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[ { "plaintext": "An engagement ring, also known as a betrothal ring, is a ring indicating that the person wearing it is engaged to be married, especially in Western cultures. A ring is presented as an engagement gift by a partner to their prospective spouse when they propose marriage or directly after a marriage proposal is accepted. It represents a formal agreement to future marriage. In most Western countries, engagement rings are worn mostly by women, and rings can feature diamonds or other gemstones. The neologism \"mangagement ring\" is sometimes used for an engagement ring worn by men. In some cultures, including Northern Europe, both partners wear matching rings, and engagement rings may also be used as wedding rings. In the Anglosphere, the ring is customarily worn on the left hand ring finger, but customs vary considerably elsewhere across the world.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3551296, 39386, 19728, 39386, 8082, 12806, 250762, 921148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 61 ], [ 103, 110 ], [ 117, 124 ], [ 184, 194 ], [ 464, 471 ], [ 482, 490 ], [ 723, 734 ], [ 782, 793 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historically, engagement rings are blessed and then worn during the betrothal ceremony of a couple, but neither the engagement ring nor any other ring is worn at the time when the wedding ring is put by the groom on the finger of the bride as part of the marriage ceremony, and sometimes by the bride onto the groom's finger. After the wedding, the engagement ring is usually put back on and is usually worn on the outside of the wedding ring. In the present-day, the giving of the engagement ring \"constitutes the subarrhatio\".", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 39386, 163668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 86 ], [ 180, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although the ancient Egyptians are sometimes credited with inventing the engagement ring, and the ancient Greeks with adopting the tradition, the history of the engagement ring can only be reliably traced as far back as ancient Rome.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In many countries, engagement rings are placed on the ring finger of the left hand. At one time it was believed that this finger contained a vein (the vena amoris) that led to the heart. This idea was popularized by Henry Swinburne in A treatise of Spousals, or Matrimonial Contracts (1686). The story seems to have its origin in the ancient Roman book Attic Nights by Aulus Gellius quoting Apion's Aegyptiacorum, where the alleged vein was originally a nervus (a word that can be translated either as \"nerve\" or \"sinew\").", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1838699, 23740626, 78426, 153238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 162 ], [ 216, 231 ], [ 370, 383 ], [ 392, 397 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The popular belief that an engagement ring was originally part of the bride price which represented purchase and ownership of the bride, has been called into question by contemporary scholarship.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 47850053 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the second century BC, the Roman bride-to-be was given two rings, a gold one which she wore in public, and one made of iron which she wore at home while attending to household duties. At one time Roman citizens wore rings made of iron. In later years senators who served as ambassadors were given gold seal rings for official use when abroad. Later the privilege of wearing gold rings was extended to other public officials, then to the knights, later to all freeborn, and finally under Justinian, to freedmen. For several centuries it was the custom for Romans to wear iron rings at home, gold rings in public. During this period a girl or woman might receive two engagement rings, one of iron and one of gold.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 38136, 3453921, 16209, 13149886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 305, 315 ], [ 462, 470 ], [ 490, 499 ], [ 504, 512 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mid-7th century Visigothic Code required \"that when the ceremony of betrothal has been performed, ..., and the ring shall have been given or accepted as a pledge, although nothing may have been committed to writing, the promise shall, under no circumstances, be broken.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 563730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 860 AD, Pope Nicholas I wrote a letter to Boris I of Bulgaria in reply to questions regarding differences between Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox practices. Pope Nicholas describes how in the Western church the man gives his betrothed an engagement ring. At the Fourth Council of the Lateran in 1215, convoked by Pope Innocent III, the banns of marriage was instituted, prohibiting clandestine marriages and requiring that marriages be made public in advance. Some legal scholars have seen in this a parallel with the engagement-ring tradition described by Pope Nicholas I.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 85301, 335936, 11399, 24455, 100712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 26 ], [ 45, 64 ], [ 269, 298 ], [ 320, 337 ], [ 343, 360 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first well-documented use of a diamond ring to signify engagement was by the Archduke Maximilian of Austria in the imperial court of Vienna in 1477, upon his betrothal to Mary of Burgundy. This then influenced those of higher social class and of significant wealth to give diamond rings to their loved ones.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 39070, 151337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 111 ], [ 175, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Protestant Reformation the wedding ring replaced the betrothal ring as the primary ring associated with marriage. In Catholic countries the transition took place somewhat later.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 37857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Age of Enlightenment both the gimmal rings and posie rings were popular, although the latter was more often used as an expression of sentiment than to indicate a formal engagement.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 30758, 21820835, 1381847 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 31 ], [ 41, 52 ], [ 58, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In South Africa, diamonds were first found in 1866, although they were not identified as such until 1867. By 1872, the output of the diamond mines exceeded one million carats per year. As production increased, those of lesser means were able to join in on this movement. However, diamond engagement rings were for a long time seen as the domain of the nobility and aristocracy, and tradition often favoured simpler engagement bands.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the United States, the popularity of diamond engagement rings declined after World War I, even more so than after the onset of the Great Depression. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19283335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1938, the diamond cartel De Beers began a marketing campaign that would have a major impact on engagement rings. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, the price of diamonds collapsed. At the same time, market research indicated that engagement rings were going out of style with the younger generation. Before World War II, only 10% of American engagement rings contained a diamond. While the first phase of the marketing campaign consisted of market research, the advertising phase began in 1939. One of the first elements of this campaign was to educate the public about the 4 Cs (cut, carats, color, and clarity). In 1947 the slogan \"a diamond is forever\" was introduced. Ultimately, the De Beers campaign sought to persuade the consumer that an engagement ring is indispensable, and that a diamond is the only acceptable stone for an engagement ring. The sales of diamonds in the United States rose from $23 million to $2.1 billion between 1939 and 1979.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 36526, 53713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 27 ], [ 28, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Law professor Margart F. Brining links the surge in engagement ring sales in the USA after 1945 to the abolishment of the \"breach of promise\", that had entitled a woman whose fiancé had broken off their engagement to sue him for damages. This rule of law was especially important for many women who had been sexually intimate with the fiancé, but were socially expected to be virgins in a new marriage, therefore lost \"market value\". After the gradual abolishment of that law action in all states the expensive engagement ring rose to popularity as a new financial security in case of a break-up, since it was custom for the women to keep the ring (partly only under the condition that the break-up was not seen as her fault).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1852, the ‘Kohinoor’ diamond was re-cut and embellished in Queen Victoria’s crown. This triggered a diamond rush throughout the world.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 16966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the early 21st century, the jewellery industry started marketing engagement rings for men under the name \"mangagement rings\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the 20th century, if he could afford it, the typical Western groom privately selected and purchased an engagement ring, which he then presented to his desired bride when he proposed marriage. In countries where both partners wear engagement rings, matching rings may be selected and purchased together. In the United States and Canada, where only women traditionally wear engagement rings, women also occasionally present their partners with an engagement gift.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Industry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Like all jewellery, the price for an engagement ring varies considerably depending on the materials used: the design of the ring, whether it includes a gemstone, the value of any gemstone, and the seller. The price of the gemstones, if any, in the ring depends on the type and quality of the gem. Diamonds have a standardized description that values them according to their carat weight, color, clarity, and cut. Other gemstones, such as sapphires, rubies, and emeralds have different systems. The jewellery may be chosen to honor a family tradition, to use family heirlooms, to have an unusual style, to have socially responsible characteristics (e.g., a style that is not associated with blood diamond controversy or the pollution caused by gold mining and cyanide process), to fit the individual's stylistic preferences, or to manage cost. Synthetic stones and diamond substitutes such as cubic zirconias and moissanites are also popular choices that are socially responsible and reduce cost while maintaining the desired appearance.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Industry", "target_page_ids": [ 12806, 13472322, 29469, 43551, 10045, 1159092, 148635, 1291393, 402244, 60744, 314151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 222, 230 ], [ 313, 337 ], [ 438, 446 ], [ 449, 455 ], [ 461, 468 ], [ 610, 630 ], [ 690, 703 ], [ 743, 754 ], [ 759, 774 ], [ 892, 906 ], [ 912, 922 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The idea that a man should spend a significant fraction of his annual income for an engagement ring originated from De Beers marketing materials in the mid-20th century in an effort to increase the sale of diamonds. In the 1930s, they suggested that a man should spend the equivalent of one month's income in the engagement ring. In the 1980s, they suggested that he should spend two months' income on it (three months in Japan). In 2012, the average cost of an engagement ring in the US as reported by the industry was US$4,000. In a 2015 scholarly study, almost a quarter of couples said that they did not buy a ring, and another third spent less than US$2000 on it. Less than 15% of couples spent $4,000 or more. In the UK, estimates of the average cost of an engagement ring range from £1200 to £2000. Scholarly research indicates that expensive engagement rings are associated with early divorces, possibly because spending more than US$2,000 on an engagement ring is strongly associated with debt-related stress. Couples that spend less money on engagement rings and the wedding ceremony tend to have longer marriages and a lower risk of divorce.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Industry", "target_page_ids": [ 53713, 8082 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 124 ], [ 206, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One reason for the increased popularity of expensive engagement rings is its relationship to human sexuality and the woman's marriage prospects. In the United States, until the Great Depression, a man who broke off a marriage engagement could be sued for breach of promise. Monetary damages included actual expenses incurred in preparing for the wedding, plus damages for emotional distress and loss of other marriage prospects. Damages were greatly increased if the woman had engaged in sexual intercourse with her fiancé. Beginning in 1935, these laws were repealed or limited. However, the social and financial cost of a broken engagement was no less: marriage was the only financially sound option for most women, and if she was no longer a virgin, her prospects for a suitable future marriage were greatly decreased. The diamond engagement ring thus became a source of financial security for the woman.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Industry", "target_page_ids": [ 15179951, 19283335, 1031999, 27546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 108 ], [ 177, 193 ], [ 255, 272 ], [ 488, 506 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The online purchase of engagement rings is growing, disrupting the market for the diamonds by bringing greater transparency to an industry that has traditionally relied on opacity. Online diamond retailers and e-commerce platforms include Blue Nile, Brilliant Earth, and Costco.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Industry", "target_page_ids": [ 9611, 4816371, 42011372, 446056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 210, 220 ], [ 239, 248 ], [ 250, 265 ], [ 271, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Engagement rings, like any other kind of jewellery, come in many different styles.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Industry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Gold (Available in Yellow Gold, White Gold and Rose Gold) and platinum are preferred for engagement rings, but common metal types such as titanium, silver, and stainless steel are also used for engagement rings. This allows for the bride-to-be to exert her own individual style into the ring in a simple manner.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Industry", "target_page_ids": [ 12240, 23324, 30040, 27119, 27059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 62, 70 ], [ 138, 146 ], [ 148, 154 ], [ 160, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the United States, where engagement rings are worn by women, diamonds have been widely featured in engagement rings since the middle of the 20th century. Solitaire rings have one diamond. The most common setting for engagement rings is the solitaire prong setting, which was popularized by Tiffany & Co. in 1886 and its six-claw prong setting design sold under the \"Tiffany setting\" trademark. The modern favorite cut for an engagement ring is the brilliant cut, which provides the maximum amount of sparkle to the gemstone. The traditional engagement rings may have different prong settings and bands. Another major category is engagement rings with side stones. Rings with a larger diamond set in the middle and smaller diamonds on the side fit under this category. Three-stone diamond engagement rings, sometimes called trinity rings or trilogy rings, are rings with three matching diamonds set horizontally in a row with the bigger stone placed in the center. The three diamonds on the ring are typically said to represent the couple's past, present, and future, but other people give religious significance to the arrangement.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Industry", "target_page_ids": [ 8082, 10698807, 1192900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 71 ], [ 253, 266 ], [ 293, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A wedding set, or bridal set, includes an engagement ring and a wedding band that matches and can be bought as a set. In some cases, the wedding ring looks incomplete; it is only when the two halves, engagement and wedding, are assembled that the ring looks whole. In other cases, a wedding set consists of two rings that match stylistically and are worn stacked, although either piece would look appropriate as a separate ring. Although the wedding band is not to be worn until the wedding day, the two rings are usually sold together as a wedding set. After the wedding, the bride may choose to have the two pieces welded together, to increase convenience and reduce the likelihood of losing one of the rings. A trio ring set includes a women's engagement ring, a women's wedding band, and a men's wedding band. These sets often have matching rings and are lower in price.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Industry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Nordic countries, engagement rings are worn by both men and women. Traditionally they are plain gold bands, although more ornate designs and other materials are gaining popularity. The engagement rings resemble the wedding bands sold in the United States, whereas women's wedding rings may resemble US engagement rings.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Industry", "target_page_ids": [ 23711165 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In North America and the United Kingdom, it is customarily worn on the left hand ring finger. Similar traditions purportedly date to classical times, dating back from an early usage reportedly referring to the fourth finger of the left hand as containing the vena amoris or \"vein of love\". This custom may have its origins in an ancient Egyptian myth that the finger contained a vein leading directly to the heart, or it may simply be because the heart lies slightly to the left side of the body. In Germany the ring is worn on the left hand while engaged, but moved to the right hand when married. In Poland and Turkey, the engagement ring and wedding band are traditionally worn on the right hand but modern practice varies considerably.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Industry", "target_page_ids": [ 921148, 1838699, 11867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 92 ], [ 259, 270 ], [ 500, 507 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tradition generally holds that if the betrothal fails because the man himself breaks off the engagement, the woman is not obliged to return the ring. This reflects the ring's role as a form of compensation for the woman's damaged reputation. Legally, this condition can be subject to either a modified or a strict fault rule. Under the former, the fiancé can demand the return of the ring unless he breaks the engagement. Under the latter, the fiancé is entitled to the return unless his actions caused the breakup of the relationship, the same as the traditional approach. However, a no-fault rule is being advanced in some jurisdictions, under which the fiancé is always entitled to the return of the ring. The ring only becomes the property of the woman when marriage occurs. An unconditional gift approach is another possibility, wherein the ring is always treated as a gift, to be kept by the fiancée whether or not the relationship progresses to marriage. Recent court rulings have determined that the date in which the ring was offered can determine the condition of the gift. E.g. Valentine's Day and Christmas are widely recognized as gift-giving holidays in the United States and some other countries. A ring offered in the form of a Christmas present is likely to remain the personal property of the recipient in the event of a breakup.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Industry", "target_page_ids": [ 182462, 6237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1089, 1104 ], [ 1109, 1118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In most states of the United States, engagement rings are considered \"conditional gifts\" under the legal rules of property. This is an exception to the general rule that gifts cannot be revoked once properly given. See, for example, the case of Meyer v. Mitnick, 625 N.W.2d 136 (Michigan, 2001), whose ruling found the following reasoning persuasive: \"the so-called 'modern trend' holds that because an engagement ring is an inherently conditional gift, once the engagement has been broken, the ring should be returned to the donor. Thus, the question of who broke the engagement and why, or who was 'at fault,' is irrelevant. This is the no-fault line of cases.\" Though in certain states, whether a judicial action can be maintained at all to require return of an engagement ring is blocked by statute, as many states have statutes which state that no civil action shall be maintained for breach of promise to marry.<ref> See Also Cal. Civ.Code § 43.4, CONN. GEN. STAT. (2011) § 52-572b, The Heart Balm Act, §8.01-220 of the Code of Virginia,Colorado Rev.Stat. §13-20-202</ref>", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Industry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One case in New South Wales, Australia ended in the man suing his former fiancée because she threw the ring away, after he told her she could keep it even though the marriage plans had fallen through. The Supreme Court of New South Wales held that, despite what the man said, the ring remained a conditional gift (partly because his saying that she could keep it reflected his desire to salvage the relationship) and she was ordered to pay him its A$15,250 cost.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Industry", "target_page_ids": [ 21654, 4689264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 27 ], [ 29, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In England and Wales, the gift of an engagement ring is presumed to be an absolute gift to the fiancée. This presumption may be rebutted however by proving that the ring was given on condition (express or implied) that it must be returned if the marriage did not take place, for whatever reason. This was decided in the case Jacobs v Davis (1917).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Industry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the historic Christian traditions of Catholicism, Lutheranism and Anglicanism, engagement rings are blessed by a pastor and then worn by the couple during the betrothal rite (also known as 'blessing an engaged couple' or 'declaration of intention').", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural variations", "target_page_ids": [ 215153, 39386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 122 ], [ 162, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In some countries it is common for both men and women to wear engagement rings. The rings are often in the form of a plain band of a precious metal. Sometimes, the engagement ring eventually serves as the wedding ring for the man. In Brazil, for example, the groom and bride-to-be usually wear a plain wedding band on the right hand during the course of their engagement. After the wedding, the band is moved to the left hand. In Argentina, it is also known for the groom and bride-to-be to wear a plain silver band on the left hand while engaged. Then, after the wedding the silver band is either replaced with the wedding ring or moved to the right hand.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural variations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Traditionally, women in the British Isles may propose marriage to men during a leap year. Women proposing has become more common in recent years, to the point that some jewellery companies have started manufacturing men's engagement rings. They resemble typical men's rings, often with a diamond centrepiece. In the countries where both sexes have traditionally worn engagement rings, the rings tend to be plainer bands, and there is no real difference between men's and women's engagement ring designs.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural variations", "target_page_ids": [ 17895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Claddagh ring, a traditional Irish ring, often given or worn as a wedding ring", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 173121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dearest ring, a ring with stones creating the acronym D E A R E S T", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8972771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Regards ring, a ring with stones creating the acronym R E G A R D S", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8972771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gimmal ring, a multi-part engagement ring fashionable in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21820835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pre-engagement ring", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 648931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Puzzle ring, sometimes called a \"Turkish wedding ring\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1937768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ring enhancers, a ring that combines with a solitaire diamond ring to add gemstones", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 23705847 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tension ring, a modern mount", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8655175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Diamond engagement ring ad, Loftis Brothers & Co., Popular Mechanics'', November 1909, p.113", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 623990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 69 ] ] } ]

