, 2808904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 121 ], [ 154, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Power to create development corporations, such as the London Legacy Development Corporation", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Powers and functions", "target_page_ids": [ 36735512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The remaining local government functions are performed by the London borough councils. There is some overlap; for example, the borough councils are responsible for waste management, but the mayor is required to produce a waste management strategy. In 2010, Johnson launched an initiative in partnership with the Multi-academy Trust AET to transform schools across London. This led to the establishment of London Academies Enterprise Trust (LAET) which was intended to be a group of ten academies, but it only reached a group of four before the mayor withdrew in 2013.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Powers and functions", "target_page_ids": [ 52613, 44539683, 48916561, 48916561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 84 ], [ 332, 335 ], [ 405, 438 ], [ 440, 444 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following is a table comparing power over services of the boroughs to the GLA and mayor.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Powers and functions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Initiatives taken by Ken Livingstone as Mayor of London included the London congestion charge on private vehicles using city centre London on weekdays, the creation of the London Climate Change Agency, the London Energy Partnership and the founding of the international Large Cities Climate Leadership Group, now known as C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group. The congestion charge led to many new buses being introduced across London. In August 2003, Livingstone oversaw the introduction of the Oyster card electronic ticketing system for Transport for London services. Livingstone supported the withdrawal of the vintage AEC Routemaster buses from regular service in London.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Initiatives", "target_page_ids": [ 18247224, 179439, 7080665, 6227166, 6227166, 509021, 31145, 84168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 36 ], [ 69, 93 ], [ 172, 200 ], [ 270, 307 ], [ 322, 357 ], [ 495, 506 ], [ 539, 559 ], [ 622, 637 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Livingstone introduced the London Partnerships Register which was a voluntary scheme without legal force for same sex couples to register their partnership, and paved the way for the introduction by the United Kingdom Parliament of civil partnerships and later still, Same-sex marriage. Unlike civil partnerships, the London Partnerships Register was open to heterosexual couples who favour a public commitment other than marriage.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Initiatives", "target_page_ids": [ 72009, 92656 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 232, 249 ], [ 268, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As Mayor of London, Ken Livingstone was a supporter of the London Olympics in 2012, ultimately winning the bid to host the Games in 2005. Livingstone encouraged sport in London; especially when sport could be combined with helping charities like The London Marathon and 10K charity races. Livingstone, in a mayoral election debate on the BBC's Question Time in April 2008, stated that the primary reason he supported the Olympic bid was to secure funding for the redevelopment of the East End of London. In July 2007, he brought the Tour de France cycle race to London.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Initiatives", "target_page_ids": [ 2176142, 19344654, 854457, 21221606, 3884556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 82 ], [ 338, 341 ], [ 344, 357 ], [ 484, 502 ], [ 533, 547 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In May 2008, Boris Johnson introduced a new transport safety initiative to put 440 high visibility police officers in and around bus stations. A ban on alcohol on underground, and Docklands Light Railway, tram services and stations across the capital was introduced.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Initiatives", "target_page_ids": [ 19065069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also in May 2008, he announced the closure of The Londoner newspaper, saving approximately £2.9million. A percentage of this saving was to be spent on planting 10,000 new street trees.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Initiatives", "target_page_ids": [ 7744446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2010, he extended the coverage of Oyster card electronic ticketing to all National Rail overground train services. Also in 2010, he opened a cycle hire scheme (originally sponsored by Barclays, now Santander) with 5,000 bicycles available for hire across London. Although initiated by his predecessor, Ken Livingstone, the scheme rapidly acquired the nickname of \"Boris Bikes\". Johnson withdrew the recently introduced high-speed high-capacity \"bendy buses\" from service in 2011 which had been bought by Livingstone, and he instead supported the development of the New Routemaster which entered service the next year.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Initiatives", "target_page_ids": [ 509021, 27588077, 35644201, 25364753, 937446, 20789168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 48 ], [ 144, 161 ], [ 187, 195 ], [ 201, 210 ], [ 448, 457 ], [ 568, 583 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2011, Boris Johnson set up the Outer London Fund of £50million designed to help facilitate improve local high streets. Areas in London were given the chance to submit proposals for two tranches of funding. Successful bids for Phase 1 included Enfield, Muswell Hill and Bexley Town Centre. The recipients of phase 2 funding were still to be announced .", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Initiatives", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In January 2013, he appointed journalist Andrew Gilligan as the first Cycling Commissioner for London. In March 2013, Johnson announced £1billion of investment in infrastructure to make cycling safer in London, including a East to West segregated 'Crossrail for bikes'.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Initiatives", "target_page_ids": [ 446684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the General Election of 7 May 2015, Johnson was elected MP for Uxbridge and Ruislip South, He continued to serve as mayor until the mayoral election in May 2016, when Sadiq Khan was elected.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Initiatives", "target_page_ids": [ 43747946, 1847198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 23 ], [ 170, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sadiq Khan introduced the 'bus hopper' fare on TfL buses, which allows passengers to board a second bus within one hour for the same fare. Under Khan, paper and coin cash transactions became obsolete and the Oyster system was expanded to include debit and credit cards. This initiative was started under his predecessor, Johnson.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Initiatives", "target_page_ids": [ 31145, 509021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 50 ], [ 208, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Upon election, Khan outlined a vision to make London the \"greenest city\" by investing in walking and cycling infrastructure while reducing polluting vehicles. In 2019, the \"Ultra Low Emission Zone\" scheme was launched which taxes highly polluting vehicles in its covered territory. London declared itself the world's first \"National Park City\" (effective from July 2019), reflecting its unusually high amount of green space for a city of its size.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Initiatives", "target_page_ids": [ 33466720, 61354961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 123 ], [ 173, 196 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Government postponed all elections due in May 2020, including for the mayor of London, for one year due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Khan had therefore served a term in office of five years rather than four, which ended in May 2021.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Initiatives", "target_page_ids": [ 62750956, 50483860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 132 ], [ 224, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Foreign relations of the Mayor of London", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16616367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leaders of the Greater London Council", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 61268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Page about the process of nomination ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Mayors_of_London", "Local_government_in_London", "Directly_elected_mayors_of_places_in_England", "2000_establishments_in_England" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The Lord Mayor of London is the mayor of the City of London and the leader of the City of London Corporation. Within the City, the Lord Mayor is accorded precedence over all individuals except the sovereign and retains various traditional powers, rights, and privileges, including the title and style The Right Honourable Lord Mayor of London.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 598892, 6883, 85123, 367477, 214436, 47063, 157101, 208958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 37 ], [ 45, 59 ], [ 68, 74 ], [ 82, 108 ], [ 154, 164 ], [ 197, 206 ], [ 295, 300 ], [ 301, 321 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the world's oldest continuously elected civic offices, it is entirely separate from the directly elected mayor of London, a political office controlling a budget which covers the much larger area of Greater London.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 725182, 40338, 45367389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 59 ], [ 112, 127 ], [ 206, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Corporation of London changed its name to the City of London Corporation in 2006, and accordingly the title Lord Mayor of the City of London was introduced, so as to avoid confusion with the mayor of London. However, the legal and commonly used title remains Lord Mayor of London. The Lord Mayor is elected at Common Hall each year on Michaelmas, and takes office on the Friday before the second Saturday in November, at The Silent Ceremony. The Lord Mayor's Show is held on the day after taking office; the Lord Mayor, preceded by a procession, travels to the Royal Courts of Justice at the Strand to swear allegiance to the sovereign before the Justices of the High Court.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 490747, 99805, 376131, 383003, 314644, 5093797, 26569402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 289, 299 ], [ 339, 349 ], [ 450, 467 ], [ 565, 588 ], [ 596, 602 ], [ 651, 659 ], [ 667, 677 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Lord Mayor's main role nowadays is to represent, support and promote the businesses and residents in the City of London. Today these businesses are mostly in the financial sector, and the Lord Mayor is regarded as the champion of the entire UK-based financial sector regardless of ownership or location throughout the country. As leader of the Corporation of the City of London, the Lord Mayor serves as the key spokesman for the local authority and also has important ceremonial and social responsibilities. The Lord Mayor is non-affiliated politically, typically delivering many hundreds of speeches and addresses per year and attending many receptions and other events in London and beyond. Most incumbents make overseas visits under the auspices of the FCDO. The Lord Mayor, ex officio Rector of City, University of London and also Admiral of the Port of London, is assisted in day-to-day administration by the Mansion House 'Esquires' whose titles include the City Marshal, Sword Bearer and Common Crier.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 59653, 12368470, 66772, 533484, 294848, 467579, 309090, 262544, 56345910, 668760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 761, 765 ], [ 783, 793 ], [ 794, 800 ], [ 804, 830 ], [ 840, 869 ], [ 919, 932 ], [ 934, 941 ], [ 969, 981 ], [ 983, 995 ], [ 1000, 1012 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vincent Keaveny serves as the 693rd Lord Mayor (for 2021–2022). The Lord Mayor is assisted as aide-de-camp by Lieutenant Tony Blaney RMR, Sea Cadet Corps, and as Lord Mayor's Chaplain by the Revd Monsignor James Curry.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 69317837, 239481, 8651084, 183232 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 94, 106 ], [ 138, 153 ], [ 175, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Of the 69 cities in the United Kingdom, the City of London is among the 30 that have lord mayors (or, in Scotland, lords provost). The lord mayor is entitled to the prefix The Right Honourable; the same privilege extends only to the lord mayors of York, Cardiff, Bristol and Belfast, and to the lords provost of Edinburgh and Glasgow. The style, however, is used when referring to the office as opposed to the holder thereof; thus, \"The Rt Hon Lord Mayor of London\" would be correct, while \"The Rt Hon William Russell\" would be incorrect. The latter prefix applies only to privy counsellors and peers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Titles and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 26994, 720209, 208958, 34361, 5882, 5046, 9602, 68736, 24451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 113 ], [ 115, 128 ], [ 172, 192 ], [ 248, 252 ], [ 254, 261 ], [ 275, 282 ], [ 312, 321 ], [ 326, 333 ], [ 573, 590 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A woman who holds the office is also known as a lord mayor. The wife of a male lord mayor is styled as lady mayoress, but no equivalent title exists for the husband of a female lord mayor. A female lord mayor or an unmarried male lord mayor may appoint a female consort, usually a fellow member of the corporation, to the role of lady mayoress. In speech, a lord mayor is referred to as \"My Lord Mayor\", and a lady mayoress as \"My Lady Mayoress\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Titles and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 11036208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It was once customary for lord mayors to be appointed knights upon taking office and baronets upon retirement, unless they already held such a title. This custom was followed with a few inconsistencies from the 16th until the 19th centuries; creations became more regular from 1889 onwards. However, from 1964 onwards, the regular creation of hereditary titles such as baronetcies was phased out, so subsequent lord mayors were offered knighthoods (and, until 1993, most often as Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire (GBE)). Since 1993, lord mayors have not automatically received any national honour upon appointment; instead, they have been made knights bachelor upon retirement, although Gordon Brown's Government broke with that tradition by making Ian Luder a CBE, after his term of office in 2009, and the following year Nick Anstee declined offers of an honour. Furthermore, foreign heads of state visiting the City of London on a UK state visit, diplomatically bestow upon the Lord Mayor one of their suitable national honours. For example, in 2001, Sir David Howard was created a grand cordon (first class) of the Order of Independence of Jordan by King Abdullah II. Recently lord mayors have been appointed at the beginning of their term of office knights or dames of St John, as a mark of respect, by Queen Elizabeth II, Sovereign Head of the Order of St John.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Titles and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 39617, 79912, 212182, 390067, 11974878, 20152885, 212182, 25102728, 10166078, 36077156, 7515964, 164053, 374541, 12153654, 374541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 61 ], [ 85, 92 ], [ 506, 533 ], [ 665, 681 ], [ 708, 733 ], [ 770, 779 ], [ 782, 785 ], [ 844, 855 ], [ 1075, 1091 ], [ 1140, 1161 ], [ 1165, 1171 ], [ 1175, 1191 ], [ 1275, 1302 ], [ 1335, 1347 ], [ 1371, 1387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The office of mayor was instituted in 1189, the first holder of the office being Henry Fitz-Ailwin de Londonestone. The mayor of the City of London has been elected by the City, rather than appointed by the sovereign, ever since a Royal Charter providing for a Mayor was issued by King John in 1215. The title \"lord mayor\" came to be used after 1354, when it was granted to Thomas Legge (then serving his second of two terms) by King Edward III.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 16457892, 16550, 46377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 114 ], [ 281, 290 ], [ 429, 444 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lord mayors are elected for one-year terms; by custom, they do not now serve more than one consecutive term. Numerous individuals have served multiple terms in office, including:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As Mayor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 24 terms: Sir Henry FitzAlan (1189–1212)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 16457892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 9 terms: Ralph de Sandwich (1285–1289, 1289–1292)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1055615 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 8 terms: Gregory de Rokesley (1274–1280, 1284)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 42863208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 7 terms: Andrew Buckerel (1231–1237); John le Breton (1289, 1293–1298); John le Blund (1301–1307)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 13051347, 35112650 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 53 ], [ 73, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 6 terms: Richard le Ranger (1222–1226, 1238); Hamo de Chigwell (1319, 1321, 1322, 1324, 1325, 1327)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 69722880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 5 terms: Serlo le Mercer (1214, 1218–1221)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 50298969 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As Lord Mayor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sir Nicholas Brembre (1377, 1383–1385; 4 terms)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21572952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sir Richard ('Dick') Whittington (1397, 1398, 1406 and 1419; 4 terms)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 55706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "William Sevenoke (1418)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 42862917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sir Robert Fowler (elected in 1883 and in 1885).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 20864813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William Russell (2019–2021, 2 terms)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 62292981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Almost 700 people have served as lord mayor. Dame Mary Donaldson , elected in 1983, as well as Dame Fiona Woolf , elected in 2013, are the only women to have held the office.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2590522, 32754221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 64 ], [ 100, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some lord mayors in the Middle Ages, such as Sir Edward Dalyngrigge (1392), did not reside in London. Since 1435, the lord mayor has been chosen from amongst the aldermen of the City of London.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18836, 17290546, 286925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 35 ], [ 49, 67 ], [ 162, 170 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The lord mayor is elected at Common Hall, comprising liverymen belonging to all of the City's livery companies. Common Hall is summoned by the sitting lord mayor; it meets at Guildhall on Michaelmas Day (29 September) or on the closest weekday. Voting is by show of hands; if, however, any liveryman so demands, balloting is held a fortnight later.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Election", "target_page_ids": [ 368610, 368610, 387695, 99805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 62 ], [ 94, 110 ], [ 175, 184 ], [ 188, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The qualification to stand for election is that one must have served as a City sheriff and be a current alderman. Since 1385, prior service as sheriff has been mandatory for election to the lord mayoralty. Two sheriffs are selected annually by Common Hall, which meets on Midsummer's Day for this purpose. By an ordinance of 1435, the lord mayor must be chosen from amongst the aldermen of the City of London. Those on the electoral roll of each of the City's 25 wards select one alderman, who formerly held office for life or until resignation. Now each alderman must submit for re-election at least once in every six years.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Election", "target_page_ids": [ 3557667, 221226, 286925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 150 ], [ 272, 287 ], [ 378, 386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The lord mayor is then sworn in November, on the day before the Lord Mayor's Show (see below). The ceremony is known as the \"Silent Ceremony\" because, aside from a short declaration by the incoming Lord Mayor, no speeches are made. At Guildhall, the outgoing lord mayor transfers the mayoral insignia – the seal, the purse, the sword and the mace — to the incoming lord mayor.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Election", "target_page_ids": [ 38136, 56345910, 187092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 307, 311 ], [ 328, 333 ], [ 342, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The lord mayor to be elected in November 2017 was known in April of that year.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The day after being sworn into office, the lord mayor leads a procession from the City of London to the Royal Courts of Justice in the City of Westminster, where the lord mayor swears allegiance to the Crown. This pageantry has evolved into one of London's longest-running and most popular annual events, known as the \"Lord Mayor's Show\". The lord mayor travels in the City's state coach that was built in 1757 at a cost of £1,065.0s.3d. Nowadays, this festival combines traditional British pageantry with the element of carnival, and since 1959 it has been held on the second Saturday in November. Participants include the livery companies, bands and members of the military, charities and schools. In the evening, a fireworks display is held.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Lord Mayor's Show", "target_page_ids": [ 54060, 42813868, 38483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 154 ], [ 376, 387 ], [ 521, 529 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The lord mayor is a member of the City of London's governing body, the City of London Corporation (incorporated as The Mayor and Commonalty and Citizens of the City of London). The Corporation comprises the Court of Aldermen and the Court of Common Council; the former includes only the aldermen, while the latter includes both aldermen and common councilmen. The Lord mayor belongs to and presides over both bodies.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Role", "target_page_ids": [ 367477, 1042769, 12644454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 97 ], [ 207, 224 ], [ 233, 256 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As noted earlier, the main role of the lord mayor is to represent, support and promote all aspects of UK-financial service industries, including maritime. They undertake this as head of the City of London Corporation and, during the year, host visiting foreign government ministers, businessmen and dignitaries; furthermore, they conduct several foreign visits of their own so as to promote British financial sectors.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Role", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Banquets hosted by the Lord Mayor serve as opportunities for senior government figures to deliver major speeches. At the Lord Mayor's Banquet (held on the Monday after the Lord Mayor's Show), the prime minister delivers the keynote address. At the Banker's Dinner in June, the chancellor of the exchequer delivers a speech known as the \"Mansion House Speech\", which takes its name from the lord mayor's residence. At the Easter Banquet, also hosted each year at the Mansion House, the foreign secretary addresses an audience of international dignitaries.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Role", "target_page_ids": [ 24150, 937662, 70075, 59655 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 196, 210 ], [ 224, 231 ], [ 277, 304 ], [ 485, 502 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The lord mayor sometimes takes part in major state occasions, for example in 2013, the then-lord mayor, Sir Roger Gifford carried the Mourning Sword at Margaret Thatcher's funeral, processing ahead of the Queen and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, into St Paul's Cathedral.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Role", "target_page_ids": [ 37134023, 56345910, 39055248, 62093, 102198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 121 ], [ 134, 148 ], [ 152, 179 ], [ 215, 247 ], [ 254, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The lord mayor performs numerous other functions, including serving as the chief magistrate of the City of London, admiral of the Port of London, rector of City, University of London, president of Gresham College, president of City of London Reserve Forces and Cadets Association, and trustee of St Paul's Cathedral. The lord mayor also heads the City's Commission of Lieutenancy, which represents the sovereign in the City of London (other counties usually have lord lieutenants, as opposed to Commissions), and annually attends the Treloar Trust (named after Sir William Treloar, lord mayor in 1906), in Hampshire. The Treloar Trust runs two educational sites for disabled children, a school and college.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Role", "target_page_ids": [ 294848, 66772, 533484, 422947, 13752664, 102198, 192669, 22082464, 20207599, 13861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 144 ], [ 146, 152 ], [ 156, 182 ], [ 197, 212 ], [ 242, 279 ], [ 296, 315 ], [ 463, 478 ], [ 534, 547 ], [ 561, 580 ], [ 606, 615 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The residence of the lord mayor is known as Mansion House. The creation of the residence was considered after the Great Fire of London (1666), but construction did not commence until 1739. It was first occupied by a lord mayor in 1752, when Sir Crispin Gascoigne took up residence. The official car of the lord mayor is a Rolls-Royce Phantom VI with registration number LM0.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rights and privileges", "target_page_ids": [ 467579, 7669549, 11694013, 3827489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 57 ], [ 114, 134 ], [ 241, 262 ], [ 322, 344 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In each of the eighteen courtrooms of the Old Bailey, the centre of the judges' bench is reserved for the lord mayor, in his capacity of chief justice of the City of London. The presiding judge therefore sits to one side.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rights and privileges", "target_page_ids": [ 229046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is sometimes asserted that the lord mayor may exclude the monarch from the City of London. The legend is based on the misinterpretation of the ceremony observed each time the sovereign enters the City: at Temple Bar the lord mayor presents the City's Pearl Sword to the sovereign as a symbol of the latter's overlordship. The monarch does not, as is often purported, wait for the lord mayor's permission to enter the City. When the sovereign enters the city, a short ceremony usually takes place where the lord mayor symbolically surrenders his or her authority to the monarch by presenting the sword to them. If the sovereign is attending a service at St Paul's this ceremony would take place there rather than at the boundary of the City for matters of convenience.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rights and privileges", "target_page_ids": [ 491605, 56345910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 208, 218 ], [ 254, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The importance of the office is reflected by the composition of the Accession Council, a body which proclaims the accession of new sovereigns. The Council includes the lord mayor and aldermen of London, as well as members of the House of Lords and privy counsellors. At the coronation banquet which followed, the lord mayor of the City of London had the right to assist the royal butler. The same privilege is held by the lord mayor of Oxford; the mayor of Winchester may assist the royal cook. Such privileges have not been exercised since 1821, when the last coronation banquet (celebrating the coronation of George IV) was held.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rights and privileges", "target_page_ids": [ 400452, 13658, 402120, 14948297, 402120, 40225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 85 ], [ 229, 243 ], [ 274, 292 ], [ 448, 467 ], [ 561, 579 ], [ 611, 620 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On formal occasions the lord mayor wears traditional black velvet court dress (old style) consisting of a coat, waistcoat and knee breeches with steel cut buttons. This is worn with black silk stockings, patent court shoes with steel buckles, white shirt with lace cuffs and a large jabot stock. This form of court dress is worn by all lord mayors regardless of gender.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Official dress", "target_page_ids": [ 3753406 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When outdoors, they wear a black beaver plush tricorne hat trimmed with black ostrich feathers and a steel 'loop' for the cockade. This has been traditionally made by Patey's commissioned by the Worshipful Company of Feltmakers for each incumbent lord mayor.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Official dress", "target_page_ids": [ 933980, 375023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 58 ], [ 195, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since 1545 the lord mayor of London has worn a Royal Livery Collar of Esses. However, the collar's origins are not royal, Sir John Alleyn, twice lord mayor, having bequeathed it to the next lord mayor and his successors \"to use and occupie yerely at and uppon principall and festivall dayes.\" It was enlarged in 1567, and in its present shape has 28 Esses (the Lancastrian ‘S’), Tudor roses and the tasselled knots of the Garter (alternating) and also the Portcullis, from which hangs the Mayoral Jewel. The collar is worn over whatever the lord mayor may be wearing, secured onto their underdress or State Robes by means of black or white silk satin ribbons on the shoulders.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Official dress", "target_page_ids": [ 3249868, 59777044 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 75 ], [ 122, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As an alderman of the City of London the lord mayor has a scarlet gown and a violet gown, which are identical to those worn by their fellow aldermen except that they are trained. The violet robe is worn at most formal meetings of the Corporation with the scarlet robe substituted on certain days or occasions as directed by the City Ceremonial Book.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Official dress", "target_page_ids": [ 1042769, 8634850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 36 ], [ 170, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For State occasions when the monarch is present, the lord mayor wears a crimson velvet robe of state trimmed with an ermine cape and facings, very similar to a royal earl's coronation robe. It is tied with gold cordons, and dates from the reign of George IV.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Official dress", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On other ceremonial occasions is worn a black silk damask robe trimmed with gold lace of a design exactly the same as that of the lord Chancellor, known as the Entertaining Gown.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Official dress", "target_page_ids": [ 226197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At coronations, the lord mayor wears a special coronation robe: a mantle of scarlet superfine wool trimmed with bars of gold lace and ermine. It is lined with white silk satin; they also carry the Crystal Sceptre as a baton of office. After the coronation, the incumbent may personally keep their coronation robe as a token.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Official dress", "target_page_ids": [ 48685752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 197, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is also a plain black gown, worn by the lord mayor in times of national mourning and/or grief.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Official dress", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mayor of London", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 40338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Town Clerk of London", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22933029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "City status in the United Kingdom", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 70841 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of lord mayoralties and lord provostships in the United Kingdom", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17996100 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lord Mayor of Dublin", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 181426 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "City of London Corporation home page", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jenkins, S. (2004). \"Royal Coronations and Oxford Mayors.\"", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"London (England).\" (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed. London: Cambridge University Press.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Lord Mayor's Show.\" (2002).", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"The Lord Mayor's Show Saturday 13th November 2004.\" (2004).", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Temple Bar.\" (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed. London: Cambridge University Press.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "BBC – Lord Mayor's Show", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Local_government_in_London", "Lord_mayors_of_London", "1189_establishments_in_England", "City_of_London", "Politics_of_the_United_Kingdom", "People_associated_with_City,_University_of_London", "People_associated_with_the_Royal_National_College_for_the_Blind", "Ceremonial_officers_in_the_United_Kingdom" ]

[ "The Right Honourable the Lord Mayor of London", "Lord Mayor of the City of London" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Prehnite is an inosilicate of calcium and aluminium with the formula: Ca2Al(AlSi3O10)(OH)2. Limited Fe3+ substitutes for aluminium in the structure. Prehnite crystallizes in the orthorhombic crystal system, and most often forms as stalactitic or botryoidal aggregates, with only just the crests of small crystals showing any faces, which are almost always curved or composite. Very rarely will it form distinct, well-individualized crystals showing a square-like cross-section, including those found at the Jeffrey Mine in Asbestos, Quebec, Canada. Prehnite is brittle with an uneven fracture and a vitreous to pearly luster. Its hardness is 6-6.5, its specific gravity is 2.80-2.90 and its color varies from light green to yellow, but also colorless, blue, pink or white. In April 2000, rare orange prehnite was discovered in the Kalahari Manganese Fields, South Africa. Prehnite is mostly translucent, and rarely transparent.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1190754, 5668, 904, 521830, 6015, 1898838, 5042916, 20474, 37379, 17416221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 26 ], [ 30, 37 ], [ 42, 51 ], [ 178, 190 ], [ 191, 198 ], [ 246, 256 ], [ 541, 547 ], [ 630, 638 ], [ 653, 669 ], [ 858, 870 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Though not a zeolite, prehnite is found associated with minerals such as datolite, calcite, apophyllite, stilbite, laumontite, and heulandite in veins and cavities of basaltic rocks, sometimes in granites, syenites, or gneisses. It is an indicator mineral of the prehnite-pumpellyite metamorphic facies. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 92389, 1895459, 44603, 2760468, 595716, 2178786, 1899610, 43534, 13088, 44296, 13169, 4212579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 20 ], [ 73, 81 ], [ 83, 90 ], [ 92, 103 ], [ 105, 113 ], [ 115, 125 ], [ 131, 141 ], [ 167, 173 ], [ 196, 203 ], [ 206, 213 ], [ 219, 225 ], [ 263, 302 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It was first described in 1788 for an occurrence in the Karoo dolerites of Cradock, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. It was named for Colonel Hendrik Von Prehn (1733–1785), commander of the military forces of the Dutch colony at the Cape of Good Hope from 1768 to 1780.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4644998, 3192481, 313645, 17416221, 21148, 44252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 71 ], [ 75, 82 ], [ 84, 105 ], [ 107, 119 ], [ 217, 222 ], [ 237, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is used as a gemstone. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Extensive deposits of gem-quality prehnite occur in the basalt tableland surrounding Wave Hill Station in the central Northern Territory, of Australia.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 38186652, 21638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 102 ], [ 118, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of minerals", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 158830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of minerals named after people", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8320362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 35 ] ] } ]

[ "Inosilicates", "Calcium_minerals", "Aluminium_minerals", "Orthorhombic_minerals", "Minerals_in_space_group_28", "Gemstones" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "A semiconductor device is an electronic component that relies on the electronic properties of a semiconductor material (primarily silicon, germanium, and gallium arsenide, as well as organic semiconductors) for its function. Its conductivity lies between conductors and insulators. Semiconductor devices have replaced vacuum tubes in most applications. They conduct electric current in the solid state, rather than as free electrons across a vacuum (typically liberated by thermionic emission) or as free electrons and ions through an ionized gas.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 27709, 1886820, 9663, 27709, 27114, 12242, 144143, 1104369, 32496, 61580, 6207, 3656002, 32502, 215226, 27420170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 15 ], [ 29, 49 ], [ 69, 79 ], [ 96, 109 ], [ 130, 137 ], [ 139, 148 ], [ 154, 170 ], [ 183, 204 ], [ 318, 329 ], [ 358, 365 ], [ 366, 382 ], [ 390, 401 ], [ 442, 448 ], [ 473, 492 ], [ 532, 546 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Semiconductor devices are manufactured both as single discrete devices and as integrated circuit (IC) chips, which consist of two or more devices—which can number from the hundreds to the billions—manufactured and interconnected on a single semiconductor wafer (also called a substrate).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1886820, 15150, 41860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 69 ], [ 78, 96 ], [ 255, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Semiconductor materials are useful because their behavior can be easily manipulated by the deliberate addition of impurities, known as doping. Semiconductor conductivity can be controlled by the introduction of an electric or magnetic field, by exposure to light or heat, or by the mechanical deformation of a doped monocrystalline silicon grid; thus, semiconductors can make excellent sensors. Current conduction in a semiconductor occurs due to mobile or \"free\" electrons and electron holes, collectively known as charge carriers. Doping a semiconductor with a small proportion of an atomic impurity, such as phosphorus or boron, greatly increases the number of free electrons or holes within the semiconductor. When a doped semiconductor contains excess holes, it is called a p-type semiconductor (p for positive electric charge); when it contains excess free electrons, it is called an n-type semiconductor (n for negative electric charge). A majority of mobile charge carriers have negative charge. The manufacture of semiconductors controls precisely the location and concentration of p- and n-type dopants. The connection of n-type and p-type semiconductors form p–n junctions.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 860861, 61580, 17939, 18526033, 9476, 142534, 488140, 23318, 3755, 9512766, 9804, 9512766, 571755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 141 ], [ 157, 169 ], [ 257, 262 ], [ 316, 339 ], [ 464, 473 ], [ 478, 491 ], [ 516, 530 ], [ 611, 621 ], [ 625, 630 ], [ 779, 799 ], [ 816, 831 ], [ 890, 910 ], [ 1170, 1182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most common semiconductor device in the world is the MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor), also called the MOS transistor. As of 2013, billions of MOS transistors are manufactured every day. Semiconductor devices made per year have been growing by 9.1% on average since 1978, and shipments in 2018 are predicted for the first time to exceed 1 trillion, meaning that well over 7 trillion have been made to date.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 40345, 41228216, 30011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 63 ], [ 91, 114 ], [ 137, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A semiconductor diode is a device typically made from a single p–n junction. At the junction of a p-type and an n-type semiconductor there forms a depletion region where current conduction is inhibited by the lack of mobile charge carriers. When the device is forward biased (connected with the p-side at higher electric potential than the n-side), this depletion region is diminished, allowing for significant conduction, while only very small current can be achieved when the diode is reverse biased and thus the depletion region expanded.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Diode", "target_page_ids": [ 571755, 9512766, 1974142, 59615 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 75 ], [ 112, 132 ], [ 147, 163 ], [ 312, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Exposing a semiconductor to light can generate electron–hole pairs, which increases the number of free carriers and thereby the conductivity. Diodes optimized to take advantage of this phenomenon are known as photodiodes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Diode", "target_page_ids": [ 17939, 2080260, 42937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 33 ], [ 47, 65 ], [ 209, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Compound semiconductor diodes can also produce light, as in light-emitting diodes and laser diodes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Diode", "target_page_ids": [ 449667, 18290, 142258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ], [ 60, 80 ], [ 86, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) are formed from two p–n junctions, in either n–p–n or p–n–p configuration. The middle, or base, the region between the junctions is typically very narrow. The other regions, and their associated terminals, are known as the emitter and the collector. A small current injected through the junction between the base and the emitter changes the properties of the base-collector junction so that it can conduct current even though it is reverse biased. This creates a much larger current between the collector and emitter, controlled by the base-emitter current.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Transistor", "target_page_ids": [ 49338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another type of transistor, the field-effect transistor (FET), operates on the principle that semiconductor conductivity can be increased or decreased by the presence of an electric field. An electric field can increase the number of free electrons and holes in a semiconductor, thereby changing its conductivity. The field may be applied by a reverse-biased p–n junction, forming a junction field-effect transistor (JFET) or by an electrode insulated from the bulk material by an oxide layer, forming a metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Transistor", "target_page_ids": [ 41228216, 41092, 40346, 40345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 55 ], [ 173, 187 ], [ 417, 421 ], [ 555, 561 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The metal-oxide-semiconductor FET (MOSFET, or MOS transistor), a solid-state device, is by far the most used widely semiconductor device today. It accounts for at least 99.9% of all transistors, and there have been an estimated 13sextillion MOSFETs manufactured between 1960 and 2018.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Transistor", "target_page_ids": [ 40345, 3656002, 682403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 33 ], [ 65, 76 ], [ 230, 240 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The gate electrode is charged to produce an electric field that controls the conductivity of a \"channel\" between two terminals, called the source and drain. Depending on the type of carrier in the channel, the device may be an n-channel (for electrons) or a p-channel (for holes) MOSFET. Although the MOSFET is named in part for its \"metal\" gate, in modern devices polysilicon is typically used instead.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Transistor", "target_page_ids": [ 61580, 31329101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 89 ], [ 365, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By far, silicon (Si) is the most widely used material in semiconductor devices. Its combination of low raw material cost, relatively simple processing, and a useful temperature range makes it currently the best compromise among the various competing materials. Silicon used in semiconductor device manufacturing is currently fabricated into boules that are large enough in diameter to allow the production of 300mm (12 in.) wafers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 27114, 1159033, 41860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 15 ], [ 341, 347 ], [ 424, 430 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Germanium (Ge) was a widely used early semiconductor material but its thermal sensitivity makes it less useful than silicon. Today, germanium is often alloyed with silicon for use in very-high-speed SiGe devices; IBM is a major producer of such devices.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 12242, 40379651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 213, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is also widely used in high-speed devices but so far, it has been difficult to form large-diameter boules of this material, limiting the wafer diameter to sizes significantly smaller than silicon wafers thus making mass production of GaAs devices significantly more expensive than silicon.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 144143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other less common materials are also in use or under investigation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Silicon carbide (SiC) has found some application as the raw material for blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and is being investigated for use in semiconductor devices that could withstand very high operating temperatures and environments with the presence of significant levels of ionizing radiation. IMPATT diodes have also been fabricated from SiC.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 225256, 18290, 25950683, 202522, 1290858 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 78, 98 ], [ 197, 218 ], [ 280, 298 ], [ 300, 312 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Various indium compounds (indium arsenide, indium antimonide, and indium phosphide) are also being used in LEDs and solid-state laser diodes. Selenium sulfide is being studied in the manufacture of photovoltaic solar cells.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 14749, 3296181, 1762873, 522356, 142258, 21464013, 652531, 2352910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 14 ], [ 26, 41 ], [ 43, 60 ], [ 66, 82 ], [ 128, 139 ], [ 142, 158 ], [ 198, 210 ], [ 211, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most common use for organic semiconductors is organic light-emitting diodes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 1104369, 191646 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 45 ], [ 50, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two-terminal devices:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " DIAC", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 444704 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Diode (rectifier diode)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 8254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gunn diode", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 1290862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " IMPATT diode", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 1290858 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Laser diode", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 142258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Light-emitting diode (LED)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 18290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Photocell", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 1353789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Phototransistor", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 42937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " PIN diode", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 41556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Schottky diode", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 227130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Solar cell", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 2352910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Transient-voltage-suppression diode", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 319506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tunnel diode", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 530655 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " VCSEL", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 436714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Zener diode", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 97835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Zen diode", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Three-terminal devices:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bipolar transistor", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 49338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Darlington transistor", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 109122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Field-effect transistor", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 41228216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 109053 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Silicon-controlled rectifier", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 319515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thyristor", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 181174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " TRIAC", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 379736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Unijunction transistor", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 108824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Four-terminal devices:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hall effect sensor (magnetic field sensor)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 242674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Photocoupler (Optocoupler)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Semiconductor device materials", "target_page_ids": [ 465393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All transistor types can be used as the building blocks of logic gates, which are fundamental in the design of digital circuits. In digital circuits like microprocessors, transistors act as on-off switches; in the MOSFET, for instance, the voltage applied to the gate determines whether the switch is on or off.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Semiconductor device applications", "target_page_ids": [ 18168, 27753031, 19553, 40345, 32549, 28284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 69 ], [ 111, 126 ], [ 154, 168 ], [ 214, 220 ], [ 240, 247 ], [ 291, 297 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Transistors used for analog circuits do not act as on-off switches; rather, they respond to a continuous range of inputs with a continuous range of outputs. Common analog circuits include amplifiers and oscillators.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Semiconductor device applications", "target_page_ids": [ 1665281, 9931, 22522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 35 ], [ 188, 197 ], [ 203, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Circuits that interface or translate between digital circuits and analog circuits are known as mixed-signal circuits.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Semiconductor device applications", "target_page_ids": [ 1157354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Power semiconductor devices are discrete devices or integrated circuits intended for high current or high voltage applications. Power integrated circuits combine IC technology with power semiconductor technology, these are sometimes referred to as \"smart\" power devices. Several companies specialize in manufacturing power semiconductors.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Semiconductor device applications", "target_page_ids": [ 833412 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The part numbers of semiconductor devices are often manufacturer specific. Nevertheless, there have been attempts at creating standards for type codes, and a subset of devices follow those. For discrete devices, for example, there are three standards: JEDEC JESD370B in United States, Pro Electron in Europe, and Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Semiconductor device applications", "target_page_ids": [ 1452739, 1886820, 184092, 444606, 8066741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 15 ], [ 194, 209 ], [ 252, 257 ], [ 285, 297 ], [ 313, 342 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Semiconductors had been used in the electronics field for some time before the invention of the transistor. Around the turn of the 20th century they were quite common as detectors in radios, used in a device called a \"cat's whisker\" developed by Jagadish Chandra Bose and others. These detectors were somewhat troublesome, however, requiring the operator to move a small tungsten filament (the whisker) around the surface of a galena (lead sulfide) or carborundum (silicon carbide) crystal until it suddenly started working. Then, over a period of a few hours or days, the cat's whisker would slowly stop working and the process would have to be repeated. At the time their operation was completely mysterious. After the introduction of the more reliable and amplified vacuum tube based radios, the cat's whisker systems quickly disappeared. The \"cat's whisker\" is a primitive example of a special type of diode still popular today, called a Schottky diode.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History of semiconductor device development", "target_page_ids": [ 15368428, 288059, 422569, 225256, 32496, 227130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 183, 188 ], [ 246, 267 ], [ 427, 433 ], [ 452, 463 ], [ 769, 780 ], [ 942, 956 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another early type of semiconductor device is the metal rectifier in which the semiconductor is copper oxide or selenium. Westinghouse Electric (1886) was a major manufacturer of these rectifiers.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History of semiconductor device development", "target_page_ids": [ 511046, 27117, 238338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 108 ], [ 112, 120 ], [ 122, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During World War II, radar research quickly pushed radar receivers to operate at ever higher frequencies and the traditional tube based radio receivers no longer worked well. The introduction of the cavity magnetron from Britain to the United States in 1940 during the Tizard Mission resulted in a pressing need for a practical high-frequency amplifier. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History of semiconductor device development", "target_page_ids": [ 25676, 10779, 20861, 2935075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 26 ], [ 93, 104 ], [ 199, 215 ], [ 269, 283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On a whim, Russell Ohl of Bell Laboratories decided to try a cat's whisker. By this point they had not been in use for a number of years, and no one at the labs had one. After hunting one down at a used radio store in Manhattan, he found that it worked much better than tube-based systems.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History of semiconductor device development", "target_page_ids": [ 1780288, 3712, 3678714, 45470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 22 ], [ 26, 43 ], [ 61, 74 ], [ 218, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ohl investigated why the cat's whisker functioned so well. He spent most of 1939 trying to grow more pure versions of the crystals. He soon found that with higher quality crystals their finicky behaviour went away, but so did their ability to operate as a radio detector. One day he found one of his purest crystals nevertheless worked well, and it had a clearly visible crack near the middle. However as he moved about the room trying to test it, the detector would mysteriously work, and then stop again. After some study he found that the behaviour was controlled by the light in the room – more light caused more conductance in the crystal. He invited several other people to see this crystal, and Walter Brattain immediately realized there was some sort of junction at the crack.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History of semiconductor device development", "target_page_ids": [ 33133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 702, 717 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Further research cleared up the remaining mystery. The crystal had cracked because either side contained very slightly different amounts of the impurities Ohl could not remove – about 0.2%. One side of the crystal had impurities that added extra electrons (the carriers of electric current) and made it a \"conductor\". The other had impurities that wanted to bind to these electrons, making it (what he called) an \"insulator\". Because the two parts of the crystal were in contact with each other, the electrons could be pushed out of the conductive side which had extra electrons (soon to be known as the emitter) and replaced by new ones being provided (from a battery, for instance) where they would flow into the insulating portion and be collected by the whisker filament (named the collector). However, when the voltage was reversed the electrons being pushed into the collector would quickly fill up the \"holes\" (the electron-needy impurities), and conduction would stop almost instantly. This junction of the two crystals (or parts of one crystal) created a solid-state diode, and the concept soon became known as semiconduction. The mechanism of action when the diode is off has to do with the separation of charge carriers around the junction. This is called a \"depletion region\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History of semiconductor device development", "target_page_ids": [ 488140, 1974142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1215, 1229 ], [ 1270, 1286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armed with the knowledge of how these new diodes worked, a vigorous effort began to learn how to build them on demand. Teams at Purdue University, Bell Labs, MIT, and the University of Chicago all joined forces to build better crystals. Within a year germanium production had been perfected to the point where military-grade diodes were being used in most radar sets.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History of semiconductor device development", "target_page_ids": [ 23757, 3712, 18879, 32127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 145 ], [ 147, 156 ], [ 158, 161 ], [ 171, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the war, William Shockley decided to attempt the building of a triode-like semiconductor device. He secured funding and lab space, and went to work on the problem with Brattain and John Bardeen.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History of semiconductor device development", "target_page_ids": [ 33132, 31036, 15737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 31 ], [ 69, 75 ], [ 187, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The key to the development of the transistor was the further understanding of the process of the electron mobility in a semiconductor. It was realized that if there were some way to control the flow of the electrons from the emitter to the collector of this newly discovered diode, an amplifier could be built. For instance, if contacts are placed on both sides of a single type of crystal, current will not flow between them through the crystal. However if a third contact could then \"inject\" electrons or holes into the material, current would flow.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History of semiconductor device development", "target_page_ids": [ 760994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Actually doing this appeared to be very difficult. If the crystal were of any reasonable size, the number of electrons (or holes) required to be injected would have to be very large, making it less than useful as an amplifier because it would require a large injection current to start with. That said, the whole idea of the crystal diode was that the crystal itself could provide the electrons over a very small distance, the depletion region. The key appeared to be to place the input and output contacts very close together on the surface of the crystal on either side of this region.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History of semiconductor device development", "target_page_ids": [ 9931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 216, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brattain started working on building such a device, and tantalizing hints of amplification continued to appear as the team worked on the problem. Sometimes the system would work but then stop working unexpectedly. In one instance a non-working system started working when placed in water. Ohl and Brattain eventually developed a new branch of quantum mechanics, which became known as surface physics, to account for the behaviour. The electrons in any one piece of the crystal would migrate about due to nearby charges. Electrons in the emitters, or the \"holes\" in the collectors, would cluster at the surface of the crystal where they could find their opposite charge \"floating around\" in the air (or water). Yet they could be pushed away from the surface with the application of a small amount of charge from any other location on the crystal. Instead of needing a large supply of injected electrons, a very small number in the right place on the crystal would accomplish the same thing.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History of semiconductor device development", "target_page_ids": [ 25202, 68513 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 343, 360 ], [ 384, 399 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Their understanding solved the problem of needing a very small control area to some degree. Instead of needing two separate semiconductors connected by a common, but tiny, region, a single larger surface would serve. The electron-emitting and collecting leads would both be placed very close together on the top, with the control lead placed on the base of the crystal. When current flowed through this \"base\" lead, the electrons or holes would be pushed out, across the block of semiconductor, and collect on the far surface. As long as the emitter and collector were very close together, this should allow enough electrons or holes between them to allow conduction to start.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History of semiconductor device development", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Bell team made many attempts to build such a system with various tools, but generally failed. Setups where the contacts were close enough were invariably as fragile as the original cat's whisker detectors had been, and would work briefly, if at all. Eventually they had a practical breakthrough. A piece of gold foil was glued to the edge of a plastic wedge, and then the foil was sliced with a razor at the tip of the triangle. The result was two very closely spaced contacts of gold. When the wedge was pushed down onto the surface of a crystal and voltage applied to the other side (on the base of the crystal), current started to flow from one contact to the other as the base voltage pushed the electrons away from the base towards the other side near the contacts. The point-contact transistor had been invented.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History of semiconductor device development", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "While the device was constructed a week earlier, Brattain's notes describe the first demonstration to higher-ups at Bell Labs on the afternoon of 23 December 1947, often given as the birthdate of the transistor. What is now known as the \"p–n–p point-contact germanium transistor\" operated as a speech amplifier with a power gain of 18 in that trial. John Bardeen, Walter Houser Brattain, and William Bradford Shockley were awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in physics for their work.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History of semiconductor device development", "target_page_ids": [ 3512305, 15737, 33133, 33132, 21201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 238, 278 ], [ 350, 362 ], [ 364, 386 ], [ 392, 417 ], [ 440, 451 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bell Telephone Laboratories needed a generic name for their new invention: \"Semiconductor Triode\", \"Solid Triode\", \"Surface States Triode\", \"Crystal Triode\" and \"Iotatron\" were all considered, but \"transistor\", coined by John R. Pierce, won an internal ballot. The rationale for the name is described in the following extract from the company's Technical Memoranda (May 28, 1948) [26] calling for votes:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History of semiconductor device development", "target_page_ids": [ 1119645 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 221, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Transistor. This is an abbreviated combination of the words \"transconductance\" or \"transfer\", and \"varistor\". The device logically belongs in the varistor family, and has the transconductance or transfer impedance of a device having gain, so that this combination is descriptive.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History of semiconductor device development", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Shockley was upset about the device being credited to Brattain and Bardeen, who he felt had built it \"behind his back\" to take the glory. Matters became worse when Bell Labs lawyers found that some of Shockley's own writings on the transistor were close enough to those of an earlier 1925 patent by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld that they thought it best that his name be left off the patent application.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History of semiconductor device development", "target_page_ids": [ 697141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 299, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shockley was incensed, and decided to demonstrate who was the real brains of the operation. A few months later he invented an entirely new, considerably more robust, type of transistor with a layer or 'sandwich' structure. This structure went on to be used for the vast majority of all transistors into the 1960s, and evolved into the bipolar junction transistor.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History of semiconductor device development", "target_page_ids": [ 49338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 335, 362 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the fragility problems solved, a remaining problem was purity. Making germanium of the required purity was proving to be a serious problem, and limited the yield of transistors that actually worked from a given batch of material. Germanium's sensitivity to temperature also limited its usefulness. Scientists theorized that silicon would be easier to fabricate, but few investigated this possibility. Gordon K. Teal was the first to develop a working silicon transistor, and his company, the nascent Texas Instruments, profited from its technological edge. From the late 1960s most transistors were silicon-based. Within a few years transistor-based products, most notably easily portable radios, were appearing on the market.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History of semiconductor device development", "target_page_ids": [ 12242, 6456909, 47768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 84 ], [ 406, 420 ], [ 505, 522 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The static induction transistor, the first high frequency transistor, was invented by Japanese engineers Jun-ichi Nishizawa and Y. Watanabe in 1950. It was the fastest transistor through to the 1980s.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History of semiconductor device development", "target_page_ids": [ 34041133, 4404974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 31 ], [ 105, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A major improvement in manufacturing yield came when a chemist advised the companies fabricating semiconductors to use distilled rather than tap water: calcium ions present in tap water were the cause of the poor yields. \"Zone melting\", a technique using a band of molten material moving through the crystal, further increased crystal purity.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History of semiconductor device development", "target_page_ids": [ 106242, 5668, 18963787, 171396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 128 ], [ 152, 159 ], [ 160, 163 ], [ 222, 234 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1950s, Mohamed Atalla investigated the surface properties of silicon semiconductors at Bell Labs, where he proposed a new method of semiconductor device fabrication, coating a silicon wafer with an insulating layer of silicon oxide so that electricity could reliably penetrate to the conducting silicon below, overcoming the surface states that prevented electricity from reaching the semiconducting layer. This is known as surface passivation, a method that became critical to the semiconductor industry as it made possible the mass-production of silicon integrated circuits (ICs). Building on his surface passivation method, he developed the metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) process, which he proposed could be used to build the first working silicon field-effect transistor (FET). The led to the invention of the MOSFET (MOS field-effect transistor) by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng in 1959. With its scalability, and much lower power consumption and higher density than bipolar junction transistors, the MOSFET became the most common type of transistor in computers, electronics, and communications technology such as smartphones. The US Patent and Trademark Office calls the MOSFET a \"groundbreaking invention that transformed life and culture around the world\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History of semiconductor device development", "target_page_ids": [ 39739775, 3712, 27696, 41860, 740923, 175622, 612813, 15150, 40345, 41228216, 40345, 37606600, 40345, 49338, 1197962, 167079, 218363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 28 ], [ 94, 103 ], [ 139, 171 ], [ 183, 196 ], [ 225, 238 ], [ 431, 450 ], [ 489, 511 ], [ 563, 581 ], [ 651, 676 ], [ 759, 782 ], [ 822, 828 ], [ 881, 892 ], [ 911, 922 ], [ 981, 1008 ], [ 1095, 1120 ], [ 1129, 1139 ], [ 1146, 1176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "CMOS (complementary MOS) was invented by Chih-Tang Sah and Frank Wanlass at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1963. The first report of a floating-gate MOSFET was made by Dawon Kahng and Simon Sze in 1967. FinFET (fin field-effect transistor), a type of 3D multi-gate MOSFET, was developed by Digh Hisamoto and his team of researchers at Hitachi Central Research Laboratory in 1989.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History of semiconductor device development", "target_page_ids": [ 49420, 40345, 14313519, 1212094, 180263, 6241465, 2236445, 1512217, 8857189, 188676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 20, 23 ], [ 41, 54 ], [ 59, 72 ], [ 76, 99 ], [ 131, 151 ], [ 180, 189 ], [ 199, 205 ], [ 250, 260 ], [ 331, 366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Deep-level transient spectroscopy (DLTS)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1670347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Integrated circuit", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Reliability (semiconductor)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20575536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Semiconductor device fabrication", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " VLSI", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] } ]

[ "Semiconductor_devices" ]