[ "Engagement", "Rings_(jewellery)" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In Euclidean geometry, two objects are similar if they have the same shape, or one has the same shape as the mirror image of the other. More precisely, one can be obtained from the other by uniformly scaling (enlarging or reducing), possibly with additional translation, rotation and reflection. This means that either object can be rescaled, repositioned, and reflected, so as to coincide precisely with the other object. If two objects are similar, each is congruent to the result of a particular uniform scaling of the other.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9417, 169191, 651752, 204682, 410009, 295829, 39330 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 21 ], [ 69, 74 ], [ 200, 207 ], [ 258, 269 ], [ 271, 279 ], [ 284, 294 ], [ 459, 468 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For example, all circles are similar to each other, all squares are similar to each other, and all equilateral triangles are similar to each other. On the other hand, ellipses are not all similar to each other, rectangles are not all similar to each other, and isosceles triangles are not all similar to each other.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6220, 659939, 173285, 9277, 70048, 315428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 23 ], [ 56, 62 ], [ 99, 119 ], [ 167, 174 ], [ 211, 220 ], [ 261, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If two angles of a triangle have measures equal to the measures of two angles of another triangle, then the triangles are similar. Corresponding sides of similar polygons are in proportion, and corresponding angles of similar polygons have the same measure.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Two congruent shapes are similar, with a scale factor of 1. However, some school textbooks specifically exclude congruent triangles from their definition of similar triangles by insisting that the sizes must be different if the triangles are to qualify as similar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 39330 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two triangles, and , are similar if and only if corresponding angles have the same measure: this implies that they are similar if and only if the lengths of corresponding sides are proportional. It can be shown that two triangles having congruent angles (equiangular triangles) are similar, that is, the corresponding sides can be proved to be proportional. This is known as the AAA similarity theorem. Note that the \"AAA\" is a mnemonic: each one of the three A's refers to an \"angle\". Due to this theorem, several authors simplify the definition of similar triangles to only require that the corresponding three angles are congruent.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Similar triangles", "target_page_ids": [ 3407326, 81863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 177 ], [ 182, 194 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are several criteria each of which is necessary and sufficient for two triangles to be similar:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Similar triangles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Any two pairs of congruent angles, which in Euclidean geometry implies that their all three angles are congruent:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Similar triangles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If is equal in measure to , and is equal in measure to , then this implies that is equal in measure to and the triangles are similar.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Similar triangles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "All the corresponding sides are proportional:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Similar triangles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " . This is equivalent to saying that one triangle (or its mirror image) is an enlargement of the other.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Similar triangles", "target_page_ids": [ 386138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Any two pairs of sides are proportional, and the angles included between these sides are congruent:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Similar triangles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " and is equal in measure to .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Similar triangles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This is known as the SAS similarity criterion. The \"SAS\" is a mnemonic: each one of the two S's refers to a \"side\"; the A refers to an \"angle\" between the two sides.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Similar triangles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Symbolically, we write the similarity and dissimilarity of two triangles and as follows:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Similar triangles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There are several elementary results concerning similar triangles in Euclidean geometry:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Similar triangles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Any two equilateral triangles are similar.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Similar triangles", "target_page_ids": [ 173285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Two triangles, both similar to a third triangle, are similar to each other (transitivity of similarity of triangles).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Similar triangles", "target_page_ids": [ 200463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Corresponding altitudes of similar triangles have the same ratio as the corresponding sides.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Similar triangles", "target_page_ids": [ 161241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Two right triangles are similar if the hypotenuse and one other side have lengths in the same ratio. There are several equivalent conditions in this case, such as the right triangles having an acute angle of the same measure, or having the lengths of the legs (sides) being in the same proportion.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Similar triangles", "target_page_ids": [ 39420, 251366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 19 ], [ 40, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Given a triangle and a line segment one can, with ruler and compass, find a point such that . The statement that the point satisfying this condition exists is Wallis's postulate and is logically equivalent to Euclid's parallel postulate. In hyperbolic geometry (where Wallis's postulate is false) similar triangles are congruent.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Similar triangles", "target_page_ids": [ 61229, 239290, 33731493, 241291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 69 ], [ 163, 181 ], [ 222, 240 ], [ 245, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the axiomatic treatment of Euclidean geometry given by George David Birkhoff (see Birkhoff's axioms) the SAS similarity criterion given above was used to replace both Euclid's parallel postulate and the SAS axiom which enabled the dramatic shortening of Hilbert's axioms.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Similar triangles", "target_page_ids": [ 30871906, 828320, 838151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 79 ], [ 85, 102 ], [ 257, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Similar triangles provide the basis for many synthetic (without the use of coordinates) proofs in Euclidean geometry. Among the elementary results that can be proved this way are: the angle bisector theorem, the geometric mean theorem, Ceva's theorem, Menelaus's theorem and the Pythagorean theorem. Similar triangles also provide the foundations for right triangle trigonometry.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Similar triangles", "target_page_ids": [ 267484, 2401128, 37981515, 152428, 1480484, 26513034, 18717261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 54 ], [ 184, 206 ], [ 212, 234 ], [ 236, 250 ], [ 252, 270 ], [ 279, 298 ], [ 351, 378 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The concept of similarity extends to polygons with more than three sides. Given any two similar polygons, corresponding sides taken in the same sequence (even if clockwise for one polygon and counterclockwise for the other) are proportional and corresponding angles taken in the same sequence are equal in measure. However, proportionality of corresponding sides is not by itself sufficient to prove similarity for polygons beyond triangles (otherwise, for example, all rhombi would be similar). Likewise, equality of all angles in sequence is not sufficient to guarantee similarity (otherwise all rectangles would be similar). A sufficient condition for similarity of polygons is that corresponding sides and diagonals are proportional.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other similar polygons", "target_page_ids": [ 23621, 81863, 183884, 70048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 44 ], [ 228, 240 ], [ 470, 476 ], [ 598, 607 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For given n, all regular n-gons are similar.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other similar polygons", "target_page_ids": [ 333306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several types of curves have the property that all examples of that type are similar to each other. These include:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Similar curves", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Lines (any two lines are even congruent)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Similar curves", "target_page_ids": [ 946975, 39330 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 30, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Line segments", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Similar curves", "target_page_ids": [ 22634860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Circles", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Similar curves", "target_page_ids": [ 6220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Parabolas", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Similar curves", "target_page_ids": [ 23231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hyperbolas of a specific eccentricity", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Similar curves", "target_page_ids": [ 14052, 1239472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 25, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ellipses of a specific eccentricity", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Similar curves", "target_page_ids": [ 9277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Catenaries", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Similar curves", "target_page_ids": [ 7163 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Graphs of the logarithm function for different bases", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Similar curves", "target_page_ids": [ 17860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Graphs of the exponential function for different bases", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Similar curves", "target_page_ids": [ 9678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Logarithmic spirals are self-similar", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Similar curves", "target_page_ids": [ 42373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A similarity (also called a similarity transformation or similitude) of a Euclidean space is a bijection from the space onto itself that multiplies all distances by the same positive real number , so that for any two points and we have", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In Euclidean space", "target_page_ids": [ 9697, 3942, 20646438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 89 ], [ 95, 104 ], [ 184, 195 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where \"\" is the Euclidean distance from to . The scalar has many names in the literature including; the ratio of similarity, the stretching factor and the similarity coefficient. When = 1 a similarity is called an isometry (rigid transformation). Two sets are called similar if one is the image of the other under a similarity.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In Euclidean space", "target_page_ids": [ 53932, 3588331, 1989599, 27832980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 34 ], [ 50, 56 ], [ 217, 225 ], [ 227, 247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a map , a similarity of ratio takes the form", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In Euclidean space", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is an orthogonal matrix and is a translation vector.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In Euclidean space", "target_page_ids": [ 105620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Similarities preserve planes, lines, perpendicularity, parallelism, midpoints, inequalities between distances and line segments. Similarities preserve angles but do not necessarily preserve orientation, direct similitudes preserve orientation and opposite similitudes change it.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In Euclidean space", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The similarities of Euclidean space form a group under the operation of composition called the similarities group . The direct similitudes form a normal subgroup of and the Euclidean group of isometries also forms a normal subgroup. The similarities group is itself a subgroup of the affine group, so every similarity is an affine transformation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In Euclidean space", "target_page_ids": [ 19447, 21918, 652164, 298828, 38449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 48 ], [ 146, 161 ], [ 174, 189 ], [ 287, 299 ], [ 327, 348 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One can view the Euclidean plane as the complex plane, that is, as a 2-dimensional space over the reals. The 2D similarity transformations can then be expressed in terms of complex arithmetic and are given by (direct similitudes) and (opposite similitudes), where and are complex numbers, . When , these similarities are isometries.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In Euclidean space", "target_page_ids": [ 217628, 20646438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 53 ], [ 98, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ratio between the areas of similar figures is equal to the square of the ratio of corresponding lengths of those figures (for example, when the side of a square or the radius of a circle is multiplied by three, its area is multiplied by nine — i.e. by three squared). The altitudes of similar triangles are in the same ratio as corresponding sides. If a triangle has a side of length and an altitude drawn to that side of length then a similar triangle with corresponding side of length will have an altitude drawn to that side of length . The area of the first triangle is, , while the area of the similar triangle will be . Similar figures which can be decomposed into similar triangles will have areas related in the same way. The relationship holds for figures that are not rectifiable as well.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Area ratio and volume ratio", "target_page_ids": [ 1209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ratio between the volumes of similar figures is equal to the cube of the ratio of corresponding lengths of those figures (for example, when the edge of a cube or the radius of a sphere is multiplied by three, its volume is multiplied by 27 — i.e. by three cubed).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Area ratio and volume ratio", "target_page_ids": [ 32498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Galileo's square–cube law concerns similar solids. If the ratio of similitude (ratio of corresponding sides) between the solids is , then the ratio of surface areas of the solids will be , while the ratio of volumes will be .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Area ratio and volume ratio", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If a similarity has exactly one invariant point: a point that the similarity keeps unchanged, then this only point is called \"center\" of the similarity.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Similarity with a center", "target_page_ids": [ 1126638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the first image below the title, on the left, one or another similarity shrinks a regular polygon into a concentric one, the vertices of which are each on a side of the previous polygon. This rotational reduction is repeated, so the initial polygon is extended into an abyss of regular polygons. The center of the similarity is the common center of the successive polygons. A red segment joins a vertex of the initial polygon to its image under the similarity, followed by a red segment going to the following image of vertex, and so on to form a spiral. Actually we can see more than three direct similarities on this first image, because every regular polygon is invariant under certain direct similarities, more precisely certain rotations the center of which is the center of the polygon, and a composition of direct similarities is also a direct similarity. For example we see the image of the initial regular pentagon under a homothety of negative which is a similarity of ±180° angle and a positive ratio ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Similarity with a center", "target_page_ids": [ 19049087, 1448702, 1127639, 22634860, 579311, 61563, 20741014, 386138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 122 ], [ 216, 227 ], [ 272, 277 ], [ 383, 390 ], [ 436, 441 ], [ 550, 556 ], [ 918, 926 ], [ 935, 944 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Below the title on the right, the second image shows a similarity decomposed into a rotation and a homothety. Similarity and rotation have the same angle of +135 degrees modulo 360 degrees. Similarity and homothety have the same ratio multiplicative inverse of the (square root of 2) of the inverse similarity. Point S is the common center of the three transformations: rotation, homothety and similarity. For example point W is the image of F under the rotation, and point T is the image of W under the homothety, more briefly , by naming  the previous rotation, homothety and similarity, with ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Similarity with a center", "target_page_ids": [ 195947, 410009, 20087, 14907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 76 ], [ 84, 92 ], [ 170, 188 ], [ 293, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This direct similarity that transforms triangle EFA into triangle ATB can be decomposed into a rotation and a homothety of same center S in several manners. For example,  the last decomposition being only represented on the image. To get  we can also compose in any order a rotation  angle and a homothety ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Similarity with a center", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "With  and  if  is the reflection with respect to line (CW ), then  is the indirect similarity that transforms segment [BF ]  into segment [CT ], but transforms point E into B and point A into A itself. Square ACBT is the image of ABEF under similarity  Point A is the center of this similarity because any point K being invariant under it fulfills only possible  otherwise written ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Similarity with a center", "target_page_ids": [ 295829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "How to caption2OfSection of direct similarity   how to find point S center of a rotation of +135° angle that transforms ray [SE ) into ray [SA )? This is an inscribed angle problem plus a question of orientation. The set of points  is an arc of circle  that joins E and A, of which the two radius leading to E and A form a central angle  This set of points is the blue quarter of circle of center F inside square ABEF. In the same manner, point S is a member of the blue quarter of circle of center T inside square BCAT. So point S is the intersection point of these two quarters of circles.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Similarity with a center", "target_page_ids": [ 1391942, 26691, 41604289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 200, 211 ], [ 447, 458 ], [ 539, 551 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a general metric space , an exact similitude is a function from the metric space into itself that multiplies all distances by the same positive scalar , called 's contraction factor, so that for any two points and we have", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In general metric spaces", "target_page_ids": [ 20018, 185427, 3588331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 25 ], [ 53, 61 ], [ 149, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Weaker versions of similarity would for instance have be a bi-Lipschitz function and the scalar a limit", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In general metric spaces", "target_page_ids": [ 51731 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This weaker version applies when the metric is an effective resistance on a topologically self-similar set.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In general metric spaces", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A self-similar subset of a metric space is a set for which there exists a finite set of similitudes with contraction factors such that is the unique compact subset of for which", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In general metric spaces", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "]", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In general metric spaces", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These self-similar sets have a self-similar measure with dimension given by the formula", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In general metric spaces", "target_page_ids": [ 19873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "which is often (but not always) equal to the set's Hausdorff dimension and packing dimension. If the overlaps between the are \"small\", we have the following simple formula for the measure:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In general metric spaces", "target_page_ids": [ 14294, 13844097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 70 ], [ 75, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In topology, a metric space can be constructed by defining a similarity instead of a distance. The similarity is a function such that its value is greater when two points are closer (contrary to the distance, which is a measure of dissimilarity: the closer the points, the lesser the distance).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Topology", "target_page_ids": [ 29954, 20018, 39378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 11 ], [ 15, 27 ], [ 85, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The definition of the similarity can vary among authors, depending on which properties are desired. The basic common properties are", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Topology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Positive defined:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Topology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Majored by the similarity of one element on itself (auto-similarity):", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Topology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "More properties can be invoked, such as reflectivity () or finiteness (). The upper value is often set at 1 (creating a possibility for a probabilistic interpretation of the similitude).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Topology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Note that, in the topological sense used here, a similarity is a kind of measure. This usage is not the same as the similarity transformation of the and sections of this article.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Topology", "target_page_ids": [ 19873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Self-similarity means that a pattern is non-trivially similar to itself, e.g., the set of numbers of the form where ranges over all integers. When this set is plotted on a logarithmic scale it has one-dimensional translational symmetry: adding or subtracting the logarithm of two to the logarithm of one of these numbers produces the logarithm of another of these numbers. In the given set of numbers themselves, this corresponds to a similarity transformation in which the numbers are multiplied or divided by two.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Self-similarity", "target_page_ids": [ 28782, 164055, 701100 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 175, 192 ], [ 216, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The intuition for the notion of geometric similarity already appears in human children, as can be seen in their drawings.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Psychology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Congruence (geometry)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39330 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hamming distance (string or sequence similarity)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Helmert transformation", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15318324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Inversive geometry", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 295844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jaccard index", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2203756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Proportionality", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 81863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Basic proportionality theorem", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9875880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Semantic similarity", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1473135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Similarity search", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7309022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Similarity (philosophy)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 66431011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Similarity space on numerical taxonomy", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2213763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Homoeoid (shell of concentric, similar ellipsoids)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2754080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Solution of triangles", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22228915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Coxeter, H. S. M. (1969) [1961]. \"§5 Similarity in the Euclidean Plane\". pp. 67–76. \"§7 Isometry and Similarity in Euclidean Space\". pp. 96–104. Introduction to Geometry. John Wiley & Sons.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 216328, 537930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 172, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Animated demonstration of similar triangles", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Equivalence_(mathematics)", "Euclidean_geometry", "Triangle_geometry" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "{{Short description|Separation between two points}", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Distance is a numerical measurement of how far apart objects or points are. In physics or everyday usage, distance may refer to a physical length or an estimation based on other criteria (e.g. \"two counties over\"). The distance from a point A to a point B is sometimes denoted as . In most cases, \"distance from A to B\" is interchangeable with \"distance from B to A\". In mathematics, a distance function or metric is a generalization of the concept of physical distance; it is a way of describing what it means for elements of some space to be \"close to\", or \"far away from\" each other.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 19022, 22939, 18542, 18831, 20018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 35 ], [ 79, 86 ], [ 139, 145 ], [ 371, 382 ], [ 407, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In psychology and social sciences, distance is a non-numerical measurement; Psychological distance is how an object might be removed from itself through dimensions such as time, space and isolation.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 22921, 26781, 67474852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 13 ], [ 18, 32 ], [ 76, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A physical distance can mean several different things:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "In physics and geography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Distance traveled: The length of a specific path traveled between two points, such as the distance walked while navigating a maze (usually formalized as the curve length).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "In physics and geography", "target_page_ids": [ 20161, 1898401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 130 ], [ 158, 170 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Straight-line distance: The length of the shortest possible path through space between two points (straight line), that could be taken if there were no obstacles -- \"as the crow flies\" (usually formalized as Euclidean distance).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "In physics and geography", "target_page_ids": [ 946975, 297479, 53932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 113 ], [ 167, 184 ], [ 209, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Closed distance: the arc length of a closed curve, a path that returns to the starting point, such as a ball thrown straight up, or the Earth when it completes one orbit.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "In physics and geography", "target_page_ids": [ 1898401, 89246, 22498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 32 ], [ 38, 50 ], [ 165, 170 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Geodesic distance: The length of the shortest path between two points while remaining on some surface, such as the great-circle distance along the curve of the Earth (see also: geographical distance)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "In physics and geography", "target_page_ids": [ 379733, 233668, 20571391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 137 ], [ 148, 166 ], [ 178, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Circular distance is the distance traveled by a wheel (as in odometry), which can be useful when designing vehicles or mechanical gears. The circumference of the wheel is 2radius, and assuming the radius to be1, then each revolution of the wheel is equivalent of the distance 2 radians. In engineering =2 is often used, where is the frequency.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "In physics and geography", "target_page_ids": [ 33555, 2358741, 10779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 54 ], [ 62, 70 ], [ 335, 344 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unusual definitions of distance can be helpful to model certain physical situations, but are also used in theoretical mathematics:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "In physics and geography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Manhattan distance\" is a rectilinear distance, named after the number of blocks (in the north, south, east or west directions) a taxicab must travel on, in order to reach its destination on the grid of streets in parts of New York City. Canberra distance is a weighted version of Manhattan distance.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "In physics and geography", "target_page_ids": [ 408354, 33447798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 20 ], [ 239, 256 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Chessboard distance\", formalized as Chebyshev distance, is the minimum number of moves a king must make on a chessboard, in order to travel between two squares.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "In physics and geography", "target_page_ids": [ 1503963, 47449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 56 ], [ 111, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Distance measures in cosmology are complicated by the expansion of the universe, and by effects described by the theory of relativity (such as length contraction of moving objects).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "In physics and geography", "target_page_ids": [ 8065677, 5985207, 30001, 339024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ], [ 54, 79 ], [ 113, 133 ], [ 143, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Distance is a scalar quantity, or a magnitude, whereas displacement is a vector quantity with both magnitude and direction.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Direction or orientation", "target_page_ids": [ 3588425, 577301, 859275, 32533, 18183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 20 ], [ 36, 45 ], [ 55, 67 ], [ 73, 79 ], [ 113, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Directed distance or oriented distance, formalized as signed length, can be defined along straight lines and along curved lines.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Direction or orientation", "target_page_ids": [ 1898401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Directed distances along straight lines are vectors that give the distance and direction between a starting point and an ending point. A directed distance of a point C from point A in the direction of B on a line AB in a Euclidean vector space is the distance from A to C if C falls on the ray AB, but is the negative of that distance if C falls on the ray BA (i.e., if C is not on the same side of A as B is). For example, the directed distance from the New York City Main Library flag pole to the Statue of Liberty flag pole has: ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Direction or orientation", "target_page_ids": [ 9697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 221, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A starting point: library flag pole", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Direction or orientation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " An ending point: statue flag pole", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Direction or orientation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A direction: -38°", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Direction or orientation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A distance: 8.72km", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Direction or orientation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Another kind of directed distance is that between two different particles or point masses at a given time. For instance, the distance from the center of gravity of the Earth A and the center of gravity of the Moon B (which does not strictly imply motion from A to B) falls into this category.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Direction or orientation", "target_page_ids": [ 173961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A directed distance along a curved line is not a vector and is represented by a segment of that curved line defined by endpoints A and B, with some specific information indicating the sense (or direction) of an ideal or real motion from one endpoint of the segment to the other (see figure). For instance, just labelling the two endpoints as A and B can indicate the sense, if the ordered sequence (A, B) is assumed, which implies that A is the starting point.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Direction or orientation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A directed distance is called displacement when it is the distance along a straight line (minimum distance) from A and B, and when A and B are positions occupied by the same particle at two different instants of time.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Direction or orientation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The term \"distance\" is also used by analogy to measure non-physical entities in certain ways.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In computer science", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In computer science, there is the notion of the \"edit distance\" between two strings. For example, the words \"dog\" and \"dot\", which vary by only one letter, are closer than \"dog\" and \"cat\", which differ by three letters. This idea is used in spell checkers and in coding theory, and is mathematically formalized in several different ways such as:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In computer science", "target_page_ids": [ 5323, 406427, 605869, 321869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 19 ], [ 49, 62 ], [ 242, 255 ], [ 264, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Levenshtein distance", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In computer science", "target_page_ids": [ 406418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hamming distance", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In computer science", "target_page_ids": [ 41227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lee distance", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In computer science", "target_page_ids": [ 17766039 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jaro–Winkler distance", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In computer science", "target_page_ids": [ 6782835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In graph theory the distance between two vertices is the length of the shortest path between those vertices.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In computer science", "target_page_ids": [ 12401, 1020021, 638889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 15 ], [ 20, 28 ], [ 80, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In statistics and information geometry, there are many kinds of statistical distances, notably divergences, especially Bregman divergences and f-divergences. These include and generalize many of the notions of \"difference between two probability distributions\", and allow them to be studied geometrically, as statistical manifolds. The most elementary is the squared Euclidean distance, which forms the basis of least squares; this is the most basic Bregman divergence. The most important in information theory is the relative entropy (Kullback–Leibler divergence), which allows one to analogously study maximum likelihood estimation geometrically; this is the most basic f-divergence, and is also a Bregman divergence (and is the only divergence that is both). Statistical manifolds corresponding to Bregman divergences are flat manifolds in the corresponding geometry, allowing an analog of the Pythagorean theorem (which is traditionally true for squared Euclidean distance) to be used for linear inverse problems in inference by optimization theory.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 26685, 487312, 5187620, 25896411, 4491248, 15224289, 23543, 36408395, 53932, 82359, 14773, 1115052, 1115052, 140806, 12756616, 26513034, 203956, 52033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 13 ], [ 18, 38 ], [ 64, 84 ], [ 95, 106 ], [ 119, 137 ], [ 143, 156 ], [ 234, 258 ], [ 309, 329 ], [ 359, 385 ], [ 412, 425 ], [ 492, 510 ], [ 518, 534 ], [ 536, 563 ], [ 604, 633 ], [ 825, 838 ], [ 897, 916 ], [ 993, 1015 ], [ 1033, 1052 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other important statistical distances include the Mahalanobis distance, the energy distance, and many others.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 799760, 30316300 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 70 ], [ 76, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In psychology, human geography, and the social sciences, distance is often theorized not as an objective metric, but as a subjective experience.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "In psychology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Psychological distance is \"the different ways in which an object might be removed from\" the self along dimensions such as \"time, space, social distance, and hypotheticality\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "In psychology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Astronomical system of units", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 471476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Color difference", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15292063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cosmic distance ladder", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 471487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Distance geometry problem", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 654387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dijkstra's algorithm", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 45809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Distance matrix", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 831350 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Distance measuring device", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 33904406 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Distance measuring equipment (aviation) (DME)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 684703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Distance-based road exit numbers", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 306476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Engineering tolerance", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 522062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Length", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Meridian arc", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16107068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Milestone", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 285728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Multiplicative distance", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8529055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Optical path length", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Orders of magnitude (length)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 203433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Perpendicular distance", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13556959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Proper length", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 711898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Proxemics physical distance between people", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 225761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rangefinder", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11828357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Signed distance function", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5660713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Social distancing", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22677497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vertical distance", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 50759195 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Python (programming language)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Library support", "target_page_ids": [ 23862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Interspace -A package for finding the distance between two vectors, numbers and strings.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Library support", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " SciPy -Distance computations ()", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Library support", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Julia (programming language)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Library support", "target_page_ids": [ 38455554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Julia Statistics Distance -A Julia package for evaluating distances (metrics) between vectors.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Library support", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Distance" ]

[ "Euclidian distance", "Euclidean distance", "distant" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Maximilian II (31 July 1527 12 October 1576) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1564 until his death in 1576. A member of the Austrian House of Habsburg, he was crowned King of Bohemia in Prague on 14 May 1562 and elected King of Germany (King of the Romans) on 24 November 1562. On 8 September 1563 he was crowned King of Hungary and Croatia in the Hungarian capital Pressburg (Pozsony in Hungarian; now Bratislava, Slovakia). On 25 July 1564 he succeeded his father Ferdinand I as ruler of the Holy Roman Empire.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 50853, 6490870, 13824, 223907, 23844, 55856066, 302609, 302609, 324235, 11887947, 18933194, 151069, 13277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 69 ], [ 121, 129 ], [ 130, 147 ], [ 164, 179 ], [ 183, 189 ], [ 209, 216 ], [ 217, 232 ], [ 234, 252 ], [ 310, 325 ], [ 330, 337 ], [ 363, 372 ], [ 463, 474 ], [ 491, 508 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maximilian's rule was shaped by the confessionalization process after the 1555 Peace of Augsburg. Though a Habsburg and a Catholic, he approached the Lutheran Imperial estates with a view to overcome the denominational schism, which ultimately failed. He also was faced with the ongoing Ottoman–Habsburg wars and rising conflicts with his Habsburg Spain cousins.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 700676, 320616, 23371382, 784912, 11823525, 938546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 55 ], [ 79, 96 ], [ 151, 159 ], [ 169, 176 ], [ 288, 309 ], [ 340, 354 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Fichtner, Maximilian failed to achieve his three major aims: rationalizing the government structure, unifying Christianity, and evicting the Turks from Hungary. Peter Marshall opines that it is wrong to dismiss Maximilian as a failure. According to Marshall, through his religious tolerance as well as encouragement of arts and sciences, he succeeded in maintaining a precarious peace.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Maximilian was born in Vienna, Austria, the eldest son of the Habsburg archduke Ferdinand I, younger brother of Emperor Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and the Jagiellonian princess Anne of Bohemia and Hungary (15031547). He was named after his great-grandfather, Emperor Maximilian I. At the time of his birth, his father Ferdinand succeeded his brother-in-law King Louis II in the Kingdom of Bohemia and the Kingdom of Hungary, laying the grounds for the global Habsburg monarchy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 55866, 6490870, 151069, 70716, 34960337, 5496501, 39070, 46209, 1625048, 1598647, 1041515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 29 ], [ 31, 38 ], [ 80, 91 ], [ 120, 149 ], [ 159, 171 ], [ 181, 208 ], [ 271, 283 ], [ 366, 374 ], [ 382, 400 ], [ 409, 427 ], [ 463, 480 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Having spent his childhood years at his father's court in Innsbruck, Tyrol, Maximilian was educated principally in Italy. Among his teachers were humanist scholars like Kaspar Ursinus Velius and Georg Tannstetter. He also came in contact with the Lutheran teaching and early on corresponded with the Protestant prince Augustus of Saxony, suspiciously eyed by his Habsburg relatives. From the age of 17, he gained some experience of warfare during the Italian War campaign of his uncle Charles V against King Francis I of France in 1544, and also during the Schmalkaldic War. Upon Charles' victory in the 1547 Battle of Mühlberg, Maximilian put in a good word for the Schmalkaldic leaders, Elector John Frederick I of Saxony and Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse, and soon began to take part in Imperial business.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 55857, 6493681, 5135982, 30767199, 2035160, 4307267, 3719774, 50012, 574164, 420616, 247556, 731804, 331457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 67 ], [ 69, 74 ], [ 146, 154 ], [ 169, 190 ], [ 195, 212 ], [ 318, 336 ], [ 451, 462 ], [ 508, 527 ], [ 557, 573 ], [ 609, 627 ], [ 667, 679 ], [ 697, 723 ], [ 728, 756 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 13 September 1548 Emperor Charles V married Maximilian to Charles's daughter (Maximilian's cousin) Maria of Spain in the Castile residence of Valladolid. By the marriage his uncle intended to strengthen the ties with the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs, but also to consolidate his nephew's Catholic faith. Maximilian temporarily acted as the emperor's representative in Spain, however not as stadtholder of the Habsburg Netherlands as he had hoped for. To his indignation, King Ferdinand appointed his younger brother Ferdinand II administrator in the Kingdom of Bohemia, nevertheless Maximilian's right of succession as the future king was recognised in 1549. He returned to Germany in December 1550 in order to take part in the discussion over the Imperial succession.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 6233596, 4711133, 69311, 38053483, 70855, 13535138, 1196405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 116 ], [ 124, 131 ], [ 145, 155 ], [ 346, 379 ], [ 396, 407 ], [ 415, 435 ], [ 522, 534 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maximilian's relations with his uncle worsened, as Charles V, again embattled by rebellious Protestant princes led by Elector Maurice of Saxony, wished his son Philip II of Spain to succeed him as emperor. However, Charles' brother Ferdinand, who had already been designated as the next occupant of the imperial throne, and his son Maximilian objected to this proposal. Maximilian sought the support of the German princes such as Duke Albert V of Bavaria and even contacted Protestant leaders like Maurice of Saxony and Duke Christoph of Württemberg. At length a compromise was reached: Philip was to succeed Ferdinand, but during the former's reign Maximilian, as King of the Romans, was to govern Germany. This arrangement was not carried out, and is only important because the insistence of the emperor seriously disturbed the harmonious relations that had hitherto existed between the two branches of the Habsburg family; an illness that befell Maximilian in 1552 was attributed to poison given to him in the interests of his cousin and brother-in-law, Philip II of Spain.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1929890, 54386, 3755105, 2777525, 8578558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 143 ], [ 160, 178 ], [ 414, 421 ], [ 435, 454 ], [ 525, 549 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The relationship between the two cousins was uneasy. While Philip had been raised a Spaniard and barely travelled out of the kingdom during his life, Maximilian identified himself as the quintessential German prince and often displayed a strong dislike of Spaniards, whom he considered as intolerant and arrogant. While his cousin was reserved and shy, Maximilian was outgoing and charismatic. His adherence to humanism and religious tolerance put him at odds with Philip who was more committed to the defence of the Catholic faith. Also, he was considered a promising commander, while Philip disliked war and only once personally commanded an army. Nonetheless, the two remained committed to the unity of their dynasty. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1551 Maximilian attended the Council of Trent and the next year took up his residence at Hofburg Palace in Vienna, celebrated by a triumphal return into the city with a large entourage including the elephant Suleiman. While his father Ferdinand concluded the 1552 Treaty of Passau with the Protestant estates and finally reached the Peace of Augsburg in 1555, Maximilian was engaged mainly in the government of the Austrian hereditary lands and in defending them against Ottoman incursions. In Vienna, he had his Hofburg residence extended with the Renaissance Stallburg wing, the site of the later Spanish Riding School, and also ordered the construction of Neugebäude Palace in Simmering. In the 1550s, Vienna had more than 50,000 inhabitants, making it the largest city in Central Europe with Prague and before Nuremberg (40,000 inhabitants).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 6354, 1651794, 6182590, 886597, 320616, 22278, 41524, 1354149, 29969353, 215664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 48 ], [ 92, 106 ], [ 211, 219 ], [ 267, 283 ], [ 336, 353 ], [ 474, 481 ], [ 552, 563 ], [ 602, 623 ], [ 662, 679 ], [ 683, 692 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The religious views of the future King of Bohemia had always been somewhat uncertain, and he had probably learned something of Lutheranism in his youth; but his amicable relations with several Protestant princes, which began about the time of the discussion over the succession, were probably due more to political than to religious considerations. However, in Vienna he became very intimate with , a court preacher influenced by Heinrich Bullinger with strong leanings towards Lutheranism, and his religious attitude caused some uneasiness to his father. Fears were freely expressed that he would definitely leave the Catholic Church, and when his father Ferdinand became emperor in 1558 he was prepared to assure Pope Paul IV that his son should not succeed him if he took this step. Eventually Maximilian remained nominally an adherent of the older faith, although his views were tinged with Lutheranism until the end of his life. After several refusals he consented in 1560 to the banishment of Pfauser, and began again to attend the Masses of the Catholic Church.