[ "semiconductor component" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS FET) is a type of field-effect transistor (FET), most commonly fabricated by the controlled oxidation of silicon. It has an insulated gate, the voltage of which determines the conductivity of the device. This ability to change conductivity with the amount of applied voltage can be used for amplifying or switching electronic signals. A metal-insulator-semiconductor field-effect transistor or MISFET is a term almost synonymous with MOSFET. Another synonym is IGFET for insulated-gate field-effect transistor.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 41228216, 8556260, 27114, 275871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 120 ], [ 160, 180 ], [ 184, 191 ], [ 405, 412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The basic principle of the field-effect transistor was first patented by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in 1925.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 41228216, 697141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 50 ], [ 73, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The main advantage of a MOSFET is that it requires almost no input current to control the load current, when compared with bipolar transistors (bipolar junction transistors/BJTs). In an enhancement mode MOSFET, voltage applied to the gate terminal increases the conductivity of the device. In depletion mode transistors, voltage applied at the gate reduces the conductivity.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 49338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The \"metal\" in the name MOSFET is sometimes a misnomer, because the gate material can be a layer of polysilicon (polycrystalline silicon). Similarly, \"oxide\" in the name can also be a misnomer, as different dielectric materials are used with the aim of obtaining strong channels with smaller applied voltages.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 507851, 31329101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 54 ], [ 100, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The MOSFET is by far the most common transistor in digital circuits, as billions may be included in a memory chip or microprocessor. Since MOSFETs can be made with either p-type or n-type semiconductors, complementary pairs of MOS transistors can be used to make switching circuits with very low power consumption, in the form of CMOS logic.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 27753031, 49420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 58 ], [ 331, 341 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The basic principle of this kind of transistor was first patented by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in 1925.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 30011, 697141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 46 ], [ 69, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The structure resembling the MOS transistor was proposed by Bell scientists William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain, during their investigation that led to discovery of the transistor effect. The structure failed to show the anticipated effects, due to the problem of surface state: traps on semiconductor the surface that hold electrons immobile. In 1955 Carl Frosch and L. Derick accidentally grew a layer of silicon dioxide over the silicon wafer. Further research showed that silicon dioxide could prevent dopants from diffusing into the silicon wafer. Building on this work Mohamed M. Atalla showed that silicon dioxide is very effective in solving the problem of one important class of surface states.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 33132, 15737, 33133, 39739775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 92 ], [ 94, 106 ], [ 111, 133 ], [ 597, 614 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following this Atalla and Dawon Kahng demonstrated a device that had the structure of a modern MOS transistor. The principles behind the device were the same as the ones that were tried by Bardeen, Shockley and Brattain in their unsuccessful attempt to build a surface field-effect device.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 37606600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The device was about 100 times slower than contemporary bipolar transistors and was initially seen as inferior. Nevertheless Kahng pointed out several advantages of the device, notably ease of fabrication and its application in integrated circuits.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 15150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 228, 246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Usually the semiconductor of choice is silicon. Recently, some chip manufacturers, most notably IBM and Intel, have started using an alloy of silicon and germanium (SiGe) in MOSFET channels. Unfortunately, many semiconductors with better electrical properties than silicon, such as gallium arsenide, do not form good semiconductor-to-insulator interfaces, and thus are not suitable for MOSFETs. Research continues on creating insulators with acceptable electrical characteristics on other semiconductor materials.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Composition", "target_page_ids": [ 27709, 27114, 40379651, 14617, 449667, 662175, 144143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 25 ], [ 39, 46 ], [ 96, 99 ], [ 104, 109 ], [ 133, 138 ], [ 165, 169 ], [ 282, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To overcome the increase in power consumption due to gate current leakage, a high-κ dielectric is used instead of silicon dioxide for the gate insulator, while polysilicon is replaced by metal gates (e.g. Intel, 2009)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Composition", "target_page_ids": [ 2332464, 14617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 94 ], [ 205, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The gate is separated from the channel by a thin insulating layer, traditionally of silicon dioxide and later of silicon oxynitride. Some companies have started to introduce a high-κ dielectric and metal gate combination in the 45 nanometer node.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Composition", "target_page_ids": [ 33343690, 30865421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 131 ], [ 228, 240 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When a voltage is applied between the gate and body terminals, the electric field generated penetrates through the oxide and creates an inversion layer or channel at the semiconductor-insulator interface. The inversion layer provides a channel through which current can pass between source and drain terminals. Varying the voltage between the gate and body modulates the conductivity of this layer and thereby controls the current flow between drain and source. This is known as enhancement mode.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Composition", "target_page_ids": [ 61580 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 371, 383 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The traditional metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) structure is obtained by growing a layer of silicon dioxide () on top of a silicon substrate, commonly by thermal oxidation and depositing a layer of metal or polycrystalline silicon (the latter is commonly used). As the silicon dioxide is a dielectric material, its structure is equivalent to a planar capacitor, with one of the electrodes replaced by a semiconductor.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 43710, 8556260, 31329101, 41026, 4932111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 107 ], [ 154, 171 ], [ 207, 230 ], [ 290, 300 ], [ 351, 360 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When a voltage is applied across a MOS structure, it modifies the distribution of charges in the semiconductor. If we consider a p-type semiconductor (with the density of acceptors, p the density of holes; p = NA in neutral bulk), a positive voltage, , from gate to body (see figure) creates a depletion layer by forcing the positively charged holes away from the gate-insulator/semiconductor interface, leaving exposed a carrier-free region of immobile, negatively charged acceptor ions (see doping (semiconductor)). If is high enough, a high concentration of negative charge carriers forms in an inversion layer located in a thin layer next to the interface between the semiconductor and the insulator.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 12610385, 1974142, 860861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 172, 181 ], [ 295, 310 ], [ 494, 516 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Conventionally, the gate voltage at which the volume density of electrons in the inversion layer is the same as the volume density of holes in the body is called the threshold voltage. When the voltage between transistor gate and source (VGS) exceeds the threshold voltage (Vth), the difference is known as overdrive voltage.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 1422246, 10062927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 183 ], [ 307, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This structure with p-type body is the basis of the n-type MOSFET, which requires the addition of n-type source and drain regions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The MOS capacitor structure is the heart of the MOSFET. Consider a MOS capacitor where the silicon base is of p-type. If a positive voltage is applied at the gate, holes which are at the surface of the p-type substrate will be repelled by the electric field generated by the voltage applied. At first, the holes will simply be repelled and what will remain on the surface will be immobile (negative) atoms of the acceptor type, which creates a depletion region on the surface. Remember that a hole is created by an acceptor atom, e.g. Boron, which has one less electron than Silicon. One might ask how can holes be repelled if they are actually non-entities? The answer is that what really happens is not that a hole is repelled, but electrons are attracted by the positive field, and fill these holes, creating a depletion region where no charge carriers exist because the electron is now fixed onto the atom and immobile.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As the voltage at the gate increases, there will be a point at which the surface above the depletion region will be converted from p-type into n-type, as electrons from the bulk area will start to get attracted by the larger electric field. This is known as inversion. The threshold voltage at which this conversion happens is one of the most important parameters in a MOSFET.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the case of a p-type bulk, inversion happens when the intrinsic energy level at the surface becomes smaller than the Fermi level at the surface. One can see this from a band diagram. Remember that the Fermi level defines the type of semiconductor in discussion. If the Fermi level is equal to the Intrinsic level, the semiconductor is of intrinsic, or pure type. If the Fermi level lies closer to the conduction band (valence band) then the semiconductor type will be of n-type (p-type). Therefore, when the gate voltage is increased in a positive sense (for the given example), this will \"bend\" the intrinsic energy level band so that it will curve downwards towards the valence band. If the Fermi level lies closer to the valence band (for p-type), there will be a point when the Intrinsic level will start to cross the Fermi level and when the voltage reaches the threshold voltage, the intrinsic level does cross the Fermi level, and that is what is known as inversion. At that point, the surface of the semiconductor is inverted from p-type into n-type. Remember that as said above, if the Fermi level lies above the Intrinsic level, the semiconductor is of n-type, therefore at Inversion, when the Intrinsic level reaches and crosses the Fermi level (which lies closer to the valence band), the semiconductor type changes at the surface as dictated by the relative positions of the Fermi and Intrinsic energy levels.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 154473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A MOSFET is based on the modulation of charge concentration by a MOS capacitance between a body electrode and a gate electrode located above the body and insulated from all other device regions by a gate dielectric layer. If dielectrics other than an oxide are employed, the device may be referred to as a metal-insulator-semiconductor FET (MISFET). Compared to the MOS capacitor, the MOSFET includes two additional terminals (source and drain), each connected to individual highly doped regions that are separated by the body region. These regions can be either p or n type, but they must both be of the same type, and of opposite type to the body region. The source and drain (unlike the body) are highly doped as signified by a \"+\" sign after the type of doping.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If the MOSFET is an n-channel or nMOS FET, then the source and drain are n+ regions and the body is a p region. If the MOSFET is a p-channel or pMOS FET, then the source and drain are p+ regions and the body is a n region. The source is so named because it is the source of the charge carriers (electrons for n-channel, holes for p-channel) that flow through the channel; similarly, the drain is where the charge carriers leave the channel.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The occupancy of the energy bands in a semiconductor is set by the position of the Fermi level relative to the semiconductor energy-band edges.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 154473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With sufficient gate voltage, the valence band edge is driven far from the Fermi level, and holes from the body are driven away from the gate.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At larger gate bias still, near the semiconductor surface the conduction band edge is brought close to the Fermi level, populating the surface with electrons in an inversion layer or n-channel at the interface between the p region and the oxide. This conducting channel extends between the source and the drain, and current is conducted through it when a voltage is applied between the two electrodes. Increasing the voltage on the gate leads to a higher electron density in the inversion layer and therefore increases the current flow between the source and drain. For gate voltages below the threshold value, the channel is lightly populated, and only a very small subthreshold leakage current can flow between the source and the drain.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 1422292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 667, 687 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When a negative gate-source voltage (positive source-gate) is applied, it creates a p-channel at the surface of the n region, analogous to the n-channel case, but with opposite polarities of charges and voltages. When a voltage less negative than the threshold value (a negative voltage for the p-channel) is applied between gate and source, the channel disappears and only a very small subthreshold current can flow between the source and the drain. The device may comprise a silicon on insulator device in which a buried oxide is formed below a thin semiconductor layer. If the channel region between the gate dielectric and the buried oxide region is very thin, the channel is referred to as an ultrathin channel region with the source and drain regions formed on either side in or above the thin semiconductor layer. Other semiconductor materials may be employed. When the source and drain regions are formed above the channel in whole or in part, they are referred to as raised source/drain regions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 747290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 477, 497 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The operation of a MOSFET can be separated into three different modes, depending on the voltages at the terminals. In the following discussion, a simplified algebraic model is used. Modern MOSFET characteristics are more complex than the algebraic model presented here.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For an enhancement-mode, n-channel MOSFET, the three operational modes are:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cutoff, subthreshold, and weak-inversion mode", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When VGS Vth:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is gate-to-source bias and is the threshold voltage of the device.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 1422246 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the basic threshold model, the transistor is turned off, and there is no conduction between drain and source. A more accurate model considers the effect of thermal energy on the Fermi–Dirac distribution of electron energies which allow some of the more energetic electrons at the source to enter the channel and flow to the drain. This results in a subthreshold current that is an exponential function of gate-source voltage. While the current between drain and source should ideally be zero when the transistor is being used as a turned-off switch, there is a weak-inversion current, sometimes called subthreshold leakage.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 159225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 191, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In weak inversion where the source is tied to bulk, the current varies exponentially with as given approximately by:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where = current at , the thermal voltage and the slope factor n is given by:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "with = capacitance of the depletion layer and = capacitance of the oxide layer. This equation is generally used, but is only an adequate approximation for the source tied to the bulk. For the source not tied to the bulk, the subthreshold equation for drain current in saturation is", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where the is the channel divider that is given by:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "with = capacitance of the depletion layer and = capacitance of the oxide layer. In a long-channel device, there is no drain voltage dependence of the current once , but as channel length is reduced drain-induced barrier lowering introduces drain voltage dependence that depends in a complex way upon the device geometry (for example, the channel doping, the junction doping and so on). Frequently, threshold voltage Vth for this mode is defined as the gate voltage at which a selected value of current ID0 occurs, for example, ID0 = 1μA, which may not be the same Vth-value used in the equations for the following modes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 9252215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 200, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some micropower analog circuits are designed to take advantage of subthreshold conduction. By working in the weak-inversion region, the MOSFETs in these circuits deliver the highest possible transconductance-to-current ratio, namely: , almost that of a bipolar transistor.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The subthreshold I–V curve depends exponentially upon threshold voltage, introducing a strong dependence on any manufacturing variation that affects threshold voltage; for example: variations in oxide thickness, junction depth, or body doping that change the degree of drain-induced barrier lowering. The resulting sensitivity to fabricational variations complicates optimization for leakage and performance.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 2572375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Triode mode or linear region (also known as the ohmic mode)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When VGS Vth and VDS VGS− Vth:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The transistor is turned on, and a channel has been created which allows current between the drain and the source. The MOSFET operates like a resistor, controlled by the gate voltage relative to both the source and drain voltages. The current from drain to source is modeled as:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is the charge-carrier effective mobility, is the gate width, is the gate length and is the gate oxide capacitance per unit area. The transition from the exponential subthreshold region to the triode region is not as sharp as the equations suggest.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Saturation or active mode", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When VGS Vth and VDS ≥ (VGS– Vth):", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The switch is turned on, and a channel has been created, which allows current between the drain and source. Since the drain voltage is higher than the source voltage, the electrons spread out, and conduction is not through a narrow channel but through a broader, two- or three-dimensional current distribution extending away from the interface and deeper in the substrate. The onset of this region is also known as pinch-off to indicate the lack of channel region near the drain. Although the channel does not extend the full length of the device, the electric field between the drain and the channel is very high, and conduction continues. The drain current is now weakly dependent upon drain voltage and controlled primarily by the gate-source voltage, and modeled approximately as:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 2828700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 415, 424 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The additional factor involving λ, the channel-length modulation parameter, models current dependence on drain voltage due to the Early effect, or channel length modulation. According to this equation, a key design parameter, the MOSFET transconductance is:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 5596655, 2828700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 142 ], [ 147, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where the combination Vov = VGS− Vth is called the overdrive voltage, and where VDSsat = VGS− Vth accounts for a small discontinuity in which would otherwise appear at the transition between the triode and saturation regions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 10062927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another key design parameter is the MOSFET output resistance rout given by:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "rout is the inverse of gDS where . ID is the expression in saturation region.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If λ is taken as zero, an infinite output resistance of the device results that leads to unrealistic circuit predictions, particularly in analog circuits.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As the channel length becomes very short, these equations become quite inaccurate. New physical effects arise. For example, carrier transport in the active mode may become limited by velocity saturation. When velocity saturation dominates, the saturation drain current is more nearly linear than quadratic in VGS. At even shorter lengths, carriers transport with near zero scattering, known as quasi-ballistic transport. In the ballistic regime, the carriers travel at an injection velocity that may exceed the saturation velocity and approaches the Fermi velocity at high inversion charge density. In addition, drain-induced barrier lowering increases off-state (cutoff) current and requires an increase in threshold voltage to compensate, which in turn reduces the saturation current.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 25225297, 3345023, 170165 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 183, 202 ], [ 400, 419 ], [ 550, 564 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The occupancy of the energy bands in a semiconductor is set by the position of the Fermi level relative to the semiconductor energy-band edges. Application of a source-to-substrate reverse bias of the source-body pn-junction introduces a split between the Fermi levels for electrons and holes, moving the Fermi level for the channel further from the band edge, lowering the occupancy of the channel. The effect is to increase the gate voltage necessary to establish the channel, as seen in the figure. This change in channel strength by application of reverse bias is called the 'body effect'.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 154473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Simply put, using an nMOS example, the gate-to-body bias VGB positions the conduction-band energy levels, while the source-to-body bias VSB positions the electron Fermi level near the interface, deciding occupancy of these levels near the interface, and hence the strength of the inversion layer or channel.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The body effect upon the channel can be described using a modification of the threshold voltage, approximated by the following equation:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where VTB is the threshold voltage with substrate bias present, and VT0 is the zero-VSB value of threshold voltage, is the body effect parameter, and 2φB is the approximate potential drop between surface and bulk across the depletion layer when and gate bias is sufficient to ensure that a channel is present. As this equation shows, a reverse bias causes an increase in threshold voltage VTB and therefore demands a larger gate voltage before the channel populates.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The body can be operated as a second gate, and is sometimes referred to as the \"back gate\"; the body effect is sometimes called the \"back-gate effect\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A variety of symbols are used for the MOSFET. The basic design is generally a line for the channel with the source and drain leaving it at right angles and then bending back at right angles into the same direction as the channel. Sometimes three line segments are used for enhancement mode and a solid line for depletion mode (see depletion and enhancement modes). Another line is drawn parallel to the channel for the gate.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Circuit symbols", "target_page_ids": [ 41228216, 30925675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 273, 289 ], [ 331, 362 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The bulk or body connection, if shown, is shown connected to the back of the channel with an arrow indicating pMOS or nMOS. Arrows always point from P to N, so an NMOS (N-channel in P-well or P-substrate) has the arrow pointing in (from the bulk to the channel). If the bulk is connected to the source (as is generally the case with discrete devices) it is sometimes angled to meet up with the source leaving the transistor. If the bulk is not shown (as is often the case in IC design as they are generally common bulk) an inversion symbol is sometimes used to indicate PMOS, alternatively an arrow on the source may be used in the same way as for bipolar transistors (out for nMOS, in for pMOS).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Circuit symbols", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Comparison of enhancement-mode and depletion-mode MOSFET symbols, along with JFET symbols. The orientation of the symbols, (most significantly the position of source relative to drain) is such that more positive voltages appear higher on the page than less positive voltages, implying current flowing \"down\" the page:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Circuit symbols", "target_page_ids": [ 40346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In schematics where G, S, D are not labeled, the detailed features of the symbol indicate which terminal is source and which is drain. For enhancement-mode and depletion-mode MOSFET symbols (in columns two and five), the source terminal is the one connected to the triangle. Additionally, in this diagram, the gate is shown as an \"L\" shape, whose input leg is closer to S than D, also indicating which is which. However, these symbols are often drawn with a \"T\" shaped gate (as elsewhere on this page), so it is the triangle which must be relied upon to indicate the source terminal.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Circuit symbols", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For the symbols in which the bulk, or body, terminal is shown, it is here shown internally connected to the source (i.e., the black triangles in the diagrams in columns 2 and 5). This is a typical configuration, but by no means the only important configuration. In general, the MOSFET is a four-terminal device, and in integrated circuits many of the MOSFETs share a body connection, not necessarily connected to the source terminals of all the transistors.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Circuit symbols", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Digital integrated circuits such as microprocessors and memory devices contain thousands to millions of integrated MOSFET transistors on each device, providing the basic switching functions required to implement logic gates and data storage. Discrete devices are widely used in applications such as switch mode power supplies, variable-frequency drives and other power electronics applications where each device may be switching thousands of watts. Radio-frequency amplifiers up to the UHF spectrum use MOSFET transistors as analog signal and power amplifiers. Radio systems also use MOSFETs as oscillators, or mixers to convert frequencies. MOSFET devices are also applied in audio-frequency power amplifiers for public address systems, sound reinforcement and home and automobile sound systems", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 15150, 19553, 18168, 223407, 1845708, 1001628, 160501, 482952, 764380 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 26 ], [ 36, 50 ], [ 212, 222 ], [ 299, 325 ], [ 327, 351 ], [ 363, 380 ], [ 486, 489 ], [ 612, 617 ], [ 739, 758 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the development of clean rooms to reduce contamination to levels never before thought necessary, and of photolithography and the planar process to allow circuits to be made in very few steps, the Si–SiO2 system possessed the technical attractions of low cost of production (on a per circuit basis) and ease of integration. Largely because of these two factors, the MOSFET has become the most widely used type of transistor in IET.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 275712, 23748, 1251985, 3125186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 39 ], [ 114, 130 ], [ 139, 153 ], [ 436, 439 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "General Microelectronics introduced the first commercial MOS integrated circuit in 1964.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Additionally, the method of coupling two complementary MOSFETS (P-channel and N-channel) into one high/low switch, known as CMOS, means that digital circuits dissipate very little power except when actually switched.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest microprocessors starting in 1970 were all MOS microprocessors; i.e., fabricated entirely from PMOS logic or fabricated entirely from NMOS logic. In the 1970s, MOS microprocessors were often contrasted with CMOS microprocessors and bipolar bit-slice processors.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 13624133, 11968523, 49416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 28 ], [ 107, 117 ], [ 146, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The MOSFET is used in digital complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) logic, which uses p- and n-channel MOSFETs as building blocks. Overheating is a major concern in integrated circuits since ever more transistors are packed into ever smaller chips. CMOS logic reduces power consumption because no current flows (ideally), and thus no power is consumed, except when the inputs to logic gates are being switched. CMOS accomplishes this current reduction by complementing every nMOSFET with a pMOSFET and connecting both gates and both drains together. A high voltage on the gates will cause the nMOSFET to conduct and the pMOSFET not to conduct and a low voltage on the gates causes the reverse. During the switching time as the voltage goes from one state to another, both MOSFETs will conduct briefly. This arrangement greatly reduces power consumption and heat generation.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 49420, 15150, 24236, 18168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 75 ], [ 174, 192 ], [ 343, 348 ], [ 388, 398 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The growth of digital technologies like the microprocessor has provided the motivation to advance MOSFET technology faster than any other type of silicon-based transistor. A big advantage of MOSFETs for digital switching is that the oxide layer between the gate and the channel prevents DC current from flowing through the gate, further reducing power consumption and giving a very large input impedance. The insulating oxide between the gate and channel effectively isolates a MOSFET in one logic stage from earlier and later stages, which allows a single MOSFET output to drive a considerable number of MOSFET inputs. Bipolar transistor-based logic (such as TTL) does not have such a high fanout capacity. This isolation also makes it easier for the designers to ignore to some extent loading effects between logic stages independently. That extent is defined by the operating frequency: as frequencies increase, the input impedance of the MOSFETs decreases.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 19553, 47769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 58 ], [ 660, 663 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The MOSFET's advantages in digital circuits do not translate into supremacy in all analog circuits. The two types of circuit draw upon different features of transistor behavior. Digital circuits switch, spending most of their time either fully on or fully off. The transition from one to the other is only of concern with regards to speed and charge required. Analog circuits depend on operation in the transition region where small changes to V can modulate the output (drain) current. The JFET and bipolar junction transistor (BJT) are preferred for accurate matching (of adjacent devices in integrated circuits), higher transconductance and certain temperature characteristics which simplify keeping performance predictable as circuit temperature varies.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 1665281, 49338, 635926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 97 ], [ 500, 527 ], [ 623, 639 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nevertheless, MOSFETs are widely used in many types of analog circuits because of their own advantages (zero gate current, high and adjustable output impedance and improved robustness vs. BJTs which can be permanently degraded by even lightly breaking down the emitter-base). The characteristics and performance of many analog circuits can be scaled up or down by changing the sizes (length and width) of the MOSFETs used. By comparison, in bipolar transistors follow a different scaling law. MOSFETs' ideal characteristics regarding gate current (zero) and drain-source offset voltage (zero) also make them nearly ideal switch elements, and also make switched capacitor analog circuits practical. In their linear region, MOSFETs can be used as precision resistors, which can have a much higher controlled resistance than BJTs. In high power circuits, MOSFETs sometimes have the advantage of not suffering from thermal runaway as BJTs do. This means that complete analog circuits can be made on a silicon chip in a much smaller space and with simpler fabrication techniques. MOSFETS are ideally suited to switch inductive loads because of tolerance to inductive kickback.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 24522, 4945362, 2350918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 480, 491 ], [ 652, 670 ], [ 911, 926 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some ICs combine analog and digital MOSFET circuitry on a single mixed-signal integrated circuit, making the needed board space even smaller. This creates a need to isolate the analog circuits from the digital circuits on a chip level, leading to the use of isolation rings and silicon on insulator (SOI). Since MOSFETs require more space to handle a given amount of power than a BJT, fabrication processes can incorporate BJTs and MOSFETs into a single device. Mixed-transistor devices are called bi-FETs (bipolar FETs) if they contain just one BJT-FET and BiCMOS (bipolar-CMOS) if they contain complementary BJT-FETs. Such devices have the advantages of both insulated gates and higher current density.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 1157354, 747290, 512528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 96 ], [ 278, 298 ], [ 558, 564 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "MOSFET analog switches use the MOSFET to pass analog signals when on, and as a high impedance when off. Signals flow in both directions across a MOSFET switch. In this application, the drain and source of a MOSFET exchange places depending on the relative voltages of the source/drain electrodes. The source is the more negative side for an N-MOS or the more positive side for a P-MOS. All of these switches are limited on what signals they can pass or stop by their gate-source, gate-drain and source–drain voltages; exceeding the voltage, current, or power limits will potentially damage the switch.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This analog switch uses a four-terminal simple MOSFET of either P or N type.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the case of an n-type switch, the body is connected to the most negative supply (usually GND) and the gate is used as the switch control. Whenever the gate voltage exceeds the source voltage by at least a threshold voltage, the MOSFET conducts. The higher the voltage, the more the MOSFET can conduct. An N-MOS switch passes all voltages less than V − V. When the switch is conducting, it typically operates in the linear (or ohmic) mode of operation, since the source and drain voltages will typically be nearly equal.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the case of a P-MOS, the body is connected to the most positive voltage, and the gate is brought to a lower potential to turn the switch on. The P-MOS switch passes all voltages higher than V − V (threshold voltage V is negative in the case of enhancement-mode P-MOS).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This \"complementary\" or CMOS type of switch uses one P-MOS and one N-MOS FET to counteract the limitations of the single-type switch. The FETs have their drains and sources connected in parallel, the body of the P-MOS is connected to the high potential (VDD) and the body of the N-MOS is connected to the low potential (gnd). To turn the switch on, the gate of the P-MOS is driven to the low potential and the gate of the N-MOS is driven to the high potential. For voltages between VDD − Vtn and gnd − Vtp, both FETs conduct the signal; for voltages less than gnd − Vtp, the N-MOS conducts alone; and for voltages greater than VDD − Vtn, the P-MOS conducts alone.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The voltage limits for this switch are the gate-source, gate-drain and source-drain voltage limits for both FETs. Also, the P-MOS is typically two to three times wider than the N-MOS, so the switch will be balanced for speed in the two directions.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tri-state circuitry sometimes incorporates a CMOS MOSFET switch on its output to provide for a low-ohmic, full-range output when on, and a high-ohmic, mid-level signal when off.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 1972463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The primary criterion for the gate material is that it is a good conductor. Highly doped polycrystalline silicon is an acceptable but certainly not ideal conductor, and also suffers from some more technical deficiencies in its role as the standard gate material. Nevertheless, there are several reasons favoring use of polysilicon:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 198984, 31329101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 74 ], [ 89, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The threshold voltage (and consequently the drain to source on-current) is modified by the work function difference between the gate material and channel material. Because polysilicon is a semiconductor, its work function can be modulated by adjusting the type and level of doping. Furthermore, because polysilicon has the same bandgap as the underlying silicon channel, it is quite straightforward to tune the work function to achieve low threshold voltages for both NMOS and PMOS devices. By contrast, the work functions of metals are not easily modulated, so tuning the work function to obtain low threshold voltages (LVT) becomes a significant challenge. Additionally, obtaining low-threshold devices on both PMOS and NMOS devices sometimes requires the use of different metals for each device type. ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 1422246, 53954, 118396, 53954, 1422246 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 22 ], [ 92, 105 ], [ 329, 336 ], [ 574, 587 ], [ 598, 619 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The silicon-SiO2 interface has been well studied and is known to have relatively few defects. By contrast many metal-insulator interfaces contain significant levels of defects which can lead to Fermi level pinning, charging, or other phenomena that ultimately degrade device performance.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 14355756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 195, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In the MOSFET IC fabrication process, it is preferable to deposit the gate material prior to certain high-temperature steps in order to make better-performing transistors. Such high temperature steps would melt some metals, limiting the types of metal that can be used in a metal-gate-based process.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 27696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While polysilicon gates have been the de facto standard for the last twenty years, they do have some disadvantages which have led to their likely future replacement by metal gates. These disadvantages include:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Polysilicon is not a great conductor (approximately 1000 times more resistive than metals) which reduces the signal propagation speed through the material. The resistivity can be lowered by increasing the level of doping, but even highly doped polysilicon is not as conductive as most metals. To improve conductivity further, sometimes a high-temperature metal such as tungsten, titanium, cobalt, and more recently nickel is alloyed with the top layers of the polysilicon. Such a blended material is called silicide. The silicide-polysilicon combination has better electrical properties than polysilicon alone and still does not melt in subsequent processing. Also the threshold voltage is not significantly higher than with polysilicon alone, because the silicide material is not near the channel. The process in which silicide is formed on both the gate electrode and the source and drain regions is sometimes called salicide, self-aligned silicide.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 30046, 30040, 24580536, 21274, 2182941, 8145381 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 370, 378 ], [ 380, 388 ], [ 390, 396 ], [ 416, 422 ], [ 508, 516 ], [ 920, 928 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " When the transistors are extremely scaled down, it is necessary to make the gate dielectric layer very thin, around 1nm in state-of-the-art technologies. A phenomenon observed here is the so-called poly depletion, where a depletion layer is formed in the gate polysilicon layer next to the gate dielectric when the transistor is in the inversion. To avoid this problem, a metal gate is desired. A variety of metal gates such as tantalum, tungsten, tantalum nitride, and titanium nitride are used, usually in conjunction with high-κ dielectrics. An alternative is to use fully silicided polysilicon gates, a process known as FUSI.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 32402084, 30048, 5445389, 1835568, 2332464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 213 ], [ 429, 437 ], [ 449, 465 ], [ 471, 487 ], [ 526, 543 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Present high performance CPUs use metal gate technology, together with high-κ dielectrics, a combination known as high-κ, metal gate (HKMG). The disadvantages of metal gates are overcome by a few techniques:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 2332464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The threshold voltage is tuned by including a thin \"work function metal\" layer between the high-κ dielectric and the main metal. This layer is thin enough that the total work function of the gate is influenced by both the main metal and thin metal work functions (either due to alloying during annealing, or simply due to the incomplete screening by the thin metal). The threshold voltage thus can be tuned by the thickness of the thin metal layer.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " High-κ dielectrics are now well studied, and their defects are understood.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " HKMG processes exist that do not require the metals to experience high temperature anneals; other processes select metals that can survive the annealing step.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As devices are made smaller, insulating layers are made thinner, often through steps of thermal oxidation or localised oxidation of silicon (LOCOS). For nano-scaled devices, at some point tunneling of carriers through the insulator from the channel to the gate electrode takes place. To reduce the resulting leakage current, the insulator can be made thinner by choosing a material with a higher dielectric constant. To see how thickness and dielectric constant are related, note that Gauss's law connects field to charge as:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 8556260, 11135100, 643769, 24280173, 74964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 105 ], [ 141, 146 ], [ 188, 197 ], [ 308, 315 ], [ 485, 496 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "with Q = charge density, κ = dielectric constant, ε0 = permittivity of empty space and E = electric field. From this law it appears the same charge can be maintained in the channel at a lower field provided κ is increased. The voltage on the gate is given by:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "with VG = gate voltage, Vch = voltage at channel side of insulator, and tins = insulator thickness. This equation shows the gate voltage will not increase when the insulator thickness increases, provided κ increases to keep tins / κ = constant (see the article on high-κ dielectrics for more detail, and the section in this article on Increased gate-oxide leakage).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The insulator in a MOSFET is a dielectric which can in any event be silicon oxide, formed by LOCOS but many other dielectric materials are employed. The generic term for the dielectric is gate dielectric since the dielectric lies directly below the gate electrode and above the channel of the MOSFET.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 11135100 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The source-to-body and drain-to-body junctions are the object of much attention because of three major factors: their design affects the current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of the device, lowering output resistance, and also the speed of the device through the loading effect of the junction capacitances, and finally, the component of stand-by power dissipation due to junction leakage.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 571755, 2572375, 140711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 46 ], [ 137, 174 ], [ 294, 305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The drain induced barrier lowering of the threshold voltage and channel length modulation effects upon I-V curves are reduced by using shallow junction extensions. In addition, halo doping can be used, that is, the addition of very thin heavily doped regions of the same doping type as the body tight against the junction walls to limit the extent of depletion regions.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 2828700, 1974142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 89 ], [ 351, 367 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The capacitive effects are limited by using raised source and drain geometries that make most of the contact area border thick dielectric instead of silicon.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These various features of junction design are shown (with artistic license) in the figure.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 340336 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Over the past decades, the MOSFET (as used for digital logic) has continually been scaled down in size; typical MOSFET channel lengths were once several micrometres, but modern integrated circuits are incorporating MOSFETs with channel lengths of tens of nanometers. Robert Dennard's work on scaling theory was pivotal in recognising that this ongoing reduction was possible. Intel began production of a process featuring a 32nm feature size (with the channel being even shorter) in late 2009. The semiconductor industry maintains a \"roadmap\", the ITRS, which sets the pace for MOSFET development. Historically, the difficulties with decreasing the size of the MOSFET have been associated with the semiconductor device fabrication process, the need to use very low voltages, and with poorer electrical performance necessitating circuit redesign and innovation (small MOSFETs exhibit higher leakage currents and lower output resistance).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Scaling", "target_page_ids": [ 20627, 544712, 24522, 3308500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 163 ], [ 267, 281 ], [ 292, 306 ], [ 548, 552 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Smaller MOSFETs are desirable for several reasons. The main reason to make transistors smaller is to pack more and more devices in a given chip area. This results in a chip with the same functionality in a smaller area, or chips with more functionality in the same area. Since fabrication costs for a semiconductor wafer are relatively fixed, the cost per integrated circuits is mainly related to the number of chips that can be produced per wafer. Hence, smaller ICs allow more chips per wafer, reducing the price per chip. In fact, over the past 30 years the number of transistors per chip has been doubled every 2–3 years once a new technology node is introduced. For example, the number of MOSFETs in a microprocessor fabricated in a 45 nm technology can well be twice as many as in a 65 nm chip. This doubling of transistor density was first observed by Gordon Moore in 1965 and is commonly referred to as Moore's law. It is also expected that smaller transistors switch faster. For example, one approach to size reduction is a scaling of the MOSFET that requires all device dimensions to reduce proportionally. The main device dimensions are the channel length, channel width, and oxide thickness. When they are scaled down by equal factors, the transistor channel resistance does not change, while gate capacitance is cut by that factor. Hence, the RC delay of the transistor scales with a similar factor. While this has been traditionally the case for the older technologies, for the state-of-the-art MOSFETs reduction of the transistor dimensions does not necessarily translate to higher chip speed because the delay due to interconnections is more significant.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Scaling", "target_page_ids": [ 41860, 30865421, 1819403, 196914, 39418, 540772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 301, 320 ], [ 738, 743 ], [ 789, 794 ], [ 859, 871 ], [ 911, 922 ], [ 1356, 1364 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Producing MOSFETs with channel lengths much smaller than a micrometre is a challenge, and the difficulties of semiconductor device fabrication are always a limiting factor in advancing integrated circuit technology. Though processes such as ALD have improved fabrication for small components, the small size of the MOSFET (less than a few tens of nanometers) has created operational problems:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Scaling", "target_page_ids": [ 20627, 3607910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 69 ], [ 241, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Higher subthreshold conduction As MOSFET geometries shrink, the voltage that can be applied to the gate must be reduced to maintain reliability. To maintain performance, the threshold voltage of the MOSFET has to be reduced as well. As threshold voltage is reduced, the transistor cannot be switched from complete turn-off to complete turn-on with the limited voltage swing available; the circuit design is a compromise between strong current in the on case and low current in the off case, and the application determines whether to favor one over the other. Subthreshold leakage (including subthreshold conduction, gate-oxide leakage and reverse-biased junction leakage), which was ignored in the past, now can consume upwards of half of the total power consumption of modern high-performance VLSI chips.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Scaling", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Increased gate-oxide leakage The gate oxide, which serves as insulator between the gate and channel, should be made as thin as possible to increase the channel conductivity and performance when the transistor is on and to reduce subthreshold leakage when the transistor is off. However, with current gate oxides with a thickness of around 1.2nm (which in silicon is ~5atoms thick) the quantum mechanical phenomenon of electron tunneling occurs between the gate and channel, leading to increased power consumption. Silicon dioxide has traditionally been used as the gate insulator. Silicon dioxide however has a modest dielectric constant. Increasing the dielectric constant of the gate dielectric allows a thicker layer while maintaining a high capacitance (capacitance is proportional to dielectric constant and inversely proportional to dielectric thickness). All else equal, a higher dielectric thickness reduces the quantum tunneling current through the dielectric between the gate and the channel. Insulators that have a larger dielectric constant than silicon dioxide (referred to as high-κ dielectrics), such as group IVb metal silicates e.g. hafnium and zirconium silicates and oxides are being used to reduce the gate leakage from the 45 nanometer technology node onwards. On the other hand, the barrier height of the new gate insulator is an important consideration; the difference in conduction band energy between the semiconductor and the dielectric (and the corresponding difference in valence band energy) also affects leakage current level. For the traditional gate oxide, silicon dioxide, the former barrier is approximately 8 eV. For many alternative dielectrics the value is significantly lower, tending to increase the tunneling current, somewhat negating the advantage of higher dielectric constant. The maximum gate-source voltage is determined by the strength of the electric field able to be sustained by the gate dielectric before significant leakage occurs. As the insulating dielectric is made thinner, the electric field strength within it goes up for a fixed voltage. This necessitates using lower voltages with the thinner dielectric.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Scaling", "target_page_ids": [ 21837, 902, 25202, 643769, 43710, 643769, 53781, 2332464, 13466, 34422, 46870556, 46870556, 9598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 343, 345 ], [ 369, 373 ], [ 386, 404 ], [ 419, 437 ], [ 515, 530 ], [ 922, 939 ], [ 1035, 1054 ], [ 1092, 1109 ], [ 1152, 1159 ], [ 1164, 1173 ], [ 1397, 1412 ], [ 1502, 1514 ], [ 1646, 1648 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Increased junction leakage To make devices smaller, junction design has become more complex, leading to higher doping levels, shallower junctions, \"halo\" doping and so forth, all to decrease drain-induced barrier lowering (see the section on Junction design). To keep these complex junctions in place, the annealing steps formerly used to remove damage and electrically active defects must be curtailed increasing junction leakage. Heavier doping is also associated with thinner depletion layers and more recombination centers that result in increased leakage current, even without lattice damage.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Scaling", "target_page_ids": [ 860861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Drain-induced barrier lowering (DIBL) and VT roll off Because of the short-channel effect, channel formation is not entirely done by the gate, but now the drain and source also affect the channel formation. As the channel length decreases, the depletion regions of the source and drain come closer together and make the threshold voltage (VT) a function of the length of the channel. This is called VT roll-off. VT also becomes function of drain to source voltage VDS. As we increase the VDS, the depletion regions increase in size, and a considerable amount of charge is depleted by the VDS. The gate voltage required to form the channel is then lowered, and thus, the VT decreases with an increase in VDS. This effect is called drain induced barrier lowering (DIBL).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Scaling", "target_page_ids": [ 9252215, 20434413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ], [ 70, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lower output resistance For analog operation, good gain requires a high MOSFET output impedance, which is to say, the MOSFET current should vary only slightly with the applied drain-to-source voltage. As devices are made smaller, the influence of the drain competes more successfully with that of the gate due to the growing proximity of these two electrodes, increasing the sensitivity of the MOSFET current to the drain voltage. To counteract the resulting decrease in output resistance, circuits are made more complex, either by requiring more devices, for example the cascode and cascade amplifiers, or by feedback circuitry using operational amplifiers, for example a circuit like that in the adjacent figure.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Scaling", "target_page_ids": [ 2243383, 6144394, 22804 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 573, 580 ], [ 585, 602 ], [ 636, 658 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lower transconductance The transconductance of the MOSFET decides its gain and is proportional to hole or electron mobility (depending on device type), at least for low drain voltages. As MOSFET size is reduced, the fields in the channel increase and the dopant impurity levels increase. Both changes reduce the carrier mobility, and hence the transconductance. As channel lengths are reduced without proportional reduction in drain voltage, raising the electric field in the channel, the result is velocity saturation of the carriers, limiting the current and the transconductance.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Scaling", "target_page_ids": [ 635926, 760994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 44 ], [ 107, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Interconnect capacitance Traditionally, switching time was roughly proportional to the gate capacitance of gates. However, with transistors becoming smaller and more transistors being placed on the chip, interconnect capacitance (the capacitance of the metal-layer connections between different parts of the chip) is becoming a large percentage of capacitance. Signals have to travel through the interconnect, which leads to increased delay and lower performance.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Scaling", "target_page_ids": [ 140711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 205, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Heat production The ever-increasing density of MOSFETs on an integrated circuit creates problems of substantial localized heat generation that can impair circuit operation. Circuits operate more slowly at high temperatures, and have reduced reliability and shorter lifetimes. Heat sinks and other cooling devices and methods are now required for many integrated circuits including microprocessors. Power MOSFETs are at risk of thermal runaway. As their on-state resistance rises with temperature, if the load is approximately a constant-current load then the power loss rises correspondingly, generating further heat. When the heatsink is not able to keep the temperature low enough, the junction temperature may rise quickly and uncontrollably, resulting in destruction of the device.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Scaling", "target_page_ids": [ 2659918, 2350918, 344123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 399, 411 ], [ 428, 443 ], [ 628, 636 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Process variations With MOSFETs becoming smaller, the number of atoms in the silicon that produce many of the transistor's properties is becoming fewer, with the result that control of dopant numbers and placement is more erratic. During chip manufacturing, random process variations affect all transistor dimensions: length, width, junction depths, oxide thickness etc., and become a greater percentage of overall transistor size as the transistor shrinks. The transistor characteristics become less certain, more statistical. The random nature of manufacture means we do not know which particular example MOSFETs actually will end up in a particular instance of the circuit. This uncertainty forces a less optimal design because the design must work for a great variety of possible component MOSFETs. See process variation, design for manufacturability, reliability engineering, and statistical process control.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Scaling", "target_page_ids": [ 26427866, 3497359, 1724836, 593680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 808, 825 ], [ 827, 855 ], [ 857, 880 ], [ 886, 913 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Modeling challenges Modern ICs are computer-simulated with the goal of obtaining working circuits from the very first manufactured lot. As devices are miniaturized, the complexity of the processing makes it difficult to predict exactly what the final devices look like, and modeling of physical processes becomes more challenging as well. In addition, microscopic variations in structure due simply to the probabilistic nature of atomic processes require statistical (not just deterministic) predictions. These factors combine to make adequate simulation and \"right the first time\" manufacture difficult.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Scaling", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The dual-gate MOSFET has a tetrode configuration, where both gates control the current in the device. It is commonly used for small-signal devices in radio frequency applications where biasing the drain-side gate at constant potential reduces the gain loss caused by Miller effect, replacing two separate transistors in cascode configuration. Other common uses in RF circuits include gain control and mixing (frequency conversion). The tetrode description, though accurate, does not replicate the vacuum-tube tetrode. Vacuum-tube tetrodes, using a screen grid, exhibit much lower grid-plate capacitance and much higher output impedance and voltage gains than triode vacuum tubes. These improvements are commonly an order of magnitude (10 times) or considerably more. Tetrode transistors (whether bipolar junction or field-effect) do not exhibit improvements of such a great degree.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Other types", "target_page_ids": [ 102451, 3427765, 2243383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 34 ], [ 267, 280 ], [ 320, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The FinFET is a double-gate silicon-on-insulator device, one of a number of geometries being introduced to mitigate the effects of short channels and reduce drain-induced barrier lowering. The fin refers to the narrow channel between source and drain. A thin insulating oxide layer on either side of the fin separates it from the gate. SOI FinFETs with a thick oxide on top of the fin are called double-gate and those with a thin oxide on top as well as on the sides are called triple-gate FinFETs.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Other types", "target_page_ids": [ 1512217, 747290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ], [ 28, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are depletion-mode MOSFET devices, which are less commonly used than the standard enhancement-mode devices already described. These are MOSFET devices that are doped so that a channel exists even with zero voltage from gate to source. To control the channel, a negative voltage is applied to the gate (for an n-channel device), depleting the channel, which reduces the current flow through the device. In essence, the depletion-mode device is equivalent to a normally closed (on) switch, while the enhancement-mode device is equivalent to a normally open (off) switch.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Other types", "target_page_ids": [ 28284, 28284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 465, 480 ], [ 547, 560 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to their low noise figure in the RF region, and better gain, these devices are often preferred to bipolars in RF front-ends such as in TV sets.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Other types", "target_page_ids": [ 41417, 42852, 41968, 49338, 2785376, 29831 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 29 ], [ 37, 39 ], [ 59, 63 ], [ 102, 110 ], [ 114, 127 ], [ 139, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Depletion-mode MOSFET families include BF960 by Siemens and Telefunken, and the BF980 in the 1980s by Philips (later to become NXP Semiconductors), whose derivatives are still used in AGC and RF mixer front-ends.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Other types", "target_page_ids": [ 168632, 653812, 23550, 6794062, 234062, 482952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 55 ], [ 60, 70 ], [ 102, 109 ], [ 127, 145 ], [ 184, 187 ], [ 195, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Metal-insulator-semiconductor field-effect-transistor, or MISFET, is a more general term than MOSFET and a synonym to insulated-gate field-effect transistor (IGFET). All MOSFETs are MISFETs, but not all MISFETs are MOSFETs.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Other types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The gate dielectric insulator in a MISFET is silicon dioxide in a MOSFET, but other materials can also be employed. The gate dielectric lies directly below the gate electrode and above the channel of the MISFET. The term metal is historically used for the gate material, even though now it is usually highly doped polysilicon or some other non-metal.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Other types", "target_page_ids": [ 43710, 8384872, 41228216, 41228216, 860861, 31329101, 102193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 60 ], [ 121, 136 ], [ 161, 175 ], [ 190, 197 ], [ 303, 315 ], [ 316, 327 ], [ 342, 351 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Insulator types may be:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Other types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Silicon dioxide, in MOSFETs", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Other types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Organic insulators (e.g., undoped trans-polyacetylene; cyanoethyl pullulan, CEP), for organic-based FETs.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Other types", "target_page_ids": [ 733183, 1216397 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 54 ], [ 67, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For devices of equal current driving capability, n-channel MOSFETs can be made smaller than p-channel MOSFETs, due to p-channel charge carriers (holes) having lower mobility than do n-channel charge carriers (electrons), and producing only one type of MOSFET on a silicon substrate is cheaper and technically simpler. These were the driving principles in the design of NMOS logic which uses n-channel MOSFETs exclusively. However, neglecting leakage current, unlike CMOS logic, NMOS logic consumes power even when no switching is taking place. With advances in technology, CMOS logic displaced NMOS logic in the mid-1980s to become the preferred process for digital chips.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Other types", "target_page_ids": [ 142534, 760994, 9476, 49416, 24280173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 150 ], [ 165, 173 ], [ 209, 218 ], [ 369, 379 ], [ 442, 457 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Power MOSFETs have a different structure. As with most power devices, the structure is vertical and not planar. Using a vertical structure, it is possible for the transistor to sustain both high blocking voltage and high current. The voltage rating of the transistor is a function of the doping and thickness of the N-epitaxial layer (see cross section), while the current rating is a function of the channel width (the wider the channel, the higher the current). In a planar structure, the current and breakdown voltage ratings are both a function of the channel dimensions (respectively width and length of the channel), resulting in inefficient use of the \"silicon estate\". With the vertical structure, the component area is roughly proportional to the current it can sustain, and the component thickness (actually the N-epitaxial layer thickness) is proportional to the breakdown voltage.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Other types", "target_page_ids": [ 2659918, 449756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 318, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Power MOSFETs with lateral structure are mainly used in high-end audio amplifiers and high-power PA systems. Their advantage is a better behaviour in the saturated region (corresponding to the linear region of a bipolar transistor) than the vertical MOSFETs. Vertical MOSFETs are designed for switching applications.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Other types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There are LDMOS (lateral double-diffused metal oxide semiconductor) and VDMOS (vertical double-diffused metal oxide semiconductor). Most power MOSFETs are made using this technology.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Other types", "target_page_ids": [ 16211452 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Semiconductor sub-micrometer and nanometer electronic circuits are the primary concern for operating within the normal tolerance in harsh radiation environments like outer space. One of the design approaches for making a radiation-hardened-by-design (RHBD) device is enclosed-layout-transistor (ELT). Normally, the gate of the MOSFET surrounds the drain, which is placed in the center of the ELT. The source of the MOSFET surrounds the gate. Another RHBD MOSFET is called H-Gate. Both of these transistors have very low leakage current with respect to radiation. However, they are large in size and take more space on silicon than a standard MOSFET. In older STI (shallow trench isolation) designs, radiation strikes near the silicon oxide region cause the channel inversion at the corners of the standard MOSFET due to accumulation of radiation induced trapped charges. If the charges are large enough, the accumulated charges affect STI surface edges along the channel near the channel interface (gate) of the standard MOSFET. Thus the device channel inversion occurs along the channel edges and the device creates off-state leakage path, causing device to turn on. So the reliability of circuits degrades severely. The ELT offers many advantages. These advantages include improvement of reliability by reducing unwanted surface inversion at the gate edges that occurs in the standard MOSFET. Since the gate edges are enclosed in ELT, there is no gate oxide edge (STI at gate interface), and thus the transistor off-state leakage is reduced very much. Low-power microelectronic circuits including computers, communication devices and monitoring systems in space shuttle and satellites are very different from what is used on earth. They are radiation (high-speed atomic particles like proton and neutron, solar flare magnetic energy dissipation in Earth's space, energetic cosmic rays like X-ray, gamma ray etc.) tolerant circuits. These special electronics are designed by applying different techniques using RHBD MOSFETs to ensure safe space journeys and safe space-walks of astronauts.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Other types", "target_page_ids": [ 25856, 177602, 1041641, 20575536, 23317, 21272, 54648, 47687, 34197, 18616290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 138, 147 ], [ 166, 177 ], [ 221, 249 ], [ 1290, 1301 ], [ 1787, 1793 ], [ 1798, 1805 ], [ 1807, 1818 ], [ 1875, 1886 ], [ 1892, 1897 ], [ 1899, 1908 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Floating-gate MOSFET", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6241465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " BSIM", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14661086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ggNMOS", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5950517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " High electron mobility transistor", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 842493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Polysilicon depletion effect", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32402084 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Transistor model", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3518436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Intrinsic diode", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2659918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " How Semiconductors and Transistors Work (MOSFETs) WeCanFigureThisOut.org", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A Flash slide showing the fabricating process of a MOSFET in detail", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Transistor_types", "MOSFETs" ]

[ "metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The junction-gate field-effect transistor (JFET) is one of the simplest types of field-effect transistor. JFETs are three-terminal semiconductor devices that can be used as electronically controlled switches or resistors, or to build amplifiers. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 41228216, 27709, 9663, 28284, 55796356, 9931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 104 ], [ 131, 144 ], [ 173, 187 ], [ 199, 205 ], [ 211, 220 ], [ 234, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike bipolar junction transistors, JFETs are exclusively voltage-controlled in that they do not need a biasing current. Electric charge flows through a semiconducting channel between source and drain terminals. By applying a reverse bias voltage to a gate terminal, the channel is pinched, so that the electric current is impeded or switched off completely. A JFET is usually conducting when there is zero voltage between its gate and source terminals. If a potential difference of the proper polarity is applied between its gate and source terminals, the JFET will be more resistive to current flow, which means less current would flow in the channel between the source and drain terminals.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 49338, 32549, 7458892, 6207, 9804, 27709, 1436845, 32549, 2828700, 6207, 6207, 61577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 35 ], [ 59, 66 ], [ 105, 112 ], [ 113, 120 ], [ 122, 137 ], [ 154, 168 ], [ 202, 211 ], [ 240, 247 ], [ 283, 290 ], [ 304, 320 ], [ 495, 503 ], [ 576, 585 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "JFETs are sometimes referred to as depletion-mode devices, as they rely on the principle of a depletion region, which is devoid of majority charge carriers. The depletion region has to be closed to enable current to flow.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 30925675, 1974142, 488140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 49 ], [ 94, 110 ], [ 140, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "JFETs can have an n-type or p-type channel. In the n-type, if the voltage applied to the gate is negative with respect to the source, the current will be reduced (similarly in the p-type, if the voltage applied to the gate is positive with respect to the source). Because a JFET in a common source or common drain configuration has a large input impedance (sometimes on the order of 1010ohms), little current is drawn from circuits used as input to the gate.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9512766, 9512766, 1461259, 1461261, 643036, 4462484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 24 ], [ 28, 34 ], [ 284, 297 ], [ 301, 313 ], [ 340, 355 ], [ 387, 391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A succession of FET-like devices was patented by Julius Lilienfeld in the 1920s and 1930s. However, materials science and fabrication technology would require decades of advances before FETs could actually be manufactured.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 697141, 19622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 66 ], [ 100, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "JFET was first patented by Heinrich Welker in 1945. During the 1940s, researchers John Bardeen, Walter Houser Brattain, and William Shockley were trying to build a FET, but failed in their repeated attempts. They discovered the point-contact transistor in the course of trying to diagnose the reasons for their failures. Following Shockley's theoretical treatment on JFET in 1952, a working practical JFET was made in 1953 by George C. Dacey and Ian M. Ross. Japanese engineers Jun-ichi Nishizawa and Y. Watanabe applied for a patent for a similar device in 1950 termed static induction transistor (SIT). The SIT is a type of JFET with a short channel.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 8315798, 15737, 33133, 33132, 3512305, 14200618, 4404974, 34041133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 42 ], [ 82, 94 ], [ 96, 118 ], [ 124, 140 ], [ 228, 252 ], [ 446, 457 ], [ 478, 496 ], [ 570, 597 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "High-speed, high-voltage switching with JFETs became technically feasible following the commercial introduction of Silicon carbide (SiC) wide-bandgap devices in 2008. Due to early difficulties in manufacturing in particular, inconsistencies and low yield SiC JFETs remained a niche product at first, with correspondingly high costs. By 2018, these manufacturing issues had been mostly resolved. By then, SiC JEFETs were also commonly used in conjunction with conventional low-voltage Silicon MOSFETs. In this combination, SiC JFET + Si MOSFET devices have the advantages of wide band-gap devices as well as the easy gate drive of MOSFETs.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 225256, 467183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 130 ], [ 137, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The JFET is a long channel of semiconductor material, doped to contain an abundance of positive charge carriers or holes (p-type), or of negative carriers or electrons (n-type). Ohmic contacts at each end form the source (S) and the drain (D). A pn-junction is formed on one or both sides of the channel, or surrounding it using a region with doping opposite to that of the channel, and biased using an ohmic gate contact (G).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 27709, 860861, 9804, 142534, 9476, 3744388, 571755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 43 ], [ 54, 59 ], [ 96, 102 ], [ 115, 120 ], [ 158, 166 ], [ 178, 191 ], [ 246, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "JFET operation can be compared to that of a garden hose. The flow of water through a hose can be controlled by squeezing it to reduce the cross section and the flow of electric charge through a JFET is controlled by constricting the current-carrying channel. The current also depends on the electric field between source and drain (analogous to the difference in pressure on either end of the hose). This current dependency is not supported by the characteristics shown in the diagram above a certain applied voltage. This is the saturation region, and the JFET is normally operated in this constant-current region where device current is virtually unaffected by drain-source voltage. The JFET shares this constant-current characteristic with junction transistors and with thermionic tube (valve) tetrodes and pentodes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Functions", "target_page_ids": [ 2673125, 1337370, 9804, 23619 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 55 ], [ 138, 151 ], [ 168, 183 ], [ 363, 371 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Constriction of the conducting channel is accomplished using the field effect: a voltage between the gate and the source is applied to reverse bias the gate-source pn-junction, thereby widening the depletion layer of this junction (see top figure), encroaching upon the conducting channel and restricting its cross-sectional area. The depletion layer is so-called because it is depleted of mobile carriers and so is electrically non-conducting for practical purposes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Functions", "target_page_ids": [ 35171726, 1974142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 77 ], [ 198, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When the depletion layer spans the width of the conduction channel, pinch-off is achieved and drain-to-source conduction stops. Pinch-off occurs at a particular reverse bias (VGS) of the gate–source junction. The pinch-off voltage (Vp) (also known as threshold voltage or cut-off voltage) varies considerably, even among devices of the same type. For example, VGS(off) for the Temic J202 device varies from to . Typical values vary from to . (Confusingly, the term pinch-off voltage is also used to refer to the VDS value that separates the linear and saturation regions.)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Functions", "target_page_ids": [ 1422246 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 251, 268 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To switch off an n-channel device requires a negative gate–source voltage (VGS). Conversely, to switch off a p-channel device requires positive VGS.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Functions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In normal operation, the electric field developed by the gate blocks source–drain conduction to some extent.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Functions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some JFET devices are symmetrical with respect to the source and drain.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Functions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The JFET gate is sometimes drawn in the middle of the channel (instead of at the drain or source electrode as in these examples). This symmetry suggests that \"drain\" and \"source\" are interchangeable, so the symbol should be used only for those JFETs where they are indeed interchangeable.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Schematic symbols", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The symbol may be drawn inside a circle (representing the envelope of a discrete device) if the enclosure is important to circuit function, such as dual matched components in the same package.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Schematic symbols", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In every case the arrow head shows the polarity of the P–N junction formed between the channel and the gate. As with an ordinary diode, the arrow points from P to N, the direction of conventional current when forward-biased. An English mnemonic is that the arrow of an N-channel device \"points in\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Schematic symbols", "target_page_ids": [ 8254, 6207, 40411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 134 ], [ 183, 203 ], [ 236, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At room temperature, JFET gate current (the reverse leakage of the gate-to-channel junction) is comparable to that of a MOSFET (which has insulating oxide between gate and channel), but much less than the base current of a bipolar junction transistor. The JFET has higher gain (transconductance) than the MOSFET, as well as lower flicker noise, and is therefore used in some low-noise, high input-impedance op-amps. Additionally the JFET is less susceptible to damage from static charge buildup.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Comparison with other transistors", "target_page_ids": [ 571755, 40345, 49338, 635926, 6799095, 3966982, 22804 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 91 ], [ 120, 126 ], [ 223, 250 ], [ 279, 295 ], [ 331, 344 ], [ 380, 385 ], [ 408, 415 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The current in N-JFET due to a small voltage VDS (that is, in the linear or ohmic or triode region) is given by treating the channel as a rectangular bar of material of electrical conductivity : ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mathematical model", "target_page_ids": [ 61580 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 169, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mathematical model", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ID = drain–source current,", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mathematical model", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " b = channel thickness for a given gate voltage,", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mathematical model", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " W = channel width,", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mathematical model", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " L = channel length,", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mathematical model", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " q = electron charge = 1.6 C,", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mathematical model", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " μn = electron mobility,", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mathematical model", "target_page_ids": [ 760994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nd = n-type doping (donor) concentration,", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mathematical model", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " VP = pinch-off voltage.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mathematical model", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Then the drain current in the linear region can be approximated as", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mathematical model", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In terms of , the drain current can be expressed as", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mathematical model", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The drain current in the saturation or active or pinch-off region is often approximated in terms of gate bias as", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mathematical model", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where IDSS is the saturation current at zero gate–source voltage, i.e. the maximum current that can flow through the FET from drain to source at any (permissible) drain-to-source voltage (see, e. g., the I–V characteristics diagram above).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mathematical model", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the saturation region, the JFET drain current is most significantly affected by the gate–source voltage and barely affected by the drain–source voltage.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mathematical model", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If the channel doping is uniform, such that the depletion region thickness will grow in proportion to the square root of the absolute value of the gate–source voltage, then the channel thickness b can be expressed in terms of the zero-bias channel thickness a as", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mathematical model", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mathematical model", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " VP is the pinch-off voltage the gate–source voltage at which the channel thickness goes to zero,", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mathematical model", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " a is the channel thickness at zero gate–source voltage.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mathematical model", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The transconductance for the junction FET is given by", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mathematical model", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is the pinchoff voltage, and IDSS is the maximum drain current. This is also called or (for transadmittance).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mathematical model", "target_page_ids": [ 635926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Constant-current diode", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18491306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fetron", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 50926947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " MOSFET", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 40345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " MESFET", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 842485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Physics 111 Laboratory -- JFET Circuits I", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Interactive Explanation of n-channel JFET", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Transistor_types", "Field-effect_transistors" ]

[ "junction field-effect transistor" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Babenberg was a noble dynasty of Austrian margraves and dukes. Originally from Bamberg in the Duchy of Franconia (present-day Bavaria), the Babenbergs ruled the imperial Margraviate of Austria from its creation in 976 AD until its elevation to a duchy in 1156, and from then until the extinction of the line in 1246, whereafter they were succeeded by the House of Habsburg.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 808980, 4896, 5871206, 3764, 11421146, 6490884, 13824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 61 ], [ 79, 86 ], [ 94, 112 ], [ 126, 133 ], [ 170, 192 ], [ 244, 251 ], [ 355, 372 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Babenberg family can be broken down into two distinct groups: 1) The Franconian Babenbergs, the so-called Elder House of Babenberg, whose name refers to Babenburg Castle, the present site of Bamberg Cathedral. Also called Popponids after their progenitor Count Poppo of Grapfeld (d. 839-41), they were related to the Frankish Robertian dynasty and ancestors of the Franconian Counts of Henneberg and of Schweinfurt. 2) The Austrian Babenbergs, descendants of Margrave Leopold I, who ruled Austria from 976 onwards. This second group claimed to have originated from the first, however, scholars have not been able to verify that claim. Today, a direct lineal descent from the Bavarian House of Luitpolding is assumed.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 11401, 5018789, 11886547, 10728008, 9318750, 573341, 1100652, 1463463, 8550862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 82 ], [ 195, 212 ], [ 265, 282 ], [ 330, 347 ], [ 380, 399 ], [ 407, 418 ], [ 472, 481 ], [ 679, 687 ], [ 697, 708 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Like the French royal Capetian dynasty, the Elder Babenbergs descended from the Robertians. The earliest known Babenberg count Poppo was first mentioned as a ruler in the Gau of Grabfeld, a historic region in northeastern Franconia bordering on Thuringia, in 819 AD. He may be a descendant of the Robertian count Cancor of Hesbaye.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 6279, 10728008, 1350964, 13680776, 31039974, 12913619 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 38 ], [ 80, 90 ], [ 171, 174 ], [ 178, 186 ], [ 245, 254 ], [ 313, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of Poppo's sons, Henry, served as princeps militiae under King Louis the Younger and was sometimes called margrave (marchio) and duke (dux) in Franconia under King Charles the Fat of East Francia. He was killed fighting against the Vikings during the Siege of Paris in 886. Another son, Poppo II, was margrave in Thuringia from 880 to 892, when he was deposed by King Charles' successor Arnulf of Carinthia. The Popponids had been favoured by Charles the Fat, but Arnulf reversed this policy in favour of rivalling Conrad the Elder, a member of the Conradine dynasty from the Lahngau in Rhenish Franconia and relative of Arnulf's consort Ota.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 7583972, 23624018, 235054, 1722738, 19333309, 3571894, 11725719, 2510, 11726699, 16300619, 21635230, 14955366, 9877812 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 26 ], [ 67, 84 ], [ 168, 183 ], [ 187, 199 ], [ 236, 243 ], [ 255, 269 ], [ 291, 299 ], [ 391, 410 ], [ 519, 535 ], [ 553, 562 ], [ 580, 587 ], [ 591, 608 ], [ 642, 645 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The leaders of the Babenbergs were the sons of Duke Henry, who called themselves after their castle of Babenburg on the upper Main river, around which their possessions centred. The city of Bamberg was built around the ancestral castle of the family. The Conradines were led by Conrad the Elder and his brothers Rudolf and Gebhard, probably the sons of Count Udo of Neustria.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 19745, 4169684, 4844009, 9497171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 136 ], [ 312, 318 ], [ 323, 330 ], [ 359, 374 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The rivalry between the Babenberg and Conradine families was intensified by their efforts to extend their authority in the region of the middle Main, and this quarrel, known as the \"Babenberg feud\", came to a first head in 892, when King Arnulf deposed Poppo II as Thuringian ruler, appointing Conrad the Elder instead, and installed Conrad's brother Rudolf as Bishop of Würzburg. The struggle intensified at the beginning of the 10th century during the troubled reign of Arnulf's son King Louis the Child. Clashes of arms occurred in 902, when the Conradine laid siege to Babenburg Castle and arrested Adalhard of Babenberg. The next year, Adalhard was executed at the Reichstag of Forchheim; in return, the Babenbergs occupied the city of Würzburg and expelled Bishop Rudolf.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 1519512, 76259, 40536089, 30599237, 1736930, 30876585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 361, 379 ], [ 490, 505 ], [ 603, 624 ], [ 670, 679 ], [ 683, 692 ], [ 741, 749 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Meanwhile, Rudolf's brother Gebhard was appointed Duke of Lotharingia in 903, and had to cope both with revolting nobles and the continuing attacks by Babenberg forces. Both sides met in the battle of Fritzlar on 27 February 906, where the Conradines won a decisive victory, although Conrad the Elder fell in the battle. Two of the Babenberg brothers were also killed. The third, Adalbert, was summoned before the imperial court by the regent Archbishop Hatto I of Mainz, a partisan of the Conradines. He refused to appear, held his own for a time in his castle at Theres against the king's forces, but surrendered in 906, and in spite of a promise of safe-conduct by Hatto was beheaded.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 6857216, 603332, 54051375, 1313642, 26115136, 70802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 69 ], [ 201, 209 ], [ 380, 388 ], [ 454, 470 ], [ 565, 571 ], [ 678, 686 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Conrad the Younger became Duke of Franconia in 906 and King of East Francia (as Conrad I) in 911, while the Babenbergs lost their influence in Franconia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 344866, 38382 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 55, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 962, the Bavarian count Leopold I (Liupo), possibly a descendant of the Luitpolding duke Arnulf of Bavaria, was first mentioned as a faithful follower of Emperor Otto I. He remained a loyal supporter of Otto's son and successor Otto II and in 976 appears as count of the Bavarian Eastern March, then a district not more than 60 miles in breadth on the eastern frontier of the duchy, which grew into the Margraviate of Austria. Leopold, who received the territory as a reward for his fidelity to Emperor Otto II during the uprising of Duke Henry II of Bavaria, extended its area down the Danube river into what is today Lower Austria at the expense of the retreating Magyars.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Margraves of Austria", "target_page_ids": [ 1100652, 1136271, 25605367, 40599, 11421146, 227817, 21209639, 148988, 32845470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 36 ], [ 92, 109 ], [ 165, 171 ], [ 231, 238 ], [ 406, 428 ], [ 542, 561 ], [ 590, 596 ], [ 622, 635 ], [ 669, 676 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leopold was succeeded in 994 by his son Henry I, who continued his father's policy, was followed in 1018 by his brother Adalbert, whose marked loyalty to Emperor Henry II and his Salian successor Henry III was rewarded by many tokens of favour. Adalbert expanded the Austrian territory up to the present borders on the Leitha, March and Thaya rivers. He was succeeded in 1055 by his nephew, Ernest.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Margraves of Austria", "target_page_ids": [ 1178532, 1117922, 27485516, 29545, 27485485, 922538, 960242, 1073325, 1178564 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 47 ], [ 120, 128 ], [ 162, 170 ], [ 179, 185 ], [ 196, 205 ], [ 319, 325 ], [ 327, 332 ], [ 337, 342 ], [ 391, 397 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leopold II, margrave from 1075, quarrelled with Emperor Henry IV during the Investiture Controversy, when he supported the papal side of Bishop Altmann of Passau. Though Leopold had to cope with the invading troops of Duke Vratislaus II of Bohemia and was defeated at the 1082 Battle of Mailberg, the emperor was unable to oust him from his march or to prevent the succession of his son Leopold III in 1096. Between 1075 - 1095 the dynasty had its seat at Babenberg Castle of Gars am Kamp.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Margraves of Austria", "target_page_ids": [ 1178616, 27485413, 235106, 54457854, 890140, 38135850, 1100736, 10985737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 56, 64 ], [ 76, 99 ], [ 144, 161 ], [ 223, 247 ], [ 277, 295 ], [ 387, 398 ], [ 476, 488 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leopold III supported Henry V, the son of Emperor Henry IV, in his rising against his father, but was soon drawn over to the emperor's side. In 1106 he married the daughter of Henry IV, Agnes, widow of Duke Frederick I of Swabia. In 1125 he declined the royal crown in favour of Lothair of Supplinburg. His zeal in founding monasteries, such as Klosterneuburg Monastery, earned for him his surname \"the Pious\", and canonization by Pope Innocent VIII in 1485. He is regarded as the patron saint of Lower and Upper Austria.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Margraves of Austria", "target_page_ids": [ 1304244, 663127, 302609, 40439, 5867273, 24643, 148988, 146894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 186, 191 ], [ 207, 228 ], [ 254, 265 ], [ 279, 301 ], [ 345, 369 ], [ 431, 449 ], [ 497, 502 ], [ 507, 520 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of Leopold's younger sons was Bishop Otto of Freising. His eldest son Leopold IV became margrave in 1136, and in 1139 received the Duchy of Bavaria from the hands of King Conrad III, who had banned the Welf duke Henry the Proud.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dukes of Austria", "target_page_ids": [ 351392, 1117949, 1463463, 40440, 1962927, 330634, 162625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 57 ], [ 74, 84 ], [ 135, 151 ], [ 175, 185 ], [ 195, 201 ], [ 206, 210 ], [ 216, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leopold's brother Henry Jasomirgott (allegedly named after his favourite oath, \"Yes, so [help] me God!\") was made Count Palatine of the Rhine in 1140, and became Margrave of Austria on Leopold's death in 1141. Having married Gertrude, the widow of Henry the Proud, he was invested in 1143 with the Duchy of Bavaria, and resigned his office as count palatine. In 1147 he participated in the Second Crusade, and after his return, renounced Bavaria at the instance of the new king Frederick Barbarossa who gave the duchy of Bavaria to Henry the Proud's son, Duke Henry the Lion of Saxony. As compensation for this, Austria, the capital of which had been transferred to Vienna about 1155, was elevated into a duchy according to the Privilegium Minus.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dukes of Austria", "target_page_ids": [ 1116423, 25805199, 106130, 39699, 70712, 55866, 1112901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 35 ], [ 114, 141 ], [ 390, 404 ], [ 478, 498 ], [ 560, 574 ], [ 666, 672 ], [ 728, 745 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The second duke was Henry's son Leopold V, who succeeded him in 1177 and took part in the crusades of 1182 and 1190 as well as the Third Crusade. In Palestine, he quarrelled with King Richard I of England, captured him on his homeward journey and handed him over to Emperor Henry VI. Leopold increased the territories of the Babenbergs by acquiring the Duchy of Styria under the will of his kinsman Duke Ottokar IV. He died in 1194, and Austria fell to one son, Frederick, and Styria to another, Leopold; but on Frederick's death in 1198 they were again united by Leopold as Duke Leopold VI, surnamed \"the Glorious\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dukes of Austria", "target_page_ids": [ 1100939, 106131, 26368, 27485318, 11734356, 1349540, 1219994, 1117998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 41 ], [ 131, 144 ], [ 184, 204 ], [ 274, 282 ], [ 353, 368 ], [ 404, 414 ], [ 462, 471 ], [ 496, 503 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The new duke fought against the infidels in Spain, Egypt, and Palestine, but is more celebrated as a lawgiver, a patron of letters, and a founder of many towns. Under him Vienna became the centre of culture in Germany and the great school of Minnesingers. His later years were spent in strife with his son Frederick, and he died in 1230 at San Germano, now renamed Cassino, whither he had gone to arrange the peace between Emperor Frederick II and Pope Gregory IX.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dukes of Austria", "target_page_ids": [ 355643, 219947, 1114732, 11867, 165226, 797583, 68974, 24218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 49 ], [ 51, 56 ], [ 62, 71 ], [ 210, 217 ], [ 242, 254 ], [ 365, 372 ], [ 431, 443 ], [ 448, 463 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frederick II, Leopold VI's son by Theodora Angelina, succeeded his father as duke upon the elder man's death in 1230. Frederick II soon earned the epithet \"the Quarrelsome\" from his ongoing disputes with the kings of Hungary and Bohemia and with Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. Duke Frederick deprived his mother and sisters of their possessions, was hated by his subjects on account of his oppressive rule, and, in 1236, was placed under the imperial ban and driven from Austria. However, he was later restored to his duchy when Emperor Frederick II was excommunicated. Subsequently, Duke Frederick II treated with Emperor Frederick II in vain to make Austria a kingdom.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dukes of Austria", "target_page_ids": [ 1073853, 1117998, 21997549, 879716, 1625048, 68974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 14, 26 ], [ 34, 51 ], [ 217, 224 ], [ 229, 236 ], [ 246, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The male line of the Babenbergs became extinct in 1246, when Frederick II was killed in battle (the Henneberg branch of the Franconian Babenbergs lived on until 1583 when its lands were divided among the two branches of the Wettin family).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dukes of Austria", "target_page_ids": [ 9318750, 578487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 116 ], [ 224, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frederick's heir general was Gertrude of Austria, the only child of his late elder brother, Henry of Austria by that man's wife, Agnes of Thuringia. However, neither her husbands nor her son succeeded in settling the Babenberg inheritance under their power. Gertrude's only surviving child, Agnes of Baden, tried to reclaim at least part of her inheritance through her third husband Ulrich II of Heunburg, but was unsuccessful.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dukes of Austria", "target_page_ids": [ 1119197, 44469669 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 48 ], [ 291, 305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After some years of struggle known as the or War of the Babenberg Succession (1246–1256/78/82), the Duchies of Austria and Styria fell to Ottokar II of Bohemia, and subsequently to Rudolph I of Habsburg, whose descendants were to rule Austria until 1918.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dukes of Austria", "target_page_ids": [ 246445, 45321, 13824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 160 ], [ 182, 191 ], [ 195, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All the Babenberg dukes from Leopold V onward were descended from Byzantine emperors — Leopold's mother, Theodora Komnene, being a granddaughter of the Emperor, John II Komnenos. Subsequently, Leopold V's younger son, Leopold VI, also married a Byzantine princess (Theodora Angelina), as did his youngest son (by Theodora), Frederick II, who married Sophia Laskarina.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Genetic legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1100939, 16972981, 1100939, 20066972, 4016, 74206, 1100939, 1117998, 16972981, 21997549, 21997549, 1073853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 38 ], [ 66, 84 ], [ 87, 94 ], [ 105, 121 ], [ 152, 159 ], [ 161, 177 ], [ 193, 202 ], [ 218, 228 ], [ 245, 254 ], [ 265, 282 ], [ 313, 321 ], [ 324, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The next dynasty in Austria—the Habsburgs—were originally not descendants of the Babenbergs. It was not until the children of Albert I of Germany that the Babenberg blood was brought into the Habsburg line, though this blood was from the pre-ducal Babenbergs. A side effect of this marriage was the use of the Babenberg name Leopold by the Habsburgs for one of their sons.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Genetic legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 13824, 38446, 13824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 41 ], [ 126, 145 ], [ 340, 349 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Habsburgs did eventually gain descent from the Babenberg dukes, though at different times. The first Habsburg line to be descended from the Babenbergs was the Albertine line. This was achieved through the marriage of Albert III, Duke of Austria to Beatrix of Nuremberg. As such, their son, Albert IV, Duke of Austria, was the first Habsburg duke who was descended from the Babenberg dukes. However, the male line of that branch of the Habsburgs died out in 1457 with Ladislas V Posthumus of Bohemia.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Genetic legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 13824, 1163286, 32389565, 1163334, 13824, 161735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 113 ], [ 221, 248 ], [ 252, 272 ], [ 294, 320 ], [ 439, 448 ], [ 471, 502 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The next Habsburg line to gain Babenberg blood was the Styrian line, which occurred with the children of Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor and Anna of Bohemia and Hungary, the latter of whom descended from Babenberg dukes. It was actually from Elizabeth of Austria, the sister of Ladislas V Posthumus of Bohemia, that the Styrian line gained their Babenberg blood.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Genetic legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 13824, 151069, 5496501, 4158466, 161735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 17 ], [ 105, 136 ], [ 141, 168 ], [ 242, 262 ], [ 278, 309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Spanish line was the last Habsburg line to gain Babenberg blood. Again it was via the previous Habsburg line to gain Babenberg blood (i.e. the Styrian) that the Spanish Habsburg gained their descent from the Babenbergs — Anna of Austria, the wife of Philip II of Spain and mother of Philip (from whom all subsequent Spanish Habsburgs were descended), was a male-line granddaughter of Ferdinand and Anna. As a result, after 1598, all Habsburg scions descended from the Babenberg Dukes.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Genetic legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 13824, 13824, 7659764, 54386, 146843, 13824, 151069, 5496501, 13824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 107 ], [ 173, 181 ], [ 225, 240 ], [ 254, 272 ], [ 287, 293 ], [ 328, 337 ], [ 388, 397 ], [ 402, 406 ], [ 437, 445 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of rulers of Austria", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 808980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Slavnik's dynasty", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2561195 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " House of Henneberg - Henneberg portion of Franconian Babenbergs and early Babenberg origins", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9318750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Senior Capets", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March of Neustria", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8963407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Duke of Brittany", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 25199278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bibliography", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Direct male descent of Babenberger from Robertiner (Capet) family in German Wikipedia", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Early Babenberger Genealogy in German Wikipedia", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Babenberg", "Margraviate_of_Austria", "Medieval_Austrian_nobility", "Rulers_of_Austria" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Sacrosanctum Concilium, the Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, is one of the constitutions of the Second Vatican Council. It was approved by the assembled bishops by a vote of 2,147 to 4 and promulgated by Pope Paul VI on 4 December 1963. The main aim was to revise the traditional liturgical texts and rituals to reflect more fully fundamental principles, and be more pastorally effective in the changed conditions of the times, clarifying not only the role of ordained ministers but the modalities of appropriate participation of lay faithful in the Catholic Church's liturgy, especially that of the Roman Rite. The title is taken from the opening lines of the document and means \"this Sacred Council\".", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 28134, 24028, 606848, 86364, 2493448, 952907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 121 ], [ 207, 219 ], [ 553, 568 ], [ 571, 578 ], [ 603, 613 ], [ 644, 657 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As is customary with Catholic documents, the name of this constitution, \"Sacred Council\" in Latin, is taken from the first line (incipit) of the document.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Title and purpose", "target_page_ids": [ 606848, 17730, 952907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 29 ], [ 92, 97 ], [ 129, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the first issues considered by the council, and the matter that had the most immediate effect on the lives of individual Catholics, was the renewal of the liturgy. The central idea was aggiornamento of the traditional liturgical texts and rituals to reflect more fully fundamental principles, and be more pastorally effective in the changed conditions of the times, clarifying not only the role of ordained ministers but the modalities of appropriate participation of lay faithful.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aggiornamento and participation of the laity", "target_page_ids": [ 31488305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 475, 487 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Popes Pius X and Pius XII consistently asked that the people be taught how to chant the responses at Mass and that they learn the prayers of the Mass in order to participate intelligently. Now the bishops decreed that: \"To promote active participation, the people should be encouraged to take part by means of acclamations, responses, psalmody, antiphons, and songs.\" Composers should \"produce compositions which... [provide] for the active participation of the entire assembly of the faithful.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aggiornamento and participation of the laity", "target_page_ids": [ 59205, 23808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 12 ], [ 17, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After centuries when, with the Mass in Latin, Catholic piety centred around popular devotions, the bishops decreed that \"Popular devotions ... should be so drawn up that they harmonize with the liturgical seasons, accord with the sacred liturgy, are in some fashion derived from it, and lead the people to it, since, in fact, the liturgy by its very nature far surpasses any of them.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aggiornamento and participation of the laity", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 24 August 2017 Pope Francis emphasized that \"the reform of the liturgy is irreversible\" and called for continued efforts to implement the reforms, repeating what Pope Paul VI had said one year before he died: \"The time has come, now, to definitely leave aside the disruptive ferments, equally pernicious in one sense or the other, and to implement fully, according to its right inspiring criteria, the reform approved by us in application of the decisions of the council.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aggiornamento and participation of the laity", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The council fathers established guidelines to govern the renewal of the liturgy, which included, allowed, and encouraged greater use of the vernacular (native language) in addition to Latin, particularly for the biblical readings and other prayers. Implementation of the council's directives on the liturgy was to be carried out under the authority of Pope Paul VI by a special papal commission, later incorporated in the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments, and, in the areas entrusted to them, by national conferences of bishops, which, if they had a shared language, were expected to collaborate in producing a common translation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Decisions", "target_page_ids": [ 24028, 1900798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 352, 364 ], [ 422, 490 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mass of Paul VI", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 101135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Musicam sacram", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24095132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Liturgical Movement", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4319572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] } ]

[ "1963_documents", "1963_in_Christianity", "Documents_of_the_Second_Vatican_Council", "Latin_texts", "Latin_words_and_phrases", "Catholic_liturgical_law" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The Cathedral and the Bazaar: Musings on Linux and Open Source by an Accidental Revolutionary (abbreviated CatB) is an essay, and later a book, by Eric S. Raymond on software engineering methods, based on his observations of the Linux kernel development process and his experiences managing an open source project, fetchmail. It examines the struggle between top-down and bottom-up design. The essay was first presented by the author at the Linux Kongress on May 27, 1997 in Würzburg (Germany) and was published as the second chapter of the sametitled book in 1999.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9469, 27010, 21347315, 59126142, 40337, 45635, 487750, 30876585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 162 ], [ 166, 186 ], [ 229, 241 ], [ 294, 305 ], [ 315, 324 ], [ 359, 388 ], [ 441, 455 ], [ 475, 483 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The illustration on the cover of the book is a 1913 painting by Liubov Popova titled Composition with Figures and belongs to the collection of the State Tretyakov Gallery.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 771413, 1258480 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 77 ], [ 147, 170 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The book was released under the Open Publication License v2.0 in 1999.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 156737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The essay contrasts two different free software development models:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "\"The Cathedral and the Bazaar\"", "target_page_ids": [ 10635 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Cathedral model, in which source code is available with each software release, but code developed between releases is restricted to an exclusive group of software developers. GNU Emacs and GCC were presented as examples.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "\"The Cathedral and the Bazaar\"", "target_page_ids": [ 45883, 27661, 23716, 17698784, 12323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 14 ], [ 31, 42 ], [ 159, 177 ], [ 180, 189 ], [ 194, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Bazaar model, in which the code is developed over the Internet in view of the public. Raymond credits Linus Torvalds, leader of the Linux kernel project, as the inventor of this process. Raymond also provides anecdotal accounts of his own implementation of this model for the Fetchmail project.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "\"The Cathedral and the Bazaar\"", "target_page_ids": [ 556904, 14539, 17618, 40337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 11 ], [ 59, 67 ], [ 107, 121 ], [ 281, 290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The essay's central thesis is Raymond's proposition that \"given enough eyeballs, all bugs are shallow\" (which he terms Linus's law): the more widely available the source code is for public testing, scrutiny, and experimentation, the more rapidly all forms of bugs will be discovered. In contrast, Raymond claims that an inordinate amount of time and energy must be spent hunting for bugs in the Cathedral model, since the working version of the code is available only to a few developers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "\"The Cathedral and the Bazaar\"", "target_page_ids": [ 37085, 70370, 766488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 89 ], [ 119, 130 ], [ 133, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Raymond points to 19 \"lessons\" learned from various software development efforts, each describing attributes associated with good practice in open source software development:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Lessons for creating good open source software", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Every good work of software starts by scratching a developer's personal itch.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Lessons for creating good open source software", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Good programmers know what to write. Great ones know what to rewrite (and reuse).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Lessons for creating good open source software", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Plan to throw one [version] away; you will, anyhow (copied from Frederick Brooks's The Mythical Man-Month).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Lessons for creating good open source software", "target_page_ids": [ 31340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If you have the right attitude, interesting problems will find you.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Lessons for creating good open source software", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When you lose interest in a program, your last duty to it is to hand it off to a competent successor.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Lessons for creating good open source software", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Treating your users as co-developers is your least-hassle route to rapid code improvement and effective debugging.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Lessons for creating good open source software", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Release early. Release often. And listen to your customers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Lessons for creating good open source software", "target_page_ids": [ 24845611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Given a large enough beta-tester and co-developer base, almost every problem will be characterized quickly and the fix obvious to someone.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Lessons for creating good open source software", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Smart data structures and dumb code works a lot better than the other way around.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Lessons for creating good open source software", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If you treat your beta-testers as if they're your most valuable resource, they will respond by becoming your most valuable resource.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Lessons for creating good open source software", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The next best thing to having good ideas is recognizing good ideas from your users. Sometimes the latter is better.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Lessons for creating good open source software", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Often, the most striking and innovative solutions come from realizing that your concept of the problem was wrong.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Lessons for creating good open source software", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Perfection (in design) is achieved not when there is nothing more to add, but rather when there is nothing more to take away. (Attributed to Antoine de Saint-Exupéry)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Lessons for creating good open source software", "target_page_ids": [ 63174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Any tool should be useful in the expected way, but a truly great tool lends itself to uses you never expected.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Lessons for creating good open source software", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When writing gateway software of any kind, take pains to disturb the data stream as little as possible—and never throw away information unless the recipient forces you to!", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Lessons for creating good open source software", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When your language is nowhere near Turing-complete, syntactic sugar can be your friend.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Lessons for creating good open source software", "target_page_ids": [ 30621, 29054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 50 ], [ 52, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A security system is only as secure as its secret. Beware of pseudo-secrets.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Lessons for creating good open source software", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To solve an interesting problem, start by finding a problem that is interesting to you.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Lessons for creating good open source software", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Provided the development coordinator has a communications medium at least as good as the Internet, and knows how to lead without coercion, many heads are inevitably better than one.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Lessons for creating good open source software", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1998, the essay helped the final push for Netscape Communications Corporation to release the source code for Netscape Communicator and start the Mozilla project; it was cited by Frank Hecker and other employees as an outside independent validation of his arguments. Netscape's public recognition of this influence brought Raymond renown in hacker culture.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy and reception", "target_page_ids": [ 21979, 27661, 104645, 36754915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 80 ], [ 96, 107 ], [ 112, 133 ], [ 148, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When O'Reilly Media published the book in 1999 it became one of, if not the first, complete, commercially distributed books published under the Open Publication License.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy and reception", "target_page_ids": [ 216827, 156737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 19 ], [ 144, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Marshall Poe, in his essay \"The Hive\", likens Wikipedia to the Bazaar model that Raymond defines. Jimmy Wales himself was inspired by the work (as well as arguments put forward in pre-Internet works, such as Friedrich Hayek's article \"The Use of Knowledge in Society\"), arguing that \"It opened my eyes to the possibility of mass collaboration\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy and reception", "target_page_ids": [ 2628816, 5043734, 3703446, 11646, 13592568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 46, 55 ], [ 98, 109 ], [ 208, 223 ], [ 235, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1999 Nikolai Bezroukov published two critical essays on Eric Raymond's views of open source software, the second one called \"A second look at The Cathedral and the Bazaar\". They produced a sharp response from Eric Raymond.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy and reception", "target_page_ids": [ 10312830, 9469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 25 ], [ 59, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " GNU Bazaar, a distributed version control system named to highlight its relation with the \"bazaar\" model", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5966457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Homesteading the Noosphere\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 66267 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 28 ] ] } ]

[ "1997_essays", "1999_non-fiction_books", "American_essays", "Computer_science_books", "Books_about_free_software", "O'Reilly_Media_books", "Software_development_philosophies", "Software_engineering_papers", "Open_Publication_License-licensed_works", "Essays_by_Eric_S._Raymond", "Books_by_Eric_S._Raymond", "Scientific_essays", "Linus_Torvalds" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Gaudium et spes (, \"Joy and Hope\"), the Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World, is one of the four constitutions resulting from the Second Vatican Council in 1965. It was the last and longest published document from the council and is the first constitution published by an ecumenical council to address the entire world. Gaudium et spes clarified and reoriented the role of the church’s mission to people outside of the Catholic faith. It was the first time that the church took explicit responsibility for its role in the larger world. The constitution's creation was necessitated by fear of the church’s irrelevance in the modern era due to its ignorance on problems that plague the modern world (see Modernity). The document represents an inner examination of the church by the council and features a response to problems affecting the modern world.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 28134, 185130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 149, 171 ], [ 721, 730 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the failure of the Church to respond promptly to major global events such as World War II and the Holocaust, Pope John XXIII began Vatican II with an emphasis on examining the role of the church in the world. This culminated with the creation of Gaudium et spes to address the role of the church in serving the world outside of Christianity. During the creation of the document itself, Gaudium et spes went through multiple versions of Schemas to reflect the idea Pope John XXIII wanted to achieve during the council. After long debate during the council over Gaudium et spes, the document came to cover a wide range of topics examining the inner workings of the church and its interactions with the world as a whole. Such topics include marriage and family, the development of culture, economics, politics and peace and war.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 32927, 10396793, 23807, 5211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 94 ], [ 103, 112 ], [ 114, 129 ], [ 333, 345 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Within Gaudium et spes are the themes of gift of self and the promotion of peace. While initial reception of the document was focused on the shift in theological considerations, reception of Gaudium et spes today marks the document as a turning point in the Church’s focus on the world.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Together, the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church (LG) and the Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World (GS) stand as the two pillars of the Second Vatican Council. The Dogmatic Constitution treats the nature of the church in itself; the Pastoral Constitution treats its mission in the world.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 40135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Approved by a vote of 2,307 to 75 of the bishops assembled at the council, it was promulgated by Pope Paul VI on 7 December 1965, the day the council ended. As is customary with Catholic documents, the title is taken from its opening words in Latin \"the joys and hopes\". The English translation begins:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4092, 24028, 606848, 952907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 47 ], [ 97, 109 ], [ 179, 187 ], [ 227, 240 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the beginning of the Second Vatican Council on October 11, 1962, Pope John XXIII celebrated the opening Mass of the council. During which, Pope John indirectly brought to light the economic and political issues for which the council was summoned. Such issues included the devastation of World War II, Nazi horrors, the current threat of a nuclear war between the United States and Russia, and the end of colonialism and racism. The church had failed to act substantially on these issues, contributing to a feeling of irrelevance within larger considerations of the state of the world. From an ecclesiastical standpoint, there were open issues concerning completing the work of the interrupted First Vatican Council and the need for reform within the church. As a result of these problems, in his opening speech, Gaudet Mater Ecclesia, Pope John XIII distanced the council from focusing solely on the gloom of the problems of the world as the Church had done in previous councils. He wanted the council to focus on “the marvelous progress of the discoveries of human genius,” while orienting the role of the church to one that should deal with right and wrong in the world. The council, as a whole, was to be an update to the essential inner workings and teachings of the church to better fit the modern world. Gaudium et spes was to be the culmination of this as Pope John XXIII envisioned the constitution to share in the “joys and the hopes” of the entire world.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 28134, 23807, 32927, 11390, 21885335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 46 ], [ 68, 83 ], [ 290, 302 ], [ 696, 717 ], [ 815, 836 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gaudium et spes was not drafted before the council met, but arose from the floor of the council and was one of the last to be promulgated. In preparation for the council, Pope John XXIII asked for suggestions concerning the substance of Vatican II. In a large width of responses sorted through by a commission appointed by the Pope, there resulted in 67 thematic documents that would be placed for discussion during the council. Four of those documents, dealing with the church in the modern world, ultimately formed the logical backbone of what would become Gaudium et spes. In what is described as a turning point of the council, the harsh disagreement over the four documents drove the attendees to invalidate all 67 thematic documents as inadequate. This led to Pope John asking Cardinal Leo Jozef Suenens to create a new agenda for the council in November, 1962. The agenda was to include an examination on the Church and its role within the modern world, as necessitated by the debate over the four documents in question. By December 1962, Suenens revealed his work. The role of the church would be split between different viewpoints: “Ad intra,” internally, and “ad extra,” externally. These ultimately resulted in Lumen Gentium and Gaudium et spes, respectively. Schema 17 and, toward the end of the council, Schema 12 inspired the later creation of Gaudium et spes. Schema 12, while focusing on the church’s role in world social issues, underwent many changes before ultimately being rejected by the attendees over a lack of cohesion within the document.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 7349767, 40135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 792, 809 ], [ 1222, 1235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cardinal Suenens was again tasked with producing a new schema; however, Pope John XXIII died before its completion on June 3, 1963. Upon the election of Pope Paul VI on June 21, 1963, Pope Paul continued the creation of the document. When the revised Schema 12 was published in September 1963, it was met with intense scrutiny by the bishops. Ultimately, the schema, through multiple revisions that lasted until 1964, was transformed into Schema 13, which would become Gaudium et spes. Schema 13 not only related the role of the church to the world but also dealt with questions dealing with modern problems. On November 16, 1964, Schema 13 was approved to be edited after all of the Bishops’ suggestions were aggregated. Father Pierre Haubtmann led a commission tasked with editing the schema. Over the period of the next year, Father Haubtmann led discussions and continued to develop the schema in line with discussion offered during the council. Approved by a vote of 2,307 to 75 of the bishops assembled at the council, Schema 13 was promulgated as Gaudium et spes by Pope Paul VI on 7 December 1965, the day the council ended.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 4092, 24028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 998, 1004 ], [ 1080, 1092 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Dogmatic Constitution, Gaudium et spes, was addressed \"not only to the sons of the Church and to all who invoke the name of Christ, but to the whole of humanity\" as part of the Second Council's effort to appeal to the larger considerations of the Catholic Church.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Whereas the previous Vatican Council in 1869–70 had tried to defend the role of the church in an increasingly secular world, the Second Vatican Council focused on updating the role of the Church in the modern world. Those who interpret the purpose of the Second Council as one of embracing this world use Gaudium et spes as the primary hermeneutic for all its documents.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 11390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gaudium et spes was adopted after Lumen Gentium, the Constitution on the Church, and it reflects the ecclesiological approach of that text. It also recognized and encouraged the role of the laity in the life of the Church in the world. The decree was debated at length and approved by much the largest and most international council in the history of the Church.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 40135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ecumenical constitution created by the Second Vatican Council focused on the role of the church within the modern world. It was the last document promulgated during the Second Vatican Council and the first church document to place the church within the significance of the world. Gaudium et spes illustrated the church is aware of problems within the world and its responsibilities toward them. While world problems are a focus of the text, it also brings to light the human person and their orientation toward God as well as the mission of the church itself. The mission of the Church needed to recognize the realities of secularization and pluralism. Bishop Christopher Butler points out that a key principle behind the \"audacious change\" in this and in several earlier outward-looking documents of the council was that the Church was Christ himself using us as his instruments to bring salvation to all, and in charity we must presume that those who differ from us are nevertheless people of good will. As a whole, Gaudium et spes represented an inner looking of the Church on itself so that it may take responsibility and comment on issues affecting the world.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 1895930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 664, 682 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Such issues of responsibilities in the world are highlighted by the cardinals of the council such as Leo Joseph Suenens of Belgium, urged the council to take on social responsibility for Third World suffering, International peace and war, and the poor, sentiments echoed by Cardinal Giovanni Battista Montini of Milan and Cardinal Lercaro of Bologna. Additionally, Thomas Rosica points out that the Council Fathers \"... were men who had experienced two world wars, the horror of the Holocaust, the onset of the nuclear weaponry, the hostility of communism, the awesome and only partially understood impact of science and technology.\" In the Introduction it states, \"... the Church has always had the duty of scrutinizing the signs of the times and of interpreting them in the light of the Gospel.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 7349767, 24028, 4882627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 119 ], [ 274, 308 ], [ 365, 378 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Marie-Dominique Chenu, professor of the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum was influential in the composition of Gaudium et spes, as was Louis-Joseph Lebret. \"The problem of poverty and of overcoming it through a healthy economy, respectful of the primary value of the person, allows for a vast discussion on political ethics in Gaudium et spes.\" In the end, the \"council exhorts Christians, as citizens of two cities, to strive to discharge their earthly duties conscientiously and in response to the Gospel spirit.\". This was further expanded in Apostolicam Actuositatem, Decree on the Apostolate of the Laity, of 18 November 1965..", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 6828935, 2174683, 26351700, 40500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 40, 96 ], [ 159, 178 ], [ 570, 594 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The \"gift of self\" from GS §24 was a phrase used often by Pope John Paul II and particularly in his Theology of the Body. This phrase has also been described as \"the Law of the Gift\" ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contents", "target_page_ids": [ 23805, 1705286 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 75 ], [ 100, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The final chapter of the document is \"The Fostering of Peace and the Promotion of a Community of Nations\". This chapter echoed themes declared near the start of Vatican II by Pope John XXIII in 1963 in his well-regarded encyclical, Pacem in Terris..", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contents", "target_page_ids": [ 23807, 1919340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 191 ], [ 233, 248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Initial opposition came in the form of debate over the theological basis of Vatican II and Gaudium et spes. According to Henri de Lubac, the theological balance of nature and grace pre-Vatican II was overturned in favor of nature and the world which goes against the importance placed upon transcendence.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 1769923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gaudium et spes has been evaluated as the shift of the church to its new globalized view of the world. It serves as the basis for multiculturalism in the modern church and has become the basis of the church’s message to the world today.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The full text in English on the Vatican Web site", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " From Ratzinger to Benedict by Avery Cardinal Dulles, Article in Feb 2006 edition of First Things", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Anthropocentrism of Gaudium et spes (Constitution on the Church in the Modern World) by Brunero Gherardini. Excerpted from Il Vaticano II. Alle radici d'un equivoco [Vatican II: At the Roots of an Equivoque], p.185-195.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Documents_of_the_Catholic_Social_Teaching_tradition", "Documents_of_the_Second_Vatican_Council", "1965_documents", "1965_in_Christianity" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "London (pronounced ) is a city in southwestern Ontario, Canada, along the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor. The city had a population of 422,324 according to the 2021 Canadian census. London is at the confluence of the Thames River, approximately from both Toronto and Detroit; and about from Buffalo, New York. The city of London is politically separate from Middlesex County, though it remains the county seat.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1503913, 1547111, 55536779, 6023152, 64646, 8687, 3985, 8210131, 6049233, 181882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 54 ], [ 74, 102 ], [ 158, 178 ], [ 215, 227 ], [ 254, 261 ], [ 266, 273 ], [ 291, 298 ], [ 300, 308 ], [ 332, 352 ], [ 358, 374 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "London and the Thames were named in 1793 by John Graves Simcoe, who proposed the site for the capital city of Upper Canada. The first European settlement was between 1801 and 1804 by Peter Hagerman. The village was founded in 1826 and incorporated in 1855. Since then, London has grown to be the largest southwestern Ontario municipality and Canada's 11th largest metropolitan area, having annexed many of the smaller communities that surround it.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6023152, 15918, 40389, 3306475, 414164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 21 ], [ 44, 62 ], [ 110, 122 ], [ 235, 247 ], [ 351, 381 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "London is a regional centre of healthcare and education, being home to the University of Western Ontario (which brands itself \"Western University\"), Fanshawe College, and three major hospitals: Victoria Hospital, University Hospital and St. Joseph’s Hospital. The city hosts a number of musical and artistic exhibits and festivals, which contribute to its tourism industry, but its economic activity is centred on education, medical research, insurance, and information technology. London's university and hospitals are among its top ten employers. London lies at the junction of highways 401 and 402, connecting it to Toronto, Windsor, and Sarnia. These highways also make the Detroit-Windsor, Port Huron-Sarnia, and Niagara Falls border crossings with the United States easily accessible. The city also has an international airport, train stations and bus stations.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 169136, 410411, 9985651, 9996675, 15176, 36674345, 291924, 1243619, 64646, 33596, 78085, 7598140, 58230621, 699928, 264093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 104 ], [ 149, 165 ], [ 194, 211 ], [ 213, 232 ], [ 443, 452 ], [ 458, 480 ], [ 589, 592 ], [ 597, 600 ], [ 619, 626 ], [ 628, 635 ], [ 641, 647 ], [ 678, 693 ], [ 695, 712 ], [ 718, 731 ], [ 812, 833 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "London was named for the British capital of London by John Graves Simcoe, who also named the local river the Thames, in 1793. Simcoe had intended London to be the capital of Upper Canada. Guy Carleton (Governor Dorchester) rejected that plan after the War of 1812, but accepted Simcoe's second choice, the present site of Toronto, to become the capital city of what would become the Province of Ontario, at Confederation, on 1 July 1867.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Toponym", "target_page_ids": [ 17867, 239613, 75763, 22218, 79774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 50 ], [ 188, 222 ], [ 383, 391 ], [ 395, 402 ], [ 407, 420 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A series of archaeological sites throughout southwestern Ontario, named for the Parkhill Complex excavated near Parkhill, indicate the presence of Paleo-Indians in the area dating back approximately 11,000 years. Just prior to European settlement, the London area was the site of several Attawandaron, Odawa, and Ojibwe villages. The Lawson Site in northwest London is an archaeological excavation and partial reconstruction of an approximately 500-year-old Neutral Iroquoian village, estimated to have been home to 2,000 people. These groups were driven out by the Iroquois by c. 1654 in the Beaver Wars. The Iroquois abandoned the region some 50 years later, driven out by the Ojibwa. London is also situated on the traditional lands of the Anishinaabeg, One Anishinaabe community site was described as located near the forks of Thames River (Anishinaabe language: Eshkani-ziibi, \"Antler River\") in circa 1690 and was referred to as Pahkatequayang (\"Baketigweyaang\":\"At the River Fork\" (lit: at where the by-stream is)).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7713169, 1543485, 1044468, 586095, 219064, 27978501, 19195965, 384160, 1105972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 120 ], [ 147, 160 ], [ 288, 300 ], [ 302, 307 ], [ 313, 319 ], [ 334, 345 ], [ 566, 574 ], [ 593, 604 ], [ 743, 755 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later, in the early 19th century, the Munsee-Delaware Nation (the Munsee are a subtribe of the Lenape or Delaware people), expelled from their homeland in Modern New Jersey and Eastern Pennsylvania after the creation of the United States.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 838790, 230270, 21648, 23332, 3434750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 60 ], [ 95, 101 ], [ 162, 172 ], [ 185, 197 ], [ 224, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Oneida Nation of the Thames, Chippewas of the Thames First Nation, and Munsee-Delaware Nation reserves are located south-west of the city.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 8108460, 41706454, 838790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 31 ], [ 33, 69 ], [ 75, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The current location of London was selected as the site of the future capital of Upper Canada in 1793 by Lieutenant-Governor John Graves Simcoe, who also named the village which was founded in 1826. Originally, Simcoe had proposed to call it Georgiana, in honour of George III, the reigning monarch at that time. It did not become the capital Simcoe envisioned. Rather, it was an administrative seat for the area west of the actual capital, York (now Toronto). The London Township Treaty of 1796 with the Chippewa ceded the original town site on the north bank of the Thames (then known as the Escunnisepe) to Upper Canada.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 40389, 56252, 15918, 42029, 181337, 242679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 93 ], [ 105, 124 ], [ 125, 143 ], [ 266, 276 ], [ 335, 342 ], [ 441, 445 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "London was part of the Talbot Settlement, named for Colonel Thomas Talbot, the chief administrator of the area, who oversaw the land surveying and built the first government buildings for the administration of the western Ontario peninsular region. Together with the rest of southwestern Ontario, the village benefited from Talbot's provisions not only for building and maintaining roads but also for assignment of access priorities to main routes to productive land. Crown and clergy reserves then received preference in the rest of Ontario.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 947903, 947903, 537894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 40 ], [ 60, 73 ], [ 478, 492 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1814, the Battle of Longwoods took place during the War of 1812 in what is now Southwest Middlesex, near London.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1707028, 34059, 7634644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 32 ], [ 55, 66 ], [ 82, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1832, the new settlement suffered an outbreak of cholera. London proved a centre of strong Tory support during the Upper Canada Rebellion of 1837, notwithstanding a brief rebellion led by Charles Duncombe. Consequently, the British government located its Ontario peninsular garrison there in 1838, increasing its population with soldiers and their dependents, and the business support populations they required. London was incorporated as a town in 1840.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7591, 30980, 248342, 262396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 59 ], [ 94, 98 ], [ 118, 140 ], [ 191, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 13 April 1845, a fire destroyed much of London, which was then largely constructed of wooden buildings. One of the first casualties was the town's only fire engine. The fire burned nearly of land, destroying 150 buildings, before it burned itself out later that day. One fifth of London was destroyed in the province's first million-dollar fire.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "John Carling, Tory MP for London, gave three events to explain the development of London in a 1901 speech: the location of the court and administration in London in 1826, the arrival of the military garrison in 1838, and the arrival of the railway in 1853.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 964508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The population in 1846 was 3,500. Brick buildings included a jail and court house, and large barracks. London had a fire company, a theatre, a large Gothic church, nine other churches or chapels, and two market buildings. The buildings that were destroyed by fire in 1845 were mostly rebuilt by 1846. Connection with other communities was by road, using mainly stagecoaches that ran daily. A weekly newspaper was published and mail was received daily by the post office.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 214764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 361, 371 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 1 January 1855, London was incorporated as a city (10,000 or more residents). In the 1860s, a sulphur spring was discovered at the forks of the Thames River while industrialists were drilling for oil. The springs became a popular destination for wealthy Ontarians, until the turn of the 20th century when a textile factory was built at the site, replacing the spa.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23195, 51892, 166784 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 202 ], [ 310, 317 ], [ 318, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Records from 1869 indicate a population of about 18,000 served by three newspapers, churches of all major denominations and offices of all the major banks. Industry included several tanneries, oil refineries and foundries, four flour mills, the Labatt Brewing Company and the Carling brewery in addition to other manufacturing. Both the Great Western and Grand Trunk railways had stops here. Several insurance companies also had offices in the city.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 17565, 947497, 486865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 245, 267 ], [ 276, 291 ], [ 355, 366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Crystal Palace Barracks, an octagonal brick building with eight doors and forty-eight windows built in 1861, was used for events such the Provincial Agricultural Fair of Canada West held in London that year. It was visited by Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn, Governor-General John Young, 1st Baron Lisgar and Prime Minister John A. Macdonald.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5053338, 45159929, 233998, 25956052, 15912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 27 ], [ 142, 185 ], [ 230, 277 ], [ 296, 324 ], [ 344, 361 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Long before the Royal Military College of Canada was established in 1876, there were proposals for military colleges in Canada. Staffed by British Regulars, adult male students underwent three-month-long military courses from 1865 at the School of Military Instruction in London. Established by Militia General Order in 1865, the school enabled Officers of Militia or Candidates for Commission or promotion in the Militia to learn Military duties, drill and discipline, to command a Company at Battalion Drill, to Drill a Company at Company Drill, the internal economy of a Company and the duties of a Company's Officer. The school was not retained at Confederation, in 1867.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 364114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1875, London's first iron bridge, the Blackfriars Street Bridge, was constructed. It replaced a succession of flood-failed wooden structures that had provided the city's only northern road crossing of the river. A rare example of a wrought iron bowstring arch through truss bridge, the Blackfriars remains open to pedestrian and bicycle traffic, though it was temporarily closed indefinitely to vehicular traffic due to various structural problems and was once again reopened to vehicular traffic 1 December 2018, see Blackfriars Bridge Grand Opening. The Blackfriars, amidst the river-distance between the Carling Brewery and the historic Tecumseh Park (including a major mill), linked London with its western suburb of Petersville, named for Squire Peters of Grosvenor Lodge. That community joined with the southern subdivision of Kensington in 1874, formally incorporating as the municipality of Petersville. Although it changed its name in 1880 to the more inclusive \"London West\", it remained a separate municipality until ratepayers voted for amalgamation with London in 1897, largely due to repeated flooding. The most serious flood was in July 1883, which resulted in serious loss of life and property devaluation. This area retains much original and attractively maintained 19th-century tradespeople's and workers' housing, including Georgian cottages as well as larger houses, and a distinct sense of place.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 14277326, 896753, 947497, 605265, 12924, 3860688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 66 ], [ 271, 283 ], [ 611, 618 ], [ 644, 657 ], [ 1347, 1355 ], [ 1406, 1420 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "London's eastern suburb, London East, was (and remains) an industrial centre, which also incorporated in 1874. Attaining the status of town in 1881, it continued as a separate municipality until concerns over expensive waterworks and other fiscal problems led to amalgamation in 1885. The southern suburb of London, including Wortley Village, was collectively known as \"London South\". Never incorporated, the South was annexed to the city in 1890, although Wortley Village still retains a distinct sense of place. By contrast, the settlement at Broughdale on the city's north end had a clear identity, adjoined the university, and was not annexed until 1961.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3860688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 498, 512 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ivor F. Goodson and Ian R. Dowbiggin have explored the battle over vocational education in London, Ontario, in the 1900–1930 era. The London Technical and Commercial High School came under heavy attack from the city's social and business elite, which saw the school as a threat to the budget of the city's only academic high school, London Collegiate Institute.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 56383628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "London's role as a military centre continued into the 20th century during the two World Wars, serving as the administrative centre for the Western Ontario district. In 1905, the London Armoury was built and housed the First Hussars until 1975. A private investor purchased the historic site and built a new hotel (Delta London Armouries, 1996) in its place, preserving the shell of the historic building. In the 1950s, two reserve battalions amalgamated and became London and Oxford Rifles (3rd Battalion), The Royal Canadian Regiment. This unit continues to serve today as 4th Battalion, The Royal Canadian Regiment. The Regimental Headquarters of The Royal Canadian Regiment remains in London at Wolseley Barracks on Oxford Street. The barracks are home to the First Hussars militia regiment as well.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21990324, 883830, 883830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 466, 535 ], [ 590, 617 ], [ 650, 677 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "London annexed many of the surrounding communities in 1961, including Byron and Masonville, adding 60,000 people and more than doubling its area. After this amalgamation, suburban growth accelerated as London grew outward in all directions, creating expansive new subdivisions such as Westmount, Oakridge, Whitehills, Pond Mills, White Oaks and Stoneybrook.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 29065860, 762062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 14 ], [ 70, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 1 January 1993, London annexed nearly the entire township of Westminster, a large, primarily rural municipality directly south of the city, including the police village of Lambeth. With this massive annexation, which also included part of London township, London almost doubled in area again, adding several thousand more residents. In the present day, London stretches south to the boundary with Elgin County, north and east to Fanshawe Lake, north and west to the township of Middlesex Centre (the nearest developed areas of it being Arva to the north and Komoka to the west) and east to Nilestown and Dorchester.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1445429, 61237148, 2831205, 1902880, 731012, 627738, 964966, 731012, 964966, 2141153 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 75 ], [ 96, 114 ], [ 157, 171 ], [ 175, 182 ], [ 242, 257 ], [ 400, 412 ], [ 432, 445 ], [ 481, 497 ], [ 593, 602 ], [ 607, 618 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1993 annexation, made London one of the largest urban municipalities in Ontario. Intense commercial and residential development is presently occurring in the southwest and northwest areas of the city. Opponents of this development cite urban sprawl, destruction of rare Carolinian zone forest and farm lands, replacement of distinctive regions by generic malls, and standard transportation and pollution concerns as major issues facing London. The City of London is currently the eleventh-largest urban area in Canada, eleventh-largest census metropolitan area in Canada, and the sixth-largest city in Ontario.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 655311, 1420857, 6063133, 414164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 240, 252 ], [ 274, 289 ], [ 484, 521 ], [ 523, 574 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On Victoria Day, 24 May 1881, the stern-wheeler ferry SS Victoria capsized in the Thames River close to Cove Bridge in West London. Approximately 200 passengers drowned in the shallow river, making it one of the worst disasters in London's history, and is now dubbed \"The Victoria Day Disaster\". At the time, London's population was relatively low; therefore it was hard to find a person in the city who did not have a family member affected by the tragedy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 228956, 334071, 6023152, 43528475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 15 ], [ 34, 47 ], [ 82, 94 ], [ 268, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two years later, on 12 July 1883, the first of the two most devastating floods in London's history killed 17 people. The second major flood, on 26 April 1937, destroyed more than a thousand houses across London, and caused over $50 million in damages, particularly in West London.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 3 January 1898, the floor of the assembly hall at London City Hall collapsed, killing 23 people and leaving more than 70 injured. Testimony at a coroner's inquest described the wooden beam under the floor as unsound, with knots and other defects reducing its strength by one fifth to one third.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After repeated floods, the Upper Thames River Conservation Authority in 1953 built Fanshawe Dam on the North Thames to control the downstream rivers. Financing for this project came from the federal, provincial, and municipal governments. Other natural disasters include a 1984 tornado that led to damage on several streets in the White Oaks area of South London.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 608767, 58921, 37530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 68 ], [ 245, 261 ], [ 278, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 11 December 2020, a partially-constructed apartment building just off of Wonderland Road in southwest London collapsed, killing two people and injuring at least four others. As late August 2021, the investigation is still ongoing.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 14275593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 6 June 2021, a man rammed a pickup truck into Muslim Pakistani Canadian pedestrians at an intersection in London. Four people were killed, and another was wounded, all from the same family. The attack was the largest mass killing in London's history.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 67888356, 19541, 23745185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 43 ], [ 49, 55 ], [ 56, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The area was formed during the retreat of the glaciers during the last ice age, which produced areas of marshland, notably the Sifton Bog, as well as some of the most agriculturally productive areas of farmland in Ontario.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 12463, 3720257, 169208, 21740565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 53 ], [ 66, 78 ], [ 104, 113 ], [ 127, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Thames River dominates London's geography. The North and South branches of the Thames River meet at the centre of the city, a location known as \"The Forks\" or \"The Fork of the Thames.\" The North Thames runs through the man-made Fanshawe Lake in northeast London. Fanshawe Lake was created by Fanshawe Dam, constructed to protect the downriver areas from the catastrophic flooding which affected the city in 1883 and 1937.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "London has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb), though due to its downwind location relative to Lake Huron and elevation changes across the city, it is virtually on the Dfa/Dfb (hot summer) boundary favouring the former climate zone to the southwest of the confluence of the South and North Thames Rivers, and the latter zone to the northeast (including the airport). Because of its location in the continent, London experiences large seasonal contrast, tempered to a point by the surrounding Great Lakes. The summers are usually warm to hot and humid, with a July average of , and temperatures above occur on average 10 days per year. In 2016, however, temperatures at or above occurred more than 35 times, and in 2018, four heatwave incidents led to humidex temperatures topping out at . The city is affected by frequent thunderstorms due to hot, humid summer weather, as well as the convergence of breezes originating from Lake Huron and Lake Erie. The same convergence zone is responsible for spawning funnel clouds and the occasional tornado. Spring and autumn in between are not long, and winters are cold but witness frequent thaws. Annual precipitation averages . Its winter snowfall totals are heavy, averaging about per year, although the localized nature of snow squalls means the total can vary widely from year to year. The majority of snow accumulation comes from lake effect snow and snow squalls originating from Lake Huron, some to the northwest, which occurs when strong, cold winds blow from that direction. From 5 December 2010, to 9 December 2010, London experienced record snowfall when up to of snow fell in parts of the city. Schools and businesses were closed for three days and bus service was cancelled after the second day of snow.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 1225918, 484254, 24873453, 12010, 232877, 3984015, 51056, 17946, 43864, 2426926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 38 ], [ 40, 46 ], [ 440, 448 ], [ 498, 509 ], [ 759, 766 ], [ 895, 917 ], [ 935, 945 ], [ 950, 959 ], [ 1389, 1405 ], [ 1410, 1422 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The highest temperature ever recorded in London was on 6 August 1918. The lowest temperature ever recorded was on 9 February 1934.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "London has a number of parks. Victoria Park in downtown London is a major centre of community events, attracting an estimated 1 million visitors per year. Other major parks include Harris Park, Gibbons Park, Fanshawe Conservation Area (Fanshawe Pioneer Village), Springbank Park, White Oaks Park and Westminster Ponds. The city also maintains a number of gardens and conservatories.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 410351, 34421363, 2624476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 43 ], [ 236, 260 ], [ 263, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, London had a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 55536779, 186760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 32 ], [ 46, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the census metropolitan area (CMA) level in the 2021 census, the London CMA had a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 605671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As per the 2016 census, the most common ethnicities in London are English (28.4%), Canadian (25.8%), Scottish (20.9%), Irish (19.8%), German (11.6%), French (9.6%), Dutch (6.3%), Italian (5.0%), Polish (4.4%), and British Isles Origins, n.i.e. (3.4%). Aboriginals make up 2.6% of the population, with most being First Nations (1.9%). Visible minorities make up 19.9% of the population and include East Asian (3.9%), Arab (3.6%), South Asian (3.1%), Black (3.0%), Latin American (2.4%), Southeast Asian (1.2%), Filipino (0.9%), and West Asian (0.9%).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 196075, 315239, 64019323, 1939367, 1717824, 466982, 1939405, 28741, 722393, 63851566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 252, 263 ], [ 312, 325 ], [ 397, 407 ], [ 416, 420 ], [ 429, 440 ], [ 449, 454 ], [ 463, 477 ], [ 486, 500 ], [ 510, 518 ], [ 531, 541 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most common mother tongue in London is English (76.1%), followed by Arabic (2.8%), Spanish (2.3%), Mandarin (1.5%), Polish (1.4%), French (1.3%), and Portuguese (1.2%). The most commonly known languages among the population are English (98.3%), French (7.4%), Arabic (3.8%), Spanish (3.5%), Mandarin (1.8%), Polish (1.6%), Portuguese (1.6%), Italian (1.2%), and German (1.1%).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 263257, 8569916, 803, 26825, 19359, 22975, 10597, 23915, 8569916, 10597, 803, 26825, 19359, 22975, 23915, 14708, 11884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 29 ], [ 43, 50 ], [ 72, 78 ], [ 87, 94 ], [ 103, 111 ], [ 120, 126 ], [ 135, 141 ], [ 154, 164 ], [ 232, 239 ], [ 249, 255 ], [ 264, 270 ], [ 279, 286 ], [ 295, 303 ], [ 312, 318 ], [ 327, 337 ], [ 346, 353 ], [ 366, 372 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the 2011 census, 62.8% of the population identify as Christian, with Catholics (27%) making up the largest denomination, followed by United Church (9.5%), Anglican (7.6%), Presbyterian (2.8%), Baptist (2.6%), and other denominations. Others identify as Muslim (4.4%), Hindu (0.8%), Buddhist (0.8%), Jewish (0.5%), and with other religions. 29.9% of the population report no religious affiliation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 18337522, 606848, 252364, 1214, 24403, 3979, 19541, 13677, 3267529, 25955086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 75 ], [ 82, 91 ], [ 146, 159 ], [ 168, 176 ], [ 185, 197 ], [ 206, 213 ], [ 266, 272 ], [ 281, 286 ], [ 295, 303 ], [ 312, 318 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "London's economy is dominated by medical research, insurance, manufacturing, and information technology. Much of the life sciences and biotechnology-related research is conducted or supported by the University of Western Ontario, which adds about C$1.5 billion to the London economy annually.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 18957, 15176, 39388, 36674345, 68140, 4502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 40 ], [ 51, 60 ], [ 62, 75 ], [ 81, 103 ], [ 117, 130 ], [ 135, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the economic crisis of 2009, which gutted many of London's manufacturing jobs, the city has transitioned to become a technology hub with a focus on the Digital Creative sector. As of 2016, London is home to 300 technology companies that employ 3% of the city's labour force. Many of these companies have moved into former factories and industrial spaces in and around the downtown core, and have renovated them as modern offices. For example, Info-Tech Research Group's London office is in a hosiery factory, and Arcane Digital moved into a 1930s industrial building in 2015. The Historic London Roundhouse, a steam locomotive repair shop built in 1887, is now home to Royal LePage Triland Realty, rTraction and more. Its redesign, which opened in 2015, won the 2015 Paul Oberman Award for Adaptive Re-Use from the Architectural Conservancy of Ontario. London is also home to Diply, video game companies Big Viking Games, Big Blue Bubble and Digital Extremes, and Voices.com, which provides voiceover artists a platform to advertise and sell their services to those looking for voiceover work. Other local tech companies include HRDownloads, Mobials, Race Roster and Zomaron.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 55860839, 14475960, 1166411, 31914823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 882, 887 ], [ 928, 943 ], [ 948, 964 ], [ 970, 980 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The largest employer in London is the London Health Sciences Centre, which employs 10,555 people.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 9985673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The headquarters of the Canadian division of 3M are in London. The London Life Insurance Company was founded there, as was Imperial Oil, GoodLife Fitness, and both the Labatt and Carling breweries. The Libro Financial Group was founded in London 1951 and is the second largest credit union in Ontario and employs over 550 people. Canada Trust was also founded in London in 1864. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 7664801, 2004257, 657292, 17703581, 17565, 947497, 25311712, 246079, 296092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 47 ], [ 67, 96 ], [ 123, 135 ], [ 137, 153 ], [ 168, 174 ], [ 179, 186 ], [ 202, 223 ], [ 277, 289 ], [ 330, 342 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "General Dynamics Land Systems (GDLS) builds armoured personnel carriers in the city. GDLS has a 14-year $15-billion deal to supply light armoured vehicles to Saudi Arabia. There are 2,400 workers at GDLS Canada.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 1638159, 19278686, 349303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ], [ 44, 70 ], [ 158, 170 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "McCormick Canada, formerly Club House Foods, was founded in 1883 and currently employs more than 600 Londoners.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 842967 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "London's fledgling city centre mall was first opened in 1960 as Wellington Square with 400,000 sq. ft. of leasable area, with Eaton's and Woolworths as anchors. From 1986 to 1989, Campeau expanded Wellington Square into Galleria London with 1,000,000 sq. ft. of leasable area and 200 stores including The Bay and Eaton's. However the early 1990s recession, following by the bankruptcy of Eaton's in 1999 and then the departure of The Bay in 2000 resulted in only 20 stores left by 2001. Galleria London then begun seeking non-retail tenants, becoming the home for London's central library branch, and satellite campuses for both Fanshawe College and Western University. The complex was purchased and renamed to Citi Plaza by Citigroup in 2009. Citi Plaza has been redeveloped as a mixed use complex that blends retail, office, businesses, and education providers. Alongside Citi Cards Canada's offices, in November 2016, CBC announced plans to move its expanded operations into the building.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 5716337, 410411, 169136, 207299, 1029495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 573, 588 ], [ 629, 645 ], [ 650, 668 ], [ 725, 734 ], [ 921, 924 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A portion of the city's population work in factories outside of the city limits, including the General Motors automotive plant CAMI, and a Toyota plant in Woodstock. A Ford plant in Talbotville became one of the casualties of the economic crisis in 2011.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 12102, 1452080, 30984, 221702, 6300307, 1344513, 20276349 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 109 ], [ 127, 131 ], [ 139, 145 ], [ 155, 164 ], [ 168, 178 ], [ 182, 193 ], [ 230, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 11 December 2009, Minister of State Gary Goodyear announced a new $11-million cargo terminal at the London International Airport.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 888179, 1467532, 264093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 38 ], [ 39, 52 ], [ 103, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2021, the city established FilmLondon through the London Economic Development Corporation in order to attract film and television productions to the city as an alternative to filming in the Greater Toronto Area. Notable productions that have resulted from this effort include The Amazing Race Canada 8 and The Changeling. Notable actors born in London include Ryan Gosling, Rachel McAdams, Victor Garber, Hume Cronyn, and Michael McManus.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 266720, 64195750, 70993728, 891226, 760163, 341960, 247582, 2875097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 193, 213 ], [ 279, 304 ], [ 309, 323 ], [ 363, 375 ], [ 377, 391 ], [ 393, 406 ], [ 408, 419 ], [ 425, 440 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city is home to many festivals including SunFest, the London Fringe Theatre Festival, the London Ontario Live Arts Festival (LOLA), the Home County Folk Festival, Rock the Park London, Western Fair, Pride London, and others. The London Rib Fest is the second largest barbecue rib festival in North America. SunFest, a world music festival, is the second largest in Canada after Toronto Caribbean Carnival (Caribana) and is among the top 100 summer destinations in North America.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 28017493, 6394016, 13248596, 5805151, 4526039, 1633130, 30147064, 28017493, 33134, 841643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 52 ], [ 58, 88 ], [ 94, 127 ], [ 140, 165 ], [ 167, 180 ], [ 189, 201 ], [ 240, 248 ], [ 311, 318 ], [ 322, 333 ], [ 382, 408 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "London has a rich musical history. Guy Lombardo, the internationally acclaimed Big-Band leader, was born in London, as was jazz musician Rob McConnell, country music legend Tommy Hunter, singer-songwriter Meaghan Smith, pop icon Justin Bieber, the heavy metal band Kittie, film composer Trevor Morris, and DJ duo Loud Luxury; it is also the adopted hometown of hip-hop artist Shad Kabango, rock-music producer Jack Richardson, and 1960s folk-funk band Motherlode. ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 231653, 2164250, 1265845, 26617209, 23680998, 362399, 24503675, 53593502, 9186105, 7284964, 13350141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 47 ], [ 137, 150 ], [ 173, 185 ], [ 205, 218 ], [ 229, 242 ], [ 265, 271 ], [ 287, 300 ], [ 313, 324 ], [ 376, 388 ], [ 410, 425 ], [ 452, 462 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "American country-music icon Johnny Cash proposed to his wife June Carter Cash onstage at the London Gardens—site of the famous April 26, 1965, fifteen-minute Rolling Stones concert—during his February 22, 1968 performance in the city (the hometown of his manager Saul Holiff).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 11983070, 227681, 2771734, 31056, 66418050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 39 ], [ 61, 77 ], [ 93, 107 ], [ 158, 172 ], [ 263, 274 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Avant-garde noise-pioneers The Nihilist Spasm Band formed in downtown London in 1965. Between 1966 and 1972, the group held a Monday night residency at the York Hotel in the city's core, which established it as a popular venue for emerging musicians and artists; known as Call the Office, the venue served as a hotbed for punk music in the late 1970s and 1980s and hosted college rock bands and weekly alternative-music nights until closing indefinitely in 2020.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 3057978, 23037 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 50 ], [ 322, 332 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2003, CHRW-FM developed The London Music Archives, an online music database that chronicled every album recorded in London between 1966 and 2006, and in 2019 the CBC released a documentary entitled \"London Calling\" which outlined \"The Secret Musical History of London Ontario\" (including its importance for the massively popular electronic-music duo Richie Hawtin and John Acquaviva). London also had (and still has, in an unofficial capacity) a professional symphony orchestra -- Orchestra London—which was founded in 1937; although the organization filed for bankruptcy in 2015, members of the orchestra continue to play self-produced concerts under the moniker London Symphonia. In addition, the city is home to the London Community Orchestra, the London Youth Symphony, and the Amabile Choirs of London, Canada. The Juno Awards of 2019 were hosted in London in March 2019, hosted by singer-songwriter Sarah McLachlan. In 2021, London was named Canada's first City of Music, by UNESCO. The labor union representing entertainment venue workers in London is IATSE Local 105.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2487326, 66730, 9510, 180172, 8519137, 30739022, 10045733, 56455663, 149077, 58040472, 21786641, 773800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 16 ], [ 161, 168 ], [ 332, 348 ], [ 353, 366 ], [ 371, 385 ], [ 484, 500 ], [ 785, 817 ], [ 823, 842 ], [ 908, 923 ], [ 966, 979 ], [ 984, 990 ], [ 1062, 1067 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "London artists Jack Chambers and Greg Curnoe co-founded The Forest City Gallery in 1973 and the Canadian Artists' Representation society in 1968. Museum London, the city's central Art Gallery, was established in 1940 (initially operated from the London Public Library, until 1980, when Canadian architect Raymond Moriyama was commissioned to design its current home at the forks of the Thames River). London is also home to the Museum of Ontario Archaeology, owned and operated by Western University; it is Canada's only ongoing excavation and partial reconstruction of a prehistoric village—in this case, a Neutral Nation village. The Royal Canadian Regiment Museum is a military museum at Wolseley Barracks (a Canadian former Forces Base in the city's Carling neighbourhood). The Secrets of Radar Museum was opened at Parkwood Hospital in 2003, and tells the story of the more than 6,000 Canadian World War II veterans who were recruited into a top-secret project during World War II involving radar. The London Regional Children's Museum in South London provides hands-on learning experiences for children and was one of the first children's museums established in Canada. The Canadian Medical Hall of Fame has its headquarters in downtown London and features a medical history museum.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 295101, 221901, 12551639, 26054806, 5716337, 1724765, 6023152, 27978501, 169136, 1044468, 1625498, 9057581, 13728602, 32927, 32927, 25676, 16845264, 1491909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 28 ], [ 33, 44 ], [ 96, 128 ], [ 146, 159 ], [ 246, 267 ], [ 305, 321 ], [ 386, 398 ], [ 429, 458 ], [ 482, 500 ], [ 609, 623 ], [ 633, 667 ], [ 692, 709 ], [ 783, 806 ], [ 900, 912 ], [ 974, 986 ], [ 997, 1002 ], [ 1008, 1041 ], [ 1181, 1210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eldon House is the former residence of the prominent Harris Family and oldest surviving such building in London. The entire property was donated to the city of London in 1959 and is now a heritage site. An Ontario Historical Plaque was erected by the province to commemorate The Eldon House's role in Ontario's heritage. The Banting House National Historic Site of Canada is the house where Frederick Banting developed the ideas that led to the discovery of insulin. Banting lived and practised in London for ten months, from July 1920 to May 1921. London is also the site of the Flame of Hope, which is intended to burn until a cure for diabetes is discovered.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 27173022, 2699646, 75076, 14895, 40017873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 188, 201 ], [ 391, 408 ], [ 458, 465 ], [ 638, 646 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to Museum London and The Forest City Gallery, London is also home to a number of other galleries and art spaces, including the McIntosh Gallery at Western University, TAP Centre for Creativity, and various smaller galleries such as the Thielsen Gallery, the Westland Gallery, the Michael Gibson Gallery, the Jonathon Bancroft-Snell Gallery, The Art Exchange, Strand Fine Art and others. London also hosts an annual Nuit Blanche every June.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 26054806, 169136, 7241043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 28 ], [ 159, 177 ], [ 427, 439 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "London is home to the Grand Theatre, a professional proscenium arch theatre in Central London. The building underwent renovations in 1975 to restore the stage proscenium arch and to add a secondary performance space. The architectural firm responsible for the redesign was awarded a Governor General's award in 1978 for their work on the venue. In addition to professional productions, the Grand Theatre also hosts the High School Project, a program unique to North America that provides high school students an opportunity to work with professional directors, choreographers, musical directors, and stage managers. The Palace Theatre, in Old East Village, originally opened as a silent movie theatre in 1929 and was converted to a live theatre venue in 1991. It is currently the home of the London Community Players, and as of 2016 is undergoing extensive historical restoration. The Original Kids Theatre Company, a nonprofit charitable youth organisation, currently puts on productions at the Spriet Family Theatre in the Covent Garden Market.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 14296369, 180224, 61922, 103078, 181181, 438428, 170593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 35 ], [ 52, 67 ], [ 283, 307 ], [ 550, 559 ], [ 561, 574 ], [ 577, 593 ], [ 600, 614 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "London serves as a core setting in Southern Ontario Gothic literature, most notably in the works of James Reaney. In 1995, rock-star David Bowie, in his \"Nonlinear Gothic Drama Hypercycle\" Outside, made references to London. The psychologist Richard Maurice Bucke, author of A Study in the Evolution of the Human Mind and Walt Whitman's literary executor, lived and worked in London, where he was often visited by Whitman (the Maurice Bucke Archive are part of the Special Collections in The Weldon Library of Western University). Modern writers from this city include fantasy-fiction authors R. Scott Bakker and Kelley Armstrong, Man Booker Prize winner Eleanor Catton, Scotiabank Giller Prize winner Bonnie Burnard and distinguished nominee Joan Barfoot. Emma Donoghue, whose 2010 novel, Room, was adapted into a 2015 Academy Award-winning film of the same name, also lives in London. WordFest is an annual literary and creative arts festival that takes place each November.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1333705, 2118271, 8786, 1142018, 974035, 8328810, 33870, 974035, 59840759, 169136, 843899, 681343, 4446, 23918703, 61921, 252844, 2953204, 1453015, 28755850, 44425370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 58 ], [ 100, 112 ], [ 133, 144 ], [ 189, 196 ], [ 242, 263 ], [ 275, 318 ], [ 323, 335 ], [ 428, 449 ], [ 489, 507 ], [ 511, 529 ], [ 594, 609 ], [ 614, 630 ], [ 632, 648 ], [ 656, 670 ], [ 672, 695 ], [ 703, 717 ], [ 744, 756 ], [ 758, 771 ], [ 791, 795 ], [ 816, 847 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2020 and 2021, house prices rose exponentially across Canada, especially in Ontario. The average price of a home in Canada in March 2021 was $716,828, a 31.6% year-over-year increase. Meanwhile, the average cost to purchase a home in London was $607,000 in January 2021; since then increasing to $641,072 in June 2021 according to LSTAR. As the COVID-19 pandemic has begun to decrease in severity as vaccinations in Canada reach close to herd immunity, the housing market in London is showing signs of a cool-down according to some realtors. In April 2021, the Bank of Canada reported that the primary reason house prices had increased to such an unprecedented extent was due to housing inventory reaching record lows.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 3230405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 564, 578 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nevertheless, the city's cost of living remains lower than many other southern Ontario cities. London is known for being a medium-sized city with big city amenities, having under 400,000 residents as of the 2016 census yet having all of the services one could find in a large city, including two large-scale shopping malls, Masonville Place and White Oaks Mall, regional health care centres, and postsecondary education hubs such as the world-class University of Western Ontario and well-known Fanshawe College. In mid-2021, London had an 8.75% cheaper cost of living, and 27.5% cheaper cost of rent, compared to nearby Toronto.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2667521, 2154181, 169136, 410411, 64646 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 324, 340 ], [ 345, 360 ], [ 449, 478 ], [ 494, 510 ], [ 620, 627 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "London has nine major parks and gardens throughout the city, many of which run along the Thames River and are interconnected by a series of pedestrian and bike paths, known as the Thames Valley Parkway. This path system is 40km (25mi) in length, and connects to an additional 150km (93mi) of bike and hiking trails throughout the city. The city's largest park, Springbank Park, is 140-hectare (300 acre) and contains 30km (19mi) of trails. It is also home to Storybook Gardens, a family attraction open year-round.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 6023152, 2624476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 101 ], [ 361, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city includes many pedestrian walkways throughout its neighbourhoods. Newer settled areas in the northwest end of the city include long pathways between housing developments and tall grass bordering Snake Creek, a thin waterway connected to the Thames River. These walkways connect the neighbourhoods of Fox Hollow, White Hills, Sherwood Forest and the western portion of Masonville, also running through parts of Medway Valley Heritage Forest.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 6023152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 249, 261 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "London is the home of the London Knights of the Ontario Hockey League, who play at the Budweiser Gardens. The Knights are 2004–2005 and 2015–2016 OHL and Memorial Cup Champions. During the summer months, the London Majors of the Intercounty Baseball League play at Labatt Park. FC London of League1 Ontario and founded in 2008 is the highest level of soccer in London. The squad plays at German Canadian Club of London Field. Other sports teams include the London Silver Dolphins Swim Team, the Forest City Volleyball Club, London Cricket Club, the London St. George's Rugby Club, the London Aquatics Club, the London Rhythmic Gymnastics Club, the London Rowing Club, London City Soccer Club and Forest City London.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 484851, 218742, 555769, 230656, 1828372, 1725632, 605265, 20535685, 42482799, 34672705, 20535685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 40 ], [ 48, 69 ], [ 87, 104 ], [ 154, 166 ], [ 208, 221 ], [ 229, 256 ], [ 265, 276 ], [ 278, 287 ], [ 291, 306 ], [ 389, 425 ], [ 697, 715 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Football teams include the London Beefeaters (Ontario Football Conference).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "London's basketball team, the London Lightning plays at Budweiser Gardens as members of the National Basketball League of Canada. Finishing their inaugural regular season at 28–8, the Lightning would go on to win the 2011–12 NBL Canada championship, defeating the Halifax Rainmen in the finals three games to two.There are also a number of former sports teams that have moved or folded. London's four former baseball teams are the London Monarchs (Canadian Baseball League), the London Werewolves (Frontier League), the London Tecumsehs (International Association) and the London Tigers (AA Eastern League). Other former sports teams include the London Lasers (Canadian Soccer League)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 32702825, 555769, 31755515, 33562084, 6968828, 4155721, 65543, 3012181, 66681, 2629773, 5148647, 5587210, 69899, 67153141, 17601374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 46 ], [ 56, 73 ], [ 92, 128 ], [ 217, 224 ], [ 264, 279 ], [ 431, 446 ], [ 448, 472 ], [ 479, 496 ], [ 498, 513 ], [ 520, 536 ], [ 538, 563 ], [ 573, 586 ], [ 591, 605 ], [ 646, 659 ], [ 661, 683 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March 2013, London hosted the 2013 World Figure Skating Championships. The University of Western Ontario's teams play under the name Mustangs. The university's football team plays at TD Stadium. Western's Rowing Team rows out of a boathouse at Fanshawe Lake. Fanshawe College teams play under the name Falcons. The Women's Cross Country team has won 3 consecutive Canadian Collegiate Athletic Association (CCAA) National Championships. In 2010, the program cemented itself as the first CCAA program to win both Men's and Women's National team titles, as well as CCAA Coach of the Year.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 27804692, 5344265, 3849696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 72 ], [ 186, 196 ], [ 367, 407 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Western Fair Raceway, about 85 acres harness racing track and simulcast centre, operates year-round. The grounds include a coin slot casino, a former IMAX theatre, and Sports and Agri-complex. Labatt Memorial Park the world's oldest continuously used baseball grounds was established as Tecumseh Park in 1877; it was renamed in 1937, because the London field has been flooded and rebuilt twice (1883 and 1937), including a re-orientation of the bases (after the 1883 flood). The Forest City Velodrome, at the former London Ice House, is the only indoor cycling track in Ontario and the third to be built in North America, opened in 2005. London is also home to World Seikido, the governing body of a martial art called Seikido which was developed in London in 1987.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 189221, 5215, 173787, 605265, 1788236, 2771734 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 55 ], [ 137, 143 ], [ 154, 158 ], [ 197, 217 ], [ 483, 504 ], [ 520, 536 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "London's municipal government is divided among fourteen councillors (one representing each of London's fourteen wards) and the mayor. Matt Brown was elected mayor in the 2014 municipal election, officially taking office . Prior to Brown's election, London's most recent elected mayor was Joe Fontana; following Fontana's resignation on 19 June 2014, city councillor Joe Swan served as acting mayor until councillor Joni Baechler was selected as interim mayor 24 June. Until the elections in 2010, there was a Board of Control, consisting of four controllers and the mayor, all elected citywide.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government and law", "target_page_ids": [ 52786, 286413, 3283310, 101146, 44249625, 44226239, 337624, 479100, 101146, 1918128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 29 ], [ 56, 66 ], [ 112, 117 ], [ 127, 132 ], [ 134, 144 ], [ 170, 193 ], [ 258, 283 ], [ 288, 299 ], [ 385, 397 ], [ 509, 525 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although London has many ties to Middlesex County, it is a totally separate entity; the two have no jurisdictional overlap[since when?]. The exception is the Middlesex County courthouse and former jail, as the judiciary is administered directly by the province.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government and law", "target_page_ids": [ 181882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "London was the first city in Canada (in May 2017) to decide to move a ranked choice ballot for municipal elections starting in 2018. Voters mark their ballots in order of preference, ranking their top three favourite candidates. An individual must reach 50 per cent of the total to be declared elected; in each round of counting where a candidate has not yet reached that target, the person with the fewest votes is dropped from the ballot and their second or third choice preferences reallocated to the remaining candidates, with this process repeating until a candidate has reached 50 per cent.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government and law", "target_page_ids": [ 20089569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2001, the City of London first published their Facilities Accessibility Design Standards (FADS) which was one of the first North American municipal accessibility requirements to include Universal Design. It has since been adopted by over 50 municipalities in Canada and the United States.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government and law", "target_page_ids": [ 302109, 1158081, 5042916, 3434750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 164 ], [ 189, 205 ], [ 262, 268 ], [ 277, 290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to mayor Ed Holder, the following were elected in the 2018 municipal election for the 2018–2022 term:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government and law", "target_page_ids": [ 57352934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city includes four provincial ridings. In the provincial government, London is represented by New Democrats Terence Kernaghan (London North Centre), Teresa Armstrong (London—Fanshawe) and Peggy Sattler (London West), and Progressive Conservative Jeff Yurek (Elgin—Middlesex—London).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government and law", "target_page_ids": [ 661462, 334292, 57632428, 31653824, 33331048, 31653865, 40132798, 31653936, 333635, 33341980, 11950649 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 71 ], [ 98, 111 ], [ 112, 129 ], [ 131, 150 ], [ 153, 169 ], [ 171, 186 ], [ 192, 205 ], [ 207, 218 ], [ 225, 249 ], [ 250, 260 ], [ 262, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The London and surrounding area includes four federal ridings. In the federal government, London is represented by Conservative Karen Vecchio (Elgin—Middlesex—London), Liberals Peter Fragiskatos (London North Centre) and Kate Young (London West), and NDP Lindsay Mathyssen (London—Fanshawe).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government and law", "target_page_ids": [ 64313, 48298470, 1779532, 48303239, 1685640, 48298516, 62127446, 1779556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 88 ], [ 128, 141 ], [ 143, 165 ], [ 177, 194 ], [ 196, 215 ], [ 221, 231 ], [ 255, 272 ], [ 274, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Statistics from police indicate that total overall crimes in London have held steady between 2010 and 2016, at roughly 24,000 to 27,000 incidents per year. The majority of incidents are property crimes, with violent crimes dropping markedly (up to about 20%) between 2012 and 2014 but rising again in 2015–2016. In July 2018, Police Deputy Chief Steve Williams was quoted as saying many crimes go unreported to police.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government and law", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The city has been home to several high-profile incidents over the years such as the Ontario Biker War and the London Conflict, it was also the location where most of the trial for the Shedden Massacre took place.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government and law", "target_page_ids": [ 69555924, 69555924, 4683002 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 101 ], [ 110, 125 ], [ 184, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Research by Michael Andrew Arntfield, a police officer turned criminology professor, has determined that on a per-capita basis, London Ontario had more active serial killers than any locale in the world from 1959 to 1984. Arntfield determined there were at least six serial killers active in London during this era, some unidentified, but known killers in London included Russell Maurice Johnson, Gerald Thomas Archer, and Christian Magee.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government and law", "target_page_ids": [ 47062490, 42626, 57284033, 53597290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 36 ], [ 159, 173 ], [ 372, 395 ], [ 397, 417 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 6 June 2021 four members of a Canadian Muslim family, two women aged 74 and 44, a 46-year-old man and a 15-year-old girl were all killed by a pickup truck which jumped the curb and ran them over. The sole survivor was a 9-year-old boy. According to the London Police Service, they were deliberately targeted in anti-Islamic hate crime. Later on the same day, 20 year old Nathaniel Veltman was arrested in the parking lot of a nearby mall. He has been charged with four counts of first-degree murder and one count of attempted murder.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government and law", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The City of London initiatives in Old East London are helping to create a renewed sense of vigour in the East London Business District. Specific initiatives include the creation of the Old East Heritage Conservation District under Part V of the Ontario Heritage Act, special Building Code policies and Facade Restoration Programs.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government and law", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "London is home to heritage properties representing a variety of architectural styles, including Queen Anne, Art Deco, Modern, and Brutalist", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government and law", "target_page_ids": [ 44331442, 522610, 1881, 19547, 424948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 83 ], [ 96, 106 ], [ 108, 116 ], [ 118, 124 ], [ 130, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Londoners have become protective of the trees in the city, protesting \"unnecessary\" removal of trees. The City Council and tourist industry have created projects to replant trees throughout the city. As well, they have begun to erect metal trees of various colours in the downtown area, causing some controversy.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government and law", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "London is at the junction of Highway 401 that connects the city to Toronto and Windsor, and Highway 402 to Sarnia. Also, Highway 403, which diverges from the 401 at nearby Woodstock, provides ready access to Brantford, Hamilton, and the Niagara Peninsula. Many smaller two-lane highways also pass through or near London, including Kings Highways 2, 3, 4, 7 and 22. Some of these are no longer highways, as provincial downloading in the 1980s and 1990s put responsibility for most provincial highways on municipal governments. Nevertheless, these roads continue to provide access from London to nearby communities and locations in much of Western Ontario, including Goderich, Port Stanley and Owen Sound. A 4.5km long section of Highbury Ave., connecting the east end of London to Highway 401, consists of an controlled-access highway with 100km/h speed limits.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 291924, 1243619, 78085, 1196101, 221702, 178857, 14288, 315456, 48519, 344908, 1160406, 787424, 849942, 910924, 1503913, 1550870, 1177466, 180488, 2411002 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 40 ], [ 92, 103 ], [ 107, 113 ], [ 121, 132 ], [ 172, 181 ], [ 208, 217 ], [ 219, 227 ], [ 237, 254 ], [ 278, 285 ], [ 331, 344 ], [ 346, 347 ], [ 349, 350 ], [ 352, 353 ], [ 355, 356 ], [ 638, 653 ], [ 665, 673 ], [ 675, 687 ], [ 692, 702 ], [ 808, 833 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the 1970s, London has improved urban road alignments that eliminated \"jogs\" in established traffic patterns over 19th-century street misalignments. The lack of freeways directly through the city as well as the presence of two significant railways (each with attendant switching yards and few over/underpasses) are the primary causes of rush hour congestion, along with construction and heavy snow. Thus, traffic times can be significantly variable, although major traffic jams are rare. Wellington Road between Commissioners Road E and Southdale Road E is London's busiest section of roadway, with more than 46,000 vehicles using the span on an average day City council rejected early plans for the construction of a freeway, and instead accepted the Veterans Memorial Parkway to serve the east end. Some Londoners have expressed concern the absence of a local freeway may hinder London's economic and population growth, while others have voiced concern such a freeway would destroy environmentally sensitive areas and contribute to London's suburban sprawl. Road capacity improvements have been made to Veterans Memorial Parkway (formerly named Airport Road and Highway 100) in the industrialized east end. However, the Parkway has received criticism for not being built as a proper highway; a study conducted in 2007 suggested upgrading it by replacing the intersections with interchanges.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 2411002, 449743, 6994151, 6994151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 174 ], [ 342, 351 ], [ 757, 782 ], [ 1169, 1180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the late 19th century, and the early 20th century, an extensive network of streetcar routes served London.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "London's public transit system is run by the London Transit Commission, which has 44 bus routes throughout the city. Although the city has lost ridership over the last few years, the commission is making concerted efforts to enhance services by implementing a five-year improvement plan. In 2015, an additional 17,000 hours of bus service was added throughout the city. In 2016, 11 new operators, 5 new buses, and another 17,000 hours of bus service were added to the network. Bus service is currently the only mode of public transit available to the public in London, with no available rapid transit networks like those used in other Canadian cities. However, the city council approved a bus rapid transit (BRT) network, named Shift, in May 2016. The network will consist of two corridors serving each end of the city, and meeting at a central hub in the downtown. Construction is expected to begin in 2018, with the service fully operational by 2025.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 26162030, 2389545, 18361733, 333625, 56315404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 23 ], [ 45, 70 ], [ 587, 600 ], [ 689, 706 ], [ 728, 733 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "London has 330km (205mi) of cycling paths throughout the city, 91km (59mi) of which have been added since 2005. In June 2016, London unveiled its first bike corrals, which replace parking for one vehicle with fourteen bicycle parking spaces, and fix-it stations, which provide cyclists with simple tools and a bicycle pump, throughout the city. In September 2016, city council approved a new 15 year cycling master plan that will see the construction of an additional 470km (292mi) of cycling paths added to the existing network.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 9623519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 218, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "London is on the Canadian National Railway main line between Toronto and Chicago (with a secondary main line to Windsor) and the Canadian Pacific Railway main line between Toronto and Detroit. Via Rail operates regional passenger service through London station as part of the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor, with connections to the United States. Via Rail's London terminal is the fourth-busiest passenger terminal in Canada.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 260799, 6886, 33596, 5959, 297236, 2498654, 1547111, 3434750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 42 ], [ 73, 80 ], [ 112, 119 ], [ 129, 153 ], [ 193, 201 ], [ 246, 260 ], [ 276, 304 ], [ 330, 343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "London is also a destination for inter-city bus travellers. In 2009, London was the seventh-busiest Greyhound Canada terminal in terms of passengers, At one point, service was available from London throughout southwestern Ontario and through to the American cities of Detroit, Michigan and Chicago, Illinois.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 4146, 1627028, 1503913, 8687, 18859, 6886, 14849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 47 ], [ 100, 116 ], [ 209, 229 ], [ 268, 275 ], [ 277, 285 ], [ 290, 297 ], [ 299, 307 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "London International Airport (YXU) is the 12th busiest passenger airport in Canada and the 11th busiest airport in Canada by take-offs and landings. It is served by airlines including Air Canada Express, and WestJet, and provides direct flights to both domestic and international destinations, including Toronto, Orlando, Ottawa, Winnipeg, Calgary, Cancún, Vancouver, Varadero, Punta Cana, Montego Bay, Santa Clara, and Holguin.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 264093, 150179, 31110676, 153851, 64646, 100582, 22219, 100730, 15895358, 288134, 32706, 203726, 1740446, 396757, 1735070, 1386953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ], [ 30, 33 ], [ 184, 202 ], [ 208, 215 ], [ 304, 311 ], [ 313, 320 ], [ 322, 328 ], [ 330, 338 ], [ 340, 347 ], [ 349, 355 ], [ 357, 366 ], [ 368, 376 ], [ 378, 388 ], [ 390, 401 ], [ 403, 414 ], [ 420, 427 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city of London is considering bus rapid transit (BRT) and/or high-occupancy vehicle lanes (HOV) to help it achieve its long-term transportation plan. Additional cycleways are planned for integration in road-widening projects, where there is need and sufficient space along routes. An expressway/freeway network is possible along the eastern and western ends of the city, from Highway 401 (and Highway 402 for the western route) past Oxford Street, potentially with another highway, joining the two in the city's north end.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 333625, 55465, 1300026, 291924, 1243619 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 51 ], [ 65, 92 ], [ 288, 298 ], [ 380, 391 ], [ 397, 408 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city of London has assessed the entire length of the Veterans Memorial Parkway, identifying areas where interchanges can be constructed, grade separations can occur, and where cul-de-sacs can be placed. Upon completion, the Veterans Memorial Parkway would no longer be an expressway, but a freeway, for the majority of its length.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 390697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 180, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "London public elementary and secondary schools are governed by four school boards – the Thames Valley District School Board, the London District Catholic School Board and the French first-language school boards (the Conseil scolaire Viamonde and the Conseil scolaire catholique Providence or CSC). The CSC has a satellite office in London.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 11722032, 29498, 1101722, 2074194, 4546576, 3707627, 32886036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 24 ], [ 29, 46 ], [ 68, 81 ], [ 88, 123 ], [ 129, 166 ], [ 216, 241 ], [ 250, 288 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are also more than twenty private schools in the city.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The city is home to two post-secondary institutions: the University of Western Ontario (UWO) and Fanshawe College, a college of applied arts and technology. UWO, founded in 1878, has about 3,500 full-time faculty and staff members and almost 30,000 undergraduate and graduate students. It placed tenth in the 2008 Maclean's magazine rankings of Canadian universities. The Richard Ivey School of Business, part of UWO, was formed in 1922 and ranked among the best business schools in the country by the Financial Times in 2009. UWO has three affiliated colleges: Brescia University College, founded in 1919 (Canada's only university-level women's college); Huron University College, founded in 1863 (also the founding college of UWO) and King's University College, founded in 1954. All three are liberal arts colleges with religious affiliations: Huron with the Anglican Church of Canada, King's and Brescia with the Roman Catholic Church. London is also home to Lester B. Pearson School for the Arts one of few of its kind.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 14423, 169136, 410411, 217289, 346628, 297282, 19725260, 828841, 43355, 136566, 5224022, 2738098, 6710029, 18612, 1177740, 17107106 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 38 ], [ 57, 86 ], [ 97, 113 ], [ 249, 262 ], [ 267, 275 ], [ 314, 323 ], [ 354, 366 ], [ 372, 403 ], [ 463, 478 ], [ 502, 517 ], [ 562, 588 ], [ 656, 680 ], [ 737, 762 ], [ 795, 815 ], [ 861, 886 ], [ 962, 999 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fanshawe College has an enrollment of approximately 15,000 students, including 3,500 apprentices and over 500 international students from more than 30 countries. It also has almost 40,000 students in part-time continuing education courses. Fanshawe's Key Performance Indicators (KPI) have been over the provincial average for many years now, with increasing percentages year by year.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 693567, 1175262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 210, 230 ], [ 251, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Ontario Institute of Audio Recording Technology (OIART), founded in 1983, offers recording studio experience for audio engineering students.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 13566834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Westervelt College is also in London. This private career college was founded in 1885 and offers several diploma programs.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 40363710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " CFB London", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9057581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of people from London, Ontario", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18541731 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of royal visits to London, Ontario", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 50268580 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of tallest buildings in London, Ontario", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28643661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Asteroid 12310 Londontario, named for the city.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 791, 720186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flag of London, Ontario", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 40353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] } ]