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 162291, 53050, 5684685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 430, 448 ], [ 715, 727 ], [ 1038, 1044 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In November 1562 Maximilian was chosen King of the Romans, or German king, by the electoral college at Frankfurt, where he was crowned a few days later, after assuring the Catholic electors of his fidelity to their faith, and promising the Protestant electors that he would publicly accept the confession of Augsburg when he became emperor. He also took the usual oath to protect the Church, and his election was afterwards confirmed by the papacy. He was the first King of the Romans not to be crowned in Aachen. In September 1563 he was crowned King of Hungary by the Archbishop of Esztergom, Nicolaus Olahus, and on his father's death, in July 1564, he succeeded to the empire and to the kingdoms of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 14056, 10992, 1520, 1390697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 99 ], [ 103, 112 ], [ 506, 512 ], [ 595, 610 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The new emperor had already shown that he believed in the necessity for a thorough reform of the Church. He was unable, however, to obtain the consent of Pope Pius IV to the marriage of the clergy, and in 1568 the concession of communion in both kinds to the laity was withdrawn. On his part Maximilian granted religious liberty to the Lutheran nobles and knights in Austria, and refused to allow the publication of the decrees of the council of Trent. Amidst general expectations on the part of the Protestants he met his first summoned Diet of Augsburg in March 1566. He refused to accede to the demands of the Lutheran princes; on the other hand, although the increase of sectarianism was discussed, no decisive steps were taken to suppress it, and the only result of the meeting was a grant of assistance for the war with the Turks, which had just been renewed. Maximilian would gather a large army and march to fight the Ottomans, but neither the Habsburgs nor the Ottomans would achieve much of anything from this conflict. The Ottomans would besiege and conquer Szigetvár in 1566, but their sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent, would die of old age during the siege. With neither side winning a decisive engagement, Maximilian's ambassadors Antun Vrančić and Christoph Teuffenbach would meet with the Ottoman Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha in Adrianople to negotiate a truce in 1568. The terms of the Treaty of Adrianople required the Emperor to recognise Ottoman suzerainty over Transylvania, Wallachia, and Moldavia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 6354, 636645, 11823525, 599527, 64647, 26992, 23470268, 364771, 485701, 216887, 26019108, 26019108, 11161726, 46026, 46007 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 435, 451 ], [ 538, 554 ], [ 817, 835 ], [ 1049, 1078 ], [ 1098, 1104 ], [ 1106, 1130 ], [ 1245, 1258 ], [ 1313, 1325 ], [ 1326, 1346 ], [ 1350, 1360 ], [ 1374, 1389 ], [ 1408, 1428 ], [ 1487, 1499 ], [ 1501, 1510 ], [ 1516, 1524 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Meanwhile, the relations between Maximilian and Philip of Spain had improved, and the emperor's increasingly cautious and moderate attitude in religious matters was doubtless because the death of Philip's son, Don Carlos, had opened the way for the succession of Maximilian, or of one of his sons, to the Spanish throne. Evidence of this friendly feeling was given in 1570, when the emperor's daughter, Anna, became the fourth wife of Philip; but Maximilian was unable to moderate the harsh proceedings of the Spanish king against the revolting inhabitants of the Netherlands. In 1570 the emperor met the diet of Speyer and asked for aid to place his eastern borders in a state of defence, and also for power to repress the disorder caused by troops in the service of foreign powers passing through Germany. He proposed that his consent should be necessary before any soldiers for foreign service were recruited in the empire; but the estates were unwilling to strengthen the imperial authority, the Protestant princes regarded the suggestion as an attempt to prevent them from assisting their co-religionists in France and the Netherlands, and nothing was done in this direction, although some assistance was voted for the defense of Austria. The religious demands of the Protestants were still unsatisfied, while the policy of toleration had failed to give peace to Austria. Maximilian's power was very limited; it was inability rather than unwillingness that prevented him from yielding to the entreaties of Pope Pius V to join in an attack on the Turks both before and after the victory of Lepanto in 1571; and he remained inert while the authority of the empire in north-eastern Europe was threatened.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 280993, 7659764, 1537897, 33327975, 24074, 153942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 210, 220 ], [ 403, 407 ], [ 564, 575 ], [ 605, 619 ], [ 1516, 1522 ], [ 1583, 1601 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1575, Maximilian was elected by the part of Polish and Lithuanian magnates to be the King of Poland in opposition to Stephan IV Bathory, but he did not manage to become widely accepted there and was forced to leave Poland.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 26288, 28407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 102 ], [ 120, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maximilian died on 12 October 1576 in Regensburg while preparing to invade Poland. On his deathbed he refused to receive the last sacraments of the Church. He is buried in St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 49117, 429421, 23844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 48 ], [ 172, 191 ], [ 195, 201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By his wife Maria he had a family of ten sons and six daughters. He was succeeded by his eldest surviving son, Rudolf, who had been chosen king of the Romans in October 1575. Another of his sons, Matthias, also became emperor; three others, Ernest, Albert and Maximilian, took some part in the government of the Habsburg territories or of the Netherlands, and a daughter, Elizabeth, married Charles IX of France.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 26054, 151080, 1363929, 296241, 1228671, 75908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 117 ], [ 196, 204 ], [ 241, 247 ], [ 249, 255 ], [ 260, 270 ], [ 391, 411 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maximilian's policies of religious neutrality and peace in the Empire afforded its Roman Catholics and Protestants a breathing space after the first struggles of the Reformation. His reign also saw the high point of Protestantism in Austria and Bohemia and unlike his successors, Maximilian did not try to suppress it.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Religious policies", "target_page_ids": [ 606848, 25814008, 37857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 97 ], [ 103, 113 ], [ 166, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He disappointed the German Protestant princes by his refusal to invest Lutheran administrators of prince-bishoprics with their imperial fiefs. Yet on a personal basis he granted freedom of worship to the Protestant nobility and worked for reform in the Roman Catholic Church, including the right of priests to marry. This failed because of Spanish opposition.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Religious policies", "target_page_ids": [ 51511, 2185499, 51270, 938546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 44 ], [ 71, 94 ], [ 98, 114 ], [ 340, 347 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maximilian II was a member of the Order of the Golden Fleece.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Religious policies", "target_page_ids": [ 561578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under Ferdinand I and Maximilian II, the imperial court itself became the centre of humanist scholarship. The court held close ties to the University of Vienna but the university, that reached its summit under Maximilian I, had been severely diminished due to wars and civil disturbances.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Patronage of arts and sciences", "target_page_ids": [ 151069, 53049, 39070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 17 ], [ 139, 159 ], [ 210, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his court, Catholic and Prostestant scholars equally thrived. Many artists and scholars came from Spain, Italy and Spanish Netherlands. Maximilian employed scholars like the botanist Carolus Clusius and the diplomat Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq. Maximilian's library curated by Hugo Blotius later became the nucleus of the Austrian National Library. He implemented the Roman School of composition with his court orchestra, however, his plans to win Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina as Kapellmeister foundered on financial reasons.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Patronage of arts and sciences", "target_page_ids": [ 691873, 1701870, 41991745, 2073193, 884583, 12776, 44984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 186, 201 ], [ 219, 244 ], [ 278, 290 ], [ 323, 348 ], [ 369, 381 ], [ 449, 481 ], [ 485, 498 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 13 September 1548, Maximilian married his first cousin Maria of Spain, daughter of Emperor Charles V and Isabella of Portugal. Despite Maria's commitment to Habsburg Spain and her strong Catholic manners, the marriage was a happy one. The couple had sixteen children:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Marriage and children", "target_page_ids": [ 6233596, 70716, 30863264, 938546, 606848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 72 ], [ 94, 103 ], [ 108, 128 ], [ 160, 174 ], [ 190, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Archduchess Anna of Austria (1 November 1549 26 October 1580). Married Philip II of Spain, her uncle. She was the mother of Philip III of Spain.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Marriage and children", "target_page_ids": [ 7659764, 54386, 146843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ], [ 72, 90 ], [ 125, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Archduke Ferdinand of Austria (28 March 1551 25 June 1552).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Marriage and children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor (18 July 1552 20 January 1612).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Marriage and children", "target_page_ids": [ 26054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Archduke Ernest of Austria, (15 July 1553 12 February 1595). He served as Governor of the Low Countries.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Marriage and children", "target_page_ids": [ 1363929, 255346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ], [ 75, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Archduchess Elisabeth of Austria (5 July 1554 22 January 1592). Married Charles IX of France.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Marriage and children", "target_page_ids": [ 3083738, 75908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 32 ], [ 73, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Archduchess Marie of Austria (27 July 1555 25 June 1556).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Marriage and children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor (24 February 1557 20 March 1619).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Marriage and children", "target_page_ids": [ 151080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A stillborn son (20 October 1557).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Marriage and children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Archduke Maximilian of Austria (12 October 1558 2 November 1618). Elected king of Poland, but never crowned. He served as grandmaster of the Teutonic Order and Administrator of Prussia.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Marriage and children", "target_page_ids": [ 1228671, 14071684, 30776, 371248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ], [ 91, 108 ], [ 142, 156 ], [ 178, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Archduke Albert of Austria (15 November 1559 13 July 1621). He served as Governor of the Low Countries.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Marriage and children", "target_page_ids": [ 296241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Archduke Wenceslaus of Austria (9 March 1561 22 September 1578).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Marriage and children", "target_page_ids": [ 30429041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Archduke Frederick of Austria (21 June 1562 16 January 1563).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Marriage and children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Archduchess Marie of Austria (19 February 1564 – 26 March 1564). Named after her deceased older sister.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Marriage and children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Archduke Charles of Austria (26 September 1565 23 May 1566).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Marriage and children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Archduchess Margaret of Austria (25 January 1567 5 July 1633). A nun.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Marriage and children", "target_page_ids": [ 30429360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Archduchess Eleanor of Austria (4 November 1568 12 March 1580).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Marriage and children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Maximilian II, by the grace of God elected Holy Roman Emperor, forever August, King in Germany, of Hungary, Bohemia, Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, etc. Archduke of Austria, Duke of Burgundy, Brabant, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Luxemburg, Württemberg, the Upper and Lower Silesia, Prince of Swabia, Margrave of the Holy Roman Empire, Burgau, Moravia, the Upper and Lower Lusatia, Princely Count of Habsburg, Tyrol, Ferrette, Kyburg, Gorizia, Landgrave of Alsace, Lord of the Wendish March, Pordenone and Salins, etc. etc.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Official style", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Maximilian II figures in José Saramago's 2008 novel The Elephant's Journey.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 48422, 28811276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 38 ], [ 52, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kings of Germany family tree. He was related to every other king of Germany.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17767437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fichtner, Paula Sutter. Emperor Maximilian II (2001)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fichtner, Paula Sutter. Historical dictionary of Austria (Scarecrow Press, 2009)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1527_births", "1576_deaths", "16th-century_Holy_Roman_Emperors", "16th-century_archdukes_of_Austria", "Burials_at_St._Vitus_Cathedral", "Candidates_for_the_Polish_elective_throne", "Knights_of_the_Garter", "Knights_of_the_Golden_Fleece", "Nobility_from_Vienna", "Regents_of_Spain", "Dukes_of_Carniola", "Sons_of_emperors" ]

[ "Maximilian II", "Maximilian of Austria" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In mathematics, the infimum (abbreviated inf; plural infima) of a subset of a partially ordered set is a greatest element in that is less than or equal to each element of if such an element exists. Consequently, the term greatest lower bound (abbreviated as ) is also commonly used.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18831, 27631, 23572, 663041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ], [ 66, 72 ], [ 79, 100 ], [ 107, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The supremum (abbreviated sup; plural suprema) of a subset of a partially ordered set is the least element in that is greater than or equal to each element of if such an element exists. Consequently, the supremum is also referred to as the least upper bound (or ).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 663041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The infimum is in a precise sense dual to the concept of a supremum. Infima and suprema of real numbers are common special cases that are important in analysis, and especially in Lebesgue integration. However, the general definitions remain valid in the more abstract setting of order theory where arbitrary partially ordered sets are considered.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 600618, 20646438, 48396, 26064288, 361924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 38 ], [ 92, 103 ], [ 152, 160 ], [ 180, 200 ], [ 281, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The concepts of infimum and supremum are close to minimum and maximum, but are more useful in analysis because they better characterize special sets which may have . For instance, the set of positive real numbers (not including ) does not have a minimum, because any given element of could simply be divided in half resulting in a smaller number that is still in There is, however, exactly one infimum of the positive real numbers: which is smaller than all the positive real numbers and greater than any other real number which could be used as a lower bound.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 298420, 298420, 47172571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 57 ], [ 62, 69 ], [ 192, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A of a subset of a partially ordered set is an element of such that", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Formal definition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " for all ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Formal definition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A lower bound of is called an (or , or ) of if", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Formal definition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " for all lower bounds of in ( is larger than or equal to any other lower bound).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Formal definition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Similarly, an of a subset of a partially ordered set is an element of such that", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Formal definition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " for all ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Formal definition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An upper bound of is called a (or , or ) of if", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Formal definition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " for all upper bounds of in ( is less than or equal to any other upper bound).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Formal definition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Infima and suprema do not necessarily exist. Existence of an infimum of a subset of can fail if has no lower bound at all, or if the set of lower bounds does not contain a greatest element. However, if an infimum or supremum does exist, it is unique.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Existence and uniqueness", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Consequently, partially ordered sets for which certain infima are known to exist become especially interesting. For instance, a lattice is a partially ordered set in which all subsets have both a supremum and an infimum, and a complete lattice is a partially ordered set in which subsets have both a supremum and an infimum. More information on the various classes of partially ordered sets that arise from such considerations are found in the article on completeness properties.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Existence and uniqueness", "target_page_ids": [ 469304, 44777, 549445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 135 ], [ 228, 244 ], [ 457, 480 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If the supremum of a subset exists, it is unique. If contains a greatest element, then that element is the supremum; otherwise, the supremum does not belong to (or does not exist). Likewise, if the infimum exists, it is unique. If contains a least element, then that element is the infimum; otherwise, the infimum does not belong to (or does not exist).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Existence and uniqueness", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The infimum of a subset of a partially ordered set assuming it exists, does not necessarily belong to If it does, it is a minimum or least element of Similarly, if the supremum of belongs to it is a maximum or greatest element of ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Relation to maximum and minimum elements", "target_page_ids": [ 303398, 303398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 149 ], [ 205, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For example, consider the set of negative real numbers (excluding zero). This set has no greatest element, since for every element of the set, there is another, larger, element. For instance, for any negative real number there is another negative real number which is greater. On the other hand, every real number greater than or equal to zero is certainly an upper bound on this set. Hence, is the least upper bound of the negative reals, so the supremum is 0. This set has a supremum but no greatest element.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Relation to maximum and minimum elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "However, the definition of maximal and minimal elements is more general. In particular, a set can have many maximal and minimal elements, whereas infima and suprema are unique.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Relation to maximum and minimum elements", "target_page_ids": [ 303398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Whereas maxima and minima must be members of the subset that is under consideration, the infimum and supremum of a subset need not be members of that subset themselves.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Relation to maximum and minimum elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Finally, a partially ordered set may have many minimal upper bounds without having a least upper bound. Minimal upper bounds are those upper bounds for which there is no strictly smaller element that also is an upper bound. This does not say that each minimal upper bound is smaller than all other upper bounds, it merely is not greater. The distinction between \"minimal\" and \"least\" is only possible when the given order is not a total one. In a totally ordered set, like the real numbers, the concepts are the same.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Relation to maximum and minimum elements", "target_page_ids": [ 30330 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 431, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As an example, let be the set of all finite subsets of natural numbers and consider the partially ordered set obtained by taking all sets from together with the set of integers and the set of positive real numbers ordered by subset inclusion as above. Then clearly both and are greater than all finite sets of natural numbers. Yet, neither is smaller than nor is the converse true: both sets are minimal upper bounds but none is a supremum.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Relation to maximum and minimum elements", "target_page_ids": [ 14563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The is an example of the aforementioned completeness properties which is typical for the set of real numbers. This property is sometimes called .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Relation to maximum and minimum elements", "target_page_ids": [ 549445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If an ordered set has the property that every nonempty subset of having an upper bound also has a least upper bound, then is said to have the least-upper-bound property. As noted above, the set of all real numbers has the least-upper-bound property. Similarly, the set of integers has the least-upper-bound property; if is a nonempty subset of and there is some number such that every element of is less than or equal to then there is a least upper bound for an integer that is an upper bound for and is less than or equal to every other upper bound for A well-ordered set also has the least-upper-bound property, and the empty subset has also a least upper bound: the minimum of the whole set.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Relation to maximum and minimum elements", "target_page_ids": [ 33456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 573, 583 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An example of a set that the least-upper-bound property is the set of rational numbers. Let be the set of all rational numbers such that Then has an upper bound ( for example, or ) but no least upper bound in : If we suppose is the least upper bound, a contradiction is immediately deduced because between any two reals and (including and ) there exists some rational which itself would have to be the least upper bound (if ) or a member of greater than (if ). Another example is the hyperreals; there is no least upper bound of the set of positive infinitesimals.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Relation to maximum and minimum elements", "target_page_ids": [ 341682, 51429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 345, 345 ], [ 498, 508 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is a corresponding ; an ordered set possesses the greatest-lower-bound property if and only if it also possesses the least-upper-bound property; the least-upper-bound of the set of lower bounds of a set is the greatest-lower-bound, and the greatest-lower-bound of the set of upper bounds of a set is the least-upper-bound of the set.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Relation to maximum and minimum elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If in a partially ordered set every bounded subset has a supremum, this applies also, for any set in the function space containing all functions from to where if and only if for all For example, it applies for real functions, and, since these can be considered special cases of functions, for real -tuples and sequences of real numbers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Relation to maximum and minimum elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The least-upper-bound property is an indicator of the suprema.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Relation to maximum and minimum elements", "target_page_ids": [ 22038671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In analysis, infima and suprema of subsets of the real numbers are particularly important. For instance, the negative real numbers do not have a greatest element, and their supremum is (which is not a negative real number).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Infima and suprema of real numbers", "target_page_ids": [ 48396, 20646438, 20646438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 11 ], [ 51, 63 ], [ 119, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The completeness of the real numbers implies (and is equivalent to) that any bounded nonempty subset of the real numbers has an infimum and a supremum. If is not bounded below, one often formally writes If is empty, one writes ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Infima and suprema of real numbers", "target_page_ids": [ 29322627, 9566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 36 ], [ 213, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following formulas depend on a notation that conveniently generalizes arithmetic operations on sets: Let the sets and scalar Define", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Infima and suprema of real numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ; the scalar product of a set is just the scalar multiplied by every element in the set. The case is denoted by ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Infima and suprema of real numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ; called the Minkowski sum, it is the arithmetic sum of two sets is the sum of all possible pairs of numbers, one from each set.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Infima and suprema of real numbers", "target_page_ids": [ 504105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ; the arithmetic product of two sets is all products of pairs of elements, one from each set.