[ "London,_Ontario", "Cities_in_Ontario", "Single-tier_municipalities_in_Ontario", "Southwestern_Ontario", "Populated_places_established_in_1826", "1826_establishments_in_Canada" ]

[ "London, ON", "London, Ontario" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In computing, an optimizing compiler is a compiler that tries to minimize or maximize some attributes of an executable computer program. Common requirements are to minimize a program's execution time, memory footprint, storage size, and power consumption (the last three being popular for portable computers).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5213, 5739, 217392, 5783, 6806, 478933, 250851 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 12 ], [ 42, 50 ], [ 108, 118 ], [ 175, 182 ], [ 201, 207 ], [ 237, 242 ], [ 289, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Compiler optimization is generally implemented using a sequence of optimizing transformations, algorithms which take a program and transform it to produce a semantically equivalent output program that uses fewer resources or executes faster. It has been shown that some code optimization problems are NP-complete, or even undecidable. In practice, factors such as the programmer's willingness to wait for the compiler to complete its task place upper limits on the optimizations that a compiler might provide. Optimization is generally a very CPU- and memory-intensive process. In the past, computer memory limitations were also a major factor in limiting which optimizations could be performed.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23385892, 15631055, 23716, 5218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 301, 312 ], [ 322, 333 ], [ 368, 378 ], [ 543, 546 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because of these factors, optimization rarely produces \"optimal\" output in any sense, and in fact, an \"optimization\" may impede performance in some cases. Rather, they are heuristic methods for improving resource usage in typical programs.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Techniques used in optimization can be broken up among various scopes which can affect anything from a single statement to the entire program. Generally speaking, locally scoped techniques are easier to implement than global ones but result in smaller gains. Some examples of scopes include:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Types of optimization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Peephole optimizations These are usually performed late in the compilation process after machine code has been generated. This form of optimization examines a few adjacent instructions (like \"looking through a peephole\" at the code) to see whether they can be replaced by a single instruction or a shorter sequence of instructions. For instance, a multiplication of a value by2 might be more efficiently executed by left-shifting the value or by adding the value to itself (this example is also an instance of strength reduction).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Types of optimization", "target_page_ids": [ 3077423, 20683, 264399, 475907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 89, 101 ], [ 416, 429 ], [ 510, 528 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Local optimizations These only consider information local to a basic block. Since basic blocks have no control flow, these optimizations need very little analysis, saving time and reducing storage requirements, but this also means that no information is preserved across jumps.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Types of optimization", "target_page_ids": [ 218706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Global optimizations These are also called \"intraprocedural methods\" and act on whole functions. This gives them more information to work with, but often makes expensive computations necessary. Worst case assumptions have to be made when function calls occur or global variables are accessed because little information about them is available.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Types of optimization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Loop optimizations These act on the statements which make up a loop, such as a for loop, for example loop-invariant code motion. Loop optimizations can have a significant impact because many programs spend a large percentage of their time inside loops.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Types of optimization", "target_page_ids": [ 1837754, 807357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 101, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prescient store optimizations These allow store operations to occur earlier than would otherwise be permitted in the context of threads and locks. The process needs some way of knowing ahead of time what value will be stored by the assignment that it should have followed. The purpose of this relaxation is to allow compiler optimization to perform certain kinds of code rearrangement that preserve the semantics of properly synchronized programs.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Types of optimization", "target_page_ids": [ 45303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Interprocedural, whole-program or link-time optimization These analyze all of a program's source code. The greater quantity of information extracted means that optimizations can be more effective compared to when they only have access to local information, i.e. within a single function. This kind of optimization can also allow new techniques to be performed. For instance, function inlining, where a call to a function is replaced by a copy of the function body.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Types of optimization", "target_page_ids": [ 4912446, 216884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 56 ], [ 384, 392 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Machine code optimization and object code optimizer These analyze the executable task image of the program after all of an executable machine code has been linked. Some of the techniques that can be applied in a more limited scope, such as macro compression which saves space by collapsing common sequences of instructions, are more effective when the entire executable task image is available for analysis.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Types of optimization", "target_page_ids": [ 25715841, 18566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 51 ], [ 156, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to scoped optimizations, there are two further general categories of optimization:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Types of optimization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Programming language-independent vs. language-dependent Most high-level languages share common programming constructs and abstractions: decision (if, switch, case), looping (for, while, repeat.. until, do.. while), and encapsulation (structures, objects). Thus similar optimization techniques can be used across languages. However, certain language features make some kinds of optimizations difficult. For instance, the existence of pointers in C and C++ makes it difficult to optimize array accesses (see alias analysis). However, languages such as PL/I (that also supports pointers) nevertheless have available sophisticated optimizing compilers to achieve better performance in various other ways. Conversely, some language features make certain optimizations easier. For example, in some languages functions are not permitted to have side effects. Therefore, if a program makes several calls to the same function with the same arguments, the compiler can immediately infer that the function's result need be computed only once. In languages where functions are allowed to have side effects, another strategy is possible. The optimizer can determine which function has no side effects and restrict such optimizations to side effect free functions. This optimization is only possible when the optimizer has access to the called function.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Types of optimization", "target_page_ids": [ 23015, 6021, 72038, 4466328, 23708, 29519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 445, 446 ], [ 451, 454 ], [ 506, 520 ], [ 550, 554 ], [ 838, 850 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Machine-independent vs. machine-dependent Many optimizations that operate on abstract programming concepts (loops, objects, structures) are independent of the machine targeted by the compiler, but many of the most effective optimizations are those that best exploit special features of the target platform. Examples are instructions which do several things at once, such as decrement register and branch if not zero.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Types of optimization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The following is an instance of a local machine dependent optimization. To set a register to 0, the obvious way is to use the constant '0' in an instruction that sets a register value to a constant. A less obvious way is to XOR a register with itself. It is up to the compiler to know which instruction variant to use. On many RISC machines, both instructions would be equally appropriate, since they would both be the same length and take the same time. On many other microprocessors such as the Intel x86 family, it turns out that the XOR variant is shorter and probably faster, as there will be no need to decode an immediate operand, nor use the internal \"immediate operand register\". A potential problem with this is that XOR may introduce a data dependency on the previous value of the register, causing a pipeline stall. However, processors often have XOR of a register with itself as a special case that does not cause stalls.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Types of optimization", "target_page_ids": [ 486432, 105979, 26201, 19553, 14617, 34198, 220314 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 89 ], [ 224, 227 ], [ 327, 331 ], [ 469, 483 ], [ 497, 502 ], [ 503, 506 ], [ 812, 820 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The machine itself Many of the choices about which optimizations can and should be done depend on the characteristics of the target machine. It is sometimes possible to parameterize some of these machine dependent factors, so that a single piece of compiler code can be used to optimize different machines just by altering the machine description parameters. GCC from GNU Project and Clang from the LLVM Compiler Infrastructure are examples of optimizing compilers that follow this approach.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Factors affecting optimization", "target_page_ids": [ 12323, 275549, 12407970, 654611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 359, 362 ], [ 368, 379 ], [ 384, 389 ], [ 399, 427 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The architecture of the target CPU Number of CPU registers: To a certain extent, the more registers, the easier it is to optimize for performance. Local variables can be allocated in the registers and not on the stack. Temporary/intermediate results can be left in registers without writing to and reading back from memory.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Factors affecting optimization", "target_page_ids": [ 5218, 486432, 1718152, 1718105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 48 ], [ 49, 58 ], [ 147, 161 ], [ 212, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " RISC vs CISC: CISC instruction sets often have variable instruction lengths, often have a larger number of possible instructions that can be used, and each instruction could take differing amounts of time. RISC instruction sets attempt to limit the variability in each of these: instruction sets are usually constant length, with few exceptions, there are usually fewer combinations of registers and memory operations, and the instruction issue rate (the number of instructions completed per time period, usually an integer multiple of the clock cycle) is usually constant in cases where memory latency is not a factor. There may be several ways of carrying out a certain task, with CISC usually offering more alternatives than RISC. Compilers have to know the relative costs among the various instructions and choose the best instruction sequence (see instruction selection).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Factors affecting optimization", "target_page_ids": [ 26201, 7622, 1869211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 9, 13 ], [ 854, 875 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pipelines: A pipeline is essentially a CPU broken up into an assembly line. It allows use of parts of the CPU for different instructions by breaking up the execution of instructions into various stages: instruction decode, address decode, memory fetch, register fetch, compute, register store, etc. One instruction could be in the register store stage, while another could be in the register fetch stage. Pipeline conflicts occur when an instruction in one stage of the pipeline depends on the result of another instruction ahead of it in the pipeline but not yet completed. Pipeline conflicts can lead to pipeline stalls: where the CPU wastes cycles waiting for a conflict to resolve.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Factors affecting optimization", "target_page_ids": [ 220314, 1146, 8638853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 62, 75 ], [ 607, 621 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Compilers can schedule, or reorder, instructions so that pipeline stalls occur less frequently.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Factors affecting optimization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Number of functional units: Some CPUs have several ALUs and FPUs. This allows them to execute multiple instructions simultaneously. There may be restrictions on which instructions can pair with which other instructions (\"pairing\" is the simultaneous execution of two or more instructions), and which functional unit can execute which instruction. They also have issues similar to pipeline conflicts.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Factors affecting optimization", "target_page_ids": [ 51702, 27046146, 37096 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ], [ 52, 56 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Here again, instructions have to be scheduled so that the various functional units are fully fed with instructions to execute.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Factors affecting optimization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The architecture of the machine", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Factors affecting optimization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cache size (256kiB–12MiB) and type (direct mapped, 2-/4-/8-/16-way associative, fully associative): Techniques such as inline expansion and loop unrolling may increase the size of the generated code and reduce code locality. The program may slow down drastically if a highly utilized section of code (like inner loops in various algorithms) suddenly cannot fit in the cache. Also, caches which are not fully associative have higher chances of cache collisions even in an unfilled cache.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Factors affecting optimization", "target_page_ids": [ 849181, 216884, 1052647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 120, 136 ], [ 141, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cache/Memory transfer rates: These give the compiler an indication of the penalty for cache misses. This is used mainly in specialized applications.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Factors affecting optimization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Intended use of the generated code", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Factors affecting optimization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Debugging While writing an application, a programmer will recompile and test often, and so compilation must be fast. This is one reason most optimizations are deliberately avoided during the test/debugging phase. Also, program code is usually \"stepped through\" (see Program animation) using a symbolic debugger, and optimizing transformations, particularly those that reorder code, can make it difficult to relate the output code with the line numbers in the original source code. This can confuse both the debugging tools and the programmers using them.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Factors affecting optimization", "target_page_ids": [ 24998792, 19086385, 50485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 266, 283 ], [ 293, 310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "General-purpose use Prepackaged software is very often expected to be executed on a variety of machines and CPUs that may share the same instruction set, but have different timing, cache or memory characteristics. As a result, the code may not be tuned to any particular CPU, or may be tuned to work best on the most popular CPU and yet still work acceptably well on other CPUs.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Factors affecting optimization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Special-purpose use If the software is compiled to be used on one or a few very similar machines, with known characteristics, then the compiler can heavily tune the generated code to those specific machines, provided such options are available. Important special cases include code designed for parallel and vector processors, for which special parallelizing compilers are employed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Factors affecting optimization", "target_page_ids": [ 145162, 58205, 2537264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 295, 303 ], [ 308, 324 ], [ 345, 367 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Embedded systems These are a common case of special-purpose use. Embedded software can be tightly tuned to an exact CPU and memory size. Also, system cost or reliability may be more important than the code's speed. For example, compilers for embedded software usually offer options that reduce code size at the expense of speed, because memory is the main cost of an embedded computer. The code's timing may need to be predictable, rather than as fast as possible, so code caching might be disabled, along with compiler optimizations that require it.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Factors affecting optimization", "target_page_ids": [ 46630 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To a large extent, compiler optimization techniques have the following themes, which sometimes conflict.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Common themes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Optimize the common case The common case may have unique properties that allow a fast path at the expense of a slow path. If the fast path is taken most often, the result is better overall performance.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Common themes", "target_page_ids": [ 21772235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Avoid redundancy Reuse results that are already computed and store them for later use, instead of recomputing them.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Common themes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Less code Remove unnecessary computations and intermediate values. Less work for the CPU, cache, and memory usually results in faster execution. Alternatively, in embedded systems, less code brings a lower product cost.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Common themes", "target_page_ids": [ 46630 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fewer jumps by using straight line code, also called branch-free code Less complicated code. Jumps (conditional or unconditional branches) interfere with the prefetching of instructions, thus slowing down code. Using inlining or loop unrolling can reduce branching, at the cost of increasing binary file size by the length of the repeated code. This tends to merge several basic blocks into one.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Common themes", "target_page_ids": [ 1013210, 1013210, 920702, 218706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 69 ], [ 115, 135 ], [ 292, 303 ], [ 373, 384 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Locality Code and data that are accessed closely together in time should be placed close together in memory to increase spatial locality of reference.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Common themes", "target_page_ids": [ 64028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Exploit the memory hierarchy Accesses to memory are increasingly more expensive for each level of the memory hierarchy, so place the most commonly used items in registers first, then caches, then main memory, before going to disk.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Common themes", "target_page_ids": [ 137146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Parallelize Reorder operations to allow multiple computations to happen in parallel, either at the instruction, memory, or thread level.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Common themes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "More precise information is better The more precise the information the compiler has, the better it can employ any or all of these optimization techniques.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Common themes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Runtime metrics can help Information gathered during a test run can be used in profile-guided optimization. Information gathered at runtime, ideally with minimal overhead, can be used by a JIT compiler to dynamically improve optimization.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Common themes", "target_page_ids": [ 20038227, 2554671, 220632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 106 ], [ 162, 170 ], [ 189, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Strength reduction Replace complex or difficult or expensive operations with simpler ones. For example, replacing division by a constant with multiplication by its reciprocal, or using induction variable analysis to replace multiplication by a loop index with addition.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Common themes", "target_page_ids": [ 3718904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 185, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some optimization techniques primarily designed to operate on loops include:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Induction variable analysis Roughly, if a variable in a loop is a simple linear function of the index variable, such as , it can be updated appropriately each time the loop variable is changed. This is a strength reduction, and also may allow the index variable's definitions to become dead code. This information is also useful for bounds-checking elimination and dependence analysis, among other things.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 3718904, 475907, 84473, 3182829, 1838187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ], [ 204, 222 ], [ 286, 295 ], [ 333, 360 ], [ 365, 384 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Loop fission or loop distribution Loop fission attempts to break a loop into multiple loops over the same index range but each taking only a part of the loop's body. This can improve locality of reference, both of the data being accessed in the loop and the code in the loop's body.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 3409777, 64028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 183, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Loop fusion or loop combining or loop ramming or loop jamming Another technique which attempts to reduce loop overhead. When two adjacent loops would iterate the same number of times regardless of whether that number is known at compile time, their bodies can be combined as long as they make no reference to each other's data.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 3409777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Loop inversion This technique changes a standard while loop into a do/while (also known as repeat/until) loop wrapped in an if conditional, reducing the number of jumps by two, for cases when the loop is executed. Doing so duplicates the condition check (increasing the size of the code), but is more efficient because jumps usually cause a pipeline stall. Additionally, if the initial condition is known at compile-time and is known to be side-effect-free, the if guard can be skipped.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 1927970, 8638853, 29519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 341, 355 ], [ 440, 451 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Loop interchange These optimizations exchange inner loops with outer loops. When the loop variables index into an array, such a transformation can improve locality of reference, depending on the array's layout.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 1837923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Loop-invariant code motion If a quantity is computed inside a loop during every iteration, and its value is the same for each iteration, it can vastly improve efficiency to hoist it outside the loop and compute its value just once before the loop begins. This is particularly important with the address-calculation expressions generated by loops over arrays. For correct implementation, this technique must be used with loop inversion, because not all code is safe to be hoisted outside the loop.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 807357, 1927970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ], [ 420, 434 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Loop nest optimization Some pervasive algorithms such as matrix multiplication have very poor cache behavior and excessive memory accesses. Loop nest optimization increases the number of cache hits by performing the operation over small blocks and by using a loop interchange.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 805766 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Loop reversal Loop reversal reverses the order in which values are assigned to the index variable. This is a subtle optimization which can help eliminate dependencies and thus enable other optimizations. Furthermore, on some architectures, loop reversal contributes to smaller code, as when the loop index is being decremented, the condition that needs to be met in order for the running program to exit the loop is a comparison with zero. This is often a special, parameter-less instruction, unlike a comparison with a number, which needs the number to compare to. Therefore, the amount of bytes needed to store the parameter is saved by using the loop reversal. Additionally, if the comparison number exceeds the size of word of the platform, in standard loop order, multiple instructions would need to be executed in order to evaluate the comparison, which is not the case with loop reversal.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 1838187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 154, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Loop unrolling Unrolling duplicates the body of the loop multiple times, in order to decrease the number of times the loop condition is tested and the number of jumps, which hurt performance by impairing the instruction pipeline. A \"fewer jumps\" optimization. Completely unrolling a loop eliminates all overhead, but requires that the number of iterations be known at compile time.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 1052647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Loop splitting Loop splitting attempts to simplify a loop or eliminate dependencies by breaking it into multiple loops which have the same bodies but iterate over different contiguous portions of the index range. A useful special case is loop peeling, which can simplify a loop with a problematic first iteration by performing that iteration separately before entering the loop.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 611631, 611631 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 238, 250 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Loop unswitching Unswitching moves a conditional from inside a loop to outside the loop by duplicating the loop's body inside each of the if and else clauses of the conditional.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 611622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Software pipelining The loop is restructured in such a way that work done in an iteration is split into several parts and done over several iterations. In a tight loop, this technique hides the latency between loading and using values.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 3827279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Automatic parallelization A loop is converted into multi-threaded or vectorized (or even both) code in order to utilize multiple processors simultaneously in a shared-memory multiprocessor (SMP) machine, including multi-core machines.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 2537264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Data-flow optimizations, based on data-flow analysis, primarily depend on how certain properties of data are propagated by control edges in the control-flow graph. Some of these include:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 864364, 826951, 43653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 34, 52 ], [ 144, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Common subexpression elimination In the expression , \"common subexpression\" refers to the duplicated . Compilers implementing this technique realize that will not change, and so only calculate its value once.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 547794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Constant folding and propagation replacing expressions consisting of constants (e.g., ) with their final value () at compile time, rather than doing the calculation in run-time. Used in most modern languages.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 113347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Induction variable recognition and elimination see discussion above about induction variable analysis.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 3718904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alias classification and pointer analysis in the presence of pointers, it is difficult to make any optimizations at all, since potentially any variable can have been changed when a memory location is assigned to. By specifying which pointers can alias which variables, unrelated pointers can be ignored.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 671841, 459018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 41 ], [ 61, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dead-store elimination removal of assignments to variables that are not subsequently read, either because the lifetime of the variable ends or because of a subsequent assignment that will overwrite the first value.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 12973267 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These optimizations are intended to be done after transforming the program into a special form called Static Single Assignment, in which every variable is assigned in only one place. Although some function without SSA, they are most effective with SSA. Many optimizations listed in other sections also benefit with no special changes, such as register allocation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 373371 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Global value numbering GVN eliminates redundancy by constructing a value graph of the program, and then determining which values are computed by equivalent expressions. GVN is able to identify some redundancy that common subexpression elimination cannot, and vice versa.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 56244452, 547794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ], [ 214, 246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sparse conditional constant propagation Combines constant propagation, constant folding, and dead-code elimination, and improves upon what is possible by running them separately. This optimization symbolically executes the program, simultaneously propagating constant values and eliminating portions of the control-flow graph that this makes unreachable.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 1836610, 113347, 464793, 43653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 39 ], [ 71, 87 ], [ 93, 114 ], [ 307, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Register allocation The most frequently used variables should be kept in processor registers for fastest access. To find which variables to put in registers, an interference-graph is created. Each variable is a vertex and when two variables are used at the same time (have an intersecting liverange) they have an edge between them. This graph is colored using for example Chaitin's algorithm using the same number of colors as there are registers. If the coloring fails one variable is \"spilled\" to memory and the coloring is retried.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 485122, 1778619 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 372, 391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Instruction selection Most architectures, particularly CISC architectures and those with many addressing modes, offer several different ways of performing a particular operation, using entirely different sequences of instructions. The job of the instruction selector is to do a good job overall of choosing which instructions to implement which operators in the low-level intermediate representation with. For example, on many processors in the 68000 family and on the x86 architecture, complex addressing modes can be used in statements like \"lea 25(a1,d5*4), a0\", allowing a single instruction to perform a significant amount of arithmetic with less storage.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 1869211, 7622, 838142, 1209537, 64826 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 55, 59 ], [ 94, 109 ], [ 372, 399 ], [ 445, 457 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Instruction scheduling Instruction scheduling is an important optimization for modern pipelined processors, which avoids stalls or bubbles in the pipeline by clustering instructions with no dependencies together, while being careful to preserve the original semantics.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 1113199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rematerialization Rematerialization recalculates a value instead of loading it from memory, preventing a memory access. This is performed in tandem with register allocation to avoid spills.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 1770423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Code factoring If several sequences of code are identical, or can be parameterized or reordered to be identical, they can be replaced with calls to a shared subroutine. This can often share code for subroutine set-up and sometimes tail-recursion.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Trampolines Many CPUs have smaller subroutine call instructions to access low memory. A compiler can save space by using these small calls in the main body of code. Jump instructions in low memory can access the routines at any address. This multiplies space savings from code factoring.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 328305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reordering computations Based on integer linear programming, restructuring compilers enhance data locality and expose more parallelism by reordering computations. Space-optimizing compilers may reorder code to lengthen sequences that can be factored into subroutines.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 411215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although many of these also apply to non-functional languages, they either originate in or are particularly critical in functional languages such as Lisp and ML.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 10933, 18016, 20607 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 139 ], [ 149, 153 ], [ 158, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tail-call optimization A function call consumes stack space and involves some overhead related to parameter passing and flushing the instruction cache. Tail-recursive algorithms can be converted to iteration through a process called tail-recursion elimination or tail-call optimization.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 1110903, 1110903, 68833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ], [ 152, 166 ], [ 198, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Deforestation (data structure fusion) In languages where it is common for a sequence of transformations to be applied to a list, deforestation attempts to remove the construction of intermediate data structures.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 9315990, 8519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 15, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Partial evaluation", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 62428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bounds-checking elimination Many languages, such as Java, enforce bounds checking of all array accesses. This is a severe performance bottleneck on certain applications such as scientific code. Bounds-checking elimination allows the compiler to safely remove bounds checking in many situations where it can determine that the index must fall within valid bounds; for example, if it is a simple loop variable.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 3182829, 15881, 486833, 11912808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ], [ 52, 56 ], [ 66, 81 ], [ 134, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Branch-offset optimization (machine dependent) Choose the shortest branch displacement that reaches the target.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Code-block reordering Code-block reordering alters the order of the basic blocks in a program in order to reduce conditional branches and improve locality of reference.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 381944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dead-code elimination Removes instructions that will not affect the behaviour of the program, for example definitions which have no uses, called dead code. This reduces code size and eliminates unnecessary computation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 464793, 84473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 145, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Factoring out of invariants (loop invariants) If an expression is carried out both when a condition is met and is not met, it can be written just once outside of the conditional statement. Similarly, if certain types of expressions (e.g., the assignment of a constant into a variable) appear inside a loop, they can be moved out of it because their effect will be the same no matter if they're executed many times or just once. This is also known as total redundancy elimination. A similar but more powerful optimization is partial-redundancy elimination (PRE).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 578460, 2209268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 43 ], [ 524, 554 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Inline expansion or macro expansion When some code invokes a procedure, it is possible to directly insert the body of the procedure inside the calling code rather than transferring control to it. This saves the overhead related to procedure calls, as well as providing an opportunity for many different parameter-specific optimizations, but comes at the cost of space; the procedure body is duplicated each time the procedure is called inline. Generally, inlining is useful in performance-critical code that makes a large number of calls to small procedures. A \"fewer jumps\" optimization. The statements of imperative programming languages are also an example of such an optimization. Although statements could be implemented with function calls they are almost always implemented with code inlining.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 216884, 20560, 32177451, 938656, 197847, 32177451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 20, 25 ], [ 61, 70 ], [ 593, 603 ], [ 607, 629 ], [ 731, 745 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jump threading In this optimization, consecutive conditional jumps predicated entirely or partially on the same condition are merged. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 369445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " E.g., to , ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and to .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Macro compression A space optimization that recognizes common sequences of code, creates subprograms (\"code macros\") that contain the common code, and replaces the occurrences of the common code sequences with calls to the corresponding subprograms. This is most effectively done as a machine code optimization, when all the code is present. The technique was first used to conserve space in an interpretive byte stream used in an implementation of Macro Spitbol on microcomputers. The problem of determining an optimal set of macros that minimizes the space required by a given code segment is known to be NP-complete, but efficient heuristics attain near-optimal results.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 20683, 50082, 389674, 48144, 23385892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 285, 297 ], [ 408, 419 ], [ 449, 462 ], [ 466, 480 ], [ 607, 618 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reduction of cache collisions (e.g., by disrupting alignment within a page)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 6829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stack-height reduction Rearrange expression tree to minimize resources needed for expression evaluation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 273993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Test reordering If we have two tests that are the condition for something, we can first deal with the simpler tests (e.g., comparing a variable to something) and only then with the complex tests (e.g., those that require a function call). This technique complements lazy evaluation, but can be used only when the tests are not dependent on one another. Short-circuiting semantics can make this difficult.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 18155, 704018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 266, 281 ], [ 353, 369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Interprocedural optimization works on the entire program, across procedure and file boundaries. It works tightly with intraprocedural counterparts, carried out with the cooperation of a local part and global part. Typical interprocedural optimizations are: procedure inlining, interprocedural dead-code elimination, interprocedural constant propagation, and procedure reordering. As usual, the compiler needs to perform interprocedural analysis before its actual optimizations. Interprocedural analyses include alias analysis, array access analysis, and the construction of a call graph.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 4912446, 216884, 3461370, 3838181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ], [ 267, 275 ], [ 527, 548 ], [ 576, 586 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Interprocedural optimization is common in modern commercial compilers from SGI, Intel, Microsoft, and Sun Microsystems. For a long time, the open source GCC was criticized for a lack of powerful interprocedural analysis and optimizations, though this is now improving. Another open source compiler with full analysis and optimization infrastructure is Open64.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 28013, 14617, 19001, 26980, 12323, 954021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 78 ], [ 80, 85 ], [ 87, 96 ], [ 102, 118 ], [ 153, 156 ], [ 352, 358 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to the extra time and space required by interprocedural analysis, most compilers do not perform it by default. Users must use compiler options explicitly to tell the compiler to enable interprocedural analysis and other expensive optimizations.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Specific techniques", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There can be a wide range of optimizations that a compiler can perform, ranging from the simple and straightforward that take little compilation time to the elaborate and complex that involve considerable amounts of compilation time. Accordingly, compilers often provide options to their control command or procedure to allow the compiler user to choose how much optimization to request; for instance, the IBM FORTRAN H compiler allowed the user to specify no optimization, optimization at the registers level only, or full optimization. By the 2000s, it was common for compilers, such as Clang, to have a number of compiler command options that could affect a variety of optimization choices, starting with the familiar switch.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Practical considerations", "target_page_ids": [ 12407970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 589, 594 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An approach to isolating optimization is the use of so-called post-pass optimizers (some commercial versions of which date back to mainframe software of the late 1970s). These tools take the executable output by an optimizing compiler and optimize it even further. Post-pass optimizers usually work on the assembly language or machine code level (in contrast with compilers that optimize intermediate representations of programs). One such example is the Portable C Compiler (pcc) of the 1980s, which had an optional pass that would perform post-optimizations on the generated assembly code.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Practical considerations", "target_page_ids": [ 25715841, 1368, 20683, 6026339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 81 ], [ 306, 323 ], [ 327, 339 ], [ 455, 474 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another consideration is that optimization algorithms are complicated and, especially when being used to compile large, complex programming languages, can contain bugs that introduce errors in the generated code or cause internal errors during compilation. Compiler errors of any kind can be disconcerting to the user, but especially so in this case, since it may not be clear that the optimization logic is at fault. In the case of internal errors, the problem can be partially ameliorated by a \"fail-safe\" programming technique in which the optimization logic in the compiler is coded such that a failure is trapped, a warning message issued, and the rest of the compilation proceeds to successful completion.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Practical considerations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Early compilers of the 1960s were often primarily concerned with simply compiling code correctly or efficiently, such that compile times were a major concern. One notable early optimizing compiler was the IBM FORTRAN H compiler of the late 1960s. Another of the earliest and important optimizing compilers, that pioneered several advanced techniques, was that for BLISS (1970), which was described in The Design of an Optimizing Compiler (1975). By the late 1980s, optimizing compilers were sufficiently effective that programming in assembly language declined. This co-evolved with the development of RISC chips and advanced processor features such as instruction scheduling and speculative execution, which were designed to be targeted by optimizing compilers rather than by human-written assembly code.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 390261, 8015709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 364, 369 ], [ 401, 437 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alias analysis", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "List of static code analyses", "target_page_ids": [ 4466328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pointer analysis", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "List of static code analyses", "target_page_ids": [ 8086950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shape analysis", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "List of static code analyses", "target_page_ids": [ 8086291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Escape analysis", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "List of static code analyses", "target_page_ids": [ 4945443 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Array-access analysis", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "List of static code analyses", "target_page_ids": [ 3461370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dependence analysis", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "List of static code analyses", "target_page_ids": [ 1838187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Control-flow analysis", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "List of static code analyses", "target_page_ids": [ 11026751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Data-flow analysis", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "List of static code analyses", "target_page_ids": [ 826951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Use-define chain analysis", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "List of static code analyses", "target_page_ids": [ 1286768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Live-variable analysis", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "List of static code analyses", "target_page_ids": [ 4051356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Available expression analysis", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "List of static code analyses", "target_page_ids": [ 12274025 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Algorithmic efficiency", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 145128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Compile-time function execution", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10585201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Profile-guided optimization", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20038227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Full-employment theorem", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5723289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Just-in-time compilation (JIT)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 220632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Program optimization", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 225779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Citations from CiteSeer", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Optimization manuals by Agner Fog documentation about x86 processor architecture and low-level code optimization", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 65168706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 34 ] ] } ]

[ "Compiler_construction", "Compiler_optimizations", "Programming_language_implementation", "Compiler_theory" ]

[ "Compiler optimization" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Due process is the legal requirement that the state must respect all legal rights that are owed to a person. Due process balances the power of law of the land and protects the individual person from it. When a government harms a person without following the exact course of the law, this constitutes a due process violation, which offends the rule of law.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 28151, 327672, 19769447, 25166191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 51 ], [ 69, 81 ], [ 143, 158 ], [ 343, 354 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due process has also been frequently interpreted as limiting laws and legal proceedings (see substantive due process) so that judges, instead of legislators, may define and guarantee fundamental fairness, justice, and liberty. That interpretation has proven controversial. Analogous to the concepts of natural justice and procedural justice used in various other jurisdictions, the interpretation of due process is sometimes expressed as a command that the government must not be unfair to the people or abuse them physically. The term is not used in contemporary English law, but two similar concepts are natural justice, which generally applies only to decisions of administrative agencies and some types of private bodies like trade unions, and the British constitutional concept of the rule of law as articulated by A. V. Dicey and others. However, neither concept lines up perfectly with the American theory of due process, which, as explained below, presently contains many implied rights not found in either ancient or modern concepts of due process in England.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18949668, 496680, 585092, 439598, 125909, 85441, 439598, 25166191, 499053 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 64 ], [ 70, 87 ], [ 93, 116 ], [ 302, 317 ], [ 322, 340 ], [ 565, 576 ], [ 607, 622 ], [ 791, 802 ], [ 821, 832 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due process developed from clause 39 of Magna Carta in England. Reference to due process first appeared in a statutory rendition of clause 39 in 1354 thus: \"No man of what state or condition he be, shall be put out of his lands or tenements nor taken, nor disinherited, nor put to death, without he be brought to answer by due process of law.\" When English and American law gradually diverged, due process was not upheld in England but became incorporated in the US Constitution.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20958, 31644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 51 ], [ 463, 478 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In clause 39 of Magna Carta, issued in 1215, John of England promised: \"No free man shall be seized or imprisoned, or stripped of his rights or possessions, or outlawed or exiled, or deprived of his standing in any other way, nor will we proceed with force against him, or send others to do so, except by the lawful judgment of his equals or by the law of the land.\" Magna Carta itself immediately became part of the \"law of the land\", and Clause 61 of that charter authorized an elected body of 25 barons to determine by majority vote what redress the King must provide when the King offends \"in any respect against any man\". Thus, Magna Carta established the rule of law in England by not only requiring the monarchy to obey the law of the land but also limiting how the monarchy could change the law of the land. However, in the 13th century, the provisions may have been referring only to the rights of landowners, and not to ordinary peasantry or villagers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "By jurisdiction", "target_page_ids": [ 20958, 16550, 19769447, 25166191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 27 ], [ 45, 60 ], [ 418, 433 ], [ 661, 672 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shorter versions of Magna Carta were subsequently issued by British monarchs, and Clause 39 of Magna Carta was renumbered \"29\". The phrase due process of law first appeared in a statutory rendition of Magna Carta in 1354 during the reign of Edward III of England, as follows: \"No man of what state or condition he be, shall be put out of his lands or tenements nor taken, nor disinherited, nor put to death, without he be brought to answer by due process of law.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "By jurisdiction", "target_page_ids": [ 19012, 46377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 76 ], [ 241, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1608, the English jurist Edward Coke wrote a treatise in which he discussed the meaning of Magna Carta. Coke explained that no man shall be deprived but by legem terrae, the law of the land, \"that is, by the common law, statute law, or custom of England.... (that is, to speak it once and for all) by the due course, and process of law..\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "By jurisdiction", "target_page_ids": [ 151475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Both the clause in Magna Carta and the later statute of 1354 were again explained in 1704 (during the reign of Queen Anne) by the Queen's Bench, in the case of Regina v. Paty. In that case, the British House of Commons had deprived John Paty and certain other citizens of the right to vote in an election and committed them to Newgate Prison merely for the offense of pursuing a legal action in the courts. The Queen's Bench, in an opinion by Justice Littleton Powys, explained the meaning of \"due process of law\" as follows:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "By jurisdiction", "target_page_ids": [ 46684, 424396, 13828, 72814, 34702835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 121 ], [ 130, 143 ], [ 194, 218 ], [ 327, 341 ], [ 443, 466 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chief Justice Holt dissented in this case because he believed that the commitment had not in fact been by a legal authority. The House of Commons had purported to legislate unilaterally, without approval of the British House of Lords, ostensibly to regulate the election of its members. Although the Queen's Bench held that the House of Commons had not infringed or overturned due process, John Paty was ultimately freed by Queen Anne when she prorogued Parliament.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "By jurisdiction", "target_page_ids": [ 3964592, 13658, 4927404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 211, 233 ], [ 444, 453 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Throughout centuries of British history, many laws and treatises asserted various requirements as being part of \"due process\" or included in the \"law of the land\". That view usually held in regards to what was required by existing law, rather than what was intrinsically required by due process itself. As the United States Supreme Court has explained, a due process requirement in Britain was not \"essential to the idea of due process of law in the prosecution and punishment of crimes, but was only mentioned as an example and illustration of due process of law as it actually existed in cases in which it was customarily used\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "By jurisdiction", "target_page_ids": [ 31737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 310, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ultimately, the scattered references to \"due process of law\" in English law did not limit the power of the government; in the words of American law professor John V. Orth, \"the great phrases failed to retain their vitality.\" Orth points out that this is generally attributed to the rise of the doctrine of parliamentary supremacy in the United Kingdom, which was accompanied by hostility towards judicial review as an undemocratic foreign invention.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "By jurisdiction", "target_page_ids": [ 85441, 9043177, 43650443, 23042843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 75 ], [ 158, 170 ], [ 306, 329 ], [ 396, 411 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Scholars have occasionally interpreted Lord Coke's ruling in Dr. Bonham's Case as implying the possibility of judicial review, but by the 1870s, Lord Campbell was dismissing judicial review as \"a foolish doctrine alleged to have been laid down extra-judicially in Dr. Bonham's Case..., a conundrum [that] ought to have been laughed at\". Lacking the power of judicial review, English courts possessed no means by which to declare government statutes or actions invalid as a violation of due process. In contrast, American legislators and executive branch officers possessed virtually no means by which to overrule judicial invalidation of statutes or actions as due process violations, with the sole exception of proposing a constitutional amendment, which are rarely successful. As a consequence, English law and American law diverged. Unlike their English counterparts, American judges became increasingly assertive about enforcing due process of law. In turn, the legislative and executive branches learned how to avoid such confrontations in the first place, by tailoring statutes and executive actions to the constitutional requirements of due process as elaborated upon by the judiciary.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "By jurisdiction", "target_page_ids": [ 2269688, 386984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 78 ], [ 145, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1977, an English political science professor explained the present situation in England for the benefit of American lawyers:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "By jurisdiction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An American constitutional lawyer might well be surprised by the elusiveness of references to the term 'due process of law' in the general body of English legal writing.... Today one finds no space devoted to due process in Halsbury's Laws of England, in Stephen's Commentaries, or Anson's Law and Custom of the Constitution. The phrase rates no entry in such works as Stroud's Judicial Dictionary or Wharton's Law Lexicon.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "By jurisdiction", "target_page_ids": [ 218871, 265070, 25360997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 235, 250 ], [ 265, 277 ], [ 378, 397 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two similar concepts in contemporary English law are natural justice, which generally applies only to decisions of administrative agencies and some types of private bodies like trade unions, and the British constitutional concept of the rule of law as articulated by A. V. Dicey and others. However, neither concept lines up perfectly with the American conception of due process, which presently contains many implied rights not found in the ancient or modern concepts of due process in England.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "By jurisdiction", "target_page_ids": [ 439598, 25166191, 499053 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 68 ], [ 237, 248 ], [ 267, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution each contain a Due Process Clause. Due process deals with the administration of justice and thus the Due Process Clause acts as a safeguard from arbitrary denial of life, liberty, or property by the government outside the sanction of law. The Supreme Court of the United States interprets the clauses as providing four protections: procedural due process (in civil and criminal proceedings), substantive due process, a prohibition against vague laws, and as the vehicle for the incorporation of the Bill of Rights.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "By jurisdiction", "target_page_ids": [ 13575603, 31666, 31644, 629693, 31737, 646835, 585092, 3188707, 1301909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 9 ], [ 14, 35 ], [ 43, 69 ], [ 85, 103 ], [ 313, 347 ], [ 402, 424 ], [ 462, 485 ], [ 509, 514 ], [ 548, 583 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Various countries recognize some form of due process under customary international law. Although the specifics are often unclear, most nations agree that they should guarantee foreign visitors a basic minimum level of justice and fairness. Some nations have argued that they are bound to grant no more rights to aliens than they do to their own citizens, the doctrine of national treatment, which also means that both would be vulnerable to the same deprivations by the government. With the growth of international human rights law and the frequent use of treaties to govern treatment of foreign nationals abroad, the distinction, in practice, between these two perspectives may be disappearing.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "By jurisdiction", "target_page_ids": [ 218798, 8195726, 6784, 176027, 219877, 30432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 68 ], [ 69, 86 ], [ 345, 353 ], [ 371, 389 ], [ 501, 531 ], [ 556, 564 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Continuance", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2958111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Crime control", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28107588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fair procedure", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20972898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fundamental justice", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 221724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Habeas corpus", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Peremptory norm", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 362961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Presumption of guilt", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 56458826 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Presumption of innocence", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 319616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Subpoena ad testificandum", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3060691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Subpoena duces tecum", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 559856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Prison Litigation Reform Act", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 23545487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Goldberg v. Kelly", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Shipley, David E. Due Process Rights Before EU Agencies: The Rights of Defense Article discussing the procedural safeguards that have been recognized in the EU and the parallels between procedural due process in the United States and the rights of defense in the EU.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sudbury Valley School (1970). Due Process of Law in School. A school where order and discipline is achieved by a dual approach based on a free and democratic framework: a combination of popularly based authority, when rules and regulations are made by the community as a whole, fairly and democratically passed by the entire school community, supervised by a good judicial system for enforcing these laws—due process of law—and developing internal discipline in the members of the community by enhancing their ability to bear responsibility and self-sufficiency.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 182663 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Discussing potential of liberty rights to overtake equality rights.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"It’s important to remember that even though private employees don’t have constitutional or federal protection, they do have a due process right.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cornell University Law School", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Legal_doctrines_and_principles", "Legal_terminology" ]

[ "Due process of law" ]

[ { "plaintext": "A radiation dosimeter is a device that measures dose uptake of external ionizing radiation. It is worn by the person being monitored when used as a personal dosimeter, and is a record of the radiation dose received. Modern electronic personal dosimeters can give a continuous readout of cumulative dose and current dose rate, and can warn the wearer with an audible alarm when a specified dose rate or a cumulative dose is exceeded. Other dosimeters, such as thermoluminescent or film types, require processing after use to reveal the cumulative dose received, and cannot give a current indication of dose while being worn.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 506276, 202522, 46311074 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 52 ], [ 72, 90 ], [ 224, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The personal ionising radiation dosimeter is of fundamental importance in the disciplines of radiation dosimetry and radiation health physics and is primarily used to estimate the radiation dose deposited in an individual wearing the device.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Personal dosimeters", "target_page_ids": [ 318920, 545525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 112 ], [ 127, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ionising radiation damage to the human body is cumulative, and is related to the total dose received, for which the SI unit is the sievert. Radiographers, nuclear power plant workers, doctors using radiotherapy, HAZMAT workers, and other people in situations that involve handling radionuclides are often required to wear dosimeters so a record of occupational exposure can be made. Such devices are known as \"legal dosimeters\" if they have been approved for use in recording personnel dose for regulatory purposes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Personal dosimeters", "target_page_ids": [ 33865389, 26764, 155823, 5399622, 207347, 26350, 1476975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 91 ], [ 116, 118 ], [ 131, 138 ], [ 140, 152 ], [ 155, 174 ], [ 198, 210 ], [ 212, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dosimeters are typically worn on the outside of clothing, a \"whole body\" dosimeter is worn on the chest or torso to represent dose to the whole body. This location monitors exposure of most vital organs and represents the bulk of body mass. Additional dosimeters can be worn to assess dose to extremities or in radiation fields that vary considerably depending on orientation of the body to the source.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Personal dosimeters", "target_page_ids": [ 152776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 191, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The electronic personal dosimeter, the most commonly used type, is an electronic device that has a number of sophisticated functions, such as continual monitoring which allows alarm warnings at preset levels and live readout of dose accumulated. These are especially useful in high dose areas where residence time of the wearer is limited due to dose constraints. The dosimeter can be reset, usually after taking a reading for record purposes, and thereby re-used multiple times.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Personal dosimeters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor dosimeters are now used as clinical dosimeters for radiotherapy radiation beams. The main advantages of MOSFET devices are:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Personal dosimeters", "target_page_ids": [ 40345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1. The MOSFET dosimeter is direct reading with a very thin active area (less than 2 μm).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Personal dosimeters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2. The physical size of the MOSFET when packaged is less than 4mm.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Personal dosimeters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "3. The post radiation signal is permanently stored and is dose rate independent.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Personal dosimeters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Gate oxide of MOSFET which is conventionally silicon dioxide is an active sensing material in MOSFET dosimeters. Radiation creates defects (acts like electron-hole pairs) in oxide, which in turn affects the threshold voltage of the MOSFET. This change in threshold voltage is proportional to radiation dose. Alternate high-k gate dielectrics like hafnium dioxide and aluminum oxides are also proposed as a radiation dosimeters.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Personal dosimeters", "target_page_ids": [ 14373611, 40345, 43710, 1422246, 1422246, 5291923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 14, 20 ], [ 45, 60 ], [ 207, 224 ], [ 255, 272 ], [ 347, 362 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A thermoluminescent dosimeter measures ionizing radiation exposure by measuring the intensity of light emitted from a Dy or B doped crystal in the detector when heated. The intensity of light emitted is dependent upon the radiation exposure. These were once sold surplus and one format once used by submariners and nuclear workers resembled a dark green wristwatch containing the active components and a highly sensitive IR wire ended diode mounted to the doped LiF2 glass chip that when the assembly is precisely heated (hence thermoluminescent) emits the stored radiation as narrow band infrared light until it is depleted The main advantage is that the chip records dosage passively until exposed to light or heat so even a used sample kept in darkness can provide valuable scientific data.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Personal dosimeters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Film badge dosimeters are for one-time use only. The level of radiation absorption is indicated by a change to the film emulsion, which is shown when the film is developed. They are now mostly superseded by electronic personal dosimeters and thermoluminescent dosimeters.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Personal dosimeters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These use the property of a quartz fiber to measure the static electricity held on the fiber. Before use by the wearer a dosimeter is charged to a high voltage, causing the fiber to deflect due to electrostatic repulsion. As the gas in the dosimeter chamber becomes ionized by radiation the charge leaks away, causing the fiber to straighten and thereby indicate the amount of dose received against a graduated scale, which is viewed by a small in-built microscope.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Personal dosimeters", "target_page_ids": [ 59611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 266, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "They are only used for short durations, such as a day or a shift, as they can suffer from charge leakage, which gives a false high reading.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Personal dosimeters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "However they are immune to EMP so were used during the Cold War as a failsafe method of determining radiation exposure.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Personal dosimeters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "They are now largely superseded by electronic personal dosimeters for short term monitoring.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Personal dosimeters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These use a conventional Geiger-Muller tube typically a ZP1301 or similar energy compensated tube requiring between 600 and 700V and pulse detection components. The display on most was a bubble or miniature LCD type with 4 digits and a discrete counter IC such as 74C925/6, LED units usually have a button to enable the display for long battery life and an infrared emitter for count verification and calibration.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Personal dosimeters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The voltage is derived from a separate pinned or wire-ended module that often uses a unijunction transistor driving a small step-up coil and multiplier stage which though expensive is reliable over time and especially in high radiation environments sharing this trait with tunnel diodes though the encapsulants, inductors and capacitors have been known to break down internally over time.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Personal dosimeters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These have the disadvantage that the stored becquerel or microsievert count is volatile and vanishes if the power supply gets disconnected though there can be a low leakage capacitor to prevent short term battery disconnection from impact disrupting the memory.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Personal dosimeters", "target_page_ids": [ 155835, 155823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 53 ], [ 57, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The fix is to use a long life battery, knurled high quality contacts and security screws to hold the typically glass front panel in place, though more recent units log counts versus time to a high capacity non-volatile memory such as 24C256 so it can be read out via a serial port.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Personal dosimeters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The operational quantity for personal dosimetry is the personal dose equivalent, which is defined by the International Commission on Radiological Protection as the dose equivalent in soft tissue at an appropriate depth, below a specified point on the human body. The specified point is usually given by the position where the individual’s dosimeter is worn.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Dosimetry dose quantities", "target_page_ids": [ 6980583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This is an actual reading obtained from such as an ambient dose gamma monitor, or a personal dosimeter. The dosimeter is calibrated in a known radiation field to ensure display of accurate operational quantities and allow a relationship to known health effect. The personal dose equivalent is used to assess dose uptake, and allow regulatory limits to be met. It is the figure usually entered into the records of external dose for occupational radiation workers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Dosimetry dose quantities", "target_page_ids": [ 18616290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The dosimeter plays an important role within the international radiation protection system developed by the International Commission on Radiological Protection and the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. This is shown in the accompanying diagram.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Dosimetry dose quantities", "target_page_ids": [ 8247501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 228 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The \"slab\" phantom is used to represent the human torso for calibration of whole body dosimeters. This replicates the radiation scattering and absorption effects of the human torso. The International Atomic Energy Agency states \"The slab phantom is 300 mm × 300 mm × 150 mm depth to represent the human torso\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Dosimetry dose quantities", "target_page_ids": [ 31787413, 14984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 186, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Manufacturing processes that treat products with ionizing radiation, such as food irradiation, use dosimeters to calibrate doses deposited in the matter being irradiated. These usually must have a greater dose range than personal dosimeters, and doses are normally measured in the unit of absorbed dose: the gray (Gy). The dosimeter is located on or adjacent to the items being irradiated during the process as a validation of dose levels received.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Process irradiation verification", "target_page_ids": [ 15374, 571480, 287152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 93 ], [ 289, 302 ], [ 308, 312 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Comparison of dosimeters", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28393571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Geiger counter", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ionisation chamber", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1464117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Operational instruments of the Royal Observer Corps", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20367280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Scintillation counter", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 212147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A photographic list of radiation dosimeters", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Space Radiation Dosimetry: Lessons Learned and Recommendations", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Dosimeters", "Ionising_radiation_detectors", "Radiation_protection" ]

[ "Radiation Dosimeter" ]

[ { "plaintext": "An electrometer is an electrical instrument for measuring electric charge or electrical potential difference. There are many different types, ranging from historical handmade mechanical instruments to high-precision electronic devices. Modern electrometers based on vacuum tube or solid-state technology can be used to make voltage and charge measurements with very low leakage currents, down to 1 femtoampere. A simpler but related instrument, the electroscope, works on similar principles but only indicates the relative magnitudes of voltages or charges.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9550, 9804, 32549, 32496, 3656002, 32506335, 706128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 32 ], [ 58, 73 ], [ 88, 108 ], [ 266, 277 ], [ 281, 303 ], [ 398, 403 ], [ 449, 461 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The gold-leaf electroscope was one of the instruments used to indicate electric charge. It is still used for science demonstrations but has been superseded in most applications by electronic measuring instruments. The instrument consists of two thin leaves of gold foil suspended from an electrode. When the electrode is charged by induction or by contact, the leaves acquire similar electric charges and repel each other due to the Coulomb force. Their separation is a direct indication of the net charge stored on them. On the glass opposite the leaves, pieces of tin foil may be pasted, so that when the leaves diverge fully they may discharge into the ground. The leaves may be enclosed in a glass envelope to protect them from drafts, and the envelope may be evacuated to minimize charge leakage. A further cause of charge leakage is ionizing radiation, so to prevent this, the electrometer must be surrounded by lead shielding. This principle has been used to detect ionizing radiation, as seen in the quartz fibre electrometer and Kearny fallout meter.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Historical electrometers", "target_page_ids": [ 10008, 706106, 26288711, 32502, 202522, 17747, 20126231, 6000690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 288, 297 ], [ 332, 341 ], [ 433, 446 ], [ 764, 773 ], [ 839, 857 ], [ 918, 922 ], [ 1008, 1033 ], [ 1038, 1058 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This type of electroscope usually acts as an indicator and not a measuring device, although it can be calibrated. A calibrated electrometer with a more robust aluminium indicator was invented by Ferdinand Braun and first described in 1887. According to Braun, the standard gold-leaf electrometer is good up to about with a resolution of using an ocular micrometer. For larger voltages up to Braun's instrument can achieve a resolution of .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Historical electrometers", "target_page_ids": [ 17297, 504817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 195, 210 ], [ 349, 366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The instrument was developed in the 18th century by several researchers, among them Abraham Bennet (1787) and Alessandro Volta.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Historical electrometers", "target_page_ids": [ 13061257, 1923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 98 ], [ 110, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While the term \"quadrant electrometer\" eventually referred to Kelvin's version, this term was first used to describe a simpler device. It consists of an upright stem of wood, to which is affixed to a semicircle of ivory. From the center there hangs a light cork ball upon a pivot. When the instrument is placed upon a charged body, the stem participates and repels the cork ball. The amount of repulsion may be read off the graduated semicircle, though the measured angle is not in direct proportion to the charge. Early inventors included William Henley (1770) and Horace-Bénédict de Saussure.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Historical electrometers", "target_page_ids": [ 204137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 566, 593 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Torsion is used to give a measurement more sensitive than repulsion of gold leaves or cork-balls. It consists of a glass cylinder with a glass tube on top. In the axes of the tube is a glass thread, the lower end of this holds a bar of gum lac, with a gilt pith ball at each extremity. Through another aperture on the cylinder, another gum lac rod with gilt balls may be introduced. This is called the carrier rod.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Historical electrometers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If the lower ball of the carrier rod is charged when it is entered into the aperture, this will repel one of the movable balls inside. An index and scale (not pictured) is attached to the top of the twistable glass rod. The number of degrees twisted to bring the balls back together is in exact proportion of the amount of charge of the ball of the carrier rod.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Historical electrometers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Francis Ronalds, the inaugural Director of the Kew Observatory, made important improvements to the Coulomb torsion balance around 1844 and the modified instrument was sold by London instrument-makers. Ronalds used a thin suspended needle rather than the gum lac bar and replaced the carrier rod with a fixed piece in the plane of the needle. Both were metal, as was the suspending line and its surrounding tube, so that the needle and the fixed piece could be charged directly through wire connections. Ronalds also employed a Faraday cage and trialled photography to record the readings continuously. It was the forerunner of Kelvin's quadrant electrometer (described below).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Historical electrometers", "target_page_ids": [ 10770735, 17862804, 151590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 47, 62 ], [ 527, 539 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Developed by Peltier, this uses a form of magnetic compass to measure deflection by balancing the electrostatic force with a magnetic needle.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Historical electrometers", "target_page_ids": [ 1328727 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Bohnenberger electrometer, developed by J. G. F. von Bohnenberger from an invention by T. G. B. Behrens, consists of a single gold leaf suspended vertically between the anode and cathode of a dry pile. Any charge imparted to the gold leaf causes it to move toward one or the other pole; thus, the sign of the charge as well as its approximate magnitude may be gauged.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Historical electrometers", "target_page_ids": [ 2541836, 15296235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 69 ], [ 196, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also known as \"attracted disk electrometers\", attraction electrometers are sensitive balances measuring the attraction between charged disks. William Snow Harris is credited with the invention of this instrument, which was further improved by Lord Kelvin.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Historical electrometers", "target_page_ids": [ 395904, 33302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 161 ], [ 243, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Developed by Lord Kelvin, this is the most sensitive and accurate of all the mechanical electrometers. The original design uses a light aluminum sector suspended inside a drum cut into four segments. The segments are insulated and connected diagonally in pairs. The charged aluminum sector is attracted to one pair of segments and repelled from the other. The deflection is observed by a beam of light reflected from a small mirror attached to the sector, just as in a galvanometer. The engraving on the right shows a slightly different form of this electrometer, using four flat plates rather than closed segments. The plates can be connected externally in the conventional diagonal way (as shown), or in a different order for specific applications.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Historical electrometers", "target_page_ids": [ 33302, 40365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 24 ], [ 469, 481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A more sensitive form of quadrant electrometer was developed by Frederick Lindemann. It employs a metal-coated quartz fiber instead of an aluminum sector. The deflection is measured by observing the movement of the fiber under a microscope. Initially used for measuring star light, it was employed for the infrared detection of airplanes in the early stages of World War II.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Historical electrometers", "target_page_ids": [ 921111, 32927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 83 ], [ 361, 373 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some mechanical electrometers were housed inside a cage often referred to as a “bird cage”. This is a form of Faraday Cage that protected the instrument from external electrostatic charges.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Historical electrometers", "target_page_ids": [ 151590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Electricity readings may be recorded continuously with a device known as an electrograph. Francis Ronalds created an early electrograph around 1814 in which the changing electricity made a pattern in a rotating resin-coated plate. It was employed at Kew Observatory and the Royal Observatory, Greenwich in the 1840s to create records of variations in atmospheric electricity. In 1845, Ronalds invented photographic means of registering the atmospheric electricity. The photosensitive surface was pulled slowly past of the aperture diaphragm of the camera box, which also housed an electrometer, and captured ongoing movements of the electrometer indices as a trace. Kelvin used similar photographic means for his quadrant electrometer (see above) in the 1860s.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Historical electrometers", "target_page_ids": [ 10770735, 58890, 17862804, 43989, 2222635, 23604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 105 ], [ 211, 216 ], [ 250, 265 ], [ 274, 302 ], [ 351, 374 ], [ 469, 491 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A modern electrometer is a highly sensitive electronic voltmeter whose input impedance is so high that the current flowing into it can be considered, for most practical purposes, to be zero. The actual value of input resistance for modern electronic electrometers is around 1014Ω, compared to around 1010Ω for nanovoltmeters. Owing to the extremely high input impedance, special design considerations (such as driven shields and special insulation materials) must be applied to avoid leakage current.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Modern electrometers", "target_page_ids": [ 32743, 643036, 42314753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 64 ], [ 71, 86 ], [ 410, 423 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Among other applications, electrometers are used in nuclear physics experiments as they are able to measure the tiny charges left in matter by the passage of ionizing radiation. The most common use for modern electrometers is the measurement of radiation with ionization chambers, in instruments such as geiger counters.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Modern electrometers", "target_page_ids": [ 21285, 202522, 12984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 67 ], [ 158, 176 ], [ 304, 318 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vibrating reed electrometers use a variable capacitor formed between a moving electrode (in the form of a vibrating reed) and a fixed input electrode. As the distance between the two electrodes varies, the capacitance also varies and electric charge is forced in and out of the capacitor. The alternating current signal produced by the flow of this charge is amplified and used as an analogue for the DC voltage applied to the capacitor. The DC input resistance of the electrometer is determined solely by the leakage resistance of the capacitor, and is typically extremely high, (although its AC input impedance is lower).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Modern electrometers", "target_page_ids": [ 58984, 4932111, 42986, 47713, 41957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 44, 53 ], [ 293, 312 ], [ 401, 403 ], [ 603, 612 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For convenience of use, the vibrating reed assembly is often attached by a cable to the rest of the electrometer. This allows for a relatively small unit to be located near the charge to be measured while the much larger reed-driver and amplifier unit can be located wherever it is convenient for the operator.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Modern electrometers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Valve electrometers use a specialized vacuum tube (thermionic valve) with a very high gain (transconductance) and input resistance. The input current is allowed to flow into the high impedance grid, and the voltage so generated is vastly amplified in the anode (plate) circuit. Valves designed for electrometer use have leakage currents as low as a few femtoamperes (10−15 amperes). Such valves must be handled with gloved hands as the salts left on the glass envelope can provide leakage paths for these tiny currents.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Modern electrometers", "target_page_ids": [ 32496, 41968, 635926, 2392, 1424864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 49 ], [ 86, 90 ], [ 92, 108 ], [ 255, 260 ], [ 262, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a specialized circuit called inverted triode, the roles of anode and grid are reversed. This places the control electrode at a maximum distance from the space-charge region surrounding the filament, minimizing the number of electrons collected by the control electrode, and thus minimizing the input current.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Modern electrometers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The most modern electrometers consist of a solid state amplifier using one or more field-effect transistors, connections for external measurement devices, and usually a display and/or data-logging connections. The amplifier amplifies small currents so that they are more easily measured. The external connections are usually of a co-axial or tri-axial design, and allow attachment of diodes or ionization chambers for ionising radiation measurement. The display or data-logging connections allow the user to see the data or record it for later analysis. Electrometers designed for use with ionization chambers may include a high-voltage power supply, which is used to bias the ionization chamber.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Modern electrometers", "target_page_ids": [ 3656002, 9931, 41228216, 8254, 1464117, 202522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 54 ], [ 55, 64 ], [ 83, 106 ], [ 384, 389 ], [ 394, 412 ], [ 418, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Solid-state electrometers are often multipurpose devices that can measure voltage, charge, resistance and current. They measure voltage by means of \"voltage balancing\", in which the input voltage is compared with an internal reference voltage source using an electronic circuit with a very high input impedance (of the order of 1014 Ω). A similar circuit modified to act as a current-to-voltage converter enables the instrument to measure currents as small as a few femtoamperes. Combined with an internal voltage source, the current measuring mode can be adapted to measure very high resistances, of the order of 1017 Ω. Finally, by calculation from the known capacitance of the electrometer's input terminal, the instrument can measure very small electric charges, down to a small fraction of a picocoulomb.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Modern electrometers", "target_page_ids": [ 61577, 140711, 9804 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 585, 596 ], [ 661, 672 ], [ 749, 764 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Electrical measurements", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 23450129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Electron", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Electroscope", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 706128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Radiation", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 25856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Faraday cup electrometer", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4744983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dr. J. Frick, Physical Technics; Or Practical Instructions for Making Experiments in Physics Translated By John D. Easter, Ph.D. - J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia 1862", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Robert Mfurgeson Ph.D. Electricity - William and Robert Chambers, London and Edinburgh 1866", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Silvanus P. Thompson, Elementary Lessons in electricity and Magnetism. - Macmillan and Co. Limited, London 1905", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jones, R. V., Instruments and Experiences - John Wiley and Sons, London 1988", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Build this FET electrometer - A very simple circuit - 2 components", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Simple FET electrometer - A simple bridged circuit", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " An op-amp electrometer", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Early electrometers", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Charging an Electroscope by Induction Using a Negatively-Charged Balloon from Multimedia Physics Studios", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Voltmeters", "Electrical_meters", "Measuring_instruments", "Electricity" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "A galvanometer is an electromechanical measuring instrument for electric current. Early galvanometers were uncalibrated, but improved versions, called ammeters, were calibrated and could measure the flow of current more precisely.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 31322120, 27643777, 6207, 2866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 38 ], [ 39, 59 ], [ 64, 80 ], [ 151, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A galvanometer works by deflecting a pointer in response to an electric current flowing through a coil in a constant magnetic field. Galvanometers can be thought of as a kind of actuator.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7425, 36563, 293079 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 102 ], [ 117, 131 ], [ 178, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Galvanometers came from the observation, first noted by Hans Christian Ørsted in 1820, that a magnetic compass's needle deflects when near a wire having electric current. They were the first instruments used to detect and measure small amounts of current. André-Marie Ampère, who gave mathematical expression to Ørsted's discovery, named the instrument after the Italian electricity researcher Luigi Galvani, who in 1791 discovered the principle of the frog galvanoscope – that electric current would make the legs of a dead frog jerk.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7575091, 39316, 1363, 88344, 31369965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 77 ], [ 94, 110 ], [ 256, 274 ], [ 394, 407 ], [ 453, 470 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Galvanometers have been essential for the development of science and technology in many fields. For example, in the 1800s they enabled long-range communication through submarine cables, such as the earliest transatlantic telegraph cables, and were essential to discovering the electrical activity of the heart and brain, by their fine measurements of current.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 221374, 650897, 3717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 207, 236 ], [ 304, 309 ], [ 314, 319 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Galvanometers have also been used as the display components of other kinds of analog meters (e.g., light meters and VU meters), capturing the outputs of these meters' sensors. Today, the main type of galvanometer still in use is the D'Arsonval/Weston type.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 168435, 1100733, 235757, 40365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 110 ], [ 116, 124 ], [ 167, 173 ], [ 233, 250 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern galvanometers, of the D'Arsonval/Weston type, are constructed with a small pivoting coil of wire, called a spindle, in the field of a permanent magnet. The coil is attached to a thin pointer that traverses a calibrated scale. A tiny torsion spring pulls the coil and pointer to the zero position.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When a direct current (DC) flows through the coil, the coil generates a magnetic field. This field acts against the permanent magnet. The coil twists, pushing against the spring, and moves the pointer. The hand points at a scale indicating the electric current. Careful design of the pole pieces ensures that the magnetic field is uniform so that the angular deflection of the pointer is proportional to the current. A useful meter generally contains a provision for damping the mechanical resonance of the moving coil and pointer, so that the pointer settles quickly to its position without oscillation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 47713, 22522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 21 ], [ 592, 603 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The basic sensitivity of a meter might be, for instance, 100 microamperes full scale (with a voltage drop of, say, 50 millivolts at full current). Such meters are often calibrated to read some other quantity that can be converted to a current of that magnitude. The use of current dividers, often called shunts, allows a meter to be calibrated to measure larger currents. A meter can be calibrated as a DC voltmeter if the resistance of the coil is known by calculating the voltage required to generate a full-scale current. A meter can be configured to read other voltages by putting it in a voltage divider circuit. This is generally done by placing a resistor in series with the meter coil. A meter can be used to read resistance by placing it in series with a known voltage (a battery) and an adjustable resistor. In a preparatory step, the circuit is completed and the resistor adjusted to produce full-scale deflection. When an unknown resistor is placed in series in the circuit the current will be less than full scale and an appropriately calibrated scale can display the value of the previously unknown resistor.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 772, 1717012, 25754, 61577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 73 ], [ 304, 310 ], [ 654, 662 ], [ 722, 732 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These capabilities to translate different kinds of electric quantities into pointer movements make the galvanometer ideal for turning the output of other sensors that output electricity (in some form or another), into something that can be read by a human.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Because the pointer of the meter is usually a small distance above the scale of the meter, parallax error can occur when the operator attempts to read the scale line that \"lines up\" with the pointer. To counter this, some meters include a mirror along with the markings of the principal scale. The accuracy of the reading from a mirrored scale is improved by positioning one's head while reading the scale so that the pointer and the reflection of the pointer are aligned; at this point, the operator's eye must be directly above the pointer and any parallax error has been minimized.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 23253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Probably the largest use of galvanometers was of the D'Arsonval/Weston type used in analog meters in electronic equipment. Since the 1980s, galvanometer-type analog meter movements have been displaced by analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) for many uses. A digital panel meter (DPM) contains an ADC and numeric display. The advantages of a digital instrument are higher precision and accuracy, but factors such as power consumption or cost may still favor the application of analog meter movements.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 40367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 204, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most modern uses for the galvanometer mechanism are in positioning and control systems. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Galvanometer mechanisms are divided into moving magnet and moving coil galvanometers; in addition, they are divided into closed-loop and open-loop - or resonant - types.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mirror galvanometer systems are used as beam positioning or beam steering elements in laser scanning systems. For example, for material processing with high-power lasers, closed loop mirror galvanometer mechanisms are used with servo control systems. These are typically high power galvanometers and the newest galvanometers designed for beam steering applications can have frequency responses over 10kHz with appropriate servo technology. Closed-loop mirror galvanometers are also used in similar ways in stereolithography, laser sintering, laser engraving, laser beam welding, laser TVs, laser displays and in imaging applications such as retinal scanning with Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) and Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscopy (SLO). Almost all of these galvanometers are of the moving magnet type. The closed loop is obtained measuring the position of the rotating axis with an infrared emitter and 2 photodiodes. This feedback is an analog signal.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 4261793, 325496, 1086236, 841755, 763693, 1448500, 7380112, 298771, 628583, 660008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 108 ], [ 228, 233 ], [ 506, 523 ], [ 525, 540 ], [ 542, 557 ], [ 559, 577 ], [ 579, 587 ], [ 590, 603 ], [ 663, 691 ], [ 702, 731 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Open loop, or resonant mirror galvanometers, are mainly used in some types of laser-based bar-code scanners, printing machines, imaging applications, military applications and space systems. Their non-lubricated bearings are especially of interest in applications that require functioning in a high vacuum.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 32502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 299, 305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Moving coil type galvanometer mechanisms (called 'voice coils' by hard disk manufacturers) are used for controlling the head positioning servos in hard disk drives and CD/DVD players, in order to keep mass (and thus access times), as low as possible.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 13777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A major early use for galvanometers was for finding faults in telecommunications cables. They were superseded in this application late in the 20th century by time-domain reflectometers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 41797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Galvanometer mechanisms were also used to get readings from photoresistors in the metering mechanisms of film cameras (as seen in the adjacent image).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 102789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In analog strip chart recorders such as used in electrocardiographs, electroencephalographs and polygraphs, galvanometer mechanisms were used to position the pen. Strip chart recorders with galvanometer driven pens may have a full-scale frequency response of 100Hz and several centimeters of deflection.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 1461772, 76988, 21402632, 71734 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 30 ], [ 48, 66 ], [ 69, 90 ], [ 96, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The deflection of a magnetic compass needle by the current in a wire was first described by Hans Christian Ørsted in 1820. The phenomenon was studied both for its own sake and as a means of measuring electric current.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 39316, 7575091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 36 ], [ 92, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest galvanometer was reported by Johann Schweigger at the University of Halle on 16 September 1820. André-Marie Ampère also contributed to its development. Early designs increased the effect of the magnetic field generated by the current by using multiple turns of wire. The instruments were at first called \"multipliers\" due to this common design feature. The term \"galvanometer,\" in common use by 1836, was derived from the surname of Italian electricity researcher Luigi Galvani, who in 1791 discovered that electric current would make a dead frog's leg jerk.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 8245839, 33565249, 1363, 88344, 31369965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 59 ], [ 67, 86 ], [ 109, 127 ], [ 477, 490 ], [ 550, 570 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Originally, the instruments relied on the Earth's magnetic field to provide the restoring force for the compass needle. These were called Tangent galvanometers and had to be oriented before use. Later instruments of the \"Astatic galvanometer\" type used opposing magnets to become independent of the Earth's field and would operate in any orientation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An early mirror galvanometer was invented in 1826 by Johann Christian Poggendorff. An astatic galvanometer was invented by Hermann von Helmholtz in 1849; a more sensitive version of that device, the Thomson mirror galvanometer, was patented in 1858 by William Thomson (Lord Kelvin). Thomson's design was able to detect very rapid current changes by using small magnets attached to a lightweight mirror, suspended by a thread, instead of a compass needle. The deflection of a light beam on the mirror greatly magnified the deflection induced by small currents. Alternatively, the deflection of the suspended magnets could be observed directly through a microscope.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 163242, 475627, 53311, 33302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 28 ], [ 53, 81 ], [ 123, 144 ], [ 252, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ability to measure quantitatively voltage and current allowed Georg Ohm, in 1827, to formulate Ohm's Law – that the voltage across a conductor is directly proportional to the current through it.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 49080, 49090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 75 ], [ 99, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The early moving-magnet form of galvanometer had the disadvantage that it was affected by any magnets or iron masses near it, and its deflection was not linearly proportional to the current. In 1882 Jacques-Arsène d'Arsonval and Marcel Deprez developed a form with a stationary permanent magnet and a moving coil of wire, suspended by fine wires which provided both an electrical connection to the coil and the restoring torque to return to the zero position. An iron tube between the magnet's pole pieces defined a circular gap through which the coil rotated. This gap produced a consistent, radial magnetic field across the coil, giving a linear response throughout the instrument's range. A mirror attached to the coil deflected a beam of light to indicate the coil position. The concentrated magnetic field and delicate suspension made these instruments sensitive; d'Arsonval's initial instrument could detect ten microamperes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 772395, 277628, 772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 224 ], [ 229, 242 ], [ 918, 930 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edward Weston extensively improved the design of the galvanometer. He substituted the fine wire suspension with a pivot and provided restoring torque and electrical connections through spiral springs rather than through the traditional wristwatch balance wheel hairspring. He developed a method of stabilizing the magnetic field of the permanent magnet, so the instrument would have consistent accuracy over time. He replaced the light beam and mirror with a knife-edge pointer that could be read directly. A mirror under the pointer, in the same plane as the scale, eliminated parallax observation error. To maintain the field strength, Weston's design used a very narrow circumferential slot through which the coil moved, with a minimal air-gap. This improved linearity of pointer deflection with respect to coil current. Finally, the coil was wound on a light-weight form made of conductive metal, which acted as a damper. By 1888, Edward Weston had patented and brought out a commercial form of this instrument, which became a standard electrical equipment component. It was known as a \"portable\" instrument because it was affected very little by mounting position or by transporting it from place to place. This design is almost universally used in moving-coil meters today.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3319884, 1504893, 23253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 247, 260 ], [ 578, 586 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Initially, laboratory instruments relying on the Earth's own magnetic field to provide restoring force for the pointer, galvanometers were developed into compact, rugged, sensitive portable instruments essential to the development of electro-technology.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The taut-band movement is a modern development of the D'Arsonval-Weston movement. The jewel pivots and hairsprings are replaced by tiny strips of metal under tension. Such a meter is more rugged for field use.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There is broadly two types of galvanometers. Some galvanometers use a solid pointer on a scale to show measurements; other very sensitive types use a miniature mirror and a beam of light to provide mechanical amplification of low-level signals.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A tangent galvanometer is an early measuring instrument used for the measurement of electric current. It works by using a compass needle to compare a magnetic field generated by the unknown current to the magnetic field of the Earth. It gets its name from its operating principle, the tangent law of magnetism, which states that the tangent of the angle a compass needle makes is proportional to the ratio of the strengths of the two perpendicular magnetic fields. It was first described by Johan Jakob Nervander in 1834.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 27643777, 6207, 39316, 36563, 31482, 39910123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 55 ], [ 84, 100 ], [ 122, 129 ], [ 150, 164 ], [ 333, 340 ], [ 491, 512 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A tangent galvanometer consists of a coil of insulated copper wire wound on a circular non-magnetic frame. The frame is mounted vertically on a horizontal base provided with levelling screws. The coil can be rotated on a vertical axis passing through its centre. A compass box is mounted horizontally at the centre of a circular scale. It consists of a tiny, powerful magnetic needle pivoted at the centre of the coil. The magnetic needle is free to rotate in the horizontal plane. The circular scale is divided into four quadrants. Each quadrant is graduated from 0° to 90°. A long thin aluminium pointer is attached to the needle at its centre and at right angle to it. To avoid errors due to parallax, a plane mirror is mounted below the compass needle.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In operation, the instrument is first rotated until the magnetic field of the Earth, indicated by the compass needle, is parallel with the plane of the coil. Then the unknown current is applied to the coil. This creates a second magnetic field on the axis of the coil, perpendicular to the Earth's magnetic field. The compass needle responds to the vector sum of the two fields and deflects to an angle equal to the tangent of the ratio of the two fields. From the angle read from the compass's scale, the current could be found from a table. The current supply wires have to be wound in a small helix, like a pig's tail, otherwise the field due to the wire will affect the compass needle and an incorrect reading will be obtained.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 32533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 349, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The galvanometer is oriented so that the plane of the coil is vertical and aligned along parallel to the horizontal component of the Earth's magnetic field (i.e. parallel to the local \"magnetic meridian\"). When an electric current flows through the galvanometer coil, a second magnetic field is created. At the center of the coil, where the compass needle is located, the coil's field is perpendicular to the plane of the coil. The magnitude of the coil's field is:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is the current in amperes, is the number of turns of the coil and is the radius of the coil. These two perpendicular magnetic fields add vectorially, and the compass needle points along the direction of their resultant . The current in the coil causes the compass needle to rotate by an angle :", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 772, 443415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 31 ], [ 146, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From tangent law, , i.e.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "or", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "or , where is called the Reduction Factor of the tangent galvanometer.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One problem with the tangent galvanometer is that its resolution degrades at both high currents and low currents. The maximum resolution is obtained when the value of is 45°. When the value of is close to 0° or 90°, a large percentage change in the current will only move the needle a few degrees.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A tangent galvanometer can also be used to measure the magnitude of the horizontal component of the geomagnetic field. When used in this way, a low-voltage power source, such as a battery, is connected in series with a rheostat, the galvanometer, and an ammeter. The galvanometer is first aligned so that the coil is parallel to the geomagnetic field, whose direction is indicated by the compass when there is no current through the coils. The battery is then connected and the rheostat is adjusted until the compass needle deflects 45 degrees from the geomagnetic field, indicating that the magnitude of the magnetic field at the center of the coil is the same as that of the horizontal component of the geomagnetic field. This field strength can be calculated from the current as measured by the ammeter, the number of turns of the coil, and the radius of the coils.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 146983, 76084, 2866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 117 ], [ 219, 227 ], [ 254, 261 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike the tangent galvanometer, the astatic galvanometer does not use the Earth's magnetic field for measurement, so it does not need to be oriented with respect to the Earth's field, making it easier to use. Developed by Leopoldo Nobili in 1825, it consists of two magnetized needles parallel to each other but with the magnetic poles reversed. These needles are suspended by a single silk thread. The lower needle is inside a vertical current sensing coil of wire and is deflected by the magnetic field created by the passing current, as in the tangent galvanometer above. The purpose of the second needle is to cancel the dipole moment of the first needle, so the suspended armature has no net magnetic dipole moment, and thus is not affected by the earth's magnetic field. The needle's rotation is opposed by the torsional elasticity of the suspension thread, which is proportional to the angle.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 932276, 540979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 223, 238 ], [ 699, 721 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To achieve higher sensitivity to detect extremely small currents, the mirror galvanometer substitutes a lightweight mirror for the pointer. It consists of horizontal magnets suspended from a fine fiber, inside a vertical coil of wire, with a mirror attached to the magnets. A beam of light reflected from the mirror falls on a graduated scale across the room, acting as a long mass-less pointer. The mirror galvanometer was used as the receiver in the first trans-Atlantic submarine telegraph cables in the 1850s, to detect the extremely faint pulses of current after their thousand-mile journey under the Atlantic. In a device called an oscillograph, the moving beam of light is used, to produce graphs of current versus time, by recording measurements on photographic film. The string galvanometer is a type of mirror galvanometer so sensitive that it was used to make the first electrocardiogram of the electrical activity of the human heart.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 163242, 45206, 15361791, 4249871, 76988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 89 ], [ 475, 501 ], [ 640, 652 ], [ 782, 801 ], [ 883, 900 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A ballistic galvanometer is a type of sensitive galvanometer for measuring the quantity of charge discharged through it. It is an integrator, by virtue of the long time constant of its response, unlike a current-measuring galvanometer. The moving part has a large moment of inertia that gives it an oscillation period long enough to make the integrated measurement. It can be either of the moving coil or moving magnet type; commonly it is a mirror galvanometer.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 9804, 1047173, 19770252, 157700, 22522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 97 ], [ 130, 140 ], [ 164, 177 ], [ 264, 281 ], [ 299, 310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vibration galvanometer", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 30109018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thermo galvanometer", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 30121570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "String galvanometer", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4249871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "History of electrochemistry", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3733488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Galvanometer - Interactive Java Tutorial National High Magnetic Field Laboratory", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Selection of historic galvanometer in the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 19555294, 394572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 61 ], [ 69, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The History Corner: The Galvanometer by Nick Joyce and David Baker, April 1, 2008, Ass. of Physological Science. Retrieved February 26, 2022.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Galvanometers", "Electrical_instruments", "Historical_scientific_instruments" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "ADC may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ADC (gene), a human gene", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science and medicine", "target_page_ids": [ 15182993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " AIDS dementia complex, neurological disorder associated with HIV and AIDS", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science and medicine", "target_page_ids": [ 3250177 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Allyl diglycol carbonate or CR-39, a polymer", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science and medicine", "target_page_ids": [ 3059400 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Antibody-drug conjugate, a type of anticancer treatment", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science and medicine", "target_page_ids": [ 28646624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Apparent diffusion coefficient, a derived value from a diffusion MRI", 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"section_name": "Organisations", "target_page_ids": [ 1215804 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ADC Telecommunications, in Eden Prairie, Minnesota", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organisations", "target_page_ids": [ 1126056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Australian Defence College, Weston Creek, Canberra", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organisations", "target_page_ids": [ 4539460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ADC Aircraft, a British firm established in 1920", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organisations", "target_page_ids": [ 1035734 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ADC Airlines, based in Ikeja, Nigeria", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organisations", "target_page_ids": [ 1455571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aerospace Defense Command, of the U.S. Air Force", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organisations", "target_page_ids": [ 4149679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ADC Theatre, venue of the University of Cambridge Amateur Dramatic Club ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organisations", "target_page_ids": [ 4443354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Art Directors Club of New York, a professional association", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organisations", "target_page_ids": [ 35444006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Australian Dance Council, a national dance advocacy organisation", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organisations", "target_page_ids": [ 5597609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hong Kong Arts Development Council, a statutory body in Hong Kong", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organisations", "target_page_ids": [ 40365586 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " African Democratic Congress, a political party in Nigeria", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organisations", "target_page_ids": [ 58666780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alliance for Democratic Change, a political party in Tanzania", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organisations", "target_page_ids": [ 43357137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " American Deserters Committee, an anti-Vietnam War group", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organisations", "target_page_ids": [ 1188569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee, a civil rights organization", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organisations", "target_page_ids": [ 1744510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Arizona Department of Corrections, US", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organisations", "target_page_ids": [ 754299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Arkansas Department of Correction, US", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organisations", "target_page_ids": [ 403243 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Asociación Democrática de Colima, a political party from the State of Colima, Mexico", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organisations", "target_page_ids": [ 4504498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Advanced Data Connector, a Microsoft technology", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Technology", "target_page_ids": [ 2671065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Advanced Direct Connect, a peer-to-peer file sharing and chat protocol", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Technology", "target_page_ids": [ 69175001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Air data computer, an essential avionics component found in modern glass cockpits", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Technology", "target_page_ids": [ 2097814 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Analog-to-digital converter, a type of electronic circuit", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Technology", "target_page_ids": [ 40367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Android Developer Challenge, a competition", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Technology", "target_page_ids": [ 19194005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Apple Developer Connection, Apple Computer's developer network", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Technology", "target_page_ids": [ 476148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Apple Display Connector, similar to the DVI connector", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Technology", "target_page_ids": [ 477045 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Application delivery controller, for accelerating website performance", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Technology", "target_page_ids": [ 11323169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Automatic Data Capture, for automatic identification, data collection and storage into computer systems", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Technology", "target_page_ids": [ 1375531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Adlington (Cheshire) railway station, UK (National Rail code)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 4289147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aid to Dependent Children, an American government social program from 1935 to 1960", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 1282402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aide-de-camp, assistant to a senior military or government person", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 239481 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alternative Daily cover, material other than soil for containment in a landfill", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 10477381 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Andakombe Airport, airport in Papua New Guinea (IATA: ADC)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 34886290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Andrew Dice Clay (born 1957), American comedian", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 432972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A.DC., taxonomic author abbreviation for Alphonse Pyramus de Candolle (1806–1893), French-Swiss botanist", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 3485260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Axiom of dependent choice", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 441950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] } ]