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Infima and suprema of real numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In those cases where the infima and suprema of the sets and exist, the following identities hold:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Infima and suprema of real numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " if and only if and otherwise ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Infima and suprema of real numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " If then there exists a sequence in such that Similarly, there will exist a (possibly different) sequence in such that Consequently, if the limit is a real number and if is a continuous function, then is necessarily an adherent point of ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Infima and suprema of real numbers", "target_page_ids": [ 8140539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 229, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " if and only if is a lower bound and for every there is an with ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Infima and suprema of real numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " if and only if is an upper bound and if for every there is an with ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Infima and suprema of real numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " If and then and ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Infima and suprema of real numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " If then and ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Infima and suprema of real numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " If then and In particular, and ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Infima and suprema of real numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " and ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Infima and suprema of real numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " If and are nonempty sets of positive real numbers then and similarly for suprema ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Infima and suprema of real numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " If is non-empty and if then where this equation also holds when if the definition is used. This equality may alternatively be written as Moreover, if and only if where if then ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Infima and suprema of real numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If one denotes by the partially-ordered set with the opposite order relation; that is, for all declare: ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Duality", "target_page_ids": [ 3941020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "then infimum of a subset in equals the supremum of in and vice versa.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Duality", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For subsets of the real numbers, another kind of duality holds: where ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Duality", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The infimum of the set of numbers is The number is a lower bound, but not the greatest lower bound, and hence not the infimum.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " More generally, if a set has a smallest element, then the smallest element is the infimum for the set. In this case, it is also called the minimum of the set.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 298420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " If is a decreasing sequence with limit then ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The supremum of the set of numbers is The number is an upper bound, but it is not the least upper bound, and hence is not the supremum.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the last example, the supremum of a set of rationals is irrational, which means that the rationals are incomplete.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 19727024, 20647689, 7832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 55 ], [ 59, 69 ], [ 106, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One basic property of the supremum is", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "for any functionals and ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 1374948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The supremum of a subset of where denotes \"divides\", is the lowest common multiple of the elements of ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 49492, 17961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 53 ], [ 63, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The supremum of a set containing subsets of some set is the union of the subsets when considering the partially ordered set , where is the power set of and is subset.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 47949, 23799, 27631 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 67 ], [ 142, 151 ], [ 164, 170 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " (infimum limit)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Order_theory" ]

[ "lower bound and upper bound", "supremum and infimum", "upper bound and lower bound" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Lando (also known as Landus) was the pope from September 913 to his death March 914. His short pontificate fell during an obscure period in papal and Roman history, the so-called Saeculum obscurum (904–964).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23056, 782728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 41 ], [ 181, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the Liber pontificalis, Lando was born in the Sabina (Papal States), and his father was a wealthy Lombard count named Taino from Fornovo. The Liber also claims that his pontificate lasted only four months and twenty-two days. A different list of popes, appended to a continuation of the Liber pontificalis at the Abbey of Farfa and quoted by Gregory of Catino in his Chronicon Farfense in the twelfth century, gives Lando a pontificate of six months and twenty-six days. This is closer to the duration recorded by Flodoard of Reims, writing in the tenth century, of six months and ten days. The end of his pontificate can be dated to between 5 February 914, when he is mentioned in a document of Ravenna, and late March or early April, when his successor, John X, was elected.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18303, 3516549, 59534, 18011, 5315856, 3232155, 28318318, 898783, 37409, 363861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 35 ], [ 59, 65 ], [ 67, 79 ], [ 111, 118 ], [ 142, 149 ], [ 326, 340 ], [ 355, 372 ], [ 527, 544 ], [ 709, 716 ], [ 769, 775 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lando is thought to have been the candidate of Count Theophylact I of Tusculum and Senatrix Theodora, who were the most powerful couple in Rome at the time. The Theophylacti controlled papal finances through their monopoly of the office of vestararius, and also controlled the Roman militia and Senate. During Lando's reign, Arab raiders, operating from their stronghold on the Garigliano river, destroyed the cathedral of San Salvatore in Vescovio in his native diocese. No document of Lando's chancery has survived. The only act of his reign that is recorded is a donation to the diocese of Sabina mentioned in a judicial act of 1431. Lando made the large personal gift in order to restore the cathedral of San Salvatore so that the clergy who were then living at Toffia could return.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1335077, 1335079, 23322603, 16685964, 8329857, 200365, 5315856, 8313875, 6753688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 78 ], [ 92, 100 ], [ 240, 251 ], [ 295, 301 ], [ 325, 337 ], [ 378, 388 ], [ 440, 448 ], [ 452, 470 ], [ 766, 772 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Catholic Forum: Pope Lando", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "New Catholic Dictionary: Pope Lando", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Popes", "Italian_popes", "People_from_Lazio", "914_deaths", "Year_of_birth_unknown", "10th-century_popes", "Burials_at_St._Peter's_Basilica" ]

[ "Pope Lando" ]

[ { "plaintext": "An engagement or betrothal is the period of time between a marriage proposal and the marriage itself (which is typically but not always commenced with a wedding). During this period, a couple is said to be fiancés (from the French), betrothed, intended, affianced, engaged to be married, or simply engaged. Future brides and grooms may be called fiancée (feminine) or fiancé (masculine), the betrothed, a wife-to-be or husband-to-be, respectively. The duration of the courtship varies vastly, and is largely dependent on cultural norms or upon the agreement of the parties involved.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 8019411, 19728, 32893, 86111, 29421264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 76 ], [ 85, 93 ], [ 153, 160 ], [ 315, 320 ], [ 326, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Long engagements were once common in formal arranged marriages, and it was not uncommon for parents betrothing children to arrange marriages many years before the engaged couple were old enough. This is still common in some countries.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26503411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many traditional Christian denominations have optional rites for Christian betrothal (also known as 'blessing an engaged couple' or 'declaration of intention') that bless and ratify the intent of a couple to marry before God and the Church.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 342411, 337346, 7390, 320768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 39 ], [ 165, 170 ], [ 208, 213 ], [ 233, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The origins of European engagement in marriage practice are found in the Jewish law (Torah), first exemplified by Abraham, and outlined in the last Talmudic tractate of the Nashim (Women) order, where marriage consists of two separate acts, called erusin (or kiddushin, meaning sanctification), which is the betrothal ceremony, and nissu'in or chupah, the actual ceremony for the marriage. Erusin changes the couple's interpersonal status, while nissu'in brings about the legal consequences of the change of status. (However, in the Talmud and other sources of Jewish law there is also a process, called kiddushin, corresponding to what today is called engagement. Marrying without such an agreement is considered immoral. To complicate matters, erusin in modern Hebrew means engagement, not betrothal.)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 9239, 30343, 1436, 30345, 405387, 19728, 25027698, 39386, 1750696, 32893, 696250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 21 ], [ 85, 90 ], [ 114, 121 ], [ 148, 154 ], [ 173, 179 ], [ 201, 209 ], [ 248, 254 ], [ 308, 317 ], [ 344, 350 ], [ 363, 388 ], [ 604, 611 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This was later adopted in Ancient Greece as the gamos and engeysis rituals, although unlike in Judaism the contract made in front of witness was only verbal. The giving of a ring was eventually borrowed from Judaism by Roman marriage law, with the fiancé presenting it after swearing the oath of marriage intent, and presenting of the gifts at the engagement party.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Betrothal (also called 'espousal') is a formal state of engagement to be married.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Betrothal", "target_page_ids": [ 19728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Typical steps of a match were the following:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Betrothal", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Negotiation of a match, usually done by the couple's families with bride and groom having varying levels of input, from no input, to veto power, to a fuller voice in the selection of marriage partner.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Betrothal", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " This is not as widely practiced as it was historically, although it is still common in culturally conservative communities in Israel, India, Africa, and Persian gulf countries, although most of these have a requirement that the bride be at least allowed veto power.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Betrothal", "target_page_ids": [ 9282173, 14533, 3088555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 133 ], [ 135, 140 ], [ 154, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Negotiation of bride price or dowry", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Betrothal", "target_page_ids": [ 47850053, 234516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 27 ], [ 31, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In most cultures evolved from Europe, bride prices or dowries have been reduced to the engagement ring accompanying the marriage contract, while in other cultures, such as those on the Arabian Peninsula, they are still part of negotiating a marriage contract.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Betrothal", "target_page_ids": [ 39376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Blessing by the parents and clergy", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Betrothal", "target_page_ids": [ 50405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Exchange of Vows and Signing of Contracts", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Betrothal", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Often one of these is omitted", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Betrothal", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Celebration", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Betrothal", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The exact duration of a betrothal varies according to culture and the participants’ needs and wishes. For adults, it may be anywhere from several hours (when the betrothal is incorporated into the wedding day itself) to a period of several years. A year and a day are common in neo-pagan groups today. In the case of child marriage, betrothal might last from infancy until the age of marriage.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Betrothal", "target_page_ids": [ 21686, 411381 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 278, 287 ], [ 317, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The responsibilities and privileges of betrothal vary. In most cultures, the betrothed couple is expected to spend much time together, learning about each other. In some historical cultures (including colonial North America), the betrothal was essentially a trial marriage, with marriage only being required in cases of conception of a child. Almost all cultures are loosening restrictions against physical contact between partners, even in cultures that normally had strong prohibitions against it. The betrothal period was also considered to be a preparatory time, in which the groom built a house, started a business or otherwise proved his readiness to enter adult society.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Betrothal", "target_page_ids": [ 282220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 203, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In medieval Europe, in canon law, a betrothal could be formed by the exchange of vows in the future tense (\"I will take you as my wife/husband,\" instead of \"I take you as my wife/husband\"), but sexual intercourse consummated the vows, making a binding marriage rather than a betrothal. Although these betrothals could be concluded with only the vows spoken by the couple, they had legal implications: Richard III of England had his older brother's children declared illegitimate on the grounds their father had been betrothed to another woman when he married their mother.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Betrothal", "target_page_ids": [ 18836, 6469, 153945, 26284, 70600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 18 ], [ 23, 32 ], [ 81, 84 ], [ 402, 424 ], [ 433, 457 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A betrothal is considered to be a 'semi-binding' contract. Normal reasons for invalidation of a betrothal include:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Betrothal", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Revelation of a prior commitment or marriage", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Betrothal", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Evidence of infidelity", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Betrothal", "target_page_ids": [ 327636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Failure to conceive (in 'trial marriage' cultures)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Betrothal", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Failure of either party to meet the financial and property stipulations of the betrothal contract", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Betrothal", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Normally, either party can break a betrothal, though in certain traditions, a financial penalty (such as forfeit of the bride price) applies. In some common law countries, including England and Wales and many US states, it was once possible for the spurned partner (often only the woman) to sue the other for breach of promise or \"heart-balm\". This provided some protection in an age where virginity at marriage was considered important and having a failed engagement could damage one's reputation, but this tort has become obsolete in most jurisdictions as attitudes to premarital sex have softened and emphasis shifted to allowing people to leave loveless relationships.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Betrothal", "target_page_ids": [ 5254, 1031999, 29813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 150, 160 ], [ 309, 326 ], [ 508, 512 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Jewish weddings during Talmudic times (c.1st century BC – 6th century AD), the two ceremonies of betrothal (erusin) and wedding usually took place up to a year apart; the bride lived with her parents until the actual marriage ceremony (nissuin), which would take place in a room or tent that the groom had set up for her. Since the Middle Ages the two ceremonies have taken place as a combined ceremony performed in public. The betrothal is now generally part of the Jewish wedding ceremony, accomplished when the groom gives the bride the ring or another object of at least nominal value. As mentioned above, betrothal in Judaism is separate from engagement; breaking a betrothal requires a formal divorce, and violation of betrothal is considered adultery.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Betrothal", "target_page_ids": [ 4774439, 25027698, 4774439, 4774439, 3223469, 58809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 17 ], [ 111, 117 ], [ 239, 246 ], [ 470, 484 ], [ 702, 709 ], [ 752, 760 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In most localities, the Rite of Betrothal (also known as 'blessing an engaged couple' or 'declaration of intention') as a precursor to Holy Matrimony is an optional practice in traditional forms of Christianity today that blesses and ratifies the intention of two Christians to marry one another. Many Christian denominations provide liturgies for Christian betrothal, which often feature prayer, Bible readings, a blessing of the engagement rings (in cultures in which rings are used), and a blessing of the couple. A betrothal makes what a couple promises to one another sanctified by God and the Church. A Christian engagement (betrothal) ceremony, which may be followed with a party, is normative in certain parts of the world, as with the Christians of India and Pakistan.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Betrothal", "target_page_ids": [ 5211, 337346, 342411, 23705018, 2262883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 210 ], [ 222, 229 ], [ 302, 324 ], [ 389, 395 ], [ 397, 411 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historically, betrothal in Roman Catholicism is a formal contract considered as binding as marriage, and a divorce is necessary to terminate a betrothal. Betrothed couples are regarded legally as husband and wife – even before their wedding and physical union.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Betrothal", "target_page_ids": [ 19280537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The concept of an official engagement period in Western European culture may have begun in 1215 at the Fourth Lateran Council, headed by Pope Innocent III, which decreed that \"marriages are to be ... announced publicly in the churches by the priests during a suitable and fixed time so that, if legitimate impediments exist, they may be made known.\" Such a formal church announcement of the intent to marry is known as banns. In some jurisdictions, reading the banns may be part of one type of legal marriage.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Betrothal", "target_page_ids": [ 33800, 11399, 24455, 6200013, 100712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 64 ], [ 103, 125 ], [ 137, 154 ], [ 306, 317 ], [ 420, 425 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2019 Book of Common Prayer, used by Anglican Christian denominations such as the Anglican Church in North America, includes a Christian rite of betrothal called \"A Brief Liturgy for the Signing of the Declaration of Intention\" in which a Christian couple ratifies their intention before God and the Church to marry. During this liturgy, the following is signed and dated by the engaged couple after the sign of peace:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Betrothal", "target_page_ids": [ 4953, 13487228, 1128511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 30 ], [ 85, 117 ], [ 407, 420 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the signing of the declaration of intention, the couple is blessed by the priest:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Betrothal", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Anglican Communion, the Methodist Churches and the Presbyterian Churches have questions and responses for family members in its Rite of Betrothal, which is sometimes incorporated into the Service of Holy Matrimony itself.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Betrothal", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Rite of Betrothal is traditionally performed in the narthex (entranceway) of the church, to indicate the couple's first entrance into the married estate. The priest blesses the couple and gives them lit candles to hold. Then, after a litany, and a prayer at which everyone bows, he places the bride's ring on the ring finger of the groom's right hand, and the groom's ring on the bride's finger. The rings are subsequently exchanged three times, either by the priest or by the best man, after which the priest says a final prayer. Traditionally, the betrothal service takes place at the time the engagement is announced, though in certain localities it may performed immediately before the wedding ceremony itself. The exchange of rings is not a part of the wedding service in the Eastern Churches, but only occurs at the betrothal ceremony. Traditionally, the groom's ring is gold and the bride's ring is silver.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Betrothal", "target_page_ids": [ 1834723, 21468377, 297082, 8215744 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 23 ], [ 28, 45 ], [ 112, 119 ], [ 294, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Customs for engagement rings vary according to time, place, and culture. An engagement ring has historically been uncommon, and when such a gift was given, it was separate from the wedding ring.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Engagement rings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The first recorded tradition of giving a ring for marriage is in of the Hebrew Bible when a golden nose ring (Chayei Sarah 24:22) was given by Eliezer of Damascus to Rebecca, with Saadiah Gaon also citing as a possible source of the practice in the phrase in be’nei tabbaot (children of the rings). The latter case refers to betrothal (see above) rather than engagement; one of the three ways in which betrothal may be effected in Judaism is by the husband giving the bride money or an object of at least nominal value. In fact, it is a long-standing practice within Judaism to contract the betrothal with a ring.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Engagement rings", "target_page_ids": [ 30344, 3151926, 632005, 38203876, 166531, 15624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 85 ], [ 111, 123 ], [ 144, 163 ], [ 167, 174 ], [ 181, 193 ], [ 433, 440 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The practice of Marriage ring in Byzantine Empire date back to 3rd century CE.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Engagement rings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Romantic rings from the time of the Roman Empire sometimes bore clasped hands symbolizing contract, from which the later Celtic Claddagh symbol (two hands clasping a heart) may have evolved as a symbol of love and commitment between two people. Romans believed the circle was a bond between the two people who were to be married and signified eternity, but was first practiced on the fourth finger/ring finger by the Romans, who believed this finger to be the beginning of the vena amoris (\"vein of love\"), the vein that leads to the heart. In cultures with European origin, and many other countries, an engagement ring is worn following the practice of the Romans who \"...wore the ring either on the right middle finger or the left ring [4th] finger, from which, according to ancient Egyptian physicians, a nerve led directly to the heart.\" The custom in Continental Europe and other countries is to wear it on the right hand. One historical exception arose in monarchical regimes, in which a nobleman entering into morganatic marriage, a marriage in which the person, usually the woman, of lower rank stayed at the same rank instead of rising ranks, would present their left hand to receive the ring, hence the alternative term 'marriage with the left hand' (Ger. Ehe zur linken Hand), the offspring of such marriages considered to be disinherited from birth.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Engagement rings", "target_page_ids": [ 25507, 6546, 173121, 921148, 25507, 1838699, 39376, 5867, 50213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 48 ], [ 121, 125 ], [ 128, 136 ], [ 384, 409 ], [ 417, 423 ], [ 477, 488 ], [ 604, 619 ], [ 856, 874 ], [ 1017, 1036 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The modern Western form of the practice of giving or exchanging engagement rings is traditionally thought to have begun in 1477 when Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, gave Mary of Burgundy a diamond ring as an engagement present.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Engagement rings", "target_page_ids": [ 39376, 39070, 151337, 8082 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 79 ], [ 133, 165 ], [ 172, 188 ], [ 191, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In other countries like Argentina, men and women each wear a ring similar to wedding bands. They are made of silver (\"alianza de plata\") when manifesting an informal \"boyfriend-girlfriend\" relationship, though this first step might not always happen; howbeit depending on finances, this may be the only ring given at all. The gold band (\"anillo de compromiso\" or \"alianza de oro\") is given to the bride when the commitment is formal and the [optional] diamond ring (\"cintillo\") is reserved for the wedding ceremony when the groom gives it to the bride. The gold band that the groom wore during the engagement – or a new one, as some men choose not to wear them during engagement – is then given to the groom by the bride; and the bride receives both the original gold band and the new diamond at the ceremony. The bride's diamond ring is worn on top of the engagement band at the wedding and thereafter, especially at formal occasions or parties; otherwise the engagement band suffices for daily wear for both parties. At the wedding, the rings are swapped from the right to the left hand. In Brazil, they are always made of gold, and there is no tradition for the engagement ring. Both men and women wear the wedding band on their right hand while engaged, and, after they marry, they shift the rings to their left hands.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Engagement rings", "target_page_ids": [ 18951905, 3383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 33 ], [ 1093, 1099 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the modern era, some women's wedding rings are made into two separate pieces. One part is given to her to wear as an engagement ring when she accepts the marriage proposal and the other during the wedding ceremony. When worn together, the two rings look like one piece of jewelry. The engagement ring is not worn during the wedding ceremony, when the wedding ring is put by the groom on the finger of the bride, and sometimes by the bride onto the groom's finger. After the wedding, the engagement ring is put back on, and is usually worn on the outside of the wedding ring.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Engagement rings", "target_page_ids": [ 163668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 355, 367 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In contemporarily American culture some engagements are announced at an engagement party, traditionally hosted by the bride's parents. These parties help introduce both the bride and groom's friends and family to each other in one place prior to the wedding. Often contemporary engagement parties are either cocktail parties or dinners with décor kept to a minimum. Gifts are not often given until either the wedding itself or a bridal shower.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Engagement parties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In ancient Greece, engagement parties were held without the bride and took place to discussed the legal and economic aspects of the marriage. Later, engagement parties were when both sides announced a legal union prior to marriage where if one side broke the agreement they would have to pay the wronged side. Engagements became non-legally bending and by the early 20th century couples would announce their engagement in the local paper.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Engagement parties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Churching of women", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4047933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Marriage proposal", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8019411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rèiteach", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 56237437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Christian Betrothal (Engagement) Ceremony - Church of North India (United Protestant Christian) ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Order of Blessing an Engaged Couple - Western Christian Betrothal Rite ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A Brief Liturgy for the Signing of the Declaration of Intention (Anglican Christian)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Service of Betrothal (Eastern Orthodox Christian)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Weddings & Blessings in Church (Methodist Christian)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Solemn Rite of Betrothal and Publishing of the Banns (Roman Catholic Christian)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Engagement", "Marriage" ]