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[ { "plaintext": "In electronics, an analog-to-digital converter (ADC, A/D, or A-to-D) is a system that converts an analog signal, such as a sound picked up by a microphone or light entering a digital camera, into a digital signal. An ADC may also provide an isolated measurement such as an electronic device that converts an analog input voltage or current to a digital number representing the magnitude of the voltage or current. Typically the digital output is a two's complement binary number that is proportional to the input, but there are other possibilities.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9663, 993, 65886, 52797, 47577590, 9663, 32549, 6207, 307145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ], [ 98, 111 ], [ 144, 154 ], [ 175, 189 ], [ 198, 212 ], [ 273, 290 ], [ 321, 328 ], [ 332, 339 ], [ 448, 464 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are several ADC architectures. Due to the complexity and the need for precisely matched components, all but the most specialized ADCs are implemented as integrated circuits (ICs). These typically take the form of metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) mixed-signal integrated circuit chips that integrate both analog and digital circuits.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3582323, 1886820, 15150, 40345, 1157354, 1665281, 39068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 35 ], [ 94, 104 ], [ 159, 177 ], [ 219, 244 ], [ 251, 282 ], [ 309, 315 ], [ 320, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A digital-to-analog converter (DAC) performs the reverse function; it converts a digital signal into an analog signal.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 92943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An ADC converts a continuous-time and continuous-amplitude analog signal to a discrete-time and discrete-amplitude digital signal. The conversion involves quantization of the input, so it necessarily introduces a small amount of error or noise. Furthermore, instead of continuously performing the conversion, an ADC does the conversion periodically, sampling the input, limiting the allowable bandwidth of the input signal.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [ 993, 40240263, 47577590, 317018, 201605 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 72 ], [ 78, 91 ], [ 115, 129 ], [ 155, 167 ], [ 350, 358 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The performance of an ADC is primarily characterized by its bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). The bandwidth of an ADC is characterized primarily by its sampling rate. The SNR of an ADC is influenced by many factors, including the resolution, linearity and accuracy (how well the quantization levels match the true analog signal), aliasing and jitter. The SNR of an ADC is often summarized in terms of its effective number of bits (ENOB), the number of bits of each measure it returns that are on average not noise. An ideal ADC has an ENOB equal to its resolution. ADCs are chosen to match the bandwidth and required SNR of the signal to be digitized. If an ADC operates at a sampling rate greater than twice the bandwidth of the signal, then per the Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem, perfect reconstruction is possible. The presence of quantization error limits the SNR of even an ideal ADC. However, if the SNR of the ADC exceeds that of the input signal, its effects may be neglected resulting in an essentially perfect digital representation of the analog input signal.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [ 3967, 41706, 201605, 7310614, 151474, 41296, 8163506, 38483165, 37864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 69 ], [ 74, 95 ], [ 161, 174 ], [ 239, 249 ], [ 339, 347 ], [ 352, 358 ], [ 414, 438 ], [ 517, 522 ], [ 763, 795 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The resolution of the converter indicates the number of different, ie discrete, values it can produce over the allowed range of analog input values. Thus a particular resolution determines the magnitude of the quantization error and therefore determines the maximum possible signal-to-noise ratio for an ideal ADC without the use of oversampling. The input samples are usually stored electronically in binary form within the ADC, so the resolution is usually expressed as the audio bit depth. In consequence, the number of discrete values available is usually a power of two. For example, an ADC with a resolution of 8 bits can encode an analog input to one in 256 different levels (28=256). The values can represent the ranges from 0 to 255 (i.e. as unsigned integers) or from −128 to 127 (i.e. as signed integer), depending on the application.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [ 317018, 41706, 1339640, 238686, 7310614 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 210, 228 ], [ 275, 296 ], [ 333, 345 ], [ 403, 409 ], [ 477, 492 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Resolution can also be defined electrically, and expressed in volts. The change in voltage required to guarantee a change in the output code level is called the least significant bit (LSB) voltage. The resolution Q of the ADC is equal to the LSB voltage. The voltage resolution of an ADC is equal to its overall voltage measurement range divided by the number of intervals:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [ 32567, 11310261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 66 ], [ 161, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where M is the ADC's resolution in bits and EFSR is the full scale voltage range (also called 'span'). EFSR is given by", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where VRefHi and VRefLow are the upper and lower extremes, respectively, of the voltages that can be coded.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Normally, the number of voltage intervals is given by", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where M is the ADC's resolution in bits.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "That is, one voltage interval is assigned in between two consecutive code levels.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Example:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Coding scheme as in figure 1", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Full scale measurement range = 0 to 1 volt", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [ 1251763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ADC resolution is 3 bits: 23 = 8 quantization levels (codes)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ADC voltage resolution, Q = 1V / 8 = 0.125V.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In many cases, the useful resolution of a converter is limited by the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and other errors in the overall system expressed as an ENOB.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [ 41706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Quantization error is introduced by the quantization inherent in an ideal ADC. It is a rounding error between the analog input voltage to the ADC and the output digitized value. The error is nonlinear and signal-dependent. In an ideal ADC, where the quantization error is uniformly distributed between −1/2 LSB and +1/2 LSB, and the signal has a uniform distribution covering all quantization levels, the signal-to-quantization-noise ratio (SQNR) is given by", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [ 317018, 3321592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 52 ], [ 405, 439 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where Q is the number of quantization bits. For example, for a 16-bit ADC, the quantization error is 96.3dB below the maximum level.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [ 7310614 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Quantization error is distributed from DC to the Nyquist frequency. Consequently, if part of the ADC's bandwidth is not used, as is the case with oversampling, some of the quantization error will occur out-of-band, effectively improving the SQNR for the bandwidth in use. In an oversampled system, noise shaping can be used to further increase SQNR by forcing more quantization error out of band.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [ 164685, 1339640, 342335, 1244240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 66 ], [ 146, 158 ], [ 202, 213 ], [ 299, 312 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In ADCs, performance can usually be improved using dither. This is a very small amount of random noise (e.g. white noise), which is added to the input before conversion. Its effect is to randomize the state of the LSB based on the signal. Rather than the signal simply getting cut off altogether at low levels, it extends the effective range of signals that the ADC can convert, at the expense of a slight increase in noise. Note that dither can only increase the resolution of a sampler. It cannot improve the linearity, and thus accuracy does not necessarily improve.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [ 1243526, 46182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 57 ], [ 109, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Quantization distortion in an audio signal of very low level with respect to the bit depth of the ADC is correlated with the signal and sounds distorted and unpleasant. With dithering, the distortion is transformed into noise. The undistorted signal may be recovered accurately by averaging over time. Dithering is also used in integrating systems such as electricity meters. Since the values are added together, the dithering produces results that are more exact than the LSB of the analog-to-digital converter.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [ 1138590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 356, 373 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dither is often applied when quantizing photographic images to a fewer number of bits per pixel—the image becomes noisier but to the eye looks far more realistic than the quantized image, which otherwise becomes banded. This analogous process may help to visualize the effect of dither on an analog audio signal that is converted to digital.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [ 552122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 212, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An ADC has several sources of errors. Quantization error and (assuming the ADC is intended to be linear) non-linearity are intrinsic to any analog-to-digital conversion. These errors are measured in a unit called the least significant bit (LSB). In the above example of an eight-bit ADC, an error of one LSB is 1/256 of the full signal range, or about 0.4%.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [ 317018, 91591, 11310261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 50 ], [ 109, 118 ], [ 217, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All ADCs suffer from nonlinearity errors caused by their physical imperfections, causing their output to deviate from a linear function (or some other function, in the case of a deliberately nonlinear ADC) of their input. These errors can sometimes be mitigated by calibration, or prevented by testing. Important parameters for linearity are integral nonlinearity and differential nonlinearity. These nonlinearities introduce distortion that can reduce the signal-to-noise ratio performance of the ADC and thus reduce its effective resolution.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [ 47502, 18538136, 14065259, 41706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 265, 276 ], [ 342, 363 ], [ 368, 393 ], [ 457, 478 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When digitizing a sine wave , the use of a non-ideal sampling clock will result in some uncertainty in when samples are recorded. Provided that the actual sampling time uncertainty due to clock jitter is , the error caused by this phenomenon can be estimated as . This will result in additional recorded noise that will reduce the effective number of bits (ENOB) below that predicted by quantization error alone. The error is zero for DC, small at low frequencies, but significant with signals of high amplitude and high frequency. The effect of jitter on performance can be compared to quantization error: , where q is the number of ADC bits.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [ 41296, 8163506, 317018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 194, 200 ], [ 332, 356 ], [ 388, 406 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Clock jitter is caused by phase noise. The resolution of ADCs with a digitization bandwidth between 1MHz and 1GHz is limited by jitter. For lower bandwidth conversions such as when sampling audio signals at 44.1kHz, clock jitter has a less significant impact on performance.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [ 41549, 386407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 37 ], [ 69, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An analog signal is continuous in time and it is necessary to convert this to a flow of digital values. It is therefore required to define the rate at which new digital values are sampled from the analog signal. The rate of new values is called the sampling rate or sampling frequency of the converter. A continuously varying bandlimited signal can be sampled and then the original signal can be reproduced from the discrete-time values by a reconstruction filter. The Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem implies that a faithful reproduction of the original signal is only possible if the sampling rate is higher than twice the highest frequency of the signal.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [ 6122, 30012, 201605, 201605, 1875242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 30 ], [ 34, 38 ], [ 266, 284 ], [ 352, 359 ], [ 442, 463 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since a practical ADC cannot make an instantaneous conversion, the input value must necessarily be held constant during the time that the converter performs a conversion (called the conversion time). An input circuit called a sample and hold performs this task—in most cases by using a capacitor to store the analog voltage at the input, and using an electronic switch or gate to disconnect the capacitor from the input. Many ADC integrated circuits include the sample and hold subsystem internally.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [ 571325, 4932111, 15150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 226, 241 ], [ 286, 295 ], [ 430, 448 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An ADC works by sampling the value of the input at discrete intervals in time. Provided that the input is sampled above the Nyquist rate, defined as twice the highest frequency of interest, then all frequencies in the signal can be reconstructed. If frequencies above half the Nyquist rate are sampled, they are incorrectly detected as lower frequencies, a process referred to as aliasing. Aliasing occurs because instantaneously sampling a function at two or fewer times per cycle results in missed cycles, and therefore the appearance of an incorrectly lower frequency. For example, a 2kHz sine wave being sampled at 1.5kHz would be reconstructed as a 500Hz sine wave.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [ 41435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To avoid aliasing, the input to an ADC must be low-pass filtered to remove frequencies above half the sampling rate. This filter is called an anti-aliasing filter, and is essential for a practical ADC system that is applied to analog signals with higher frequency content. In applications where protection against aliasing is essential, oversampling may be used to greatly reduce or even eliminate it.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [ 56484, 1291949 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 62 ], [ 142, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although aliasing in most systems is unwanted, it can be exploited to provide simultaneous down-mixing of a band-limited high-frequency signal (see undersampling and frequency mixer). The alias is effectively the lower heterodyne of the signal frequency and sampling frequency.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [ 326462, 482952, 41234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 161 ], [ 166, 181 ], [ 219, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For economy, signals are often sampled at the minimum rate required with the result that the quantization error introduced is white noise spread over the whole passband of the converter. If a signal is sampled at a rate much higher than the Nyquist rate and then digitally filtered to limit it to the signal bandwidth produces the following advantages:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [ 46182, 41488, 41435, 41033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 137 ], [ 160, 168 ], [ 241, 253 ], [ 263, 281 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Oversampling can make it easier to realize analog anti-aliasing filters", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Improved audio bit depth", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [ 7310614 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Reduced noise, especially when noise shaping is employed in addition to oversampling.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [ 1244240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Oversampling is typically used in audio frequency ADCs where the required sampling rate (typically 44.1 or 48kHz) is very low compared to the clock speed of typical transistor circuits (>1MHz). In this case, the performance of the ADC can be greatly increased at little or no cost. Furthermore, as any aliased signals are also typically out of band, aliasing can often be completely eliminated using very low cost filters.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The speed of an ADC varies by type. The Wilkinson ADC is limited by the clock rate which is processable by current digital circuits. For a successive-approximation ADC, the conversion time scales with the logarithm of the resolution, i.e. the number of bits. Flash ADCs are certainly the fastest type of the three; The conversion is basically performed in a single parallel step.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [ 40367, 5655191, 4894414 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 53 ], [ 139, 167 ], [ 259, 268 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is a potential tradeoff between speed and precision. Flash ADCs have drifts and uncertainties associated with the comparator levels results in poor linearity. To a lesser extent, poor linearity can also be an issue for successive-approximation ADCs. Here, nonlinearity arises from accumulating errors from the subtraction processes. Wilkinson ADCs have the best linearity of the three.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The sliding scale or randomizing method can be employed to greatly improve the linearity of any type of ADC, but especially flash and successive approximation types. For any ADC the mapping from input voltage to digital output value is not exactly a floor or ceiling function as it should be. Under normal conditions, a pulse of a particular amplitude is always converted to the same digital value. The problem lies in that the ranges of analog values for the digitized values are not all of the same widths, and the differential linearity decreases proportionally with the divergence from the average width. The sliding scale principle uses an averaging effect to overcome this phenomenon. A random, but known analog voltage is added to the sampled input voltage. It is then converted to digital form, and the equivalent digital amount is subtracted, thus restoring it to its original value. The advantage is that the conversion has taken place at a random point. The statistical distribution of the final levels is decided by a weighted average over a region of the range of the ADC. This in turn desensitizes it to the width of any specific level.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Explanation", "target_page_ids": [ 54267, 54267, 14065259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 251, 256 ], [ 260, 276 ], [ 518, 540 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These are several common ways of implementing an electronic ADC.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A direct-conversion or flash ADC has a bank of comparators sampling the input signal in parallel, each firing for a specific voltage range. The comparator bank feeds a logic circuit that generates a code for each voltage range.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 40929, 18168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 57 ], [ 168, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ADCs of this type have a large die size and high power dissipation. They are often used for video, wideband communications, or other fast signals in optical and magnetic storage.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 7736707, 32441, 863794, 2343045, 896356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 34 ], [ 92, 97 ], [ 99, 122 ], [ 149, 156 ], [ 161, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The circuit consists of a resistive divider network, a set of op-amp comparators and a priority encoder. A small amount of hysteresis is built into the comparator to resolve any problems at voltage boundaries. At each node of the resistive divider, a comparison voltage is available. The purpose of the circuit is to compare the analog input voltage with each of the node voltages.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The circuit has the advantage of high speed as the conversion takes place simultaneously rather than sequentially. Typical conversion time is 100ns or less. Conversion time is limited only by the speed of the comparator and of the priority encoder. This type of ADC has the disadvantage that the number of comparators required almost doubles for each added bit. Also, the larger the value of n, the more complex is the priority encoder.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A successive-approximation ADC uses a comparator and a binary search to successively narrow a range that contains the input voltage. At each successive step, the converter compares the input voltage to the output of an internal digital to analog converter which initially represents the midpoint of the allowed input voltage range. At each step in this process, the approximation is stored in a successive approximation register (SAR) and the output of the digital to analog converter is updated for a comparison over a narrower range.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 5655191, 4266, 92943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 30 ], [ 55, 68 ], [ 228, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A ramp-compare ADC produces a saw-tooth signal that ramps up or down then quickly returns to zero.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 52147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When the ramp starts, a timer starts counting. When the ramp voltage matches the input, a comparator fires, and the timer's value is recorded. Timed ramp converters can be implemented economically, however, the ramp time may be sensitive to temperature because the circuit generating the ramp is often a simple analog integrator. A more accurate converter uses a clocked counter driving a DAC. A special advantage of the ramp-compare system is that converting a second signal just requires another comparator and another register to store the timer value. To reduce sensitivity to input changes during conversion, a sample and hold can charge a capacitor with the instantaneous input voltage and the converter can time the time required to discharge with a constant current.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 1047173, 92943, 571325, 18859574 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 319, 329 ], [ 390, 393 ], [ 617, 632 ], [ 758, 774 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Wilkinson ADC was designed by Denys Wilkinson in 1950. The Wilkinson ADC is based on the comparison of an input voltage with that produced by a charging capacitor. The capacitor is allowed to charge until a comparator determines it matches the input voltage. Then, the capacitor is discharged linearly. The time required to discharge the capacitor is proportional to the amplitude of the input voltage. While the capacitor is discharging, pulses from a high-frequency oscillator clock are counted by a register. The number of clock pulses recorded in the register is also proportional to the input voltage.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 5277820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An integrating ADC (also dual-slope or multi-slope ADC) applies the unknown input voltage to the input of an integrator and allows the voltage to ramp for a fixed time period (the run-up period). Then a known reference voltage of opposite polarity is applied to the integrator and is allowed to ramp until the integrator output returns to zero (the run-down period). The input voltage is computed as a function of the reference voltage, the constant run-up time period, and the measured run-down time period. The run-down time measurement is usually made in units of the converter's clock, so longer integration times allow for higher resolutions. Likewise, the speed of the converter can be improved by sacrificing resolution. Converters of this type (or variations on the concept) are used in most digital voltmeters for their linearity and flexibility.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 22269055, 2734328, 32743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 18 ], [ 109, 119 ], [ 800, 817 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Charge balancing ADC The principle of charge balancing ADC is to first convert the input signal to a frequency using a voltage-to-frequency converter. This frequency is then measured by a counter and converted to an output code proportional to the analog input. The main advantage of these converters is that it is possible to transmit frequency even in a noisy environment or in isolated form. However, the limitation of this circuit is that the output of the voltage-to-frequency converter depends upon an RC product whose value cannot be accurately maintained over temperature and time.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 599563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dual-slope ADC The analog part of the circuit consists of a high input impedance buffer, precision integrator and a voltage comparator. The converter first integrates the analog input signal for a fixed duration and then it integrates an internal reference voltage of opposite polarity until the integrator output is zero. The main disadvantage of this circuit is the long duration time. They are particularly suitable for accurate measurement of slowly varying signals such as thermocouples and weighing scales.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 30990, 964428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 479, 491 ], [ 497, 511 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A delta-encoded or counter-ramp ADC has an up-down counter that feeds a digital to analog converter (DAC). The input signal and the DAC both go to a comparator. The comparator controls the counter. The circuit uses negative feedback from the comparator to adjust the counter until the DAC's output matches the input signal and number is read from the counter. Delta converters have very wide ranges and high resolution, but the conversion time is dependent on the input signal behavior, though it will always have a guaranteed worst-case. Delta converters are often very good choices to read real-world signals as most signals from physical systems do not change abruptly. Some converters combine the delta and successive approximation approaches; this works especially well when high frequency components of the input signal are known to be small in magnitude.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 7647, 92943, 11545 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 58 ], [ 72, 99 ], [ 224, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A pipelined ADC (also called subranging quantizer) uses two or more conversion steps. First, a coarse conversion is done. In a second step, the difference to the input signal is determined with a digital to analog converter (DAC). This difference is then converted more precisely, and the results are combined in the last step. This can be considered a refinement of the successive-approximation ADC wherein the feedback reference signal consists of the interim conversion of a whole range of bits (for example, four bits) rather than just the next-most-significant bit. By combining the merits of the successive approximation and flash ADCs this type is fast, has a high resolution, and can be implemented efficiently.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 92943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 196, 223 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A sigma-delta ADC (also known as a delta-sigma ADC) oversamples the incoming signal by a large factor using a smaller number of bits than required are converted using a flash ADC and filters the desired signal band. The resulting signal, along with the error generated by the discrete levels of the flash, is fed back and subtracted from the input to the filter. This negative feedback has the effect of noise shaping the quantization error that it does not appear in the desired signal frequencies. A digital filter (decimation filter) follows the ADC which reduces the sampling rate, filters off unwanted noise signal and increases the resolution of the output.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 1244240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 404, 417 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A time-interleaved ADC uses M parallel ADCs where each ADC samples data every M:th cycle of the effective sample clock. The result is that the sample rate is increased M times compared to what each individual ADC can manage. In practice, the individual differences between the M ADCs degrade the overall performance reducing the spurious-free dynamic range (SFDR). However, techniques exist to correct for these time-interleaving mismatch errors.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 14615532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 329, 356 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An ADC with an intermediate FM stage first uses a voltage-to-frequency converter to produce an oscillating signal with a frequency proportional to the voltage of the input signal, and then uses a frequency counter to convert that frequency into a digital count proportional to the desired signal voltage. Longer integration times allow for higher resolutions. Likewise, the speed of the converter can be improved by sacrificing resolution. The two parts of the ADC may be widely separated, with the frequency signal passed through an opto-isolator or transmitted wirelessly. Some such ADCs use sine wave or square wave frequency modulation; others use pulse-frequency modulation. Such ADCs were once the most popular way to show a digital display of the status of a remote analog sensor.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 599563, 578666, 465393, 10835, 17512802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 80 ], [ 196, 213 ], [ 534, 547 ], [ 619, 639 ], [ 652, 678 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A Time-stretch analog-to-digital converter (TS-ADC) digitizes a very wide bandwidth analog signal, that cannot be digitized by a conventional electronic ADC, by time-stretching the signal prior to digitization. It commonly uses a photonic preprocessor to time-stretch the signal, which effectively slows the signal down in time and compresses its bandwidth. As a result, an electronic ADC, that would have been too slow to capture the original signal, can now capture this slowed-down signal. For continuous capture of the signal, the frontend also divides the signal into multiple segments in addition to time-stretching. Each segment is individually digitized by a separate electronic ADC. Finally, a digital signal processor rearranges the samples and removes any distortions added by the preprocessor to yield the binary data that is the digital representation of the original analog signal.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 20101779, 184904, 81971, 154505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 42 ], [ 230, 238 ], [ 239, 251 ], [ 703, 727 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In many cases, the most expensive part of an integrated circuit is the pins, because they make the package larger, and each pin has to be connected to the integrated circuit's silicon. To save pins, it is common for ADCs to send their data one bit at a time over a serial interface to the computer, with each bit coming out when a clock signal changes state. This saves quite a few pins on the ADC package, and in many cases, does not make the overall design any more complex.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Commercial", "target_page_ids": [ 77359, 182693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 265, 281 ], [ 331, 343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Commercial ADCs often have several inputs that feed the same converter, usually through an analog multiplexer. Different models of ADC may include sample and hold circuits, instrumentation amplifiers or differential inputs, where the quantity measured is the difference between two inputs.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Commercial", "target_page_ids": [ 38542, 571325, 9931, 1423256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 109 ], [ 147, 162 ], [ 189, 198 ], [ 203, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Analog-to-digital converters are integral to modern music reproduction technology and digital audio workstation-based sound recording. Music may be produced on computers using an analog recording and therefore analog-to-digital converters are needed to create the pulse-code modulation (PCM) data streams that go onto compact discs and digital music files. The current crop of analog-to-digital converters utilized in music can sample at rates up to 192 kilohertz. Many recording studios record in 24-bit/96kHz pulse-code modulation (PCM) format and then downsample and dither the signal for Compact Disc Digital Audio production (44.1kHz) or to 48kHz for radio and television broadcast applications.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 431270, 2417230, 25513330, 6429, 14121, 1315049, 41920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 111 ], [ 118, 133 ], [ 265, 286 ], [ 319, 331 ], [ 455, 464 ], [ 556, 566 ], [ 593, 619 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ADCs are required in digital signal processing systems that process, store, or transport virtually any analog signal in digital form. TV tuner cards, for example, use fast video analog-to-digital converters. Slow on-chip 8-, 10-, 12-, or 16-bit analog-to-digital converters are common in microcontrollers. Digital storage oscilloscopes need very fast analog-to-digital converters, also crucial for software-defined radio and their new applications.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 8525, 626814, 21017, 33353907, 83137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 46 ], [ 134, 147 ], [ 288, 303 ], [ 306, 334 ], [ 398, 420 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Digital imaging systems commonly use analog-to-digital converters for digitizing pixels. Some radar systems use analog-to-digital converters to convert signal strength to digital values for subsequent signal processing. Many other in situ and remote sensing systems commonly use analogous technology.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 275682, 23665, 25676, 690346, 29324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 82, 87 ], [ 95, 100 ], [ 153, 168 ], [ 202, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many sensors in scientific instruments produce an analog signal; temperature, pressure, pH, light intensity etc. All these signals can be amplified and fed to an ADC to produce a digital representation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 235757, 20647050, 23619, 24530, 5385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 11 ], [ 65, 76 ], [ 78, 86 ], [ 88, 90 ], [ 92, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some non-electronic or only partially electronic devices, such as rotary encoders, can also be considered ADCs. Typically the digital output of an ADC will be a two's complement binary number that is proportional to the input. An encoder might output a Gray code.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 741020, 307145, 50564 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 80 ], [ 161, 177 ], [ 253, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flat-panel displays are inherently digital and need an ADC to process an analog signal such as composite or VGA.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 293396, 149902, 73041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 95, 104 ], [ 108, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Testing an analog-to-digital converter requires an analog input source and hardware to send control signals and capture digital data output. Some ADCs also require an accurate source of reference signal.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Testing", "target_page_ids": [ 21808348 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The key parameters to test an ADC are:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Testing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " DC offset error", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Testing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " DC gain error", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Testing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Testing", "target_page_ids": [ 41706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Total harmonic distortion (THD)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Testing", "target_page_ids": [ 41802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Integral nonlinearity (INL)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Testing", "target_page_ids": [ 18538136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Differential nonlinearity (DNL)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Testing", "target_page_ids": [ 14065259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Spurious free dynamic range", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Testing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Power dissipation", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Testing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Adaptive predictive coding, a type of ADC in which the value of the signal is predicted by a linear function", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 40694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Audio codec", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 54474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Beta encoder", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28854622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Integral linearity", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4819510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Modem", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20647197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " An Introduction to Delta Sigma Converters A very nice overview of Delta-Sigma converter theory.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Digital Dynamic Analysis of A/D Conversion Systems through Evaluation Software based on FFT/DFT Analysis RF Expo East, 1987", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Which ADC Architecture Is Right for Your Application? article by Walt Kester", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ADC and DAC Glossary Defines commonly used technical terms.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Introduction to ADC in AVR – Analog to digital conversion with Atmel microcontrollers", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Signal processing and system aspects of time-interleaved ADCs.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Explanation of analog-digital converters with interactive principles of operations.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " MATLAB Simulink model of a simple ramp ADC.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Digital_signal_processing", "Electronic_circuits" ]

[ "ADC" ]

[ { "plaintext": "John Edward Thaw, (3 January 1942 – 21 February 2002) was an English actor who appeared in a range of television, stage, and cinema roles. He starred in the television series Inspector Morse as title character Detective Chief Inspector Endeavour Morse, Redcap as Sergeant John Mann, The Sweeney as Detective Inspector Jack Regan, Home to Roost as Henry Willows, and Kavanagh QC as title character James Kavanagh.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11629634, 14762, 1041870, 429550, 1667411, 2614273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 191 ], [ 211, 252 ], [ 254, 260 ], [ 284, 295 ], [ 331, 344 ], [ 367, 378 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thaw was born in Gorton, Manchester, to working-class parents John Edward (\"Jack\") Thaw (died 1997), a tool-setter at the Fairey Aviation Company aircraft factory, later a long-distance lorry driver, and Dorothy (née Ablott). Thaw had a difficult childhood as his mother left when he was seven years old. His younger brother, Raymond Stuart \"Ray\" emigrated to Australia in the mid-1960s. Thaw grew up in Gorton and Burnage, attending the Ducie Technical High School for Boys. He entered the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA) at the age of 16.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 1414171, 20206, 508042, 1414171, 1356727, 23417306, 163026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 23 ], [ 25, 35 ], [ 122, 145 ], [ 404, 410 ], [ 415, 422 ], [ 438, 465 ], [ 491, 520 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soon after leaving RADA, Thaw made his formal stage début in A Shred of Evidence at the Liverpool Playhouse and was awarded a contract with the theatre. His first film role was a bit part in the adaptation of The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner (1962) starring Tom Courtenay and he also acted on-stage opposite Sir Laurence Olivier in Semi-Detached (1962) by David Turner. He appeared in several episodes of the BBC police series Z-Cars in 1963–64 as a detective constable. Between 1964 and 1966, he starred in two series of the ABC Weekend Television/ITV production Redcap, playing the hard-nosed military policeman Sergeant John Mann. He was also a guest star in an early episode of The Avengers. In 1967 he appeared in Bat Out of Hell. In 1967 he appeared in the Granada TV/ITV series, Inheritance, alongside James Bolam and Michael Goodliffe, as well as appearing in TV plays such as The Talking Head and episodes of series such as Budgie, where he played against type (opposite Adam Faith) as the son of an elderly prostitute Budgie is \"noncing\" for: an effeminate failed playwright with a full beard and a Welsh accent.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 1172205, 17228730, 163366, 43675, 18963934, 29610250, 19344654, 865087, 179284, 58089, 1041870, 31523, 39909554, 180153, 8218272, 860876, 3522848, 860898, 193436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 107 ], [ 209, 251 ], [ 268, 281 ], [ 318, 338 ], [ 342, 355 ], [ 366, 378 ], [ 419, 422 ], [ 437, 443 ], [ 536, 558 ], [ 559, 562 ], [ 574, 580 ], [ 692, 704 ], [ 729, 744 ], [ 773, 783 ], [ 796, 807 ], [ 819, 830 ], [ 835, 852 ], [ 943, 949 ], [ 990, 1000 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thaw will perhaps be best remembered for two television roles: the hard-bitten, tough-talking Flying Squad detective Jack Regan in The Sweeney (1975–1978), and the quietly spoken, introspective, well-educated and bitter Detective Chief Inspector Endeavour Morse in Inspector Morse (1987–93, with later specials until 2000). His role as Regan in the Thames Television/ITV series, along with two film spin-offs, established him as a major star in the United Kingdom. Thaw was only 32 when he was cast in The Sweeney, although many viewers thought he was older.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 352291, 429550, 14762, 11629634, 226719, 58089 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 106 ], [ 131, 142 ], [ 220, 261 ], [ 265, 280 ], [ 350, 367 ], [ 368, 371 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alongside his put-upon Detective Sergeant Robert \"Robbie\" Lewis (Kevin Whately), Morse became a high-profile character—\"a cognitive curmudgeon with his love of classical music, his drinking, his classic Jaguar and spates of melancholy\". According to The Guardian, \"Thaw was the definitive Morse, grumpy, crossword-fixated, drunk, slightly anti-feminist, and pedantic about grammar.\" Inspector Morse became one of the UK's most loved TV series; at its peak in the mid-90's, ratings hit 18 million people, about one third of the British population. He won \"Most Popular Actor\" at the 1999 National Television Awards and won two BAFTA awards for his role as Morse.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 5720935, 238363, 19344515, 2995866, 147943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 63 ], [ 65, 78 ], [ 250, 262 ], [ 587, 613 ], [ 626, 631 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He subsequently played liberal working-class Lancastrian barrister James Kavanagh in Kavanagh QC (1995–99, and a special in 2001). Thaw also appeared in two sitcoms—Thick as Thieves (London Weekend/ITV, 1974) with Bob Hoskins and Home to Roost (Yorkshire/ITV, 1985–90). Thaw is mainly known in America for the Morse series, as well as the BBC series A Year in Provence (1993) with Lindsay Duncan.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 50435, 4848, 2614273, 43377371, 226939, 164228, 1667411, 268090, 16694742, 2464336 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 56 ], [ 57, 66 ], [ 85, 96 ], [ 165, 181 ], [ 183, 201 ], [ 214, 225 ], [ 230, 243 ], [ 245, 258 ], [ 350, 368 ], [ 381, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He appeared in a number of films for director Richard Attenborough, including Cry Freedom, where he portrayed the conservative South African justice minister Jimmy Kruger (for which he received a BAFTA nomination for Best Supporting Actor), and Chaplin alongside Robert Downey Jr.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 26546076, 707823, 5074089, 171058, 171045 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 66 ], [ 78, 89 ], [ 158, 170 ], [ 245, 252 ], [ 263, 280 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thaw also appeared in the TV adaptation of the Michelle Magorian book Goodnight Mister Tom (Carlton Television/ITV). It won \"Most Popular Drama\" at the National Television Awards, 1999.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 1958300, 914619, 223493, 2995866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 64 ], [ 70, 90 ], [ 92, 110 ], [ 153, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 1970s and '80s, Thaw appeared in productions with the Royal Shakespeare Company and National Theatre. He was the subject of This Is Your Life in 1981 when he was surprised by Eamonn Andrews in the foyer of the National Theatre in London.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 167785, 167775, 11468408, 163381 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 90 ], [ 95, 111 ], [ 135, 152 ], [ 186, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the summer of 1964, Thaw married Sally Alexander, a feminist activist and theatre stage manager, and now professor of history at Goldsmiths, University of London. They divorced four years later. He met actress Sheila Hancock in 1969 on the set of a London comedy, So What About Love? She was married to fellow actor Alexander \"Alec\" Ross, and after Thaw professed his love to Hancock, she told him that she would not have an affair. Following the death of her husband (from oesophageal cancer) in 1971, Thaw and Hancock married on 24 December 1973 in Cirencester, and he remained with her until his death in 2002 (also from oesophageal cancer).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 59140087, 164455, 733661, 243539, 159168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 51 ], [ 132, 164 ], [ 213, 227 ], [ 477, 495 ], [ 554, 565 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He had three daughters (all of whom are actresses): Abigail from his first marriage to Sally Alexander, Joanna from his second marriage to Sheila Hancock, and he also adopted Sheila Hancock's daughter Melanie Jane, from Hancock's first marriage to Alec Ross. Melanie Jane legally changed her surname from Ross to Thaw. His granddaughter Molly Whitmey made a cameo in the Endeavour episode Oracle (series 7, episode 1, broadcast 1 February 2020) as the younger version of her grandmother Sally Alexander.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 15422547, 733661, 34246737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 59 ], [ 139, 153 ], [ 371, 380 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thaw was a committed socialist and a lifelong supporter of the Labour Party. He was appointed a Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (CBE) in March 1993 by Queen Elizabeth II. In September 2006, Thaw was voted by the general public as number 3, after David Jason and Morecambe and Wise, in a poll of TV's 50 Greatest Stars for the past 50 years.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 19279158, 212182, 12153654, 51801, 224274 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 75 ], [ 96, 155 ], [ 185, 197 ], [ 274, 285 ], [ 290, 308 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A heavy drinker until going teetotal in 1995, and a heavy smoker from the age of 12, Thaw was diagnosed with cancer of the oesophagus in June 2001. He underwent chemotherapy in hope of overcoming the illness, and at first had appeared to respond well to the treatment. However, just before Christmas 2001 he was informed that the cancer had spread and the prognosis was terminal.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Illness and death", "target_page_ids": [ 47840877, 243539, 7172, 712395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 36 ], [ 109, 133 ], [ 161, 173 ], [ 370, 378 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He died on 21 February 2002, seven weeks after his 60th birthday, the day after he signed a new contract with ITV, and the day before his wife's birthday. At the time of his death he was living at his country home, near the villages of Luckington and Sherston in Wiltshire, and was cremated in Westerleigh, near Yate in South Gloucestershire, in a private service. 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Singular", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Television, film and stage performances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1977 The Two of Us (Revival)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Television, film and stage performances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1978 Night and Day", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Television, film and stage performances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1982 Serjeant Musgrave's Dance", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Television, film and stage performances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1983 Twelfth Night", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Television, film and stage performances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1983 The Time of Your Life", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Television, film and stage performances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1983 Henry VIII", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Television, film and stage performances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1984 Pygmalion", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Television, film and stage performances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1986 Two into One (Revival)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Television, film and stage performances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1988 All My Sons", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Television, film and stage performances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1993 The Absence of War by David Hare", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Television, film and stage performances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2001 Peter Pan as Captain Hook", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Television, film and stage performances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Won", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1977 Evening Standard British Film Award – Best Actor for: Sweeney!", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 2845957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1990 British Academy Award – Best Actor for: \"Inspector Morse\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 150200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1993 British Academy Award – Best Actor for: \"Inspector Morse\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1994 CBE", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 212182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1995 Aftonbladet TV Prize, Sweden – Best Foreign TV Personality – Male (Bästa utländska man)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1998 National Television Award – Most Popular Actor for: \"Inspector Morse\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 2995866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1998 Special Recognition Award – Most Popular Actor for: \"Inspector Morse\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 43143540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1999 National Television Award – Most Popular Actor for: \"Goodnight, Mister Tom\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2001 National Television Award – Most Popular Actor for: \"Inspector Morse\" and Academy Fellowship", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Nominated", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1988 British Academy Award – Best Actor in a Supporting Role for: \"Cry Freedom\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1991 British Academy Award – Best Actor for: \"Inspector Morse\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1992 British Academy Award – Best Actor for: \"Inspector Morse\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2000 National Television Award – Most Popular Actor for: \"Monsignor Renard\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2002 National Television Award – Most Popular Actor for: \"Buried Treasure\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A memorial bench is dedicated to Thaw within the grounds of St Paul's Covent Garden.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 3547687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hancock, Sheila (2004). The Two of Us: My Life with John Thaw. London: Bloomsbury. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "John Thaw: The Biography. Stafford Hildred and Tim Ewbank. London: Andre Deutsch. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1942_births", "2002_deaths", "Alumni_of_the_Royal_Academy_of_Dramatic_Art", "English_male_television_actors", "English_male_film_actors", "English_male_stage_actors", "English_socialists", "Male_actors_from_Manchester", "BAFTA_fellows", "Best_Actor_BAFTA_Award_(television)_winners", "Commanders_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire", "People_from_Gorton", "Deaths_from_esophageal_cancer", "Inspector_Morse", "Deaths_from_cancer_in_England", "Labour_Party_(UK)_people", "People_educated_at_Ducie_Technical_High_School_for_Boys", "Royal_Shakespeare_Company_members" ]

[ "John Edward Thaw" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Space technology is technology for use in outer space, in travel (astronautics) or other activities beyond Earth's atmosphere, for purposes such as spaceflight, space exploration, and Earth observation. Space technology includes space vehicles such as spacecraft, satellites, space stations and orbital launch vehicles; deep-space communication; in-space propulsion; and a wide variety of other technologies including support infrastructure equipment, and procedures.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 29816, 177602, 194268, 77178, 28431, 46597, 677899, 37910, 27683, 50896, 738178, 1306157 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 30 ], [ 42, 53 ], [ 66, 78 ], [ 148, 159 ], [ 161, 178 ], [ 184, 201 ], [ 229, 242 ], [ 252, 262 ], [ 264, 273 ], [ 276, 289 ], [ 295, 302 ], [ 303, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The space environment is a sufficiently novel environment that attempting to work in it often requires new tools and techniques.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1677464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many common everyday services for terrestrial use such as weather forecasting, remote sensing, satellite navigation systems, satellite television, and some long-distance communications systems critically rely on space infrastructure. Of the sciences, astronomy and Earth science benefit from space technology. New technologies originating with or accelerated by space-related endeavors are often subsequently exploited in other economic activities.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9228, 73231, 228148, 1515653, 7527410, 28244920, 3400190, 3406503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 45 ], [ 58, 77 ], [ 79, 93 ], [ 95, 115 ], [ 125, 145 ], [ 212, 232 ], [ 251, 260 ], [ 265, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first country on Earth to put any technology into space was Soviet Union, formally known as the \"Union of Soviet Socialist Republics\" (USSR). The USSR sent the Sputnik 1 satellite on October 4, 1957. It weighed about , and is believed to have orbited Earth at an altitude of about . It had two radio transmitters (20 and 40MHz), which emitted \"beeps\" that could be heard by radios around the globe. Analysis of the radio signals was used to gather information about the electron density of the ionosphere, while temperature and pressure data was encoded in the duration of radio beeps.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History of space technology", "target_page_ids": [ 26779, 28484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 76 ], [ 164, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first successful human spaceflight was Vostok 1, carrying 27-year-old Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin in April 1961. The entire mission was controlled by either automatic systems or by ground control. This was because medical staff and spacecraft engineers were unsure how a human might react to weightlessness, and therefore it was decided to lock the pilot's manual controls.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History of space technology", "target_page_ids": [ 32363, 34226, 779220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 51 ], [ 91, 103 ], [ 187, 201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first probe to impact the surface of the Moon was the Soviet probe Luna 2, which made a hard landing on September 14, 1959. The far side of the Moon was first photographed on October 7, 1959, by the Soviet probe Luna 3.s", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History of space technology", "target_page_ids": [ 81993, 81997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 77 ], [ 216, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On December 24, 1968, the crew of Apollo 8, Frank Borman, James Lovell and William Anders, became the first human beings to enter lunar orbit and see the far side of the Moon in person. Humans first landed on the Moon on July 20, 1969. The first human to walk on the lunar surface was Neil Armstrong, commander of Apollo 11.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History of space technology", "target_page_ids": [ 663, 80897, 344336, 82925, 21247, 662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 42 ], [ 44, 56 ], [ 58, 70 ], [ 75, 89 ], [ 285, 299 ], [ 314, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apollo 11 was followed by Apollo 12, 14, 15, 16, and 17. Apollo 13 had a failure of the Apollo service module, but passed the far side of the Moon at an altitude of above the lunar surface, and 400,171km (248,655mi) from Earth, marking the record for the farthest humans traveled from Earth in 1970.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History of space technology", "target_page_ids": [ 1967, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1770, 718111, 988372, 899424 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 35 ], [ 37, 39 ], [ 41, 43 ], [ 45, 47 ], [ 53, 55 ], [ 57, 66 ], [ 88, 109 ], [ 126, 146 ], [ 241, 247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first robotic lunar rover to land on the Moon was the Soviet vessel Lunokhod 1 on November 17, 1970, as part of the Lunokhod program. To date, the last human to stand on the Moon was Eugene Cernan, who as part of the Apollo 17 mission, walked on the Moon in December 1972. Apollo 17 was followed by several uncrewed interplanetary missions operated by NASA.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History of space technology", "target_page_ids": [ 28802456, 45116, 45114, 300531, 1971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 29 ], [ 72, 82 ], [ 120, 136 ], [ 187, 200 ], [ 221, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the notable interplanetary missions is Voyager 1, the first artificial object to leave our Solar System into interstellar space on August 25, 2012. It is also the most distant artificial object from Earth. The probe passed the heliopause at 121 AU to enter interstellar space. Voyager 1 is currently at a distance of (21.708 billion kilometers; 13.489 billion miles) from Earth as of January 1, 2019.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History of space technology", "target_page_ids": [ 32781, 8427933, 177602, 1131151, 1210, 69453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 55 ], [ 88, 110 ], [ 116, 134 ], [ 234, 244 ], [ 252, 254 ], [ 264, 282 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " NewSpace", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 752732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Spacecraft propulsion", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Space science", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28434 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "NASA images and videos of space technology", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "NASA solar system overview", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Space-Tech: To Infinity and Beyond", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Space_technology" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Ole Einar Bjørndalen (born 27 January 1974) is a retired Norwegian professional biathlete and coach, often referred to by the nickname, the \"King of Biathlon\". With 13 Winter Olympic Games medals, he is second on the list of multiple medalists behind Marit Bjørgen who has won 15 medals. He is also the most successful biathlete of all time at the Biathlon World Championships, having won 45 medals, more than double that of any other biathlete except Martin Fourcade. With 95 World Cup wins, Bjørndalen is ranked first all-time for career victories on the Biathlon World Cup tour, more than twice that of anyone else but Fourcade. He has won the Overall World Cup title six times, in 1997–98, in 2002–03, in 2004–05, in 2005–06, in 2007–08 and in 2008–09.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4405, 34069, 26248006, 2869013, 5039, 5039, 26050611, 447991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 89 ], [ 168, 188 ], [ 217, 243 ], [ 251, 264 ], [ 303, 340 ], [ 348, 376 ], [ 452, 467 ], [ 557, 575 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1992, he won his first career medal at the junior world championships. A year later in 1993, after winning three junior world championship titles, a medal haul only previously achieved by Sergei Tchepikov, Bjørndalen made his Biathlon World Cup debut. His breakthrough came in 1994 when he featured on his first World Cup podium in a sprint race held in Bad Gastein, Austria. Bjørndalen first competed in the Olympic Games at the Lillehammer 1994 Winter Olympics, held in his home country of Norway. He obtained his first major victory on 11 January 1996 in an individual competition held in Antholz-Anterselva, Italy. On 20 February 2014, Bjørndalen was elected to an eight-year term at the International Olympic Committee's athlete commission. He resigned from this role in 2016 as he elected to continue his career.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 447991, 1164847, 113198, 6539534, 15147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 229, 247 ], [ 357, 368 ], [ 433, 465 ], [ 595, 613 ], [ 695, 726 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the age of 16 Bjørndalen left home to pursue his sporting career at a sports academy in Geilo, where he initially trained in both cross-country skiing and biathlon, although after one year there he decided to focus on the latter.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 1455377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1993, at the age of 19, Bjørndalen first came into focus by winning 3 out of 4 possible gold medals at the Junior Biathlon World Championships, which among other things led to him being chosen to represent Norway in the 1994 Olympics, at the cost of highly merited biathlete Eirik Kvalfoss. At those Games Bjørndalen's best finish was a 28th position in the sprint.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 3245650, 38489340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 278, 292 ], [ 361, 367 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He has won the World Cup six times (1997–98, 2002–03, 2004–05, 2005–06, 2007–08, and 2008–09), finished second six times (1996–97, 1998–99, 1999–2000, 2000–01, 2003–04, and 2006–07), and third once (2001–02). In his first season (1992–93) he finished 62nd, the season after, 30th and the season after that, fourth. In the 1995–96 season, he dropped down to ninth, but finished in the runner-up position in 1996–97. When winning the overall world cup in 1998, at the age of 24, he won titles at each of the three major championships in biathlon in one season – a world championship gold medal, an Olympic gold medal and the overall World Cup title. He finished second in the overall World Cup for the following three seasons and then third in 2001–02.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 23201663, 1157732, 50864356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 560, 591 ], [ 593, 614 ], [ 742, 749 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His World Cup podium record is 179 podium finishes, 95 1st places, 53 2nd places, and 31 3rd places in the individual events. Bjørndalen has 1 World Cup victory in the team event. In relay Bjørndalen has won 37 races, he has also 21 2nd places and 14 3rd.places. In total he has 72 podium finishes in the world cup, relay event. Bjørndalen has 252 World cup podium finishes, individual, team and relay races combined in Biathlon, and 5 podium finishes in cross-country skiing World cup. In total Ole Einar Bjørndalen has 257 World cup podium finishes. When he took his 87th World Cup race victory in February 2009, he overtook Ingemar Stenmark as the skier with the most World Cup wins in history.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 895968 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 627, 643 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bjørndalen has won the Sprint world cup nine times in the seasons: 1994–1995, 1996–1997, 1997–1998, 1999–2000, 2000–01, 2002–03, 2004–05, 2007–08 and 2008–09. Ole Einar Bjoerndalen also came 2nd in the Sprint world cup in the seasons: 2003–04 and 2005–06. Ole Einar has won Pursuit world cup five times from 1999 to 1900, 2002–03, 2005–06, 2007–08 and 2008–09. He has 2nd place in the seasons 2000–01, 2003–04, 2004–05, 2006–07 and 3rd places in 1996–97, 1998–99 and 2001–02. Bjoerndalen has been winner of the Mass start world cup five times in: 2002–03, 2004–05, 2005–06, 2006–07 and 2007–08. He came 2nd in 2000–01, 2003–04 and 2008–09.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ole Einar Bjoerndalen was number 3 in the Mass start world cup in the season 1998–99. He has also once won the Individual distance world cup. It was in 2004–05. Bjoerndalen has also finished number 2 in the 1998–99, 2000–01, 2001–02 and 2005–06 seasons.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ole Einar also came 3rd in the 1997–98 season. He has won a total of 20 times, 13 times finished in second place and five times came in 3rd place. Overall, he has been on the podium 38 times.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bjørndalen has won the relay world cup 11 times in the seasons: 1997–98, 1999–00, 2000–01, 2001–02, 2003–04, 2004–05, 2007–08, 2009–10, 2010–11, 2015–16 and 2017–18. He has 6 times finished second in the world cup relay in: 1996–97, 2006–07, 2008–09, 2011–12, 2012–13 and 2014–15.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bjoerndalen also came in third place in 1998–99 and 2002–03. Altogether he has been on the podium 19 seasons in the world cup relay. Bjørndalen has won the mixed relay world cup 4 times. It happened in the seasons: 2012–13, 2013–14, 2014–15 and 2015–16.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bjørndalen has won (together with the Norwegian biathlon team) the nations cup ten times. It happened in the: 1998–99, 2002–03, 2003–04, 2004–05, 2007–08, 2008–09, 2010–11, 2013–14, 2014–15 and 2015–16 season. Bjørndalen has also achieved five-second places in the nations cup in the years: 1999–00, 2000–01, 2001–02, 2005–06 and 2012–13. He has finished in third place in the nations cup 3 times, in the: 1996–97, 1997–98 and 2006–07 season. In total he has finished 18 times at the podium in the nations cup for men.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He is the only biathlete ever to win all biathlon events in a single Winter Olympics (2002 Salt Lake City Games). This encompassed the sprint, pursuit, individual, and relay events, the latter together with three other participants. He was the most successful competitor at these Games. This also made him only the third Winter Olympian to win four golds at one Games, and he was also the first biathlete to win more than two gold medals at a single Games. In addition, he had won all three competitions staged at the Olympic test event in Salt Lake City the previous year. He also took a four gold medal haul at the Biathlon World Championships 2005 in Hochfilzen, Austria and at the Biathlon World Championships 2009 in Pyeongchang, South Korea. Bjørndalen's 95 biathlon World Cup victories and one cross-country victory is two behind of Gunda Niemann-Stirnemann's record of 98 World Cup victories for a winter sport athlete.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 38678, 1571747, 396156, 21166153, 393193, 1046637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 111 ], [ 617, 650 ], [ 654, 664 ], [ 685, 718 ], [ 722, 733 ], [ 840, 864 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Bjørndalen took three medals from five events, winning two silvers and a bronze. At the Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympics, Bjørndalen became the most successful biathlete in Winter Olympic history by surpassing the previous record of nine career Olympic medals, which he shared with Uschi Disl of Germany. He then anchored Norway to gold in the 4 × 7.5 km relay. This was the second time that Norway had won a title in this event, with the other being at the 2002 Winter Olympics (also anchored by Bjørndalen). With this victory he became the second most decorated Winter Olympian of all time and one of only two athletes to win 11 medals at the Winter Olympics. With his gold medal in 10km sprint at the Sochi 2014 Winter Olympics, he tied fellow Norwegian Bjørn Dæhlie for most Winter Olympic medals, with 12 in total, before overtaking Dæhlie by winning his second gold of the Games as part of the Norwegian mixed relay team.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 77743, 19450529, 178749, 2243311, 19842987, 21083973, 26248006, 893219, 806164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 27 ], [ 31, 36 ], [ 126, 140 ], [ 318, 328 ], [ 380, 396 ], [ 494, 514 ], [ 578, 627 ], [ 740, 750 ], [ 793, 805 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bjørndalen has won eight Olympic gold medals, four silver and a bronze. He has also won 20 World Championship gold medals, 14 silver and 11 bronze (more than anybody in biathlon history), along with a record 95 World Cup victories in biathlon and 1 World Cup victory in cross-country skiing, 179 podium finishes in biathlon individual races and 3 in cross-country skiing. He also finished in the top three of the Overall World Cup rankings for a record thirteen successive seasons between the 1996–97 and 2008–09 seasons. In total Ole Einar Bjørndalen has won 44 Norwegian Championship gold medals. He has won 30 gold medals in the Norwegian Championship, biathlon, winter event: 20 individual gold medals: individual (4), sprint (6), pursuit (6), mass start (4) and 10 gold medals in relay and the team event: relay (8) and team (2). Bjørndalen has also achieved 14 individual gold medals in the Norwegian Championship, biathlon, summer event: sprint (7) and pursuit (7).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 34069, 5039, 20016654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 32 ], [ 91, 109 ], [ 505, 512 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In January 2018 Arne Botnan, the sporting director for Norwegian biathlon, announced that Bjørndalen would not be selected for the 2018 Winter Olympics, after he failed to achieve the qualifying standard of a top six finish in a World Cup race before the Norwegian Biathlon Association was due to nominate its Olympic squad on the 15th of that month. However, he did travel to the Games after being accredited as part of the Belorussian Olympic delegation as a coach, in order to support Darya Domracheva. On 3 April 2018 Bjørndalen announced his retirement from competition, explaining that his form had been affected by heart murmurs several times during the previous season.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 54155917, 237419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 255, 285 ], [ 622, 634 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 2019, Bjørndalen and Domracheva were appointed as head coach and women's coach respectively of the Chinese biathlon team.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bjørndalen finished the 2005–06 International Biathlon Union World Cup season in first place, with Frenchman Raphaël Poirée in second place and German Sven Fischer in third. Bjørndalen lay in third place in the standings going into the last three races of the season in Holmenkollen, with Poirée in first, and Fischer in second. However, Bjørndalen won all three races, giving him six victories in the last eight races, and clinching the crystal globe. He also won the pursuit, and the mass start title, and came second in the individual and the sprint. In the pursuit he finished ahead of Fischer by 54 points, and 29 points ahead of Poirée in the mass start. In the individual he finished 41 points behind Michael Greis, and in the sprint he was 5 points behind Tomasz Sikora. Norway finished fourth in the relay.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 7038474, 447991, 463373, 2474438, 30933689, 4037762, 1269400 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 60 ], [ 61, 70 ], [ 109, 123 ], [ 151, 163 ], [ 270, 282 ], [ 708, 721 ], [ 764, 777 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bjørndalen closed out the season by winning all three events (sprint, pursuit, and mass start) at the Holmenkollen ski festival biathlon competition. This put his career victories at the ski events to five, having won once both in 2003 (pursuit) and in 2004 (sprint).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 6852276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bjørndalen made a perfect start to the season, winning all of the first five races in Östersund and Hochfilzen. In the fifth race of the season, the pursuit race in Hochfilzen, he won with one of his largest margins ever, more than 2 minutes. On 30 December 2006 Bjørndalen took part in the Biathlon World Team Challenge in Gelsenkirchen in the Veltins Arena. In front of about 51,000 people he won it for fourth time in a row. His partner for second consecutive time was Linda Grubben. They both left their rivals, the Robert family, more than one minute behind.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 1021904, 396156, 396156, 8263469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 95 ], [ 100, 110 ], [ 166, 176 ], [ 474, 487 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Oberhof, coming down from training in the heights, Bjørndalen performed below standard for the season, and finishing only 30th and 5th in the individual competitions.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 2206111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Ruhpolding he led his teammates to victory in the relay event. He won the two following individual competitions. After competing in the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships Sapporo 2007, he missed several Biathlon World Cup events; after missing eight competitions altogether Bjørndalen finished second in the overall standings, after German Michael Greis.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 447991, 4037762 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 207, 225 ], [ 344, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bjørndalen started off the season suffering from the effects of long-term illness, but still placed second in both of the pursuit events. He missed the Biathlon World Team Challenge in Gelsenkirchen, focusing on training instead. After the break, he returned with victories in both the sprint and pursuit events in Ruhpolding and a third place in the mass start in Oberhof.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At the Biathlon World Championships 2009 in Pyeongchang, during the men's 12.5km pursuit, Bjørndalen with at least 15 other competitors accidentally skied the wrong way at the start of the first lap due to the bad marking. Just after leaving the start, the athletes skied over a bridge instead of skiing beside it, which was the right way. A jury meeting decided to give all these athletes a one-minute time penalty, following a complaint from the Russian team. However, another complaint by seven other member states led to the Appeal Jury reverting to the original result. Along with Bjørndalen's first ever 20km individual World Championship title, he won four out of six possible gold medals (10km sprint, 12.5km pursuit, 20km individual and the 4 × 7.5km relay).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After the World Championships Bjørndalen came second in the sprint in Vancouver, he took over the world cup overall lead. He followed up with a second place, and two victories at the events in Granåsen, Trondheim (the latter being a mass start where he shot clean). He secured his sixth overall win in the last sprint of the season, in Khanty-Mansiysk where he placed second. In the following event (a pursuit), he was beaten at the finish line by teammate Emil Hegle Svendsen, but won the pursuit cup.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 5496590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 458, 477 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bjørndalen grew up on a farm in Simostranda, the fourth of five children: one of his siblings is fellow biathlete Dag Bjørndalen. Both brothers were part of the Norwegian team that took the silver medal in the men's relay at the 1998 Winter Olympics.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 8985370, 38489298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 128 ], [ 210, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bjørndalen resides in the village of Obertilliach, Austria. He also used to live in Toblach, Italy, with Italian-Belgian biathlete Nathalie Santer. They started dating in 1998 and married on 27 May 2006. On 4 October 2012, they filed for divorce by mutual consent.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 12225721, 6538332, 9168144 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 49 ], [ 84, 91 ], [ 131, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In April 2016, along with announcing that he will continue his career until the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, Bjørndalen confirmed that he was in a relationship with Belarusian biathlete Darya Domracheva, and that she was pregnant with the couple's first child. On 7 July 2016, they married in Sjusjøen, Norway. Their daughter Xenia was born on 1 October 2016.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 961505, 393193, 21550958, 1041720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 100 ], [ 104, 115 ], [ 194, 210 ], [ 301, 309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 3 April 2018 Bjørndalen announced his retirement from biathlon. Bjørndalen ended his Olympic career after being left off Norway's 2018 team for PyeongChang, thus ending a bid for a seventh Winter Games.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "His close to one hundred individual World Cup wins makes Ole Bjorndalen the most winning winter sports athlete of all time. He brings the same focused intensity and spirit of victory to the brands and products who sponsor him. Ole Bjorndalen cooperates with big and renowned brands. He has been Certina's loyal ambassador since 2011, InstaForex brand ambassador since 2015. Among sports equipment brands that he promotes are Madshus, Odlo, and Casco.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Endorsement", "target_page_ids": [ 13038163, 9711753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 295, 302 ], [ 425, 432 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ole Einar Bjørndalen won the Aftenposten's gold medal in 1998. He was named the Norwegian Sportsperson of the Year in 2002 and 2014. For his accomplishments in biathlon and cross-country skiing, Bjørndalen received the Egebergs Ærespris in 2002. Bjørndalen was also awarded with the Fearnleys olympic honorary award in 2002. He was voted Best Male Athlete of 2002 by International Sports Press Association. Ole Einar Bjørndalen was nominated for Laureus World Sportsman of the Year in 2003. He came second, only lost to Lance Armstrong that year, who was later rescinded. In 2008, a nearly three meter tall bronze statue of Bjørndalen, created by sculptor Kirsten Kokkin, was erected in his hometown of Simostranda, Norway. Bjørndalen was awarded the Fair Play Mecenante Award in Castiglion in Fiorentino in Italy in 2009. Bjørndalen was elected Biathlon Athlete of the Year by AIPS Nordic Ski and Biathlon Commission in 2002, 2003, 2005 and 2009. In March 2011, he, Michael Greis and Andrea Henkel were awarded the Holmenkollen Medal, the first biathletes to receive the medal. In February 2014, Bjørndalen was voted Best Male Athlete of the 2014 Winter Olympics by International Sports Press Association. In November 2014, Bjørndalen was awarded Best Male Athlete of the 2014 Winter Olympics by the Association des Comités Nationaux Olympiques.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 45221438, 8717444, 44298710, 4247016, 44983839, 23243880, 4037762, 7573223, 6852292, 9197146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 53 ], [ 80, 114 ], [ 173, 193 ], [ 219, 236 ], [ 283, 315 ], [ 520, 535 ], [ 967, 980 ], [ 985, 998 ], [ 1016, 1034 ], [ 1301, 1345 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bjørndalen first participated in the FIS Cross-Country World Cup in Finland in the 10 kilometre freestyle event in a small town called Muonio in November 1998, finishing 23rd. His first podium place in the FIS Cross-Country World Cup came in Kuopio 25 November 2001, where he finished in 2nd place in the 10km freestyle event. One month later he once again came in 2nd place, this time losing out to Per Elofsson in the 30km freestyle mass-start event in Ramsau, Austria.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cross-country skiing", "target_page_ids": [ 25172259, 10577, 662947, 305773, 3777251, 5712638, 26964606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 64 ], [ 68, 75 ], [ 135, 141 ], [ 242, 248 ], [ 400, 412 ], [ 455, 461 ], [ 463, 470 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 18 November 2006 Bjørndalen made history by becoming the first male biathlete to win a FIS Cross-Country World Cup event in the Swedish town Gällivare. Bjørndalen won the 15km freestyle event. In 2007 his countryman, and fellow biathlete Lars Berger won the 15km cross-country event at the World Championship in 2007.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cross-country skiing", "target_page_ids": [ 1017807, 1151988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 153 ], [ 241, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bjørndalen has twice finished on the podium in cross-country world cup relays for Norway: first in Beitostølen in 2003, where his team finished third, and secondly in La Clusaz in France in 2006, where Norway came in 2nd place. In total Bjørndalen has been on the podium 5 times in the Cross-Country World Cup.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cross-country skiing", "target_page_ids": [ 7809848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 167, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition, Bjørndalen has won FIS events in cross-country twice. His first win was in 1997 in the 30 kilometre freestyle event in Valdres, Norway, and the second was in the 10km freestyle event in Beitostølen, Norway in 2006. He has also two 2nd places in a FIS-event: in the 15km freestyle event in Misurina, Italy in 1998 and in the 10km freestyle event at Beitostølen in 2004. In addition to this, Bjørndalen has one third place in a FIS event, in the 10km freestyle at Beitostølen in 2001. Following his two Cross-Country World Cup podium finishes in the 2001–02 season, ahead of the 2002 Winter Olympics he stated that he was hoping to become the first competitor to take Olympic medals in both biathlon and cross-country skiing, however Bjørndalen missed out on a cross-country medal, finishing 5th in the 30km freestyle cross-country race in Salt Lake City on 9 February 2002. He won Skarverennet in 2006 and 2007, and came in 2nd after Petter Northug in 2008.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cross-country skiing", "target_page_ids": [ 175281, 175281, 8474400, 31435973, 38678, 5484493, 5499008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 35 ], [ 260, 263 ], [ 302, 310 ], [ 561, 575 ], [ 590, 610 ], [ 893, 905 ], [ 946, 960 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ole Einar Bjørndalen won the Beach Volleyball Championship at Laguna Beach in 2001. Bjørndalen has won the World Team Challenge biathlon exhibition event in Gelsenkirchen (held at the Veltins-Arena, the home ground of football club Schalke 04) in 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006. He also won a bronze together with his wife Darya Domracheva in 2018 Ole Einar Bjørndalen finished second in the 2003 Dobbiaco-Cortina, a long-distance cross-country skiing event, (42km) in Italy in the town of Cortina. He took his second place in the 26th edition of this prestigious event, finishing behind Italy's Costantin Pierluigi, and finishing half a second behind Pierluigi's winning time of 1 hour 43 minutes and 16.5 seconds. In 2008, Bjørndalen won the biathlon exhibition event in Püttlingen together with Kati Wilhelm. He also finished in second place in 2011 alongside Magdalena Neuner. Bjørndalen also got a bronze in this event in 2005 together with Nathalie Santer and in 2010 with Sabrina Buchholz. He won the Blink Festival in Sandnes in 2008. In April 2016, Bjørndalen and Karin Oberhofer won the Champions Race in Tyumen, Russia.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Other victories", "target_page_ids": [ 179062, 439117, 410348, 21550958, 568829, 4404020, 3836488, 9294112, 9168144, 15653764, 178067 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 170 ], [ 184, 197 ], [ 232, 242 ], [ 315, 331 ], [ 482, 489 ], [ 765, 775 ], [ 790, 802 ], [ 855, 871 ], [ 938, 953 ], [ 971, 987 ], [ 1018, 1025 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All results are sourced from the International Biathlon Union.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Biathlon results", "target_page_ids": [ 7038474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "13 medals (8 gold, 4 silver, 1 bronze)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Biathlon results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "*Pursuit was first added in 2002, mass start in 2006 and the mixed relay in 2014.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Biathlon results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "45 medals (20 gold, 14 silver, 11 bronze)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Biathlon results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "*Team was removed as an event in 1998, and pursuit was added in 1997 with mass start being added in 1999 and the mixed relay in 2005.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Biathlon results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "*Results in all IBU World Cup races.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Biathlon results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "*Pursuit was added as an event in the 1996–97 season, and mass start was added in the 1998–99 season.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Biathlon results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "95 victories (36 Sp, 37 Pu, 8 In, 14 MS); one victory at Winter Olympics 2014 isn't counted as a World Cup victory. ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Biathlon results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "*Results are from UIPMB and IBU races which include the Biathlon World Cup, Biathlon World Championships and the Winter Olympic Games.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Biathlon results", "target_page_ids": [ 447991, 5039, 34069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 74 ], [ 76, 104 ], [ 113, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bjørndalen is a solid shooter, but is generally outside the top twenty marksmen. Bjørndalen finished the 2005–06 season with a shooting percentage of 84%, hitting 292 out of 345 possible targets, that placed him in 36th position for shooting accuracy. His shooting record for both prone and standing were practically identical, 146/172 in the prone and 146/173 in the standing position. In the individual disciplines, he shot 92% in the individual, 89% in the sprint, 96% in the pursuit, 93% in the mass start and 96% in the relay.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Shooting", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2004–05 season Bjørndalen was the 16th best shot with an 85% success rate, the second best Norwegian behind Egil Gjelland. He hit 331 targets out of a possible 364. His prone like most biathletes was much better than his standing shoot, he hit 169/180 (92%) in the prone and 163/184 (81%) in the standing. He had an average of 88% in the individual, sprint and relay, a 91% hit rate in the mass start but only 79% in the pursuit. During his career in 1999–00 he averaged 82%, in 2000–01 78%, 2001–02 74%, 2002–03 86% and in 2003–04 he hit 80% of the targets, however in those five years his standing shoot was the same or better than his prone shoot. In comparison, his greatest rival Raphaël Poirée averaged 87% in 2004–05 and 86% in 2005–06. Nikolay Kruglov was the best shot in 2004–05 with a 91% success rate, with Ricco Groß in second with 89%, and in 2005 Julien Robert was best with a 93% average and Groß again second with 91%.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Shooting", "target_page_ids": [ 6823938, 2526631, 6000571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 128 ], [ 826, 836 ], [ 869, 882 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Statistics sourced from the International Biathlon Union.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Shooting", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Shooting", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "All results are sourced from the International Ski Federation (FIS).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cross-country skiing results", "target_page_ids": [ 175281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1 victory – (1 ) ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cross-country skiing results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 3 podiums – (3 ) ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cross-country skiing results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 3 podiums – (3 )", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cross-country skiing results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bjørndalen uses Madshus skis, boots and poles.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 9711753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He uses Rottefella NNN bindings.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 3724028, 197655 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 18 ], [ 23, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His gloves and base layer are from Odlo, and he uses Casco glasses.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During the off-season in 2006 Bjørndalen was testing a new ski boot that had a high heel in the Torsby ski tunnel with boot manufacturers Madshus. The theory is that it forces the knee more forward for better position and it incorporates the large gluteal muscles.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 1020297, 4015115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 102 ], [ 103, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of multiple Winter Olympic medalists", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26248006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of multiple Olympic gold medalists", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10167457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of multiple Olympic gold medalists at a single Games", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32070578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "General", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "All placings and results are sourced by the International Biathlon Union's searchable results database: ", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 7038474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " – searchable database of all World Cup race results", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " – searchable database of all IBU races", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "'''Specific", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1974_births", "Living_people", "Sportspeople_from_Drammen", "People_from_Modum", "Norwegian_male_biathletes", "Norwegian_male_cross-country_skiers", "Biathletes_at_the_1994_Winter_Olympics", "Biathletes_at_the_1998_Winter_Olympics", "Biathletes_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "Biathletes_at_the_2006_Winter_Olympics", "Biathletes_at_the_2010_Winter_Olympics", "Biathletes_at_the_2014_Winter_Olympics", "Olympic_biathletes_of_Norway", "Cross-country_skiers_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "Olympic_cross-country_skiers_of_Norway", "Medalists_at_the_1998_Winter_Olympics", "Medalists_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "Medalists_at_the_2006_Winter_Olympics", "Medalists_at_the_2010_Winter_Olympics", "Medalists_at_the_2014_Winter_Olympics", "Olympic_medalists_in_biathlon", "Olympic_bronze_medalists_for_Norway", "Olympic_silver_medalists_for_Norway", "Olympic_gold_medalists_for_Norway", "Biathlon_World_Championships_medalists", "Holmenkollen_Ski_Festival_winners", "Holmenkollen_medalists", "International_Olympic_Committee_members", "Cross-country_skiing_coaches", "Norwegian_sports_coaches" ]