[ "betrothal", "engaged", "betrothed", "affiance" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Manufacturing is the creation or production of goods with the help of equipment, labor, machines, tools, and chemical or biological processing or formulation. It is the essence of secondary sector of the economy. The term may refer to a range of human activity, from handicraft to high-tech, but it is most commonly applied to industrial design, in which raw materials from the primary sector are transformed into finished goods on a large scale. Such goods may be sold to other manufacturers for the production of other more complex products (such as aircraft, household appliances, furniture, sports equipment or automobiles), or distributed via the tertiary industry to end users and consumers (usually through wholesalers, who in turn sell to retailers, who then sell them to individual customers).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 13228814, 580039, 5969588, 64589385, 51462, 30677, 9722260, 5652450, 23876971, 14553, 563299, 49690, 27452465, 165851, 216167, 14552, 6553782, 849, 176883, 48597, 1802372, 13673345, 14551, 127759, 7818, 63103, 183515, 234206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 43 ], [ 47, 52 ], [ 70, 79 ], [ 81, 86 ], [ 88, 95 ], [ 98, 102 ], [ 109, 117 ], [ 121, 139 ], [ 146, 157 ], [ 180, 211 ], [ 246, 260 ], [ 267, 277 ], [ 281, 290 ], [ 327, 344 ], [ 355, 367 ], [ 378, 392 ], [ 414, 427 ], [ 552, 560 ], [ 562, 582 ], [ 584, 593 ], [ 595, 611 ], [ 615, 626 ], [ 652, 669 ], [ 673, 681 ], [ 687, 695 ], [ 714, 723 ], [ 747, 755 ], [ 791, 799 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Manufacturing engineering is the field of engineering that designs and optimizes the manufacturing process, or the steps through which raw materials are transformed into a final product. The manufacturing process begins with the product design, and materials specification. These materials are then modified through manufacturing to become the desired product.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11200529, 37292742, 999536, 1132096 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ], [ 172, 185 ], [ 229, 243 ], [ 249, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes involved in the production and integration of a product's components. Some industries, such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers, use the term fabrication instead.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 27696, 1145328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 165 ], [ 170, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The manufacturing sector is closely connected with the engineering and industrial design industries.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9251, 165851 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 66 ], [ 71, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Modern English word manufacture is likely derived from the Middle French manufacture (\"process of making\") which itself originates from the Classical Latin manū (\"hand\") and Middle French facture (\"making\"). Alternatively, the English word may have been independently formed from the earlier English manufact (\"made by human hands\") and facture. Its earliest usage in the English language was recorded in the mid-16th century to refer to the making of products by hand.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 188969, 694163, 106286 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 63, 76 ], [ 144, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Human ancestors have manufactured objects using stone and other tools since long before the emergence of Homo sapiens approximately 200,000 years ago. The earliest methods of stone tool making, known as the Oldowan \"industry\", date back to at least 2.3 million years ago, with the earliest direct evidence of tool usage found in Ethiopia within the Great Rift Valley, dating back to 2.5 million years ago. To manufacture a stone tool, a \"core\" of hard stone with specific flaking properties (such as flint) was struck with a hammerstone. This flaking produced sharp edges which could be used as tools, primarily in the form of choppers or scrapers. These tools greatly aided the early humans in their hunter-gatherer lifestyle to form other tools out of softer materials such as bone and wood. The Middle Paleolithic, approximately 300,000 years ago, saw the introduction of the prepared-core technique, where multiple blades could be rapidly formed from a single core stone. Pressure flaking, in which a wood, bone, or antler punch could be used to shape a stone very finely was developed during the Upper Paleolithic, beginning approximately 40,000 years ago. During the Neolithic period, polished stone tools were manufactured from a variety of hard rocks such as flint, jade, jadeite, and greenstone. The polished axes were used alongside other stone tools including projectiles, knives, and scrapers, as well as tools manufactured from organic materials such as wood, bone, and antler.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History and development", "target_page_ids": [ 682482, 142839, 445567, 642885, 187749, 34138013, 140992, 43701, 140302, 1930255, 1898321, 210098, 1158720, 2182244, 140305, 10040741, 1158651, 21189, 142839, 43701, 191395, 977361, 2636840, 143830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 117 ], [ 175, 185 ], [ 207, 214 ], [ 216, 224 ], [ 329, 337 ], [ 349, 366 ], [ 438, 442 ], [ 500, 505 ], [ 525, 536 ], [ 627, 635 ], [ 639, 647 ], [ 701, 716 ], [ 798, 816 ], [ 879, 902 ], [ 976, 992 ], [ 1027, 1032 ], [ 1101, 1118 ], [ 1173, 1182 ], [ 1200, 1210 ], [ 1267, 1272 ], [ 1274, 1278 ], [ 1280, 1287 ], [ 1293, 1303 ], [ 1371, 1382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Copper smelting is believed to have originated when the technology of pottery kilns allowed sufficiently high temperatures. The concentration of various elements such as arsenic increase with depth in copper ore deposits and smelting of these ores yields arsenical bronze, which can be sufficiently work hardened to be suitable for manufacturing tools. Bronze is an alloy of copper with tin; the latter being found in relatively few deposits globally caused a long time to elapse before true tin bronze became widespread. During the Bronze Age, bronze was a major improvement over stone as a material for making tools, both because of its mechanical properties like strength and ductility and because it could be cast in molds to make intricately shaped objects. Bronze significantly advanced shipbuilding technology with better tools and bronze nails, which replaced the old method of attaching boards of the hull with cord woven through drilled holes. The Iron Age is conventionally defined by the widespread manufacturing of weapons and tools using iron and steel rather than bronze. Iron smelting is more difficult than tin and copper smelting because smelted iron requires hot-working and can be melted only in specially designed furnaces. The place and time for the discovery of iron smelting is not known, partly because of the difficulty of distinguishing metal extracted from nickel-containing ores from hot-worked meteoritic iron.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History and development", "target_page_ids": [ 28716, 17361, 5625092, 4169, 4620, 14711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 15 ], [ 78, 82 ], [ 255, 271 ], [ 353, 359 ], [ 533, 543 ], [ 958, 966 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the growth of the ancient civilizations, many ancient technologies resulted from advances in manufacturing. Several of the six classic simple machines were invented in Mesopotamia. Mesopotamians have been credited with the invention of the wheel. The wheel and axle mechanism first appeared with the potter's wheel, invented in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) during the 5th millennium BC. Egyptian paper made from papyrus, as well as pottery, were mass-produced and exported throughout the Mediterranean basin. Early construction techniques utilized by the Ancient Egyptians made use of bricks composed mainly of clay, sand, silt, and other minerals.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History and development", "target_page_ids": [ 28002, 33555, 1352555, 1064876, 20189, 16861908, 23664, 24619 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 157 ], [ 247, 252 ], [ 258, 272 ], [ 307, 321 ], [ 335, 346 ], [ 400, 405 ], [ 416, 423 ], [ 436, 443 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Middle Ages witnessed new inventions, innovations in the ways of managing traditional means of production, and economic growth. Papermaking, a 2nd-century Chinese technology, was carried to the Middle East when a group of Chinese papermakers were captured in the 8th century. Papermaking technology was spread to Europe by the Umayyad conquest of Hispania. A paper mill was established in Sicily in the 12th century. In Europe the fiber to make pulp for making paper was obtained from linen and cotton rags. Lynn Townsend White Jr. credited the spinning wheel with increasing the supply of rags, which led to cheap paper, which was a factor in the development of printing. Due to the casting of cannon, the blast furnace came into widespread use in France in the mid 15th century. The blast furnace had been used in China since the 4th century BC. The stocking frame, which was invented in 1598, increased a knitter's number of knots per minute from 100 to 1000.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History and development", "target_page_ids": [ 18836, 142475, 2169964, 1914096, 297203, 2261764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 15 ], [ 132, 143 ], [ 331, 359 ], [ 512, 535 ], [ 711, 724 ], [ 857, 871 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in Europe and the United States from 1760 to the 1830s. This transition included going from hand production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, the increasing use of steam power and water power, the development of machine tools and the rise of the mechanized factory system. The Industrial Revolution also led to an unprecedented rise in the rate of population growth. Textiles were the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment, value of output and capital invested. The textile industry was also the first to use modern production methods. Rapid industrialization first began in Britain, starting with mechanized spinning in the 1780s, with high rates of growth in steam power and iron production occurring after 1800. Mechanized textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe and the United States in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging Belgium and the United States and later textiles in France.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History and development", "target_page_ids": [ 14914, 2183909, 51462, 58721, 2852265, 27692, 14073, 191490, 173366, 1428809, 51892, 181293, 1943311, 210545, 1943311, 5987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 25 ], [ 168, 191 ], [ 195, 202 ], [ 209, 231 ], [ 236, 251 ], [ 285, 296 ], [ 301, 312 ], [ 333, 345 ], [ 367, 377 ], [ 378, 392 ], [ 488, 495 ], [ 597, 604 ], [ 619, 635 ], [ 695, 712 ], [ 868, 897 ], [ 1040, 1044 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An economic recession occurred from the late 1830s to the early 1840s when the adoption of the Industrial Revolution's early innovations, such as mechanized spinning and weaving, slowed down and their markets matured. Innovations developed late in the period, such as the increasing adoption of locomotives, steamboats and steamships, hot blast iron smelting and new technologies, such as the electrical telegraph, were widely introduced in the 1840s and 1850s, were not powerful enough to drive high rates of growth. Rapid economic growth began to occur after 1870, springing from a new group of innovations in what has been called the Second Industrial Revolution. These innovations included new steel making processes, mass-production, assembly lines, electrical grid systems, the large-scale manufacture of machine tools and the use of increasingly advanced machinery in steam-powered factories.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History and development", "target_page_ids": [ 4838287, 9450, 359626, 40180, 63137, 1146, 20344155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 335, 358 ], [ 393, 413 ], [ 637, 665 ], [ 698, 718 ], [ 722, 737 ], [ 739, 752 ], [ 755, 770 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Building on improvements in vacuum pumps and materials research, incandescent light bulbs became practical for general use in the late 1870s. This invention had a profound effect on the workplace because factories could now have second and third shift workers. Shoe production was mechanized during the mid 19th century. Mass production of sewing machines and agricultural machinery such as reapers occurred in the mid to late 19th century. The mass production of bicycles started in the 1880s. Steam-powered factories became widespread, although the conversion from water power to steam occurred in England earlier than in the U.S.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History and development", "target_page_ids": [ 47139, 85012, 23672379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 88 ], [ 340, 354 ], [ 360, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Electrification of factories, which had begun gradually in the 1890s after the introduction of the practical DC motor and the AC motor, was fastest between 1900 and 1930. This was aided by the establishment of electric utilities with central stations and the lowering of electricity prices from 1914 to 1917. Electric motors allowed more flexibility in manufacturing and required less maintenance than line shafts and belts. Many factories witnessed a 30% increase in output owing to the increasing shift to electric motors. Electrification enabled modern mass production, and the biggest impact of early mass production was in the manufacturing of everyday items, such as at the Ball Brothers Glass Manufacturing Company, which electrified its mason jar plant in Muncie, Indiana, U.S. around 1900. The new automated process used glass blowing machines to replace 210 craftsman glass blowers and helpers. A small electric truck was now used to handle 150 dozen bottles at a time whereas previously used hand trucks could only carry 6 dozen bottles at a time. Electric mixers replaced men with shovels handling sand and other ingredients that were fed into the glass furnace. An electric overhead crane replaced 36 day laborers for moving heavy loads across the factory.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History and development", "target_page_ids": [ 551731, 759697, 5578272, 1561161, 2171074, 2054676, 112224, 2878172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 109, 117 ], [ 126, 134 ], [ 681, 694 ], [ 695, 722 ], [ 746, 755 ], [ 765, 780 ], [ 1215, 1224 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mass production was popularized in the late 1910s and 1920s by Henry Ford's Ford Motor Company, which introduced electric motors to the then-well-known technique of chain or sequential production. Ford also bought or designed and built special purpose machine tools and fixtures such as multiple spindle drill presses that could drill every hole on one side of an engine block in one operation and a multiple head milling machine that could simultaneously machine 15 engine blocks held on a single fixture. All of these machine tools were arranged systematically in the production flow and some had special carriages for rolling heavy items into machining positions. Production of the Ford Model T used 32,000 machine tools.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History and development", "target_page_ids": [ 30433662, 205126, 38360943, 156891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 94 ], [ 304, 317 ], [ 414, 429 ], [ 685, 697 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lean manufacturing (also known as just-in-time manufacturing), was developed in Japan in the 1930s. It is a production method aimed primarily at reducing times within the production system as well as response times from suppliers and to customers. It was introduced in Australia in the 1950s by the British Motor Corporation (Australia) at its Victoria Park plant in Sydney, from where the idea later migrated to Toyota. News spread to western countries from Japan in 1977 in two English-language articles: one referred to the methodology as the \"Ohno system\", after Taiichi Ohno, who was instrumental in its development within Toyota. The other article, by Toyota authors in an international journal, provided additional details. Finally, those and other publicity were translated into implementations, beginning in 1980 and then quickly multiplying throughout the industry in the United States and other countries.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History and development", "target_page_ids": [ 218445, 3372210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 567, 579 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Emerging technologies have offered new growth methods in advanced manufacturing employment opportunities, for example in the Manufacturing Belt in the United States. Manufacturing provides important material support for national infrastructure and also for national defense.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Industrial policy", "target_page_ids": [ 3889704, 980865, 3434750, 174521, 92357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 125, 143 ], [ 151, 164 ], [ 229, 243 ], [ 257, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the other hand, most manufacturing processes may involve significant social and environmental costs. The clean-up costs of hazardous waste, for example, may outweigh the benefits of a product that creates it. Hazardous materials may expose workers to health risks. These costs are now well known and there is effort to address them by improving efficiency, reducing waste, using industrial symbiosis, and eliminating harmful chemicals.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Industrial policy", "target_page_ids": [ 38031, 857255, 268344, 12562201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 141 ], [ 243, 250 ], [ 348, 358 ], [ 382, 402 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The negative costs of manufacturing can also be addressed legally. Developed countries regulate manufacturing activity with labor laws and environmental laws. Across the globe, manufacturers can be subject to regulations and pollution taxes to offset the environmental costs of manufacturing activities. Labor unions and craft guilds have played a historic role in the negotiation of worker rights and wages. Environment laws and labor protections that are available in developed nations may not be available in the third world. Tort law and product liability impose additional costs on manufacturing. These are significant dynamics in the ongoing process, occurring over the last few decades, of manufacture-based industries relocating operations to \"developing-world\" economies where the costs of production are significantly lower than in \"developed-world\" economies.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Industrial policy", "target_page_ids": [ 18657, 3407706, 177753, 1728672, 17626, 12369, 30305, 29813, 24697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 134 ], [ 139, 152 ], [ 225, 240 ], [ 255, 302 ], [ 304, 316 ], [ 321, 333 ], [ 516, 527 ], [ 529, 537 ], [ 542, 559 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From a financial perspective, the goal of the manufacturing industry is mainly to achieve cost benefits per unit produced, which in turn leads to cost reductions in product prices for the market towards end customers. This relative cost reduction towards the market, is how manufacturing firms secure their profit margins.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Industrial policy", "target_page_ids": [ 374583, 127759, 33451942, 1151882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 103 ], [ 203, 216 ], [ 232, 246 ], [ 307, 321 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Manufacturing has unique health and safety challenges and has been recognized by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) as a priority industry sector in the National Occupational Research Agenda (NORA) to identify and provide intervention strategies regarding occupational health and safety issues.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Industrial policy", "target_page_ids": [ 520540, 18828730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 138 ], [ 184, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Surveys and analyses of trends and issues in manufacturing and investment around the world focus on such things as:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Industrial policy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The nature and sources of the considerable variations that occur cross-nationally in levels of manufacturing and wider industrial-economic growth;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Industrial policy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Competitiveness; and", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Industrial policy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Attractiveness to foreign direct investors.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Industrial policy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to general overviews, researchers have examined the features and factors affecting particular key aspects of manufacturing development. They have compared production and investment in a range of Western and non-Western countries and presented case studies of growth and performance in important individual industries and market-economic sectors.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Industrial policy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On June 26, 2009, Jeff Immelt, the CEO of General Electric, called for the United States to increase its manufacturing base employment to 20% of the workforce, commenting that the U.S. has outsourced too much in some areas and can no longer rely on the financial sector and consumer spending to drive demand. Further, while U.S. manufacturing performs well compared to the rest of the U.S. economy, research shows that it performs poorly compared to manufacturing in other high-wage countries. A total of 3.2 million– one in six U.S. manufacturing jobs– have disappeared between 2000 and 2007. In the UK, EEF the manufacturers organisation has led calls for the UK economy to be rebalanced to rely less on financial services and has actively promoted the manufacturing agenda.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Industrial policy", "target_page_ids": [ 875862, 3434750, 2625822 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 29 ], [ 75, 88 ], [ 605, 639 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), China is the top manufacturer worldwide by 2019 output, producing 28.7% of the total global manufacturing output, followed by United States, Japan, Germany and India.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Major manufacturing nations", "target_page_ids": [ 32315, 19284336, 30557091, 2864056, 11930, 1472206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 67 ], [ 77, 82 ], [ 203, 216 ], [ 218, 223 ], [ 225, 232 ], [ 237, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "UNIDO also publishes a Competitive Industrial Performance (CIP) Index, which measures the competitive manufacturing ability of different nations. The CIP Index combines a nation's gross manufacturing output with other factors like high-tech capability and the nation's impact on the world economy. Germany topped the 2020 CIP Index, followed by China, South Korea, the United States and Japan. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Major manufacturing nations", "target_page_ids": [ 27024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 354, 365 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These are the top 50 countries by total value of manufacturing output in US dollars for its noted year according to World Bank.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Major manufacturing nations", "target_page_ids": [ 45358446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Outline of manufacturing", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6588369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " How Everyday Things Are Made: video presentations", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Grant Thornton IBR 2008 Manufacturing industry focus", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " EEF, the manufacturers' organisation – industry group representing uk manufacturers", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Enabling the Digital Thread for Smart Manufacturing", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Evidences of Metal Manufacturing History", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Manufacturing Sector of the National Occupational Research Agenda, USA, 2018.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 18828730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 66 ] ] } ]

[ "Manufacturing", "Production_and_manufacturing" ]

[ "manufacture", "manufacturing industry", "Manufacturing", "NACE C", "production technology", "ISIC C" ]

[ { "plaintext": "A pine is any conifer tree or shrub in the genus Pinus () of the family Pinaceae. Pinus is the sole genus in the subfamily Pinoideae. The World Flora Online created by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Missouri Botanical Garden accepts 187 species names of pines as current, together with more synonyms. The American Conifer Society (ACS) and the Royal Horticultural Society accept 121 species. Pines are commonly found in the Northern Hemisphere. Pine may also refer to the lumber derived from pine trees; it is one of the more extensively used types of lumber. The pine family is the largest conifer family and there are currently 818 named cultivars (or trinomials) recognized by the ACS.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 68085, 18955875, 61708, 38493, 56276, 312940, 151983, 62261660, 26304, 307974, 38475850, 57532, 22126, 59399, 167906, 392963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 21 ], [ 22, 26 ], [ 30, 35 ], [ 43, 48 ], [ 65, 71 ], [ 72, 80 ], [ 113, 122 ], [ 138, 156 ], [ 172, 198 ], [ 203, 228 ], [ 309, 333 ], [ 348, 375 ], [ 428, 447 ], [ 476, 482 ], [ 644, 652 ], [ 658, 668 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pine trees are evergreen, coniferous resinous trees (or, rarely, shrubs) growing tall, with the majority of species reaching tall. The smallest are Siberian dwarf pine and Potosi pinyon, and the tallest is an tall ponderosa pine located in southern Oregon's Rogue River-Siskiyou National Forest.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 66719, 58890, 18955875, 61708, 512224, 1245901, 532941, 26811621, 8359069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 24 ], [ 37, 42 ], [ 46, 50 ], [ 65, 70 ], [ 150, 169 ], [ 174, 187 ], [ 217, 231 ], [ 252, 258 ], [ 261, 297 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pines are long lived and typically reach ages of 100–1,000 years, some even more. The longest-lived is the Great Basin bristlecone pine (P.longaeva). One individual of this species, dubbed \"Methuselah\", is one of the world's oldest living organisms at around 4,800 years old. This tree can be found in the White Mountains of California. An older tree, now cut down, was dated at 4,900 years old. It was discovered in a grove beneath Wheeler Peak and it is now known as \"Prometheus\" after the Greek immortal.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 649634, 5423528, 4622751, 340524, 1010057, 3846180, 23250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 135 ], [ 190, 200 ], [ 217, 248 ], [ 306, 321 ], [ 433, 445 ], [ 470, 480 ], [ 492, 506 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The spiral growth of branches, needles, and cones scales may be arranged in Fibonacci number ratios. The new spring shoots are sometimes called \"candles\"; they are covered in brown or whitish bud scales and point upward at first, then later turn green and spread outward. These \"candles\" offer foresters a means to evaluate fertility of the soil and vigour of the trees.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 653598, 10918, 334026, 1251925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 49 ], [ 76, 92 ], [ 294, 302 ], [ 324, 333 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The bark of most pines is thick and scaly, but some species have thin, flaky bark. The branches are produced in regular \"pseudo whorls\", actually a very tight spiral but appearing like a ring of branches arising from the same point. Many pines are uninodal, producing just one such whorl of branches each year, from buds at the tip of the year's new shoot, but others are multinodal, producing two or more whorls of branches per year.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 170396, 43604, 18952693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 8 ], [ 316, 319 ], [ 350, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pines have four types of leaf:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 18973622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Seed leaves (cotyledons) on seedlings are borne in a whorl of 4–24.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 55623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Juvenile leaves, which follow immediately on seedlings and young plants, are long, single, green or often blue-green, and arranged spirally on the shoot. These are produced for six months to five years, rarely longer.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Scale leaves, similar to bud scales, are small, brown and not photosynthetic, and arranged spirally like the juvenile leaves.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Needles, the adult leaves, are green (photosynthetic) and bundled in clusters called fascicles. The needles can number from one to seven per fascicle, but generally number from two to five. Each fascicle is produced from a small bud on a dwarf shoot in the axil of a scale leaf. These bud scales often remain on the fascicle as a basal sheath. The needles persist for 1.5–40 years, depending on species. If a shoot's growing tip is damaged (e.g. eaten by an animal), the needle fascicles just below the damage will generate a stem-producing bud, which can then replace the lost growth tip.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 24544, 227682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 53 ], [ 418, 429 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pines are monoecious, having the male and female cones on the same tree. The male cones are small, typically 1–5cm long, and only present for a short period (usually in spring, though autumn in a few pines), falling as soon as they have shed their pollen. The female cones take 1.5–3 years (depending on species) to mature after pollination, with actual fertilization delayed one year. At maturity the female cones are 3–60cm long. Each cone has numerous spirally arranged scales, with two seeds on each fertile scale; the scales at the base and tip of the cone are small and sterile, without seeds.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 68323528, 46980, 233609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ], [ 248, 254 ], [ 329, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The seeds are mostly small and winged, and are anemophilous (wind-dispersed), but some are larger and have only a vestigial wing, and are bird-dispersed. Female cones are woody and sometimes armed to protect developing seeds from foragers. At maturity, the cones usually open to release the seeds. In some of the bird-dispersed species, for example whitebark pine, the seeds are only released by the bird breaking the cones open. In others, the seeds are stored in closed cones for many years until an environmental cue triggers the cones to open, releasing the seeds. This is called serotiny. The most common form of serotiny is pyriscence, in which a resin binds the cones shut until melted by a forest fire, for example in P. rigida.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 2388685, 3410, 352334, 3126072, 507788 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 59 ], [ 138, 142 ], [ 349, 363 ], [ 584, 592 ], [ 726, 735 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pines are gymnosperms. The genus is divided into two subgenera based on the number of fibrovascular bundles in the needle. The subgenera can be distinguished by cone, seed, and leaf characters:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 290236, 2956278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ], [ 86, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pinus subg. Pinus, the yellow, or hard pine group, generally with harder wood and two or three needles per fascicle. The subgenus is also named diploxylon, on account of its two fibrovascular bundles.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 448990, 25648639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 107, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pinus subg. Strobus, the white, or soft pine group. Its members usually have softer wood and five needles per fascicle. The subgenus is also named haploxylon, on account of its one fibrovascular bundle.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 448990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Phylogenetic evidence indicates that both subgenera have a very ancient divergence from one another, having diverged during the late Jurassic. Each subgenus is further divided into sections and subsections.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 15655 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many of the smaller groups of Pinus are composed of closely related species with recent divergence and history of hybridization. This results in low morphological and genetic differences. This, coupled with low sampling and underdeveloped genetic techniques, has made taxonomy difficult to determine. Recent research using large genetic datasets has clarified these relationships into the groupings we recognize today.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The modern English name \"pine\" derives from Latin pinus, which some have traced to the Indo-European base *pīt- ‘resin’ (source of English pituitary). Before the 19th century, pines were often referred to as firs (from Old Norse fura, by way of Middle English firre). In some European languages, Germanic cognates of the Old Norse name are still in use for pines — in Danish fyr, in Norwegian fura/fure/furu, Swedish fura/furu, Dutch vuren, and German Föhre — but in modern English, fir is now restricted to fir (Abies) and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 22666, 50711, 8227, 21704, 26689, 19985174, 11884, 50691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 220, 229 ], [ 246, 260 ], [ 369, 375 ], [ 384, 393 ], [ 410, 417 ], [ 429, 434 ], [ 446, 452 ], [ 525, 536 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pinus is the largest genus of the Pinaceae, the pine family, which first appeared in the Jurassic period. Based on recent Transcriptome analysis, Pinus is most closely related to the genus Cathaya, which in turn is closely related to spruces. These genera, with firs and larches, form the pinoid clade of the Pinaceae. The Pinus and Cathaya lineages are thought to have diverged during the early Jurassic, very shortly after the lineage containing both diverged from the Picea lineage. The oldest verified fossil of the genus is Pinus yorkshirensis from the Hauterivian-Barremian boundary (131–129 million years ago) from the Speeton Clay, England.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 312940, 15655, 1075071, 532067, 170718, 170722, 99384, 6682, 1478282, 170718, 56651189, 3025906, 633144, 25157347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 42 ], [ 89, 97 ], [ 122, 135 ], [ 189, 196 ], [ 234, 240 ], [ 262, 265 ], [ 271, 276 ], [ 296, 301 ], [ 390, 404 ], [ 471, 476 ], [ 529, 548 ], [ 558, 569 ], [ 570, 579 ], [ 626, 638 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The evolutionary history of the genus Pinus has been complicated by hybridization. Pines are prone to inter-specific breeding. Wind pollination, long life spans, overlapping generations, large population size, and weak reproductive isolation make breeding across species more likely. As the pines have diversified, gene transfer between different species has created a complex history of genetic relatedness.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 41244, 5146476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 81 ], [ 219, 241 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following cladogram shows the phylogenetic relationships between the pine species as described in 2021.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pines are native to the Northern Hemisphere, and to a few parts from the tropics to temperate regions in the Southern Hemisphere. Most regions of the Northern Hemisphere host some native species of pines. One species (Sumatran pine) crosses the equator in Sumatra to 2°S. In North America, various species occur in regions at latitudes from as far north as 66°N to as far south as 12°N.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Distribution and habitat", "target_page_ids": [ 22126, 50051, 261273, 9019997, 1045662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 43 ], [ 84, 93 ], [ 109, 128 ], [ 180, 194 ], [ 218, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pines may be found in a very large variety of environments, ranging from semi-arid desert to rainforests, from sea level up to , from the coldest to the hottest environments on Earth. They often occur in mountainous areas with favorable soils and at least some water.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Distribution and habitat", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Various species have been introduced to temperate and subtropical regions of both hemispheres, where they are grown as timber or cultivated as ornamental plants in parks and gardens. A number of such introduced species have become naturalized, and some species are considered invasive in some areas and threaten native ecosystems.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Distribution and habitat", "target_page_ids": [ 402679, 59399, 67554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 65 ], [ 119, 125 ], [ 276, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pines grow well in acid soils, some also on calcareous soils; most require good soil drainage, preferring sandy soils, but a few (e.g. lodgepole pine) can tolerate poorly drained wet soils. A few are able to sprout after forest fires (e.g. Canary Island pine). Some species of pines (e.g. bishop pine) need fire to regenerate, and their populations slowly decline under fire suppression regimens.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 2889134, 507717, 474806, 531958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 54 ], [ 135, 149 ], [ 240, 258 ], [ 289, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pine trees are beneficial to the environment since they can remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Although several studies have indicated that after the establishment of pine plantations in grasslands, there is an alteration of carbon pools including a decrease of the soil organic carbon pool.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Several species are adapted to extreme conditions imposed by elevation and latitude (e.g. Siberian dwarf pine, mountain pine, whitebark pine, and the bristlecone pines). The pinyon pines and a number of others, notably Turkish pine and gray pine, are particularly well adapted to growth in hot, dry semidesert climates.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 438946, 215931, 602991, 427209, 18955999 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 124 ], [ 150, 166 ], [ 219, 231 ], [ 236, 245 ], [ 299, 309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pine pollen may play an important role in the functioning of detrital food webs. Nutrients from pollen aid detritivores in development, growth, and maturation, and may enable fungi to decompose nutritionally scarce litter. Pine pollen is also involved in moving plant matter between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 46980, 723067, 145772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 11 ], [ 61, 69 ], [ 70, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pine needles serve as food for various Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species. Several species of pine are attacked by nematodes, causing pine wilt disease, which can kill some quickly. Some of these Lepidoptera species, many of them moths, specialize in feeding on only one or sometimes several species of pine. Beside that many species of birds and mammals shelter in pine habitat or feed on pine nuts.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 53307, 48338, 66633, 19827803, 24998054, 320509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 50 ], [ 52, 61 ], [ 66, 70 ], [ 121, 130 ], [ 145, 157 ], [ 396, 404 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The seeds are commonly eaten by birds, such as grouse, crossbills, jays, nuthatches, siskins, and woodpeckers, and by squirrels. Some birds, notably the spotted nutcracker, Clark's nutcracker, and pinyon jay, are of importance in distributing pine seeds to new areas. Pine needles are sometimes eaten by the Symphytan species pine sawfly, and goats.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 28492, 471887, 221205, 33657212, 431226, 5498014, 19167553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 126 ], [ 153, 171 ], [ 173, 191 ], [ 197, 207 ], [ 308, 316 ], [ 326, 337 ], [ 343, 347 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pines are among the most commercially important tree species valued for their timber and wood pulp throughout the world. In temperate and tropical regions, they are fast-growing softwoods that grow in relatively dense stands, their acidic decaying needles inhibiting the sprouting of competing hardwoods. Commercial pines are grown in plantations for timber that is denser and therefore more durable than spruce (Picea). Pine wood is widely used in high-value carpentry items such as furniture, window frames, panelling, floors, and roofing, and the resin of some species is an important source of turpentine.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 215844, 297999, 142473, 151183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 98 ], [ 178, 186 ], [ 336, 346 ], [ 600, 610 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because pine wood has no insect- or decay-resistant qualities after logging, in its untreated state it is generally recommended for indoor construction purposes only (indoor drywall framing, for example). For outside use, pine needs to be treated with copper azole, chromated copper arsenate or other suitable chemical preservative.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 331784, 3724279, 481484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 174, 181 ], [ 266, 291 ], [ 310, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many pine species make attractive ornamental plantings for parks and larger gardens with a variety of dwarf cultivars being suitable for smaller spaces. Pines are also commercially grown and harvested for Christmas trees. Pine cones, the largest and most durable of all conifer cones, are craft favorites. Pine boughs, appreciated especially in wintertime for their pleasant smell and greenery, are popularly cut for decorations. Pine needles are also used for making decorative articles such as baskets, trays, pots, etc., and during the U.S. Civil War, the needles of the longleaf pine \"Georgia pine\" were widely employed in this. This originally Native American skill is now being replicated across the world. Pine needle handicrafts are made in the US, Canada, Mexico, Nicaragua, and India. Pine needles are also versatile and have been used by Latvian designer Tamara Orjola to create different biodegradable products including paper, furniture, textiles and dye.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 166459, 42139, 167906, 7770, 863, 461407, 47490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 63 ], [ 76, 82 ], [ 108, 116 ], [ 205, 219 ], [ 541, 555 ], [ 576, 589 ], [ 902, 915 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When grown for sawing timber, pine plantations can be harvested after 25 years, with some stands being allowed to grow up to 50 (as the wood value increases more quickly as the trees age). Imperfect trees (such as those with bent trunks or forks, smaller trees, or diseased trees) are removed in a \"thinning\" operation every 5–10 years. Thinning allows the best trees to grow much faster, because it prevents weaker trees from competing for sunlight, water, and nutrients. Young trees removed during thinning are used for pulpwood or are left in the forest, while most older ones are good enough for saw timber.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A 30-year-old commercial pine tree grown in good conditions in Arkansas will be about in diameter and about high. After 50 years, the same tree will be about in diameter and high, and its wood will be worth about seven times as much as the 30-year-old tree.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This however depends on the region, species and silvicultural techniques. In New Zealand, a plantation's maximum value is reached after around 28 years with height being as high as and diameter , with maximum wood production after around 35 years (again depending on factors such as site, stocking and genetics). Trees are normally planted 3–4 m apart, or about 1,000 per hectare (100,000 per square kilometre).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The seeds (pine nuts) are generally edible; the young male cones can be cooked and eaten, as can the bark of young twigs. Some species have large pine nuts, which are harvested and sold for cooking and baking. They are an essential ingredient of pesto alla genovese.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 287466 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 246, 251 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The soft, moist, white inner bark (cambium) beneath the woody outer bark is edible and very high in vitamins A and C. It can be eaten raw in slices as a snack or dried and ground up into a powder for use as an ersatz flour or thickener in stews, soups, and other foods, such as bark bread. Adirondack Indians got their name from the Mohawk Indian word atirú:taks, meaning \"tree eaters\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 227675, 54114, 32509, 341107, 38675838, 307384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 42 ], [ 109, 110 ], [ 115, 116 ], [ 210, 216 ], [ 278, 288 ], [ 333, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A tea is made by steeping young, green pine needles in boiling water (known as tallstrunt in Sweden). In eastern Asia, pine and other conifers are accepted among consumers as a beverage product, and used in teas, as well as wine. In Greece, the wine retsina is flavoured with Aleppo pine resin.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 29969, 237489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 5 ], [ 250, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pine needles from Pinus densiflora were found to contain 30.54milligram/gram of proanthocyanidins when extracted with hot water. Comparative to ethanol extraction resulting in 30.11mg/g, simply extracting in hot water is preferable.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 514608, 4644002 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 34 ], [ 80, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In traditional Chinese medicine, pine resin is used for burns, wounds and dermal complaints.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 5992, 58890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 31 ], [ 33, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pines have been a frequently mentioned tree throughout history, including in literature, paintings and other art, and in religious texts.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Writers of various nationalities and ethnicities have written of pines. Among them, John Muir, Dora Sigerson Shorter, Eugene Field, Bai Juyi, Theodore Winthrop, and Rev. George Allan D.D.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 215148, 1039183, 375174, 420483, 1320830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 93 ], [ 95, 116 ], [ 118, 130 ], [ 132, 140 ], [ 142, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pines are often featured in art, whether painting and fine art, drawing, photography, or folk art.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 90317, 1173823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 62 ], [ 89, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pine trees, as well as other conifers, are mentioned in some verses of the Bible, depending on the translation. In the Book of Nehemiah 8:15, the King James Version gives the following translation:\"And that they should publish and proclaim in all their cities, and in Jerusalem, saying, Go forth unto the mount, and fetch olive branches, and pine branches [emphasis added], and myrtle branches, and palm branches, and branches of thick trees, to make booths, as it is written.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 3390, 4362, 16767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 80 ], [ 119, 135 ], [ 146, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, the term here in Hebrew (עץ שמן) means \"oil tree\" and it is not clear what kind of tree is meant. Pines are also mentioned in some translations of Isaiah 60:13, such as the King James:\"The glory of Lebanon shall come unto thee, the fir tree, the pine tree, and the box together, to beautify the place of my sanctuary; and I will make the place of my feet glorious.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Again, it is not clear what tree is meant (תדהר in Hebrew), and other translations use \"pine\" for the word translated as \"box\" by the King James (תאשור in Hebrew).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some botanical authorities believe that the Hebrew word \"ברוש\" (bərōsh), which is used many times in the Bible, designates P. halepensis, or in Hosea 14:8 which refers to fruit, Pinus pinea, the stone pine.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1045201, 4449, 547980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 136 ], [ 144, 149 ], [ 178, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The word used in modern Hebrew for pine is \"אֹ֖רֶן\" (oren), which occurs only in Isaiah 44:14, but two manuscripts have \"ארז\" (cedar), a much more common word.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 58883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The pine is a motif in Chinese art and literature, which sometimes combines painting and poetry in the same work. Some of the main symbolic attributes of pines in Chinese art and literature are longevity and steadfastness: the pine retains its green needles through all the seasons. Sometimes the pine and cypress are paired. At other times the pine, plum, and bamboo are considered as the \"Three Friends of Winter\". Many Chinese art works and/or literature (some involving pines) have been done using paper, brush, and Chinese ink: interestingly enough, one of the main ingredients for Chinese ink has been pine soot.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 32698969, 17020384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 391, 414 ], [ 520, 531 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " El Pino (The Pine Tree)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28291763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pine barrens", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2395338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pine-cypress forest", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20465089 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pine Tree Flag", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16986044 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tree of Peace", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7264868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "40 Species of Pine Trees You Can Grow by The Spruce", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ", covers Californian species", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pinus in Flora of North America", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pinus in the USDA Plants Database", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Pinaceae", "Pinus" ]