[ "The King of Biathlon", "King of Biathlon" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Janne Lahtela (born 28 February 1974) is a Finnish former athlete, who established himself as one of the most dominant persons in the history of moguls skiing. He is currently the head coach of Japan's freestyle skiing team. He also is a key founder and sponsor for the IDOne ski company based out of Japan.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 667850, 154164, 6759160, 15573 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 50 ], [ 58, 65 ], [ 145, 151 ], [ 194, 201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lahtela was born in Kemijärvi. He won a gold medal in the moguls final of 2002 Winter Olympic Games. Four years earlier he had taken a silver medal in front of his cousin Sami Mustonen, who took bronze. He has also won the moguls skiing World Cup five times and became a World Champion in 1999.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 662940, 526488, 38678, 16534215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 29 ], [ 40, 50 ], [ 74, 99 ], [ 171, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Official Homepage", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1974_births", "Living_people", "People_from_Kemijärvi", "Finnish_male_freestyle_skiers", "Freestyle_skiers_at_the_1992_Winter_Olympics", "Freestyle_skiers_at_the_1994_Winter_Olympics", "Freestyle_skiers_at_the_1998_Winter_Olympics", "Freestyle_skiers_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "Freestyle_skiers_at_the_2006_Winter_Olympics", "Olympic_freestyle_skiers_of_Finland", "Olympic_gold_medalists_for_Finland", "Olympic_silver_medalists_for_Finland", "Olympic_medalists_in_freestyle_skiing", "Medalists_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "Medalists_at_the_1998_Winter_Olympics", "Sportspeople_from_Lapland_(Finland)" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Tristan Gale (born August 10, 1980) is an American skeleton racer who competed from 2001 to 2006. At the 2002 Winter Olympics, she became the inaugural women's skeleton champion. Gale dyed her hair with streaks of red, white and blue for the 2002 Olympics. During the 2002–2003 season, Tristan won a second gold medal on her home track in Salt Lake during a World Cup stop. She remains undefeated at the track in Utah since the Olympics.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 159776, 38678, 15499452 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 65 ], [ 105, 125 ], [ 404, 409 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gale also won a bronze medal in the women's skeleton event at the 2003 FIBT World Championships in Nagano. She retired before the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin. Gale's best overall seasonal finish in the Skeleton World Cup was third in 2002–3.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11357136, 6792932, 77743, 19450529, 16569471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 95 ], [ 99, 105 ], [ 130, 150 ], [ 154, 159 ], [ 204, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A native of Ruidoso, New Mexico, Gale lives in Salt Lake City.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 125916, 53837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 31 ], [ 47, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 20 Questions with Tristan Gale", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " FIBT profile", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IOC profile", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " List of women's skeleton World Cup champions since 1997.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Official website", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Thatoneplace.net profile", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " United States Olympic Committee", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Women's skeleton Olympic medalists since 2002", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Women's skeleton world championship medalists since 2000", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1980_births", "American_female_skeleton_racers", "Living_people", "Olympic_gold_medalists_for_the_United_States_in_skeleton", "Olympic_skeleton_racers_of_the_United_States", "Sportspeople_from_Salt_Lake_City", "Skeleton_racers_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "People_from_Ruidoso,_New_Mexico", "Olympic_medalists_in_skeleton", "Medalists_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "21st-century_American_women" ]

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[ { "plaintext": "Ko Gi-Hyun (Hangul: 고기현, Hanja: 高基鉉) (born May 11, 1986) is a South Korean short track speed skater. Ko remains the second youngest individual gold medalist after Tara Lipinski in the history of the Olympic Winter Games, winning gold in women's 1500 m event at the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, United States, at 15 years and 277 days old.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 42538288, 158772, 40058, 205707, 38678, 53837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 18 ], [ 25, 30 ], [ 75, 99 ], [ 163, 176 ], [ 265, 285 ], [ 289, 303 ] ] } ]

[ "1986_births", "Living_people", "South_Korean_female_speed_skaters", "South_Korean_female_short_track_speed_skaters", "Olympic_short_track_speed_skaters_of_South_Korea", "Olympic_gold_medalists_for_South_Korea", "Olympic_silver_medalists_for_South_Korea", "Olympic_medalists_in_short_track_speed_skating", "Short_track_speed_skaters_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "Medalists_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "Asian_Games_medalists_in_short_track_speed_skating", "Asian_Games_bronze_medalists_for_South_Korea", "Short_track_speed_skaters_at_the_2003_Asian_Winter_Games", "Medalists_at_the_2003_Asian_Winter_Games", "World_Short_Track_Speed_Skating_Championships_medalists", "South_Korean_Buddhists" ]

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[ { "plaintext": "EFF or eff may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Economic Freedom Fighters, a South African communist political party", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [ 40005536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Economic Freedom Fund, an American political organization", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [ 7004699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Election Fighting Fund, a British suffragist organization supporting the early Labour Party", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [ 3159088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Electronic Frontier Foundation, a US-based international digital rights group", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [ 18949836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Evergreen Freedom Foundation, an American political think tank", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [ 2637349 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eff (duo), a German musical duo", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 44132786 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Efficiency (basketball), a statistical benchmark", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 30009042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Effingham Junction railway station, Surrey, England, National Rail station code", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 6437564 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Electronic Font Foundry, a British computer type foundry", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 33832254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Emmett/Furla Films, an American production company", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 45146721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Environmental Film Festival in the Nation's Capital, in Washington, D.C., United States", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 13987724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ethiopian Football Federation", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 4601021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Extrusion freeform fabrication, a method for fabricating functionally graded material", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 7196964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " F, a letter of the alphabet", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 10831 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 2 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fuck", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 5575722 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " F (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8271556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] } ]

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[ { "plaintext": "SVG or Scalable Vector Graphics is a vector image format for two-dimensional computer graphics.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 27751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "SVG may also refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " SVG Air, an airline from Saint Vincent and the Grenadines", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 8103158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " SVG Capital, UK", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18303634 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, a Caribbean nation", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 27228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shane van Gisbergen, a New Zealand racing driver", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 12706817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stevenage railway station in England", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2320661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sun Valley Gardens, a nudist club in Pelham, Ontario, Canada", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11723245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The IATA code for Stavanger Airport, Sola in Norway", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 202448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 42 ] ] } ]

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[ { "plaintext": "The Province of Upper Canada () was a part of British Canada established in 1791 by the Kingdom of Great Britain, to govern the central third of the lands in British North America, formerly part of the Province of Quebec since 1763. Upper Canada included all of modern-day Southern Ontario and all those areas of Northern Ontario in the which had formed part of New France, essentially the watersheds of the Ottawa River or Lakes Huron and Superior, excluding any lands within the watershed of Hudson Bay. The \"upper\" prefix in the name reflects its geographic position along the Great Lakes, mostly above the headwaters of the Saint Lawrence River, contrasted with Lower Canada (present-day Quebec) to the northeast.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 15489197, 74266, 158019, 219386, 391225, 542995, 211003, 159828, 73458, 51056, 17951, 58635, 12010, 45948, 45945, 7954867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 42 ], [ 46, 60 ], [ 88, 112 ], [ 158, 179 ], [ 202, 220 ], [ 273, 289 ], [ 313, 329 ], [ 363, 373 ], [ 409, 421 ], [ 431, 436 ], [ 441, 449 ], [ 495, 505 ], [ 581, 592 ], [ 629, 649 ], [ 667, 679 ], [ 693, 699 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Upper Canada was the primary destination of Loyalist refugees and settlers from the United States after the American Revolution, who often were granted land to settle in Upper Canada. Already populated by Indigenous peoples, land for settlement in Upper Canada was made by treaties between the new British government and the Indigenous, exchanging land for one-time payments or annuities. The new province was characterized by its British way of life, including bicameral parliament and separate civil and criminal law, rather than mixed as in Lower Canada or elsewhere in the British Empire. The division was created to ensure the exercise of the same rights and privileges enjoyed by loyal subjects elsewhere in the North American colonies. In 1812, war broke out between Great Britain and the United States, leading to several battles in Upper Canada. The United States attempted to capture Upper Canada, but the war ended with the situation unchanged.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1146288, 1973, 45945, 4721, 34059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 61 ], [ 108, 127 ], [ 544, 556 ], [ 577, 591 ], [ 752, 765 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The government of the colony came to be dominated by a small group of persons, known as the \"Family Compact\", who held most of the top positions in the Legislative Council and appointed officials. In 1837, an unsuccessful rebellion attempted to overthrow the undemocratic system. Representative government would be established in the 1840s. Upper Canada existed from its establishment on 26 December 1791 to 10 February 1841, when it was united with adjacent Lower Canada to form the Province of Canada.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 262428, 3238897, 248342, 24247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 107 ], [ 152, 171 ], [ 209, 231 ], [ 484, 502 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As part of the 1763 Treaty of Paris which ended the Seven Years' War global conflict and the French and Indian War in North America, Great Britain retained control over the former New France, which had been defeated in the French and Indian War. The British had won control after Fort Niagara had surrendered in 1759 and Montreal capitulated in 1760, and the British under Robert Rogers took formal control of the Great Lakes region in 1760. Fort Michilimackinac was occupied by Roger's forces in 1761.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Establishment", "target_page_ids": [ 191924, 19039354, 39062, 158019, 159828, 364550, 7954681, 732485, 981067, 650397 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 35 ], [ 52, 68 ], [ 93, 114 ], [ 133, 146 ], [ 180, 190 ], [ 280, 292 ], [ 321, 329 ], [ 330, 341 ], [ 373, 386 ], [ 442, 462 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The territories of contemporary southern Ontario and southern Quebec were initially maintained as the single Province of Quebec, as it had been under the French. From 1763 to 1791, the Province of Quebec maintained its French language, cultural behavioural expectations, practices and laws. The British passed the Quebec Act in 1774, which expanded the Quebec colony's authority to include part of the Indian Reserve to the west (i.e., parts of southern Ontario), and other western territories south of the Great Lakes including much of what would become the United States' Northwest Territory, including the modern states of Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Wisconsin and parts of Minnesota.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Establishment", "target_page_ids": [ 391225, 55000, 9895830, 22218, 12010, 234989, 14849, 21883857, 18859, 22199, 33127, 19590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 185, 203 ], [ 314, 324 ], [ 402, 416 ], [ 454, 461 ], [ 507, 518 ], [ 574, 593 ], [ 626, 634 ], [ 636, 643 ], [ 645, 653 ], [ 655, 659 ], [ 661, 670 ], [ 684, 693 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the American War of Independence ended in 1783, Britain retained control of the area north of the Ohio River. The official boundaries remained undefined until 1795 and the Jay Treaty. The British authorities encouraged the movement of people to this area from the United States, offering free land to encourage population growth. For settlers, the head of the family received and per family member, and soldiers received larger grants. These settlers are known as United Empire Loyalists and were primarily English-speaking Protestants. The first townships (Royal and Cataraqui) along the St. Lawrence and eastern Lake Ontario were laid out in 1784, populated mainly with decommissioned soldiers and their families.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Establishment", "target_page_ids": [ 771, 193600, 219416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 38 ], [ 178, 188 ], [ 472, 494 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Upper Canada\" became a political entity on 26 December 1791 with the Parliament of Great Britain's passage of the Constitutional Act of 1791. The act divided the Province of Quebec into Upper and Lower Canada, but did not yet specify official borders for Upper Canada. The division was effected so that Loyalist American settlers and British immigrants in Upper Canada could have English laws and institutions, and the French-speaking population of Lower Canada could maintain French civil law and the Catholic religion. The first lieutenant-governor was John Graves Simcoe.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Establishment", "target_page_ids": [ 378032, 241211, 45945, 15918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 97 ], [ 115, 141 ], [ 197, 209 ], [ 556, 574 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1795 Jay Treaty officially set the borders between British North America and the United States north to the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River. On 1 February 1796, the capital of Upper Canada was moved from Newark (now Niagara-on-the-Lake) to York (now Toronto), which was judged to be less vulnerable to attack by the US.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Establishment", "target_page_ids": [ 248803, 242679, 64646 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 223, 242 ], [ 247, 251 ], [ 257, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Act of Union 1840, passed 23 July 1840 by the British Parliament and proclaimed by the Crown on 10 February 1841, merged Upper Canada with Lower Canada to form the short-lived United Province of Canada.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Establishment", "target_page_ids": [ 24247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 180, 205 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Upper Canada's constitution was said to be \"the very image and transcript\" of the British constitution, and based on the principle of \"mixed monarchy\" – a balance of monarchy, aristocracy and democracy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 1477019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Executive arm of government in the colony consisted of a lieutenant-governor, his executive council, and the Officers of the Crown (equivalent to the Officers of the Parliament of Canada): the Adjutant General of the Militia, the Attorney General, the Auditor General of Land Patents for Upper Canada, the Auditor General (only one appointment ever made), Crown Lands Office, Indian Office, Inspector General, Kings' Printer, Provincial Secretary and Registrar's Office, Receiver General of Upper Canada, Solicitor General, and Surveyor General.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 307030, 3291627, 87446, 751581, 1491169, 33837230, 9869120, 1739314, 12439627, 961577, 17449453, 5281497, 1201627, 55379117, 1739314 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 80 ], [ 86, 103 ], [ 154, 190 ], [ 197, 213 ], [ 234, 250 ], [ 256, 304 ], [ 310, 325 ], [ 360, 378 ], [ 380, 393 ], [ 395, 412 ], [ 414, 428 ], [ 430, 473 ], [ 475, 507 ], [ 509, 526 ], [ 532, 548 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Executive Council of Upper Canada had a similar function to the Cabinet in England but was not responsible to the Legislative Assembly. They held a consultative position, however, and did not serve in administrative offices as cabinet ministers do. Members of the Executive Council were not necessarily members of the Legislative Assembly but were usually members of the Legislative Council.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 3291627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Legislative branch of the government consisted of the parliament comprising legislative council and legislative assembly. When the capital was first moved to Toronto (then called York) from Newark (present-day Niagara-on-the-Lake) in 1796, the Parliament Buildings of Upper Canada were located at the corner of Parliament and Front Streets, in buildings that were burned by US forces in the War of 1812, rebuilt, then burned again by accident in 1824. The site was eventually abandoned for another, to the west.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 21713655, 3238897, 3061516, 248803, 3022883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 68 ], [ 80, 99 ], [ 104, 124 ], [ 215, 234 ], [ 249, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Legislative Council of Upper Canada was the upper house governing the province of Upper Canada. Although modelled after the British House of Lords, Upper Canada had no aristocracy. Members of the Legislative council, appointed for life, formed the core of the oligarchic group, the Family Compact, that came to dominate government and economy in the province.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 3238897, 262428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 39 ], [ 286, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada functioned as the lower house in the Parliament of Upper Canada. Its legislative power was subject to veto by the appointed Lieutenant Governor, Executive Council, and Legislative Council.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 3061516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Local government in the Province of Upper Canada was based on districts. In 1788, four districts were created:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Lunenburgh District, later \"Eastern\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 2035580 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mecklenburg District, later \"Midland\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 3026484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nassau District, later \"Home\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 2035497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hesse District, later \"Western\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 2035522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The name changes all took place in 1792.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Justices of the Peace were appointed by the Lt. Governor. Any two justices meeting together could form the lowest level of the justice system, the Courts of Request. A Court of Quarter Sessions was held four times a year in each district composed of all the resident justices. The Quarter Sessions met to oversee the administration of the district and deal with legal cases. They formed, in effect, the municipal government until an area was incorporated as either a Police Board or a City after 1834.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 618219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Additional districts were created from the existing districts as the population grew until 1849, when local government mainly based on counties came into effect. At that time, there were 20 districts; legislation to create a new Kent District was never completed. Up until 1841, the district officials were appointed by the lieutenant-governor, although usually with local input.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 36656 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Family Compact is the epithet applied to an oligarchic group of men who exercised most of the political and judicial power in Upper Canada from the 1810s to the 1840s. It was noted for its conservatism and opposition to democracy. The uniting factors amongst the Compact were its loyalist tradition, hierarchical class structure and adherence to the established Anglican Church. Leaders such as John Beverley Robinson and John Strachan proclaimed it an ideal government, especially as contrasted with the rowdy democracy in the nearby United States. The Family Compact emerged from the War of 1812 and collapsed in the aftermath of the Rebellions of 1837.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [ 3193294, 639521, 34059, 263753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 399, 421 ], [ 426, 439 ], [ 590, 601 ], [ 640, 658 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There were many outstanding individual reform politicians in Upper Canada, including Robert Randal, Peter Perry, Marshall Spring Bidwell, William Ketchum and Dr. William Warren Baldwin; however, organised collective reform activity began with Robert Fleming Gourlay. Gourlay was a well-connected Scottish emigrant who arrived in 1817, hoping to encourage \"assisted emigration\" of the poor from Britain. He solicited information on the colony through township questionnaires, and soon became a critic of government mismanagement. When the local legislature ignored his call for an inquiry, he called for a petition to the British Parliament. He organised township meetings, and a provincial convention– which the government considered dangerous and seditious. Gourlay was tried in December 1818 under the 1804 Sedition Act and jailed for 8 months. He was banished from the province in August 1819. His expulsion made him a martyr in the reform community.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [ 4815314, 3380672, 3373079, 3282195, 4612668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 98 ], [ 100, 111 ], [ 113, 136 ], [ 162, 184 ], [ 243, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The next wave of organised Reform activity emerged in the 1830s through the work of William Lyon Mackenzie, James Lesslie, John Rolph, William John O'Grady and Dr Thomas Morrison, all of Toronto. They were critical to introducing the British Political Unions to Upper Canada. Political Unions were not parties. The unions organised petitions to Parliament.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [ 246303, 9306654, 3362925, 11261169, 3235367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 106 ], [ 108, 121 ], [ 123, 133 ], [ 135, 155 ], [ 163, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Upper Canada Central Political Union was organised in 1832–33 by Dr Thomas David Morrison (mayor of Toronto in 1836) while William Lyon Mackenzie was in England. This union collected 19,930 signatures on a petition protesting Mackenzie's unjust expulsion from the House of Assembly by the Family Compact.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [ 246303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This union was reorganised as the Canadian Alliance Society (1835). It shared a large meeting space in the market buildings with the Mechanics Institute and the Children of Peace. The Canadian Alliance Society adopted much of the platform (such as secret ballot & universal suffrage) of the Owenite National Union of the Working Classes in London, England, that were to be integrated into the Chartist movement in England.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [ 37467580, 3072819, 101289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 161, 178 ], [ 291, 298 ], [ 393, 401 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Canadian Alliance Society was reborn as the Constitutional Reform Society (1836), when it was led by the more moderate reformer, Dr William W. Baldwin. After the disastrous 1836 elections, it took the final form as the Toronto Political Union in 1837. It was the Toronto Political Union that called for a Constitutional Convention in July 1837, and began organising local \"Vigilance Committees\" to elect delegates. This became the organizational structure for the Rebellion of 1837.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Upper Canada Rebellion was an insurrection against the oligarchic government of the Family Compact by W.L. Mackenzie in December 1837. Long term grievances included antagonism between Later Loyalists and British Loyalists, political corruption, the collapse of the international financial system and the resultant economic distress, and a growing republican sentiment. While public grievances had existed for years, it was the Rebellion in Lower Canada (present day Quebec) that emboldened rebels in Upper Canada to openly revolt soon after. The Upper Canada Rebellion was largely defeated shortly after it began, although resistance lingered until 1838 (and became more violent) – mainly through the support of the Hunters' Lodges, a secret anti-British, American militia that emerged in states around the Great Lakes. They launched the Patriot War in 1838–39.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [ 22315, 210223, 45945, 7954867, 150921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 69 ], [ 431, 440 ], [ 444, 456 ], [ 470, 476 ], [ 720, 735 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Lambton, Lord Durham's support for \"responsible government\" undercut the Tories and gradually led the public to reject what it viewed as poor administration, unfair land and education policies, and inadequate attention to urgent transportation needs. Durham's report led to the administrative unification of Upper and Lower Canada as the Province of Canada in 1841. Responsible government did not occur until the late 1840s under Robert Baldwin and Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [ 190412, 26329, 546741, 24247, 144950, 190419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ], [ 41, 63 ], [ 256, 271 ], [ 343, 361 ], [ 435, 449 ], [ 454, 480 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the Rebellions, the new governor, Charles Poulett Thomson, 1st Baron Sydenham, proved an exemplary Utilitarian, despite his aristocratic pretensions. This combination of free trade and aristocratic pretensions needs to be underscored; although a liberal capitalist, Sydenham was no radical democrat. Sydenham approached the task of implementing those aspects of Durham's report that the colonial office approved of, municipal reform, and the union of the Canadas, with a \"campaign of state violence and coercive institutional innovation... empowered not just by the British state but also by his Benthamite certainties.\" Like governors Bond Head before him, and Metcalfe after, he was to turn to the Orange Order for often violent support. It was Sydenham who played a critical role in transforming Compact Tories into Conservatives.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [ 278006, 31792, 46038, 4020685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 83 ], [ 105, 116 ], [ 602, 612 ], [ 706, 718 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sydenham introduced a vast expansion of the state apparatus through the introduction of municipal government. Areas not already governed through civic corporations or police boards would be governed through centrally controlled District Councils with authority over roads, schools, and local policing. A strengthened Executive Council would further usurp much of the elected assembly's legislative role, leaving elected politicians to simply review the administration's legislative program and budgets.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The First Nations occupying the territory that was to become Upper Canada were:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Anishinaabe or Anishinabe—or more properly (plural) Anishinaabeg or Anishinabek. The plural form of the word is the autonym often used by the Odawa, Ojibwe, and Algonquin peoples.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 1323496, 586095, 219064, 252768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 123 ], [ 142, 147 ], [ 149, 155 ], [ 161, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Iroquois, also known as the Haudenosaunee or the \"People of the Longhouse\",", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 1766373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prior to the creation of Upper Canada in 1791 much land had already been ceded by the First Nations to the Crown in accordance with the Royal Proclamation of 1763. The first treaty was between the Seneca and the British in 1764, giving access to lands adjoining the Niagara River. During the American Revolutionary War most of the First Nations supported the British. After the Americans launched a campaign that burned the villages of the Iroquois in New York State in 1779 the refugees fled to Fort Niagara and other British posts, and remained permanently in Canada.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 132989, 771, 339137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 162 ], [ 292, 318 ], [ 388, 407 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Land was granted to these allied Six Nations who had served on the British side during the American Revolution by the Haldimand Proclamation (1784). Haldimand had purchased a tract of land from the Mississaugas. The nature of the grant and the administration of land sales by Upper Canada and Canada is a matter of dispute.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 13883684, 328215, 4834539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 140 ], [ 198, 210 ], [ 315, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between 1783 and 1812, fifteen land surrender treaties were concluded in Upper Canada. These involved one-time payments of money or goods to the Indigenous peoples. Some of the treaties spelled out designated reserve lands for the Indigenous peoples.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Following the War of 1812, European settlers came in increasing numbers. The Indian Department focussed on converting the Indigenous peoples to abandon their old way of life and adopt agriculture. The treaties shifted from one-time payments in exchange to annual annuities from the sale of surrendered lands. Between 1825 and 1860, treaties were concluded for nearly all of the land-mass of the future Province of Ontario. In 1836, Manitoulin Island was designated as a reserve for dispossessed natives, but much of this was ceded in 1862.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Crown land policy to 1825 was multi-fold in the use of a \"free\" resource that had value to people who themselves may have little or no money for its purchase and for the price of settling upon it to support themselves and a create a new society. First, the cash-strapped Crown government in Canada could pay and reward the services and loyalty of the \"United Empire Loyalists\" who, originated outside of Canada, without encumbrance of debt by being awarded with small portions of land (under ) with the proviso that it be settled by those to which it was granted; Second, portions would be reserved for the future use of the Crown and the clergy that did not require settlement by which to gain control. Lt. Governor Simcoe saw this as the mechanism by which an aristocracy might be created, and that compact settlement could be avoided with the grants of large tracts of land to those Loyalists not required to settle on it as the means of gaining control.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Calton weavers were a community of handweavers established in the community of Calton, then in Lanarkshire just outside Glasgow, Scotland in the 18th century. In the early 19th century, many of the weavers emigrated to Canada, settling in Carleton Place and other communities in eastern Ontario, where they continued their trade.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 2661232, 164890, 68736, 191502, 22218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 89 ], [ 99, 110 ], [ 124, 131 ], [ 243, 257 ], [ 291, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1825, 1,878 Irish Immigrants from the city of Cork arrived in the community of Scott's Plains. The British Parliament had approved an experimental emigration plan to transport poor Irish families to Upper Canada in 1822. The scheme was managed by Peter Robinson, a member of the Family Compact and brother of the Attorney General. Scott's Plains was renamed Peterborough in his honour.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 14561, 8140815, 3290405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 31 ], [ 49, 53 ], [ 250, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thomas Talbot emigrated in 1791, where he became personal secretary to John Graves Simcoe, Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada. Talbot convinced the government to allow him to implement a land settlement scheme of in Elgin County in the townships of Dunwich and Aldborough in 1803. According to his government agreement, he was entitled to for every settler who received ; in this way he gained an estate of . Talbot's administration was regarded as despotic. He was infamous for registering settlers' names on the local settlement map in pencil and if displeased, erasing their entry. Talbot's abuse of power was a contributing factor in the Upper Canada Rebellion of 1837.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 947903, 15918, 248342 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 71, 89 ], [ 645, 667 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Crown reserves, one seventh of all lands granted, were to provide the provincial executive with an independent source of revenue not under the control of the elected Assembly. The clergy reserves, also one seventh of all lands granted in the province, were created \"for the support and maintenance of a Protestant clergy\" in lieu of tithes. The revenue from the lease of these lands was claimed by the Rev. John Strachan on behalf of the Church of England. These reserves were directly administered by the Crown; which, in turn, came under increasing political pressure from other Protestant bodies. The Reserve lands were to be a focal point of dissent within the Legislative Assembly.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 639521, 5955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 411, 424 ], [ 442, 459 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Clergy Corporation was incorporated in 1819 to manage the clergy reserves. After the Rev. John Strachan was appointed to the Executive Council, the advisory body to the Lieutenant Governor, in 1815, he began to push for the Church of England's autonomous control of the clergy reserves on the model of the Clergy Corporation created in Lower Canada in 1817. Although all clergymen in the Church of England were members of the body corporate, the act prepared in 1819 by Strachan's former student, Attorney General John Beverly Robinson, also appointed the Inspector General and the Surveyor General to the board, and made a quorum of three for meetings; these two public officers also sat on the Legislative Council with Strachan. These three were usually members of the Family Compact.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 639521, 1419056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 107 ], [ 518, 539 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The clergy reserves were not the only types of landed endowment for the Anglican Church and clergy. The 1791 Act also provided for glebe land to be assigned and vested in the Crown (for which were set aside), where the revenues would be remitted to the Church. The act also provided for the creation of parish rectories, giving parishes a corporate identity so that they could hold property (although none were created until 1836, prior to the recall of John Colborne, in which he created 24 of them). They were granted lands amounting to , of which were drawn from the clergy reserves and other glebe lots, while were taken from ordinary Crown lands. A later suit to have this action annulled was dismissed by the Court of Chancery of Upper Canada.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 430884, 510046, 23623, 637385, 68476833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 141 ], [ 304, 320 ], [ 329, 335 ], [ 455, 468 ], [ 718, 751 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1797, lands in twelve townships (six east of York, and six west, totalling about ) were set aside, from which revenues arising from their sale or lease were dedicated to support the establishment of grammar schools and a university for the Province. They were distributed as follows:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The land grant policy changed after 1825 as the Upper Canadian administration faced a financial crisis that would otherwise require raising local taxes, thereby making it more dependent on a local elected legislature. The Upper Canadian state ended its policy of granting land to \"unofficial\" settlers and implemented a broad plan of revenue-generating sales. The Crown replaced its old policy of land grants to ordinary settlers in newly opened districts with land sales by auction. It also passed legislation that allowed the auctioning of previously granted land for payment of back-taxes.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Few chose to lease the Crown reserves as long as free grants of land were still available. The Lieutenant Governor increasingly found himself depending upon the customs duties shared with, but collected in Lower Canada for revenue; after a dispute with the lower province on the relative proportions to be allocated to each, these duties were withheld, forcing the Lieutenant Governor to search for new sources of revenue. The Canada Company was created as a means of generating government revenue that was not under the control of the elected Assembly, thereby granting the Lt. Governor greater independence from local voters.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The plan for the Canada Company was promoted by the province's Attorney General, John Beverly Robinson, then studying law at Lincoln's Inn in London. The Lt. Governor's financial crisis led to a quick adoption of Robinson's scheme to sell the Crown reserves to a new land company which would provide the provincial government with annual payments of between £15,000 to £20,000. The Canada Company was chartered in London in 1826; after three years of mismanagement by John Galt, the company hired William Allan and Thomas Mercer Jones to manage the company's Upper Canadian business. Jones was to manage the \"Huron Tract,\" and Allan to sell the Crown reserves already surveyed in other districts.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 1419056, 344016, 2254591, 9370521, 28681940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 102 ], [ 468, 477 ], [ 497, 510 ], [ 515, 534 ], [ 609, 620 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the Canada Company, \"the poorest individual can here procure for himself and family a valuable tract; which, with a little labour, he can soon convert into a comfortable home, such as he could probably never attain in any other country– all his own!\" However, recent studies have suggested that a minimum of £100 to £200 plus the cost of land was required to start a new farm in the bush. As a result, few of these poor settlers had any hope of starting their own farm, although many tried.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Huron Tract lies in the counties of Huron, Perth, Middlesex and present-day Lambton County, Ontario, bordering on Lake Huron to the west and Lake Erie to the east. The tract was purchased by the Canada Company for resale to settlers. Influenced by William \"Tiger\" Dunlop, John Galt and other businessmen formed the Canada Company. The Canada Company was the administrative agent for the Huron Tract.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 627765, 51056, 17946, 5916397, 344016, 380212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 103 ], [ 118, 128 ], [ 145, 154 ], [ 252, 274 ], [ 276, 285 ], [ 319, 333 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Incorporated in Upper Canada era (to 1841)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " York (now Toronto), capital of Upper Canada", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 242679, 64646 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 11, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kingston", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 114562 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Brockville", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 178866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hamilton", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 14288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cornwall", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 178831 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Prescott", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 172932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Port Hope", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 248996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Picton", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 1400658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cobourg", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 248984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " London", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 40353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Incorporated in Canada West (1841-1867)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Newark, now Niagara-on-the-Lake", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 248803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Brantford", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 178857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bytown (now Ottawa)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 445938, 22219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 13, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Goderich", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 1550870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Belleville", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 178855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Peterborough", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 223578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Perth", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 83395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Napanee", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 248474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Guelph", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 178833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Whitby", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 223540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Paris, Ontario", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 248424 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lindsay, now part of Kawartha Lakes", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 179313, 386793 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 22, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Galt, now part of Cambridge, Ontario", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 1511706, 178880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 19, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Welland", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 247016 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sandwich (now Windsor)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 33596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stratford, Ontario", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 221706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although the province is frequently referred to as \"English Canada\" after the Union of the Canadas, and its ethnic homogeneity said to be a factor in the Upper Canada Rebellion of 1837, there was range of ethnic groups in Upper Canada. However, due to the lack of a detailed breakdown, it is difficult to count each group, and this may be considered abuse of statistics. An idea of the ethnic breakdown can be had if one considers the religious census of 1842, which is helpfully provided below: Roman Catholics were 15% of the population, and adherents to this religion were, at the time, mainly drawn from the Irish and the French settlers. The Roman Catholic faith also numbered some votaries from amongst the Scottish settlers. The category of \"other\" religious adherents, somewhat under 5% of the population, included the Aboriginal and Metis culture.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 263753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 154, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "See above: Land Settlement", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Anishinaabe or Anishinabe—or more properly (plural) Anishinaabeg or Anishinabek. The plural form of the word is the autonym often used by the Odawa, Ojibwe, and Algonquin peoples.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 1105972, 1323496, 586095, 219064, 252768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 117, 124 ], [ 143, 148 ], [ 150, 156 ], [ 162, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Haudenosaunee, also known as the Iroquois or the \"People of the Longhouse\",", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 19195965, 1766373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 18 ], [ 69, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many British and French-Canadian fur traders married First Nations and Inuit women from the Cree, Ojibwa, or Saulteaux First Nations. The majority of these fur traders were Scottish and French and were Catholic.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 52107, 219064, 230744, 34850722, 606848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 96 ], [ 98, 104 ], [ 109, 118 ], [ 173, 181 ], [ 202, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Early settlements in the region include the Mission of Sainte-Marie among the Hurons at Midland in 1649, Sault Ste. Marie in 1668, and Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit in 1701. Southern Ontario was part of the Pays d'en-haut (Upper Country) of New France, and later part of the province of Quebec until Quebec was split into Upper and Lower Canada in 1791. The first wave of settlement in the Detroit/Windsor area came in the 18th century during the French regime. A second wave came in the 19th and early 20th centuries to the areas of Eastern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario. In the Ottawa Valley, in particular, some families have moved back and forth across the Ottawa River for generations (the river is the border between Ontario and Quebec). In the city of Ottawa some areas such as Vanier and Orleans have a rich Franco-heritage where families often have members on both sides of the Ottawa River.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 1069292, 328592, 33657371, 2833392, 159828, 45945, 438668, 22219, 73458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 84 ], [ 88, 95 ], [ 105, 121 ], [ 135, 164 ], [ 241, 251 ], [ 332, 344 ], [ 583, 596 ], [ 762, 768 ], [ 890, 902 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After an initial group of about 7,000 United Empire Loyalists were thinly settled across the province in the mid-1780s, a far larger number of \"late-Loyalists\" arrived in the late 1790s and were required to take an oath of allegiance to the Crown to obtain land if they came from the US. Their fundamental political allegiances were always considered dubious. By 1812, this had become acutely problematic since the American settlers outnumbered the original Loyalists by more than ten to one. Following the War of 1812, the colonial government under Lt. Governor Gore took active steps to prevent Americans from swearing allegiance, thereby making them ineligible to obtain land grants. The tensions between the Loyalists and late Loyalists erupted in the \"Alien Question\" crisis in 1820–21 when the Bidwells (Barnabas and his son Marshall) sought election to the provincial assembly. They faced opponents who claimed they could not hold elective office because of their American citizenship. If the Bidwells were aliens so were the majority of the province. The issue was not resolved until 1828 when the Colonial government retroactively granted them citizenship.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 219416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Act Against Slavery passed in Upper Canada on 9 July 1793. The 1793 \"Act against Slavery\" forbade the importation of any additional slaves and freed children. It did not grant freedom to adult slaves—they were finally freed by the British Parliament in 1833. As a consequence, many Canadian slaves fled south to New England and New York, where slavery was no longer legal. Many American slaves who had escaped from the South via the Underground Railroad or fleeing from the Black Codes in the Ohio Valley came north to Ontario, a good portion settling on land lots and began farming. It is estimated that thousands of escaped slaves entered Upper Canada from the United States.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 558055, 1811656, 32190, 1178134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 23 ], [ 228, 261 ], [ 437, 457 ], [ 478, 489 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Great Migration from Britain from 1815 to 1850 has been numbered at 800,000. The population of Upper Canada in 1837 is documented at 409,000. Given the lack of detailed census data, it is difficult to assess the relative size of the American and Canadian born \"British\" and the foreign-born \"British.\" By the time of the first census in 1841, only half of the population of Upper Canada were foreign-born British.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 19599103 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first Lt. Governor, Sir John Graves Simcoe, sought to make the Church of England the Established Church of the province. To that end, he created the clergy reserves, the revenues of which were to support the church. The clergy reserves proved to be a long-term political issue, as other denominations, particularly the Church of Scotland (Presbyterians) sought a proportional share of the revenues. The Church of England was never numerically dominant in the province, as it was in England, especially in the early years when most of the American born Later Loyalists arrived. The growth of the Church of England depended largely on later British emigration for growth.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 15918, 292285, 183316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 46 ], [ 89, 107 ], [ 323, 341 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Church was led by the Rev. John Strachan (1778–1867), a pillar of the Family Compact. Strachan was part of the oligarchic ruling class of the province, and besides leading the Church of England, also sat on the Executive Council, the Legislative Council, helped found the Bank of Upper Canada, Upper Canada College, and the University of Toronto.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 639521, 262428, 1238247, 325856, 7955325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 44 ], [ 74, 88 ], [ 276, 296 ], [ 298, 318 ], [ 328, 349 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Father Alexander Macdonell was a Scottish Catholic priest who formed his evicted clan into The Glengarry Fencibles regiment, of which he served as chaplain. He was the first Catholic chaplain in the British Army since the Reformation. When the regiment was disbanded, Rev. Macdonell appealed to the government to grant its members a tract of land in Canada, and, in 1804, were provided in what is now Glengarry County, Canada.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 973819, 37857, 1088536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 183, 211 ], [ 222, 233 ], [ 402, 418 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1815, he began his service as the first Roman Catholic Bishop at St. Raphael's Church in the Highlands of Ontario. In 1819, he was appointed Vicar Apostolic of Upper Canada, which in 1826 was erected into a suffragan bishopric of the Archdiocese of Quebec. In 1826, he was appointed to the legislative council.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 667739, 50549, 220097, 3238897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 159 ], [ 220, 229 ], [ 237, 258 ], [ 293, 312 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Macdonell's role on the Legislative Council was one of the tensions with the Toronto congregation, led by Father William O'Grady. O'Grady, like Macdonell, had served as an army chaplain (to Connell James Baldwin's soldiers in Brazil). O'Grady followed Baldwin to Toronto Gore Township in 1828. From January 1829 he was pastor of St. Paul's church in York. Tensions between the Scottish and Irish came to a head when O'Grady was defrocked, in part for his activities in the Reform movement. He went on to edit a Reform newspaper in Toronto, the Canadian Correspondent.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 11261169, 11248292, 3383, 7762408, 242679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 128 ], [ 190, 211 ], [ 226, 232 ], [ 263, 284 ], [ 350, 354 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The undisputed leader of the highly fractious Methodists in Upper Canada was Egerton Ryerson, editor of their newspaper, The Christian Guardian. Ryerson (1803–1882) was an itinerant minister– or circuit rider– in the Niagara area for the Methodist Episcopal Church– an American branch of Methodism. As British immigration increased, Methodism in Upper Canada was torn between those with ties to the Methodist Episcopal Church and the British Wesleyan Methodists. Ryerson used the Christian Guardian to argue for the rights of Methodists in the province and, later, to help convince rank-and-file Methodists that a merger with British Wesleyans (effected in 1833) was in their best interest.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 43893675, 25891732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 143 ], [ 442, 461 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest Presbyterian ministers in Upper Canada came from various denominations based in Scotland, Ireland, and the United States. The \"Presbytery of the Canadas\" was formed in 1818 primarily by Scottish Associate Presbyterian missionaries, yet independently of their mother denomination in the hope of including Presbyterian ministers of all stripes in Upper and Lower Canada. Although successfully including members from Irish Associate, and American Presbyterian and Reformed denominations, the growing group of missionaries belonging to the Church of Scotland remained separate. Instead, in 1831, they formed their own \"Synod of the Presbyterian Church of Canada in Connection with the Established Church of Scotland\". That same year the \"Presbytery of the Canadas\", having grown and been re-organized, became the \"United Synod of Upper Canada\". In its continued pursuit for Presbyterian unity (and a share of government funding from the clergy reserves for established churches) the United Synod sought a union with the Church of Scotland synod which it finally joined in 1840. However, some ministers had left the United Synod prior to this merger (including, notably, Rev. James Harris, Rev. William Jenkins, and Rev. Daniel Eastman). In the 1832 new Secessionist missionaries began to arrive, belonging to \"The United Associate Synod in Scotland\" (after 1847, the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland). Committed to the voluntarist principle of rejecting government funding they decided against joining the \"United Synod of Upper Canada\" and on Christmas Day 1834 formed the \"Missionary Presbytery of the Canadas\". Although this new presbytery was formed at Rev. James Harris's church in Toronto, he and his congregation remained independent from it. However, the voluntarist, Rev. Jenkins and his congregation in Richmond Hill joined the Missionary Presbytery a few years later. Rev. Eastman had left the United Synod in 1833 to form the \"Niagara Presbytery\" of the Presbyterian Church in the USA. After this presbytery dissolved following the Rebellion of 1837, he rejoined the United Synod which then joined the Church of Scotland. Outside of these four Presbyterian denominations, only two others gained a foothold in the province. The small \"Stamford Presbytery\" of the American Secessionist tradition was formed in 1835 in the Niagara region, and the Scottish Reformed Presbyterian or \"Covenanter\" tradition was represented in the province to an even lesser extent. Despite the numerous denominations, by the late 1830s, the Church of Scotland was the main expression of Presbyterianism in Upper Canada.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 557080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1377, 1415 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These groups of later Loyalists were proportionately larger in the early decades of the province's settlement. The Mennonites, Tunkers, Quakers and Children of Peace are the traditional Peace churches. The Mennonites and Tunkers were generally German-speaking and immigrated as Later Loyalists from Pennsylvania. Many of their descendants continue to speak a form of German called Pennsylvania German. The Quakers (Society of Friends) immigrated from New York, the New England States and Pennsylvania. The Children of Peace were founded during the War of 1812 after a schism in the Society of Friends in York County. A further schism occurred in 1828, leaving two branches, \"Orthodox\" Quakers and \"Hicksite\" Quakers.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 333842, 11884, 181240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 221, 228 ], [ 367, 373 ], [ 381, 400 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the decade ending in 1837, the population of Upper Canada doubled, to 397,489, fed in large part by erratic spurts of displaced paupers, the \"surplus population\" of the British Isles. Historian Rainer Baehre estimated that between 1831 and 1835 a bare minimum of one-fifth of all emigrants to the province arrived totally destitute, forwarded by their parishes in the United Kingdom. The pauper immigrants arriving in Toronto were the excess agricultural workers and artisans whose growing ranks sent the cost of parish-based poor relief in England spiralling; a financial crisis that generated frenetic public debate and the overhaul of the Poor Laws in 1834. \"Assisted emigration,\" a second solution to the problem touted by the Parliamentary Under-Secretary in the Colonial Office, Robert Wilmot Horton, would remove them permanently from the parish poor rolls.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 7806603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 645, 654 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The roots of Wilmot-Horton's \"assisted emigration\" policies began in April 1820, in the middle of an insurrection in Glasgow, where a young, already twice bankrupted William Lyon Mackenzie was setting sail for Canada on a ship called Psyche. After the week-long violence, the rebellion was easily crushed; the participants were driven less by treason than distress. In a city of 147,000 people without a regular parish system of poor relief, between ten and fifteen thousand were destitute. The Prime Minister agreed to provide free transportation from Quebec to Upper Canada, a land grant, and a year's supply of provisions to any of the rebellious weavers who could pay their own way to Quebec. In all, in 1820 and 1821, a private charity helped 2,716 Lanarkshire and Glasgow emigrants to Upper Canada to take up their free grants, primarily in the Peterborough area. A second project was the Petworth Emigration Committee organised by the Reverend Thomas Sockett, who chartered ships and sent emigrants from England to Canada in each of the six years between 1832 and 1837. This area in the south of England was terrorised by the Captain Swing Riots, a series of clandestine attacks on large farmers who refused relief to unemployed agricultural workers. The area hardest hit– Kent– was the area where Sir Francis Bond Head, later Lt. Governor of Upper Canada in 1836, was the Assistant Poor Law Commissioner. One of his jobs was to force the unemployed into \"Houses of Industry.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 2550578, 246303, 223578, 10752257, 1202482, 262413, 7788756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 124 ], [ 166, 188 ], [ 852, 864 ], [ 896, 925 ], [ 1134, 1153 ], [ 1306, 1327 ], [ 1381, 1412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There were two types of corporate actors at work in the Upper Canadian economy: the legislatively chartered companies and the unregulated joint-stock companies. The joint stock company was popular in building public works, since it should be for general public benefit, as the benefit would otherwise be sacrificed to legislated monopolies with exclusive privileges. or lie dormant. An example of the legislated monopoly is found in the Bank of Upper Canada. However, the benefit of the joint-stock shareholders, as the risk takers, was whole and entire; and the general public benefitted only indirectly. As late as 1849, even the moderate reform politician Robert Baldwin was to complain that \"unless a stop were made to it, there would be nothing but corporations from one end of the country to the other.\" Radical reformers, like William Lyon Mackenzie, who opposed all \"legislated monopolies,\" saw joint stock associations as the only protection against \"the whole property of the country... being tied up as an irredeemable appendage to incorporated institutions, and put beyond the reach of individual possession.\" As a result, most of the joint-stock companies formed in this period were created by political reformers who objected to the legislated monopolies granted to members of the Family Compact.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Trade, monetary policy, and financial institutions", "target_page_ids": [ 3431555, 362024, 1238247, 144950, 246303, 37806147, 262428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 117 ], [ 138, 159 ], [ 437, 457 ], [ 659, 673 ], [ 834, 856 ], [ 1207, 1226 ], [ 1295, 1309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The government of Upper Canada never issued a provincial currency. A variety of coins, mainly of French, Spanish, English and American origin circulated. The government used the Halifax standard, where one pound Halifax equalled four Spanish dollars. One pound sterling equalled £1 2s 2¾d (until 1820), and £1 2s 6½d Halifax pounds after 1820.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Trade, monetary policy, and financial institutions", "target_page_ids": [ 270673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 255, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Paper currency was issued primarily by the Bank of Upper Canada, although with the diversification of the banking system, each bank would issue its own distinctive notes.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Trade, monetary policy, and financial institutions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Bank of Upper Canada was \"captured\" from Kingston merchants by the York elite at the instigation of John Strachan in 1821, with the assistance of William Allan, a Toronto merchant and Executive Councillor. York was too small to warrant such an institution as indicated by the inability of its promoters to raise even the minimal 10% of the £200,000 authorised capital required for start-up. It succeeded where the Bank of Kingston had failed only because it had the political influence to have this minimum reduced by half, and because the provincial government subscribed for two thousand of its eight thousand shares. The administration appointed four of the bank's fifteen directors that, as with the Clergy Corporation, made for a tight bond between the nominally private company and the state. Forty-four men served as bank directors during the 1830s; eleven of them were executive councillors, fifteen of them were legislative councillors, and thirteen were magistrates in Toronto. More importantly, all 11 men who had ever sat on the Executive Council also sat on the board of the Bank at one time or another. 10 of these men also sat on the Legislative Council. The overlapping membership on the boards of the Bank of Upper Canada and on the Executive and Legislative Councils served to integrate the economic and political activities of church, state, and the \"financial sector.\" These overlapping memberships reinforced the oligarchic nature of power in the colony and allowed the administration to operate without any effective elective check. The Bank of Upper Canada was a political sore point for the Reformers throughout the 1830s.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Trade, monetary policy, and financial institutions", "target_page_ids": [ 639521, 2254591, 5655994, 37806147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 117 ], [ 150, 163 ], [ 708, 726 ], [ 1619, 1628 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The difference between the chartered banks and the joint-stock banks lay almost entirely on the issue of liability and its implications for the issuance of bank notes. The joint-stock banks lacked limited liability, hence every partner in the bank was responsible for the bank's debts to the full extent of their personal property. The formation of new joint-stock banks blossomed in 1835 in the aftermath of a parliamentary report by Dr Charles Duncombe, which established their legality here. Duncombe's report drew in large part on an increasingly dominant banking orthodoxy in the United Kingdom which challenged the English system of chartered banks. Duncombe's Select Committee on Currency offered a template for the creation of joint-stock banks based on several successful British banks. Within weeks two Devonshire businessmen, Capt. George Truscott and John Cleveland Green, established the \"Farmer's Bank\" in Toronto. The only other successful bank established under this law was \"The Bank of the People\" which was set up by Toronto's Reformers. The Bank of the People provided the loan that allowed William Lyon Mackenzie to establish the newspaper The Constitution in 1836 in the lead up to the Rebellion of 1837. Mackenzie wrote at the time: \"Archdeacon Strachan's bank (the old one)... serve the double purpose of keeping the merchants in chains of debt and bonds to the bank manager, and the Farmer's acres under the harrow of the storekeeper. You will be shewn how to break this degraded yoke of mortgages, ejectments, judgments and bonds. Money bound you – money shall loose you\". During the financial panic of 1836, the Family Compact sought to protect its interests in the nearly bankrupt Bank of Upper Canada by making joint-stock banks illegal.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Trade, monetary policy, and financial institutions", "target_page_ids": [ 262396, 1275455, 246303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 438, 454 ], [ 992, 1014 ], [ 1111, 1133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the Napoleonic Wars, as industrial production in Britain took off, English manufacturers began dumping cheap goods in Montreal; this allowed an increasing number of shopkeepers in York to obtain their goods competitively from Montreal wholesalers. It was during this period that the three largest pre-war merchants who imported directly from Britain retired from business as a result; Quetton St. George in 1815, Alexander Wood in 1821, and William Allan in 1822. Toronto and Kingston then underwent a boom in the number of increasingly specialised shops and wholesalers. The Toronto wholesale firm of Isaac Buchanan and Company were one of the largest of the new wholesalers. Isaac Buchanan was a Scots merchant in Toronto, in partnership with his brother Peter, who remained in Glasgow to manage the British end of the firm. They established their business in Toronto in 1835, having bought out Isaac's previous partners, William Guild and Co., who had established themselves in Toronto in 1832. As a wholesale firm, the Buchanan's had invested more than £10,000 in their business.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Trade, monetary policy, and financial institutions", "target_page_ids": [ 1463140, 2254591, 5715882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 419, 433 ], [ 447, 460 ], [ 608, 622 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another of those new wholesale businesses was the Farmers' Storehouse Company. The Farmers Storehouse Company was formed in the Home District and is probably Canada's first Farmers' Cooperative. The Storehouse expedited the sale of farmer's wheat to Montreal, and provided them with cheaper consumer goods.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Trade, monetary policy, and financial institutions", "target_page_ids": [ 37890931, 2330138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 77 ], [ 173, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Upper Canada was in the unenviable position of having few exports with which to pay for all its imported manufactured needs. For the vast majority of those who settled in rural areas, debt could be paid off only through the sale of wheat and flour; yet, throughout much of the 1820s, the price of wheat went through periodic cycles of boom and bust depending upon the British markets that ultimately provided the credit upon which the farmer lived.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Trade, monetary policy, and financial institutions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the decade 1830–39, exports of wheat averaged less than £1 per person a year (less than £6 per household), and in the 1820s just half that.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Trade, monetary policy, and financial institutions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Given the small amounts of saleable wheat and flour, and the rarity of cash, some have questioned how market oriented these early farmers were. Instead of depending on the market to meet their needs, many of these farmers depended on networks of shared resources and cooperative marketing. For example, rather than hire labour, they met their labour needs through \"work bees.\" such farmers are said to be 'subsistence oriented' and not to respond to market cues; rather, they engage in a moral economy seeking 'subsistence insurance' and a 'just price'. The Children of Peace in the village of Hope (now Sharon) are a well documented example. They were the most prosperous agricultural community in Canada West by 1851.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Trade, monetary policy, and financial institutions", "target_page_ids": [ 2118562, 230730, 37467580, 547347, 24247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 488, 501 ], [ 541, 551 ], [ 554, 575 ], [ 604, 610 ], [ 699, 710 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Ottawa River timber trade resulted from Napoleon's 1806 Continental Blockade in Europe. The United Kingdom required a new source of timber for its navy and shipbuilding. Later the UK's application of gradually increasing preferential tariffs increased Canadian imports. The trade in squared timber lasted until the 1850s. The transportation of raw timber by means of floating down the Ottawa River was proved possible in 1806 by Philemon Wright. Squared timber would be assembled into large rafts which held living quarters for men on their six-week journey to Quebec City, which had large exporting facilities and easy access to the Atlantic Ocean.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Trade, monetary policy, and financial institutions", "target_page_ids": [ 229018, 2797909, 354559, 2797909, 100727 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 80 ], [ 371, 379 ], [ 433, 448 ], [ 489, 500 ], [ 565, 576 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The timber trade was Upper and Lower Canada's major industry in terms of employment and value of the product. The largest supplier of square red and white pine to the British market was the Ottawa River and the Ottawa Valley. They had \"rich red and white pine forests.\" Bytown (later called Ottawa), was a major lumber and sawmill centre of Canada.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Trade, monetary policy, and financial institutions", "target_page_ids": [ 45945, 73458, 438668, 507802, 464301, 445938, 22219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 43 ], [ 190, 202 ], [ 211, 224 ], [ 241, 244 ], [ 249, 259 ], [ 270, 276 ], [ 291, 297 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The early nineteenth century was the age of canals. The Erie Canal, stretching from Buffalo to Albany, New York, threatened to divert all of the grain and other trade on the upper Great Lakes through the Hudson River to New York city after its completion in 1825. Upper Canadians sought to build a similar system that would tie this trade to the St Lawrence River and Montreal.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Transportation and communications", "target_page_ids": [ 10046, 3985, 52106, 47911, 45948, 7954681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 66 ], [ 84, 91 ], [ 95, 101 ], [ 204, 216 ], [ 346, 363 ], [ 368, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Rideau Canal's purpose was military and hence was paid for by the British and not the local treasury. It was intended to provide a secure supply and communications route between Montreal and the British naval base in Kingston. The objective was to bypass the St. Lawrence River bordering New York; a route which would have left British supply ships vulnerable to an attack. Westward from Montreal, travel would proceed along the Ottawa River to Bytown (now Ottawa), then southwest via the canal to Kingston and out into Lake Ontario. Because the Rideau Canal was easier to navigate than the St. Lawrence River due to the series of rapids between Montreal and Kingston, it became a busy commercial artery from Montreal to the Great Lakes. The construction of the canal was supervised by Lieutenant-Colonel John By of the Royal Engineers. The work started in 1826, and was completed 6 years later in 1832 at a cost of £822,000.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Transportation and communications", "target_page_ids": [ 45948, 73458, 445938, 22219, 615322, 269769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 263, 281 ], [ 433, 445 ], [ 449, 455 ], [ 461, 467 ], [ 809, 816 ], [ 824, 839 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Welland Canal was created to directly link Lake Erie with Lake Ontario, bypassing Niagara Falls and the Erie Canal. It was the idea of William Hamilton Merritt who owned a sawmill, grist mill and store on the Twelve Mile Creek. The Legislature authorised the joint-stock Welland Canal Company on 19 January 1824, with a capitalisation of $150,000, and Merritt as the agent. The canal was officially opened exactly five years later on 30 November 1829. However, the original route to Lake Erie followed the Welland and Niagara Rivers and was difficult and slow to navigate. The Welland Canal Company obtained a loan of 50,000 pounds from the Province of Upper Canada in March 1831 to cut a canal directly to Gravelly Bay (now Port Colborne) as the new Lake Erie terminus for the canal.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Transportation and communications", "target_page_ids": [ 3540944, 17506420, 248946 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 163 ], [ 213, 230 ], [ 729, 742 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the time the canal was finished in 1837, it had cost the province £425,000 in loans and stock subscriptions. The company was supposed to have been a private one using private capital; but the province had little private capital available, hence most of the original funds came from New York. To keep the canal in Upper Canadian hands, the province had passed a law barring Americans from the company's directorate. The company was thus controlled by the Family Compact, even though they had few shares. By 1834, it was clear the canal would never make money and that the province would be on the hook for the large loans; the canal and the canal company thus became a political issue, as local farmers argued the huge expense would ultimately only benefit American farmers in the west and the merchants who transported their grain.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Transportation and communications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Desjardins Canal, named after its promoter Pierre Desjardins, was built to give Dundas, Ontario, easier access to Burlington Bay and Lake Ontario. Access to Lake Ontario from Dundas was made difficult by the topography of the area, which included a natural sand and gravel barrier, across Burlington Bay which allowed only boats with a shallow draft through. In 1823 a canal was dug through the sandbar. In 1826 the passage was completed, allowing schooners to sail to neighbouring Hamilton. Hamilton then became a major port and quickly expanded as a centre of trade and commerce. In 1826 a group of Dundas businessmen incorporated to compete with Hamilton and increase the value of their real estate holdings. The project to build Desjardins Canal continued for ten years, from 1827 to 1837, and required constant infusions of money from the province. In 1837, the year it opened, the company's income was £6,000, of which £5,000 was from a government loan and £166 was received from canal tolls.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Transportation and communications", "target_page_ids": [ 478242, 1495895, 17947, 14288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 99 ], [ 118, 132 ], [ 137, 149 ], [ 486, 494 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is disagreement as to whether the Canadian-built (), launched on 7 September 1816, at Ernestown, Ontario or the US-built Ontario (), launched in the spring of 1817 at Sacketts Harbor, New York, was the first steamboat on the Great Lakes. While Frontenac was launched first, Ontario began active service first. The first steamboat on the upper Great Lakes was the passenger-carrying Walk-In-The-Water, built in 1818 to navigate Lake Erie.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Transportation and communications", "target_page_ids": [ 17946 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 434, 443 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the years between 1809 and 1837 just over 100 steamboats were launched by Upper and Lower Canadians for the St. Lawrence River and Great Lakes trade, of which ten operated on Lake Ontario. The single largest engine foundry in British North America before 1838 was the Eagle Foundry of Montreal, founded by John Dod Ward in the fall of 1819 which manufactured 33 of the steam engines. The largest Upper Canadian engine manufacturer was Sheldon & Dutcher of Toronto, who made three engines in the 1830s before being driven to Bankruptcy by the Bank of Upper Canada in 1837.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Transportation and communications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The major owner-operators of steamships on Lake Ontario were Donald Bethune, John Hamilton, Hugh Richardson, and Henry Gildersleeve, each of whom would have invested a substantial fortune.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Transportation and communications", "target_page_ids": [ 5073343, 2303108, 9158898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 75 ], [ 77, 90 ], [ 92, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Besides marine travel, Upper Canada had a few Post roads or footpaths used for transportation by horse or stagecoaches along the key settlements between London to Kingston.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Transportation and communications", "target_page_ids": [ 14759592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Governor's Road was built beginning in 1793 from Dundas to Paris and then to the proposed capital of London by 1794. The road was further extended eastward with new capital of York in 1795. his road was eventually known as Dundas Road.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Transportation and communications", "target_page_ids": [ 478242, 248424, 40353, 242679, 2884943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 59 ], [ 63, 68 ], [ 105, 111 ], [ 180, 184 ], [ 227, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A second route was known as Lakeshore Road or York Road which was built from York to Trent River from 1799 to 1900 and later extended eastwards to Kingston in 1817. This road was later renamed as Kingston Road.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Transportation and communications", "target_page_ids": [ 946674, 114562, 1160406 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 96 ], [ 147, 155 ], [ 196, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the War of 1812 with the United States, Upper Canada was the chief target of the Americans, since it was weakly defended and populated largely by American immigrants. However, division in the United States over the war, a lackluster American militia, the incompetence of American military commanders, and swift and decisive action by the British commander, Sir Isaac Brock, kept Upper Canada part of British North America.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "United States relations", "target_page_ids": [ 34059, 99063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 22 ], [ 368, 379 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Detroit was captured by the British on 6 August 1812. The Michigan Territory was held under British control until it was abandoned in 1813. The Americans won the decisive Battle of Lake Erie (10 September 1813) and forced the British to retreat from the western areas. On the retreat they were intercepted at the Battle of the Thames (5 October 1813) and destroyed in a major American victory that killed Tecumseh and broke the power of Britain's Indian allies.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "United States relations", "target_page_ids": [ 437478, 249801, 249093, 200966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 76 ], [ 171, 190 ], [ 313, 333 ], [ 405, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Major battles fought on territory in Upper Canada included:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "United States relations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Battle of Queenston Heights, 13 October 1812", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "United States relations", "target_page_ids": [ 249637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Burning and Battle of York, 27 April 1813", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "United States relations", "target_page_ids": [ 249746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Battle of Fort George, 27 May 1813", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "United States relations", "target_page_ids": [ 1330664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Battle of Stoney Creek, 5 June 1813", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "United States relations", "target_page_ids": [ 707450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Battle of Beaver Dams, 24 June 1813", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "United States relations", "target_page_ids": [ 987216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Battle of Lake Erie, 10 September 1813", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "United States relations", "target_page_ids": [ 249801 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Battle of the Thames, 5 October 1813", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "United States relations", "target_page_ids": [ 249093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Battle of Crysler's Farm, 11 November 1813", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "United States relations", "target_page_ids": [ 251257 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Burning of Newark, 10 December 1813", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "United States relations", "target_page_ids": [ 248803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Battle of Chippawa, 5 July 1814", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "United States relations", "target_page_ids": [ 1325916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Battle of Lundy's Lane, 25 July 1814", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "United States relations", "target_page_ids": [ 250897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many other battles were fought in American territory bordering Upper Canada, including the Northwest Territory (most in modern-day Michigan), upstate New York and naval battles in the Great Lakes.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "United States relations", "target_page_ids": [ 234989, 447990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 110 ], [ 142, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Treaty of Ghent (ratified in 1815) ended the war and restored the status quo ante bellum.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "United States relations", "target_page_ids": [ 150246, 441961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 70, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mackenzie, Duncombe, John Rolph and 200 supporters fled to Navy Island in the Niagara River, where they declared themselves the Republic of Canada on 13 December. They obtained supplies from supporters in the United States, resulting in British reprisals (see Caroline affair). This incident has been used to establish the principle of \"anticipatory self-defense\" in international politics, which holds that it may be justified only in cases in which the \"necessity of that self-defense is instant, overwhelming, and leaving no choice of means, and no moment for deliberation\". This formulation is part of the Caroline test. The Caroline affair is also now invoked frequently in the course of the dispute around preemptive strike (or preemption doctrine).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "United States relations", "target_page_ids": [ 3362925, 1018440, 52027, 845979, 193612, 28403979, 384984, 384984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 31 ], [ 59, 70 ], [ 78, 91 ], [ 128, 146 ], [ 260, 275 ], [ 610, 623 ], [ 712, 729 ], [ 734, 744 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 13 January 1838, under attack by British armaments, the rebels fled. Mackenzie went to the United States where he was arrested and charged under the Neutrality Act. The Neutrality Act of 1794 made it illegal for an American to wage war against any country at peace with the United States. Application of the Neutrality Act during the Patriot War led to the largest use of US government military force against its own citizens since the Whiskey Rebellion.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "United States relations", "target_page_ids": [ 17028582, 143541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 166 ], [ 439, 456 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The extended series of incidents comprising the Patriot War were finally settled by US Secretary of State Daniel Webster and Alexander Baring, 1st Baron Ashburton, in the course of their negotiations leading to the Webster–Ashburton Treaty of 1842.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "United States relations", "target_page_ids": [ 51613, 204997, 193618 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 120 ], [ 125, 162 ], [ 215, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1807 the Grammar School Act allowed the government to take over various grammar schools across the province and incorporating them into a network of eight new, public grammar schools (secondary schools), one for each of the eight districts (Eastern, Johnstown, Midland, Newcastle, Home, Niagara, London, and Western):", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 156975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eastern Grammar School in New Johnstown or current day Cornwall, Ontario – founded as Cornwall Grammar School and later became Cornwall Collegiate and Vocational School.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 178831, 9137035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 73 ], [ 128, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Johnstown District Grammar School, Maitland, Ontario", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 4922829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Midland Grammar School – created to replace Kingston Grammar School established in 1792 and later became Kingston Collegiate and Vocational Institute", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 1523898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Newcastle District Grammar School, Coburg", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Home District Grammar School in York, Upper Canada, later becoming Royal Grammar School, Toronto High School and finally to the current name Jarvis Collegiate Institute.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 242679, 1812390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 51 ], [ 142, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " St. Catherine's and District Grammar School (Niagara District)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " London District Grammar School latter became London Central Secondary School", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 1081586 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Western District Grammar School in Sandwich or current day Windsor, Ontario – grammar school is gone and is now the site of General Brock Public School.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 33596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Canada West was the western portion of the United Province of Canada from 10 February 1841, to 1 July 1867. Its boundaries were identical to those of the former Province of Upper Canada. Lower Canada would also become Canada East.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Canada West", "target_page_ids": [ 24247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The area was named the Province of Ontario under the British North America Act of 1867.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Canada West", "target_page_ids": [ 876280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Former colonies and territories in Canada", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27808775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Timeline of Ontario history", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 522241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Clarke, John. Land Power and Economics on the Frontier of Upper Canada McGill-Queen's University Press (2001) 747pp. ()", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Di Mascio, Anthony. The Idea of Popular Schooling in Upper Canada: Print Culture, Public Discourse, and the Demand for Education (McGill-Queen's University Press; 2012) 248 pages; building a common system of schooling in the late-18th and early 19th centuries.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dieterman, Frank. Government on fire: the history and archaeology of Upper Canada's first Parliament Buildings Eastendbooks, 2001.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dunham, Eileen. Political unrest in Upper Canada 1815–1836 McClelland and Stewart, 1963.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Errington, Jane. The lion, the eagle, and Upper Canada: a developing colonial ideology McGill-Queen's University Press, 1987.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Johnston, James Keith. Historical essays on Upper Canada McClelland and Stewart, 1975.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Kilbourn, William. The Firebrand: William Lyon Mackenzie and the Rebellion in Upper Canada (1956) ", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Lewis, Frank, and M. C. Urquhart. Growth and standard of living in a pioneer economy: Upper Canada 1826–1851 Kingston, Ont. : Institute for Economic Research, Queen's University, 1997.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Rea, J. Edgar. \"Rebellion in Upper Canada, 1837\" Manitoba Historical Society Transactions Series 3, Number 22, 1965–66 online, historiography", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Saul, John Ralston. Louis-Hippolyte LaFontaine and Robert Baldwin (2010) online", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Winearls, Joan. Mapping Upper Canada 1780–1867: an annotated bibliography of manuscript and printed maps. University of Toronto Press, 1991.erdvrv", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Moving Here, Staying Here: The Canadian Immigrant Experience at Library and Archives Canada", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Upper Canada - Library and Archives Canada", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Upper Canada - History of Ontario - Ontario Government", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Upper Canada at The Canadian Encyclopedia", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Maritime History of the Great Lakes", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Early Canadiana Online digital collections", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Upper_Canada", "1841_disestablishments_in_Canada", "History_of_Ontario_by_location", "British_North_America", "Former_British_colonies_and_protectorates_in_the_Americas", "States_and_territories_established_in_1791", "1791_establishments_in_the_British_Empire", "1841_disestablishments_in_the_British_Empire", "1791_establishments_in_North_America", "1791_establishments_in_Canada", "States_and_territories_disestablished_in_1841" ]

[ "Province of Upper Canada" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Chat or chats may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Conversation, particularly casual ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Communication", "target_page_ids": [ 228569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Online chat, text message communication over the Internet in real-time", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Communication", "target_page_ids": [ 174492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Synchronous conferencing, a formal term for online chat", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Communication", "target_page_ids": [ 8143988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " SMS chat, a form of text messaging", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Communication", "target_page_ids": [ 305854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A popular term for internet relay chat", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Communication", "target_page_ids": [ 14730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chat room or group chat", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Communication", "target_page_ids": [ 38892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Video chat", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Communication", "target_page_ids": [ 2304367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Text messaging, person-to-person chat, i.e. non group chat", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Communication", "target_page_ids": [ 305854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chat (magazine), a British weekly women's magazine", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 18643761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " CHAT-FM, a radio station (94.5 FM) licensed to Medicine Hat, Alberta, Canada", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 16304889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " CHAT-TV, a television station (channel 6) licensed to Medicine Hat, Alberta, Canada", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 4190799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Le Chat, a Belgian comic strip", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 3546809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sophia \"Chat\" Sanduval, a Marvel Comics character", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 28912839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chat Chat, a 1995 album by Takako Minekawa", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 12030000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chat show, a radio and television format", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 87893 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chat, Iran, a village in Iran", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 39906585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chat, Kyrgyzstan, a village in Kyrgyzstan", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 16213290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chat, Turkmenistan, a Russian fort at the mouth of the Sumbar River in 1879", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 11216664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chat, California, an alternate name of Chats, USA", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 23052426 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Checklist for Autism in Toddlers, used in autism screening", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Science and medicine", "target_page_ids": [ 47891567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Choline acetyltransferase, an enzyme that synthesises acetylcholine", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Science and medicine", "target_page_ids": [ 622271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "(Z)-3-hexen-1-ol acetyltransferase, an enzyme", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Science and medicine", "target_page_ids": [ 38723455 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chat (bird), Old World flycatchers of subfamily Saxicolinae, which resemble small thrushes, as well as:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Science and medicine", "target_page_ids": [ 185152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Australian chats, songbirds of genera Ashbyia and Epthianura (family Meliphagidae)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Science and medicine", "target_page_ids": [ 12436236, 12451236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 45 ], [ 50, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "American chats, songbirds of genus Granatellus (family Cardinalidae)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Science and medicine", "target_page_ids": [ 12456222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Yellow-breasted chat (Icteria virens), an enigmatic North American songbird of unresolved affiliations", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Science and medicine", "target_page_ids": [ 447747 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chat (mining), the waste rocks produced in mining", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 5625377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chat (ppp), an automated conversational script with a modem", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 5256396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Chats, an Australian garage punk band", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 56865986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Community Hebrew Academy of Toronto, a Jewish secondary school in Toronto", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 2957678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Choosing Healthplans All Together, a health insurance choosing exercise", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 13503544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cultural-historical activity theory, in social psychology", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 45218019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chāt or Chaat, Indian and Pakistani savoury snacks", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 1843714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chats, potatoes considered too small and/or blemished for human use but suitable for fodder use", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 23501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Codes for the Human Analysis of Transcripts, a format used by the CHILDES project", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 3852913 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chat room (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 69013525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chatbot (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 321741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Khat, a plant with stimulant properties in humans", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 56324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chatroulette, service for random chat all around the world", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26190373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Design Patterns: Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software (1994) is a software engineering book describing software design patterns. The book was written by Erich Gamma, Richard Helm, Ralph Johnson, and John Vlissides, with a foreword by Grady Booch. The book is divided into two parts, with the first two chapters exploring the capabilities and pitfalls of object-oriented programming, and the remaining chapters describing 23 classic software design patterns. The book includes examples in C++ and Smalltalk.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 27010, 164952, 946459, 2800098, 2867281, 562205, 164952, 72038, 28319 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 95 ], [ 112, 135 ], [ 162, 173 ], [ 189, 202 ], [ 208, 222 ], [ 243, 254 ], [ 442, 465 ], [ 498, 501 ], [ 506, 515 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It has been influential to the field of software engineering and is regarded as an important source for object-oriented design theory and practice. More than 500,000 copies have been sold in English and in 13 other languages. The authors are often referred to as the Gang of Four (GoF).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The book started at a birds of a feather (BoF) session at OOPSLA '90, \"Towards an Architecture Handbook\", run by Bruce Anderson, where Erich Gamma and Richard Helm met and discovered their common interest. They were later joined by Ralph Johnson and John Vlissides. The original publication date of the book was October 21, 1994 with a 1995 copyright, hence it is often cited with a 1995-year, despite being published in 1994. The book was first made available to the public at the OOPSLA meeting held in Portland, Oregon, in October 1994.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 15285, 1157909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 40 ], [ 58, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2005 the ACM SIGPLAN awarded that year's Programming Languages Achievement Award to the authors, in recognition of the impact of their work \"on programming practice and programming language design\". As of March 2012, the book was in its 40th printing.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1226658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chapter 1 is a discussion of object-oriented design techniques, based on the authors' experience, which they believe would lead to good object-oriented software design, including:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 27471338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Program to an interface, not an implementation.\" (Gang of Four 1995:18)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Composition over inheritance: \"Favor 'object composition' over 'class inheritance'.\" (Gang of Four 1995:20)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26356139, 1911078, 2617746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ], [ 39, 57 ], [ 65, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The authors claim the following as advantages of interfaces over implementation:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 620746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " clients remain unaware of the specific types of objects they use, as long as the object adheres to the interface", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " clients remain unaware of the classes that implement these objects; clients only know about the abstract class(es) defining the interface", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Use of an interface also leads to dynamic binding and polymorphism, which are central features of object-oriented programming.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 847810, 261811 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 49 ], [ 54, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The authors refer to inheritance as white-box reuse, with", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2617746, 2288308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 32 ], [ 36, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "white-box referring to visibility, because the internals of parent classes are often visible to subclasses. In contrast, the authors refer to object composition (in which objects with well-defined interfaces are used dynamically at runtime by objects obtaining references to", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2617746, 1911078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 106 ], [ 142, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "other objects) as black-box reuse because no internal details of composed objects need be visible in the code using them.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18950050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The authors discuss the tension between inheritance and encapsulation at length and state that in their experience, designers overuse inheritance (Gang of Four 1995:20). The danger is stated as follows:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Because inheritance exposes a subclass to details of its parent's implementation, it's often said that 'inheritance breaks encapsulation'\". (Gang of Four 1995:19)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2617746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "They warn that the implementation of a subclass can become so bound up with the implementation of its parent class that any change in the parent's implementation will force the subclass to change. Furthermore, they claim that a way to avoid this is to inherit only from abstract classes—but then, they point out that there is minimal code reuse.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Using inheritance is recommended mainly when adding to the functionality of existing components, reusing most of the old code and adding relatively small amounts of new code.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To the authors, 'delegation' is an extreme form of object composition that can always be used to replace inheritance. Delegation involves two objects: a 'sender' passes itself to a 'delegate' to let the delegate refer to the sender. Thus the link between two parts of a system are established only at runtime, not at compile-time. The Callback article has more information about delegation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 645246 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 339, 347 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The authors also discuss so-called parameterized types, which are also known as generics (Ada, Eiffel, Java, C#, VB.NET, and Delphi) or templates (C++). These allow any type to be defined without specifying all the other types it uses—the unspecified types are supplied as 'parameters' at the point of use.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 105837, 7955681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 88 ], [ 103, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The authors admit that delegation and parameterization are very powerful but add a warning:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Dynamic, highly parameterized software is harder to understand and build than more static software.\" (Gang of Four 1995:21)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The authors further distinguish between 'Aggregation', where one object 'has' or 'is part of' another object (implying that an aggregate object and its owner have identical lifetimes) and acquaintance, where one object merely 'knows of' another object. Sometimes acquaintance is called 'association' or the 'using' relationship. Acquaintance objects may request operations of each other, but they are not responsible for each other. Acquaintance is a weaker relationship than aggregation and suggests much looser coupling between objects, which can often be desirable for maximum maintainability in a design.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1911078, 1639470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 52 ], [ 507, 522 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The authors employ the term 'toolkit' where others might today use 'class library', as in C# or Java. In their parlance, toolkits are the object-oriented equivalent of subroutine libraries, whereas a 'framework' is a set of cooperating classes that make up a reusable design for a specific class of software. They state that applications are hard to design, toolkits are harder, and frameworks are the hardest to design.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 768211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 202, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Creational patterns are ones that create objects, rather than having to instantiate objects directly. This gives the program more flexibility in deciding which objects need to be created for a given case.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Patterns by type", "target_page_ids": [ 855055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Abstract factory groups object factories that have a common theme.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Patterns by type", "target_page_ids": [ 41836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Builder constructs complex objects by separating construction and representation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Patterns by type", "target_page_ids": [ 164849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Factory method creates objects without specifying the exact class to create.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Patterns by type", "target_page_ids": [ 164850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Prototype creates objects by cloning an existing object.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Patterns by type", "target_page_ids": [ 164851 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Singleton restricts object creation for a class to only one instance.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Patterns by type", "target_page_ids": [ 65041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These concern class and object composition. They use inheritance to compose interfaces and define ways to compose objects to obtain new functionality.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Patterns by type", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Adapter allows classes with incompatible interfaces to work together by wrapping its own interface around that of an already existing class.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Patterns by type", "target_page_ids": [ 65020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bridge decouples an abstraction from its implementation so that the two can vary independently.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Patterns by type", "target_page_ids": [ 65033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Composite composes zero-or-more similar objects so that they can be manipulated as one object.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Patterns by type", "target_page_ids": [ 164853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Decorator dynamically adds/overrides behaviour in an existing method of an object.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Patterns by type", "target_page_ids": [ 164854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Facade provides a simplified interface to a large body of code.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Patterns by type", "target_page_ids": [ 65028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flyweight reduces the cost of creating and manipulating a large number of similar objects.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Patterns by type", "target_page_ids": [ 140538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Proxy provides a placeholder for another object to control access, reduce cost, and reduce complexity.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Patterns by type", "target_page_ids": [ 164856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most of these design patterns are specifically concerned with communication between objects.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Patterns by type", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chain of responsibility delegates commands to a chain of processing objects.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Patterns by type", "target_page_ids": [ 23830136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Command creates objects that encapsulate actions and parameters.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Patterns by type", "target_page_ids": [ 164858 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Interpreter implements a specialized language.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Patterns by type", "target_page_ids": [ 164860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Iterator accesses the elements of an object sequentially without exposing its underlying representation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Patterns by type", "target_page_ids": [ 164859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mediator allows loose coupling between classes by being the only class that has detailed knowledge of their methods.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Patterns by type", "target_page_ids": [ 164862, 1639470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 17, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Memento provides the ability to restore an object to its previous state (undo).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Patterns by type", "target_page_ids": [ 140542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Observer is a publish/subscribe pattern, which allows a number of observer objects to see an event.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Patterns by type", "target_page_ids": [ 164863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " State allows an object to alter its behavior when its internal state changes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Patterns by type", "target_page_ids": [ 164864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Strategy allows one of a family of algorithms to be selected on-the-fly at runtime.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Patterns by type", "target_page_ids": [ 164865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Template method defines the skeleton of an algorithm as an abstract class, allowing its subclasses to provide concrete behavior.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Patterns by type", "target_page_ids": [ 164866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Visitor separates an algorithm from an object structure by moving the hierarchy of methods into one object.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Patterns by type", "target_page_ids": [ 38689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Criticism has been directed at the concept of software design patterns generally, and at Design Patterns specifically. A primary criticism of Design Patterns is that its patterns are simply workarounds for missing features in C++, replacing elegant abstract features with lengthy concrete patterns, essentially becoming a \"human compiler\". Paul Graham wrote: ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 164952, 173353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 69 ], [ 340, 351 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Peter Norvig demonstrates that 16 out of the 23 patterns in Design Patterns are simplified or eliminated by language features in Lisp or Dylan. Related observations were made by Hannemann and Kiczales who implemented several of the 23 design patterns using an aspect-oriented programming language (AspectJ) and showed that code-level dependencies were removed from the implementations of 17 of the 23 design patterns and that aspect-oriented programming could simplify the implementations of design patterns.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 566666, 18016, 8741, 899894, 145329, 237214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 129, 133 ], [ 137, 142 ], [ 192, 200 ], [ 260, 296 ], [ 298, 305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There has also been humorous criticism, such as a show trial at OOPSLA '99 on 3 November 1999, and a parody of the format, by Jim Coplien, entitled \"Kansas City Air Conditioner\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 653567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In an interview with InformIT in 2009, Erich Gamma stated that the book authors had a discussion in 2005 on how they would have refactored the book and concluded that they would have recategorized some patterns and added a few additional ones, such as extension object/interface, dependency injection, type object, and null object. Gamma wanted to remove the Singleton pattern, but there was no consensus among the authors to do so.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Software design pattern", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 164952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Enterprise Integration Patterns", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11335534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "GRASP (object-oriented design)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4907231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pedagogical patterns", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 954686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] } ]

[ "Software_engineering_books", "Software_design_patterns", "1994_non-fiction_books", "Addison-Wesley_books" ]

[ "Design Patterns: Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Montana-class battleships were planned as successors of the for the United States Navy, to be slower but larger, better armored, and with superior firepower. Five were approved for construction during World War II, but changes in wartime building priorities resulted in their cancellation in favor of continuing production of s and Iowa-class battleships before any Montana-class keels were laid.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20518076, 32927, 219807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 91 ], [ 206, 218 ], [ 385, 390 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Intended armament would have been twelve Mark 7 guns in four 3-gun turrets, up from the nine Mark 7 guns in three turrets used by the Iowa class. Unlike the three preceding classes of battleships, the Montana class was designed without any restrictions from treaty limitations. With an increased anti-aircraft capability and substantially thicker armor in all areas, the Montanas would have been the largest, best-protected, and most heavily armed U.S. battleships ever. They were also the only class to rival the Empire of Japan's immense s in terms of tonnage.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 311909, 1226799, 183897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 48 ], [ 348, 353 ], [ 515, 530 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Preliminary design work for the Montana class began before the US entry into World War II. The first two vessels were approved by Congress in 1939 following the passage of the Second Vinson Act. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor delayed construction of the Montana class. The success of carrier combat at the Battle of the Coral Sea and, to a greater extent, the Battle of Midway, diminished the perceived value of the battleship. Consequently, the US Navy chose to cancel the Montana class in favor of more urgently needed aircraft carriers, amphibious and anti-submarine vessels.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 31756, 17906796, 60098, 61992, 60112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 138 ], [ 176, 193 ], [ 208, 230 ], [ 311, 334 ], [ 365, 381 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because the Iowas were far enough along in construction and urgently needed to operate alongside the new Essex-class aircraft carriers, their orders were retained, making them the last U.S. Navy battleships to be commissioned.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 60925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 213, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the political situation in Europe and Asia deteriorated in the prelude to World War II, Carl Vinson, the chairman of the House Committee on Naval Affairs, instituted the Vinson Naval Plan, which aimed to get the Navy into fighting shape after the cutbacks imposed by the Great Depression and the two London Naval Treaties of the 1930s. As part of the overall plan, Congress passed the Second Vinson Act in 1938, which was promptly signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt and cleared the way for construction of the four fast battleships and the first two fast battleships (hull numbers BB-61 and BB-62). Four additional battleships (with hull numbers BB-63, BB-64, BB-65, and BB-66) were approved for construction on 12 July 1940, with the last two intended to be the first ships of the Montana class.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 32927, 533984, 19468510, 214316, 17906796, 10979, 4382576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 89 ], [ 91, 102 ], [ 124, 129 ], [ 303, 324 ], [ 388, 405 ], [ 454, 475 ], [ 526, 541 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Navy had been considering large battleship design schemes since 1938 to counter the threat posed by potential battleships of the Imperial Japanese Navy, which had refused to sign the Second London Naval Treaty and furthermore refused to provide details about its s. Although the Navy knew little about the Yamato class, some rumors regarding the new Japanese battleships placed main gun battery caliber at . The potential of naval treaty violations by the new Japanese battleships resulted in the remaining treaty powers, Britain, France and the United States, invoking the tonnage \"Escalator Clause\" of the Second London Naval Treaty in June 1938, which raised the maximum standard displacement limit from to .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 236104, 215139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 155 ], [ 187, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The increased displacement limit allowed the Navy to begin evaluating 45,000-ton battleship designs, including \"slow\" schemes that increased firepower and protection over previous designs and also \"fast\" schemes. The \"fast\" design evolved into the Iowa class while the \"slow\" design, with main armament battery eventually settled on twelve guns and evolution into a 60,500-ton design, was assigned the name Montana and cleared for construction by the United States Congress under the Two-Ocean Navy Act on 19 July 1940; funding for the new ships was approved in 1941. The five ships, the last battleships to be ordered by the Navy, were originally to be designated BB-65 through BB-69; however, BB-65 and BB-66 were subsequently re-ordered as Iowa-class ships, and , in the Two Ocean Navy Act due to the urgent need for more warships, and the Montanas were redesignated BB-67 through BB-71.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 31756, 17838402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 454, 476 ], [ 487, 505 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Completion of the Montana class, and the last two Iowa-class battleships, was intended to give the US Navy a considerable advantage over any other nation, or probable combination of nations, with a total of 17 new battleships by the late 1940s. The Montanas also would have been the only American ships to rival Japan's massive and her sister in size and raw firepower.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Preliminary planning for the Montana-class battleships took place in 1939, when the aircraft carrier was still considered strategically less important than the battleship. The initial schemes for what would eventually become the Montana class were continuations of various 1938 design studies for a 45,000-ton \"slow\" battleship alternative to the \"fast\" battleship design that would become the Iowa class. The \"slow\" battleship design proposals had a maximum speed of and considered various main gun battery options, including /45 cal, 16-inch/50 cal, 16-inch/56 cal, and /48 cal guns; a main battery of twelve 16-inch/50 cal guns was eventually selected by the General Board for offering the best combination of performance and weight. The initial design schemes for the Montana class were given the \"BB65\" prefix.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 57794537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 573, 584 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 1939, a series of 45,000-ton BB-65 design schemes were evaluated, but in February 1940, as a result of the outbreak of World War II and the abandonment of the naval treaties, the Battleship Design Advisory Board moved to larger designs capable of simultaneously offering increased armament and protection. The design board issued a basic outline for the Montana class that called for it to be free of beam restrictions imposed by the extant Panama Canal, be 25% stronger offensively and defensively than any other battleship completed or under construction, and be capable of withstanding the new \"super heavy\" armor-piercing (AP) shells used by US battleships equipped with either the 16-inch/45 cal guns or 16-inch/50 cal Mark 7 guns. No longer restricted by treaty displacement limits, naval architects were able to increase armor protection for the new BB65 design schemes, enabling the ships to withstand enemy fire equivalent to their own guns' ammunition. In conjunction with the Montana class, the Navy also planned to add a third set of locks to the Panama Canal that would be wide to enable ship designs with greater beam; these locks would have been armored and would normally be reserved for use by Navy warships. Although freed of the beam restriction from the extant Panama Canal, the length and height of the BB65 designs had to take into account one of the shipyards at which they were to be built: the New York Navy Yard slipways could not handle the construction of a ship more than , and vessels built there had to be low enough to clear the Brooklyn Bridge at low tide. Consequently, the yard's number 4 dry dock had to be enlarged and the ships would be floated out rather than conventionally launched.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 24849, 23977649, 2869783, 23737998, 47742, 30718 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 449, 461 ], [ 695, 714 ], [ 1042, 1060 ], [ 1429, 1447 ], [ 1571, 1586 ], [ 1590, 1598 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The larger BB-65 design studies would again settle on main armament of twelve 16-inch/50 cal guns while providing protection against the \"super heavy\" AP shells. After debate at the design board about whether the Montana class should be fast, achieving the high speed of the Iowa class, or maintain the 27-to-28-knot speed of the North Carolina and South Dakota classes, the lower speed was chosen in order to rein in size and displacement. Design study of the BB-65-8 scheme for a 33-knot battleship resulted in standard displacement over , waterline length of , and required ; by returning the BB-65 design to the slower maximum speed, the standard displacement and waterline length of the ships could be reduced to a more practical and respectively as exemplified by the BB65-5 scheme. In practice, the 27-to-28-knot speed would have still been enough to escort and defend the Pacific-based Allied fast aircraft carrier task forces, although the Montanas ability in this regard would be considerably more limited compared to the Iowas as the latter could keep up with fleet carriers at full speed. In September 1940, the 58,000-ton BB65-5A preliminary design scheme with powerplant, the same as the one on Iowa class, was refined and subsequently named BB-67-1 after hull numbers BB-65 and 66 were reallocated as Iowa-class ships Illinois and Kentucky. Waterline length was reduced from for BB65-5 to for BB65-5A and then increased to for BB67-1.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By January 1941, the design limit for the 58,000-ton battleship plan had been reached, and consensus among those designing the battleship class was to increase the displacement to a nominal to support the desired armor and weaponry on the ships. At the same time, upon discovering that the propulsion plant was more powerful than needed, planners decided to reduce output from 212,000 shaft horsepower in BB67-2 to in BB67-3 for a better machinery arrangement and improved internal subdivisions. The secondary armament battery of ten two-gun turrets was also changed to mount the /54 cal guns instead of the 5-inch/38 cal guns used on the Iowas. The number of 40-mm Bofors anti-aircraft gun mounts also increased, while protection of the propulsion shafts changed from the extension of the belt and deck armor aft of the citadel to armored tubes in an effort to control weight growth.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 16549843, 5293178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 582, 593 ], [ 610, 628 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 1942, the Montana class design was further revised to BB-67-4. The armored freeboard was increased by , while the propulsion plant had its power reduced again to ; the standard displacement became and full load displacement was . Aesthetically, the net design for the Montana class somewhat resembled the Iowa class since they would be equipped with the same caliber main guns and similar secondary guns; however, Montana and her sisters would have more armor, mount three more main guns in one more turret, and be longer and wider than the Iowa class. The final contract design was issued in June 1942. Construction was authorized by the United States Congress and the projected date of completion was estimated to be somewhere between 1 July and 1 November 1945.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Navy ordered the ships in May 1942, but the Montana class was placed on hold because the Iowa-class battleships and the Essex-class aircraft carriers were under construction in the shipyards intended to build the Montanas. Both the Iowa and Essex classes had been given higher priorities: the Iowas as they were far along enough in construction and urgently needed to operate alongside the Essex-class carriers and defend them with 5-inch, 40mm, and 20mm AA guns, and the Essexes because of their ability to launch aircraft to gain and maintain air supremacy over the islands in the Pacific and intercept warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy. The entire Montana class was suspended in June 1942 following the Battle of Midway, before any of their keels had been laid. In July 1943, the construction of the Montana class was finally canceled after the Navy fully accepted the shift in naval warfare from surface engagements to air supremacy and from battleships to aircraft carriers. Work on the new locks for the Panama Canal also ceased in 1941 owing to a shortage of steel due to the changing strategic and material priorities.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 213654, 537478, 60112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 185, 193 ], [ 549, 562 ], [ 716, 732 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The final BB-67-4 design for the Montana-class battleships was long at the waterline and long overall. The maximum beam was while the waterline beam was due to the inclination of the external armor belt. The design displacement figures were standard, full load, and emergency load. At emergency load displacement, the mean draft was . At design combat displacement of , the mean draft was and (GM) metacentric height was .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specifications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Montana design shares many characteristics with the previous classes of American fast battleships starting from the North Carolina class, such as a bulbous bow, triple bottom under the armored citadel, and twin skegs in which the inner shafts were housed. The Montanas overall construction would make extensive use of welding for joining structural plates and homogeneous armor.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specifications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The armament of the Montana-class battleships would have been similar to the preceding Iowa-class battleships, but with an increase in the number of primary guns and more potent secondary guns for use against enemy surface ships and aircraft. Had they been completed, the Montanas would have been gun-for-gun the most powerful battleships the United States had constructed, and the only US battleship class that would have rivaled the Imperial Japanese Navy battleships Yamato and Musashi in armament, armor, and displacement.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specifications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The primary armament of a Montana-class battleship would have been twelve /50 caliber Mark 7 guns, which were to be housed in four three-gun turrets: two forward and two aft. The guns, the same used to arm the Iowa-class battleships, were long – 50times their bore, or 50calibers, from breechface to muzzle. Each gun weighed about without the breech, or with the breech. They fired armor-piercing projectiles at a muzzle velocity of , or high-capacity projectiles at , with a range of up to . At maximum range the projectile would have spent almost 1½ minutes in flight. The addition of the No. 4 turret would have allowed Montana to overtake Yamato as the battleship having heaviest broadside overall; Montana and her sisters would have had a broadside of vs. for Yamato. Each turret would have rested within an armored barbette, but only the top of the barbette would have protruded above the main deck. The barbettes would have extended either four decks (turrets 1 and 4) or five decks (turrets 2 and 3) down. The lower spaces would have contained rooms for handling the projectiles and storing the powder bags used to fire them. Each turret would have required a crew of 94 men to operate. The turrets would not have been attached to the ship, but would have rested on rollers, which meant that had any of the Montana-class ships capsized, the turrets would have fallen out. Each turret would have cost US$1.4million, but this figure did not take into account the cost of the guns themselves.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specifications", "target_page_ids": [ 311909, 621346, 640755, 1038519, 1199716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 97 ], [ 288, 298 ], [ 302, 308 ], [ 829, 837 ], [ 1343, 1350 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The turrets would have been \"three-gun\", not \"triple\", because each barrel would have elevated and fired independently. The ships could fire any combination of their guns, including a broadside of all twelve. Contrary to popular belief, the ships would not have moved sideways noticeably when a broadside was fired. The guns would have had an elevation range of −5° to +45°, moving at up to 12° per second. The turrets would have rotated about 300° at about 4° per second and could even be fired back beyond the beam, which is sometimes called \"over the shoulder\". Within each turret, a red stripe on the wall of the turret, just inches from the railing, would have marked the boundary of the gun's recoil, providing the crew of each gun turret with a visual reference for the minimum safe distance range.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specifications", "target_page_ids": [ 158121, 2557325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 184, 193 ], [ 512, 516 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Like most US battleships in World War II, the Montana class would have been equipped with a fire control computer, in this case the Ford Instrument Company Mk 1A Ballistic Computer, a rangekeeper designed to direct gunfire on land, sea, and in the air. This analog computer would have been used to direct the fire from the battleship's big guns, taking into account several factors such as the speed of the targeted ship, the time it takes for a projectile to travel, and air resistance to the shells fired at a target. At the time the Montana class was set to begin construction, the rangekeepers had gained the ability to use radar data to help target enemy ships and land-based targets. The results of this advance were telling: the rangekeeper was able to track and fire at targets at a greater range and with increased accuracy, as was demonstrated in November 1942 when the battleship engaged the Imperial Japanese Navy battleship at a range of at night; the Washington scored at least nine heavy caliber hits that critically damaged the Kirishima and led to her loss. This gave the US Navy a major advantage in World War II, as the Japanese did not develop radar or automated fire control to the level of the US Navy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specifications", "target_page_ids": [ 53550860, 8762082, 7272050, 2428, 236104 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 155 ], [ 156, 180 ], [ 185, 196 ], [ 259, 274 ], [ 905, 927 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The large caliber guns were designed to fire two different 16-inch shells: an armor-piercing round for anti-ship and anti-structure work, and a high-explosive round designed for use against unarmored targets and shore bombardment. The Mk. 8 APC (Armor-Piercing, Capped) shell weighed in at , and was designed to penetrate the hardened steel armor carried by foreign battleships. At , the Mk. 8 could penetrate of vertical steel armor plate. For unarmored targets and shore bombardment, the Mk. 13 HC (High-Capacity– referring to the large bursting charge) shell was available. The Mk. 13 shell could create a crater wide and deep upon impact and detonation, and could defoliate trees from the point of impact.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specifications", "target_page_ids": [ 3676521, 6416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 241, 244 ], [ 611, 617 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The final type of ammunition developed for the 16-inch guns, well after the Montanas had been cancelled, were W23 \"Katie\" shells. These were born from the nuclear deterrence that had begun to shape the US armed forces at the start of the Cold War. To compete with the United States Air Force and the United States Army, which had developed nuclear bombs and nuclear shells for use on the battlefield, the Navy began a top-secret program to develop Mk. 23 nuclear naval shells with an estimated yield of 15 to 20kilotons. The shells entered development around 1953, and were reportedly ready by 1956; however, only the Iowa-class battleships could have fired them.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specifications", "target_page_ids": [ 4595540, 32090, 32087 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 113 ], [ 268, 291 ], [ 300, 318 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The secondary armament for Montana and her sisters was to be twenty /54 cal guns housed in ten turrets along the superstructure island of the battleship; five on the starboard side and five on the port. These guns, designed specifically for the Montanas, were to be the replacement for the /38 cal secondary gun batteries then in widespread use with the US Navy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specifications", "target_page_ids": [ 16549843, 5293178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 79 ], [ 290, 297 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 5-inch/54 cal gun turrets were similar to the 5-inch/38 cal gun mounts in that they were equally adept in an anti-aircraft role and for damaging smaller ships, but differed in that they weighed more and fired heavier rounds of ammunition at greater velocities, thus increasing their effectiveness. However, the heavier rounds resulted in faster crew fatigue than the 5-inch/38 cal guns. The ammunition storage for the 5-inch/54 cal gun was 500 rounds per turret, and the guns could fire at targets nearly away at a 45° angle. At an 85° angle, the guns could hit an aerial target at over .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specifications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The cancellation of the Montana-class battleships in 1943 pushed back the combat debut of the 5-inch/54 cal guns to 1945, when they were used aboard the US Navy's s. The guns proved adequate for the carrier's air defense, but were gradually phased out of use by the carrier fleet because of their weight. (Rather than having the carrier defend itself by gunnery this would be assigned to other surrounding ships within a carrier battle group.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specifications", "target_page_ids": [ 7772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 421, 441 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While the Montana class would not be designed principally for escorting the fast carrier task forces, they would have nonetheless been equipped with a wide array of anti-aircraft guns to protect themselves and other ships (principally the US aircraft carriers) from Japanese fighters and dive bombers. If commissioned, the ships were expected to mount a considerable array of Oerlikon 20mm and Bofors 40mm anti-aircraft weapons.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specifications", "target_page_ids": [ 336257 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Oerlikon 20 mm anti-aircraft cannon was one of the most heavily produced anti-aircraft guns of World War II; the US alone manufactured a total of 124,735 of these guns. When activated in 1941, these guns replaced the .50 in (12.7 mm)/90 cal M2 Browning MG on a one-for-one basis. The Oerlikon 20mm AA gun remained the primary anti-aircraft weapon of the United States Navy until the introduction of the 40 mm Bofors AA gun in 1943.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specifications", "target_page_ids": [ 1884926, 146640, 246727, 616860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 39 ], [ 77, 94 ], [ 221, 259 ], [ 407, 426 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These guns are air-cooled and use a gas blow-back recoil system. Unlike other automatic guns employed during World War II, the barrel of the 20mm Oerlikon gun does not recoil; the breechblock is never locked against the breech and is actually moving forward when the gun fires. This weapon lacks a counter-recoil brake, as the force of the counter-recoil is checked by recoil from the firing of the next round of ammunition. Between December 1941 and September 1944, 32% of all Japanese aircraft downed were credited to this weapon, with the high point being 48% for the second half of 1942. In 1943, the revolutionary Mark 14 gunsight was introduced, which made these guns even more effective. The 20mm guns, however, were found to be ineffective against the Japanese kamikaze attacks used during the latter half of World War II. They were subsequently phased out in favor of the heavier 40mm Bofors AA guns.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specifications", "target_page_ids": [ 1252144, 1835570, 16625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 180, 191 ], [ 627, 635 ], [ 769, 777 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Bofors 40mm anti-aircraft gun was used on almost every major warship in the US and UK fleet from about 1943 to 1945. Although a descendant of German, Dutch, and Swedish designs, the Bofors mounts used by the US Navy during World War II had been heavily Americanized to bring the guns up to the standards placed on them by the Navy. This resulted in a gun system set to British standards (now known as the Standard System) with interchangeable ammunition, which simplified the logistics situation for World War II. When coupled with hydraulic couple drives to reduce salt contamination and the Mark 51 director for improved accuracy, the Bofors 40mm gun became a fearsome adversary, accounting for roughly half of all Japanese aircraft shot down between 1 October 1944 and 1 February 1945.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specifications", "target_page_ids": [ 32308, 21169396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 409, 424 ], [ 597, 613 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The propulsion plant of the Montanas would have consisted of eight Babcock & Wilcox two-drum boilers with a steam pressure of and a steam temperature of feeding four geared steam turbines, each driving one shaft with ; this would result in a total propulsive power of , which gave a design speed of 28 knots at 70,500 tons displacement. While less powerful than the powerplant used by the Iowas, the Montanas plant enabled the machinery spaces to be considerably more subdivided, with extensive longitudinal and traverse subdivisions of the boiler and engine rooms. The machinery arrangement was reminiscent of that of the , with the boiler rooms flanking the two central turbine rooms for the inboard shafts, while the turbine rooms for the wing shafts were placed at the after end of the machinery spaces. Montanas machinery arrangement combined with increased power would eventually be used on the . The Montanas were designed to carry of fuel oil and had a nominal range of at . Two semi-balanced rudders were placed behind the two inboard screws. The inboard shafts were housed in skegs, which while increasing hydrodynamic drag, substantially strengthened the stern structure.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specifications", "target_page_ids": [ 1751523, 29374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 83 ], [ 175, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To meet the high electrical loads anticipated for the ships, the design was to have ten 1,250kW ship service turbogenerators (SSTG), providing a total of 12,500kW of non-emergency electrical power at 450 volts alternating current. The ships would also be equipped with two 500kW emergency diesel generators.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specifications", "target_page_ids": [ 42986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 210, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aside from its firepower, a battleship's defining feature is its armor. The exact design and placement of the armor, inextricably linked with the ship's stability and performance, is a complex science honed over decades. A battleship is usually armored to withstand an attack from guns the size of its own, but the armor scheme of the preceding North Carolina class was only proof against shells (which they had originally been intended to carry), while the South Dakota and Iowa classes were designed only to resist their original complement of Mk. 5 shells, not the new \"super-heavy\" Mk. 8 armor-piercing shells they actually used. The Montanas were the only US battleships designed to resist the Mk. 8, and were designed to give a zone of immunity against fire from 16-inch/45-caliber firing 2,700lb shell, between and 16-inch/45-caliber firing 2,240lb shell, between away.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specifications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As designed, the Montanas used the \"all or nothing\" armor philosophy, with most of the armor concentrated on the citadel that includes the machinery spaces, armament, magazines, and command and control facilities. Unlike the previous Iowa and South Dakota classes, the Montana class design returned to an external armor belt due to the greater beam providing sufficient stability while having the required belt inclination; this arrangement would have made construction and damage repairs much easier. The belt armor would be Class A face-hardened Krupp cemented (K.C.) armor mounted on Special Treatment Steel (STS), inclined at 19 degrees. Below the waterline, the belt tapered to . To protect against potential underwater shell hits, the ships would have a separate Class B homogeneous Krupp-type armor lower belt, by the magazines and by the machinery, that would also have served as one of the torpedo bulkheads, inclined at 10 degrees; this lower belt would taper to 1 inch at the triple bottom and was mounted on STS. The ends of the armored citadel would be closed by Class A traverse bulkheads thick in the front and in the aft. The deck armor would be in three layers, the first consisting of STS laminated on STS for a total of STS weather deck, the second consisting of Class B laminated on STS for a total of , and a third splinter deck. Over the magazines, the splinter deck would be replaced by a STS third deck to protect from spalling. Total armor thickness on the centerline would therefore have been 9.925 in (252mm) over the citadel and 10.3 in (262mm) thick over the magazines. The outboard section would have had Class B laminated on STS for a total of second deck and a splinter deck. Total thickness for the outboard section of the deck would have been 8.1 in (206mm).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specifications", "target_page_ids": [ 12323943, 5327420, 30356482 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 51 ], [ 549, 563 ], [ 589, 612 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The main batteries were designed to have very heavy protection, with turret faces having Class B mounted on STS, resulting in thick laminated plate. The turret sides were to have up to Class A and turret roofs would have Class B. The barbettes would have been protected by up to Class A forward and aft, while the conning tower sides would have Class A.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specifications", "target_page_ids": [ 1715032 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 321, 334 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Montanas torpedo protection system design incorporated lessons learned from those of previous US fast battleships, and was to consist of four internal longitudinal torpedo bulkheads behind the outer hull shell plating that would form a multi-layered \"bulge\". Two of the compartments would be liquid loaded in order to disrupt the gas bubble of a torpedo warhead detonation while the bulkheads would elastically deform and absorb the energy. Due to the external armor belt, the geometry of the \"bulge\" was more similar to that of the North Carolina class rather than that of the South Dakota and Iowa classes. Like on the South Dakota and Iowa classes, the two outer compartments would be liquid loaded, while two inner ones be void with the lower Class B armor belt to form the holding bulkhead between them. The greater beam of the Montanas would allow a higher system depth of compared to of the North Carolinas.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specifications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Until the authorization of the Montana class all US battleships were built within the size limits for the Panama Canal. The main reason for this was logistical: the largest US shipyards were located on the East Coast of the United States, while the United States had territorial interests in both oceans. Requiring the battleships to fit within the Panama Canal took days off the transition time from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean by allowing ships to move through the canal instead of sailing around South America. By the time of the Two Ocean Navy bill, the Navy realized that ship designs could no longer be limited by the extant Panama Canal and thus approved the Montana class while simultaneously planning for a new third set of locks that were wide. This shift in policy meant that the Montana class would have been the only World War II–era US battleships to be adequately armored against guns of the same power as their own.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specifications", "target_page_ids": [ 504868, 24849, 2726726, 89126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 97 ], [ 106, 118 ], [ 149, 159 ], [ 206, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Montana class would have used aircraft for reconnaissance and for gunnery spotting. The type of aircraft used would have depended on when exactly the battleships would have been commissioned, but in all probability they would have used either the Kingfisher or the Seahawk. The aircraft would have been floatplanes launched from catapults on the ship's fantail. They would have landed on the water and taxied to the stern of the ship to be lifted by a crane back to the catapult.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specifications", "target_page_ids": [ 20338498, 583442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 61 ], [ 307, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Vought OS2U Kingfisher was a lightly armed two-man aircraft designed in 1937. The Kingfisher's high operating ceiling of made it well-suited for its primary mission: to observe the fall of shot from a battleship's guns and radio corrections back to the ship. The floatplanes used in World War II also performed search and rescue for naval aviators who were shot down or forced to ditch in the ocean.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specifications", "target_page_ids": [ 586715, 172599, 899167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 26 ], [ 316, 333 ], [ 338, 352 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 1942, the US Navy Bureau of Aeronautics requested industry proposals for a new seaplane to replace the Kingfisher and Curtiss SO3C Seamew. The new aircraft was required to be able to use landing gear as well as floats. Curtiss submitted a design on 1 August, and received a contract for two prototypes and five service-test aircraft on 25 August. The first flight of a prototype XSC-1 took place on 16 February 1944 at the Columbus, Ohio Curtiss plant. The first production aircraft were delivered in October 1944, and by the beginning of 1945 the single-seat Curtiss SC Seahawk floatplane began replacing the Kingfisher. Had the Montana class been completed, they would have arrived around the time of this replacement, and would likely have been equipped with the Seahawk for use in combat operations and seaborne search and rescue.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specifications", "target_page_ids": [ 899346, 3251815, 5950, 3251720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 47 ], [ 134, 145 ], [ 431, 445 ], [ 568, 586 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Five ships of the Montana class were authorized on 19 July 1940, but they were suspended indefinitely until being canceled on 21 July 1943. The ships were to be built at the New York Navy Yard, Philadelphia Navy Yard and Norfolk Navy Yard.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ships", "target_page_ids": [ 23737998, 196260, 162335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 174, 192 ], [ 194, 216 ], [ 221, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Montana was planned to be the lead ship of the class. She was the third ship to be named in honor of the 41st state, and was assigned to the Philadelphia Navy Yard. Both the earlier battleship, , and BB-67 were canceled, so Montana is the only one of the (48 at the time) US states never to have had a battleship with a \"BB\" hull classification completed in its honor.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ships", "target_page_ids": [ 855210, 192156, 60930, 19978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 39 ], [ 66, 76 ], [ 83, 88 ], [ 101, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ohio was to be the second Montana-class battleship. She was to be named in honor of the 17th state, and was assigned to the Philadelphia Navy Yard for construction. Ohio would have been the fourth ship to bear that name had she been commissioned.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ships", "target_page_ids": [ 22199, 32186, 60925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 98 ], [ 190, 201 ], [ 233, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maine was to be the third Montana-class battleship. She was to be named in honor of the 23rd state, and was assigned to the New York Navy Yard. Maine would have been the third ship to bear that name had she been commissioned.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ships", "target_page_ids": [ 19977, 82797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 98 ], [ 170, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "New Hampshire was to be the fourth Montana-class battleship, and was to be named in honor of the ninth state. She was assigned to the New York Navy Yard, and would have been the third ship to bear that name had she been commissioned.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ships", "target_page_ids": [ 21134, 189957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 108 ], [ 178, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louisiana was to be the fifth and final Montana-class battleship. She was to be named in honor of the 18th state and assigned to the Norfolk Navy Yard, Portsmouth, Virginia. Louisiana would have been the third ship to bear that name had she been commissioned. By hull number, Louisiana was the last American battleship authorized for construction.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ships", "target_page_ids": [ 18130, 91265, 188304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 112 ], [ 152, 172 ], [ 204, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " H-class battleship proposals – comparable German battleship design (cancelled)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 30493957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Design A-150 battleship – comparable Japanese battleship design follow-on to the Yamato (cancelled)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3574763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " – comparable battleship design of the Royal Navy (first two ships laid down, both scrapped due to the start of the war in Europe)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Keegan, John; Ellis, Chris; Natkiel, Richard (2001). World War II: A Visual Encyclopedia. PRC Publishing Ltd. .", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Muir, Malcolm Jr. (October 1990). \"Rearming in a Vacuum: United States Navy Intelligence and the Japanese Capital Ship Threat, 1936–1945\". The Journal of Military History, Vol. 54, No. 4.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Naval Historical Foundation [2000] (2004). The Navy. New York: Barnes & Noble Inc. .", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Firing procedure for the 16\"/50 (40.6 cm) Mark 7", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A comparison of seven battleship classes during WWII", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Naval History and Heritage Command: Montana Class (BB-67 through BB-71) 1941 Building Program", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " NavSource Online: Battleship Photo Archive", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Montana-class_battleships", "Battleship_classes", "Cancelled_ships_of_the_United_States_Navy" ]

[]