[ "the pine genus", "pines", "Pinus" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Center or centre may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Center (geometry), the middle of an object", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 4850775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Center (algebra), used in various contexts", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 342453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Center (group theory)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 7125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Center (ring theory)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 53796787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Graph center, the set of all vertices of minimum eccentricity", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 10447275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Centre, Alabama", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 104551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Center, Colorado", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 108632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Center, Georgia", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 51115372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Center, Indiana", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 2220514 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Center, Jay County, Indiana", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 15180744 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Center, Warrick County, Indiana", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 50970431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Center, Kentucky", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 14520968 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Center, Missouri", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 123071 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Center, Nebraska", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 124031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Center, North Dakota", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 128658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Centre County, Pennsylvania", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 91971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Center, Portland, Oregon", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 6270798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Center, Texas", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 136589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Center, Washington", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 3236626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Center, Outagamie County, Wisconsin", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 139499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Center, Rock County, Wisconsin", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 139643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Center (community), Wisconsin", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 44535339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Center Township (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 1332275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Centre Township (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 29724733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Centre Avenue (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 52428697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Center Hill (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 3946029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Centre region, Hainaut, Belgium", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 32307274 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Centre Region, Burkina Faso", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 2904025 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Centre Region (Cameroon)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 901922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Centre-Val de Loire, formerly Centre, France", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 198818 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Centre (department), Haiti", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 492803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Centre Department (Ivory Coast)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 49455388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Centre (Chamber of Deputies of Luxembourg constituency)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 4796294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Centru (development region) (Centre), Romania", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 2473766 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Center, Celje, Slovenia", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 16455150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Center District, Ljubljana, Slovenia", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 14497907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Center District, Maribor, Slovenia", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 16752226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Centre, Badalona, Catalonia, Spain", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 29786841 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Center (gridiron football), a position in American and Canadian football", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 2321562 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Centre (Australian rules football), a position on the Centre line", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 3252171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Center (basketball), a position ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 652569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Centre (ice hockey), a position", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 567643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Center (rugby league), a position", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 1195281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Center (rugby union), a position", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 771803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Center fielder, often called \"center\", a position in baseball", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 583923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Centrism, the political middle ground between the left wing and the right wing", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 39619035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Center (political party), a political party in Switzerland", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 66250062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Center (band), a Russian-speaking band", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 2800058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Center (HTML element), coded with ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 274393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Centre Academy East Anglia, an independent special school in Brettenham, Suffolk, England", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 12962210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Centre College, a liberal arts college in Danville, Kentucky, United States", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 1067911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Centre Radio, a former British radio station", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 27393034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Centers (Fourth Way), in G.I. Gurdjieff's Fourth Way teaching", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 6512717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Area control center, or center, in air traffic control", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 3438844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Central (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 186476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Center High School (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10612713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Centre Party (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 331408 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Centre (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8604547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " City centre", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 446147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Downtown", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 251024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Central business district", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 160463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Epicureanism is a system of philosophy founded around 307 BC based upon the teachings of the ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus. Epicureanism was originally a challenge to Platonism. Later its main opponent became Stoicism.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 13692155, 10649725, 10073, 2221011, 19224834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 38 ], [ 93, 118 ], [ 119, 127 ], [ 172, 181 ], [ 214, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Few writings by Epicurus have survived. However, there are independent attestations of his ideas from his later disciples. Some scholars consider the epic poem De rerum natura (Latin for On the Nature of Things) by Lucretius to present in one unified work the core arguments and theories of Epicureanism. Many of the scrolls unearthed at the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum are Epicurean texts. At least some are thought to have belonged to the Epicurean philosopher Philodemus. Epicurus also had a wealthy 2nd c. AD disciple, Diogenes of Oenoanda, who had a portico wall inscribed with tenets of the philosophy erected in Oenoanda, Lycia (present day Turkey).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 272167, 37145, 879245, 21476679, 2625475, 10077153, 16027331, 48451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 175 ], [ 215, 224 ], [ 342, 361 ], [ 365, 376 ], [ 470, 480 ], [ 530, 550 ], [ 626, 634 ], [ 636, 641 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Epicurus was an atomic materialist, following in the steps of Democritus. His materialism led him to a general attack on superstition and divine intervention. Following the Cyrenaic philosopher Aristippus, Epicurus believed that the greatest good was to seek modest, sustainable pleasure in the form of a state of ataraxia (tranquility and freedom from fear) and aponia (the absence of bodily pain) through knowledge of the workings of the world and limiting desires. Correspondingly, Epicurus and his followers generally withdrew from politics because it could lead to frustrations and ambitions which can directly conflict with the Epicurean pursuit for peace of mind and virtues. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5756554, 19376, 8211, 3501153, 262635, 252342, 246544, 3051043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 22 ], [ 23, 34 ], [ 62, 72 ], [ 103, 157 ], [ 173, 193 ], [ 194, 204 ], [ 314, 322 ], [ 363, 369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Epicureanism is a form of hedonism insofar as it declares pleasure to be its sole intrinsic goal; the concept that the absence of pain and fear constitutes the greatest pleasure, and its advocacy of a simple life, make it very different from \"hedonism\" as colloquially understood.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 13470, 68765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 43 ], [ 265, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Epicureanism flourished in the Late Hellenistic era and during the Roman era, and many Epicurean communities were established, such as those in Antiochia, Alexandria, Rhodes, and Herculaneum. By the late 3rd century AD Epicureanism all but died out, being opposed by other philosophies (mainly Neoplatonism) that were now in the ascendant. Interest in Epicureanism was resurrected in the Age of Enlightenment and continues in the modern era.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 36900, 3080, 26773183, 21476679, 23385833, 30758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 151 ], [ 155, 165 ], [ 167, 173 ], [ 179, 190 ], [ 294, 306 ], [ 388, 408 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Mytilene, the capital of the island Lesbos, and then in Lampsacus, Epicurus taught and gained followers. In Athens, Epicurus bought a property for his school called \"Garden\", later the name of Epicurus' school. Its members included Hermarchus, Idomeneus, Colotes, Polyaenus, and Metrodorus. Epicurus emphasized friendship as an important ingredient of happiness, and the school seems to have been a moderately ascetic community which rejected the political limelight of Athenian philosophy. They were fairly cosmopolitan by Athenian standards, including women and slaves. Community activities held some importance, particularly the observance of Eikas, a monthly social gathering. Some members were also vegetarians as, from slender evidence, Epicurus did not eat meat, although no prohibition against eating meat was made.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 181549, 2633994, 1330932, 10073, 1216, 2458965, 2454508, 2451339, 1140188, 1140186, 599178, 65068397, 32591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 11 ], [ 39, 45 ], [ 59, 68 ], [ 70, 78 ], [ 111, 117 ], [ 235, 245 ], [ 247, 256 ], [ 258, 265 ], [ 267, 276 ], [ 282, 292 ], [ 511, 523 ], [ 649, 654 ], [ 707, 718 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The school's popularity grew and it became, along with Stoicism, Platonism, Peripateticism, and Pyrrhonism, one of the dominant schools of Hellenistic philosophy, lasting strongly through the later Roman Empire. Another major source of information is the Roman politician and philosopher Cicero, although he was highly critical, denouncing the Epicureans as unbridled hedonists, devoid of a sense of virtue and duty, and guilty of withdrawing from public life. Another ancient source is Diogenes of Oenoanda, who composed a large inscription at Oenoanda in Lycia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19224834, 2221011, 529396, 1345560, 10649725, 25507, 6046, 13470, 49901, 10077153, 16027331, 48451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 63 ], [ 65, 74 ], [ 76, 90 ], [ 96, 106 ], [ 139, 161 ], [ 198, 210 ], [ 288, 294 ], [ 368, 377 ], [ 400, 406 ], [ 487, 507 ], [ 545, 553 ], [ 557, 562 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Deciphered carbonized scrolls obtained from the library at the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum contain a large number of works by Philodemus, a late Hellenistic Epicurean, and Epicurus himself, attesting to the school's enduring popularity. Diogenes reports slanderous stories, circulated by Epicurus' opponents. With growing dominance of Neoplatonism and Peripateticism, and later, Christianity, Epicureanism declined. By the late third century AD, there was little trace of its existence. The early Christian writer Lactantius criticizes Epicurus at several points throughout his Divine Institutes. In Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy, the Epicureans are depicted as heretics suffering in the sixth circle of hell. In fact, Epicurus appears to represent the ultimate heresy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1120048, 879245, 21476679, 2625475, 80047, 23385833, 529396, 5211, 18385, 8169, 31140, 20611083, 22393126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 28 ], [ 63, 82 ], [ 86, 97 ], [ 133, 143 ], [ 244, 252 ], [ 342, 354 ], [ 359, 373 ], [ 386, 398 ], [ 521, 531 ], [ 607, 622 ], [ 625, 638 ], [ 671, 679 ], [ 697, 717 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 17th century, the French Franciscan priest, scientist and philosopher Pierre Gassendi wrote two books forcefully reviving Epicureanism. Shortly thereafter, and clearly influenced by Gassendi, Walter Charleton published several works on Epicureanism in English. Attacks by Christians continued, most forcefully by the Cambridge Platonists.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 197030, 996719, 991623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 92 ], [ 199, 215 ], [ 324, 344 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Epicureanism argued that pleasure was the chief good in life. Hence, Epicurus advocated living in such a way as to derive the greatest amount of pleasure possible during one's lifetime, yet doing so moderately in order to avoid the suffering incurred by overindulgence in such pleasure. Emphasis was placed on pleasures of the mind rather than on physical pleasures. Unnecessary and, especially, artificially produced desires were to be suppressed. Since the political life could give rise to desires that could disturb virtue and one's peace of mind, such as a lust for power or a desire for fame, participation in politics was discouraged. Further, Epicurus sought to eliminate the fear of the gods and of death, seeing those two fears as chief causes of strife in life. Epicurus actively recommended against passionate love, and believed it best to avoid marriage altogether. He viewed recreational sex as a natural, but not necessary, desire that should be generally avoided.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 169407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Epicurean understanding of justice was inherently self-interested. Justice was deemed good because it was seen as mutually beneficial. Individuals would not act unjustly even if the act was initially unnoticed because of possibly being caught and punished. Both punishment and fear of punishment would cause a person disturbance and prevent them from being happy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 16369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Epicurus laid great emphasis on developing friendships as the basis of a satisfying life.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "While the pursuit of pleasure formed the focal point of the philosophy, this was largely directed to the \"static pleasures\" of minimizing pain, anxiety and suffering. In fact, Epicurus referred to life as a \"bitter gift\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Epicureanism rejects immortality. It believes in the soul, but suggests that the soul is mortal and material, just like the body. Epicurus rejected any possibility of an afterlife, while still contending that one need not fear death: \"Death is nothing to us; for that which is dissolved, is without sensation, and that which lacks sensation is nothing to us.\" From this doctrine arose the Epicurean Epitaph: Non fui, fui, non sum, non curo (\"I was not; I have been; I am not; I do not mind.\"), which is inscribed on the gravestones of his followers and seen on many ancient gravestones of the Roman Empire. This quotation is often used today at humanist funerals.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 25507, 5135982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 593, 605 ], [ 645, 653 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Epicureanism bases its ethics on a hedonistic set of values. In the most basic sense, Epicureans see pleasure as the purpose of life. As evidence for this, Epicureans say that nature seems to command us to avoid pain, and they point out that all animals try to avoid pain as much as possible. Epicureans had a very specific understanding of what the greatest pleasure was, and the focus of their ethics was on the avoidance of pain rather than seeking out pleasure.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ethics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Epicureanism divided pleasure into two broad categories: pleasures of the body and pleasures of the mind.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ethics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pleasures of the body: These pleasures involve sensations of the body, such as the act of eating delicious food or of being in a state of comfort free from pain, and exist only in the present. One can only experience pleasures of the body in the moment, meaning they only exist as a person is experiencing them.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ethics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pleasures of the mind: These pleasures involve mental processes and states; feelings of joy, the lack of fear, and pleasant memories are all examples of pleasures of the mind. These pleasures of the mind do not only exist in the present, but also in the past and future, since memory of a past pleasant experience or the expectation of some potentially pleasing future can both be pleasurable experiences. Because of this, the pleasures of the mind are considered to be greater than those of the body.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ethics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Epicureans further divided each of these types of pleasures into two categories: kinetic pleasure and katastematic pleasure.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ethics", "target_page_ids": [ 40586961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kinetic pleasure: Kinetic pleasure describes the physical or mental pleasures that involve action or change. Eating delicious food, as well as fulfilling desires and removing pain, which is itself considered a pleasurable act, are all examples of kinetic pleasure in the physical sense. According to Epicurus, feelings of joy would be an example of mental kinetic pleasure.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ethics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Katastematic pleasure: Katastematic pleasure describes the pleasure one feels while in a state without pain. Like kinetic pleasures, katastematic pleasures can also be physical, such as the state of not being thirsty, or mental, such as freedom from a state of fear. Complete physical katastematic pleasure is called aponia, and complete mental katastematic pleasure is called ataraxia.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ethics", "target_page_ids": [ 3051043, 246544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 317, 323 ], [ 377, 385 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From this understanding, Epicureans concluded that the greatest pleasure a person could reach was the complete removal of all pain, both physical and mental. The ultimate goal then of Epicurean ethics was to reach a state of aponia and ataraxia. In order to do this an Epicurean had to control their desires, because desire itself was seen as painful. Not only will controlling one's desires bring about aponia, as one will rarely suffer from not being physically satisfied, but controlling one's desires will also help to bring about ataraxia because one will not be anxious about becoming discomforted since one would have so few desires anyway.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ethics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Epicureans divide desires into three classes: natural and necessary, natural but not necessary, and vain and empty.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ethics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Natural and necessary: These desires are limited desires that are innately present in all humans; it is part of human nature to have them. They are necessary for one of three reasons: necessary for happiness, necessary for freedom from bodily discomfort, and necessary for life. Clothing and shelter would belong to the first two categories, while something like food would belong to the third.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ethics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Natural but not necessary: These desires are innate to humans, but they do not need to be fulfilled for their happiness or their survival. Wanting to eat delicious food when one is hungry is an example of a natural but not necessary desire. The main problem with these desires is that they fail to substantially increase a person's happiness, and at the same time require effort to obtain and are desired by people due to false beliefs that they are actually necessary. It is for this reason that they should be avoided.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ethics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Vain and empty: These desires are neither innate to humans nor required for happiness or health; indeed, they are also limitless and can never be fulfilled. Desires of wealth or fame would fall in this class, and such desires are to be avoided because they will ultimately only bring about discomfort.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ethics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If one follows only natural and necessary desires, then, according to Epicurus, one would be able to reach aponia and ataraxia and thereby the highest form of happiness.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ethics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Epicurus was also an early thinker to develop the notion of justice as a social contract. He defined justice as an agreement made by people not to harm each other. The point of living in a society with laws and punishments is to be protected from harm so that one is free to pursue happiness. Because of this, laws that do not contribute to promoting human happiness are not just. He gave his own unique version of the ethic of reciprocity, which differs from other formulations by emphasizing minimizing harm and maximizing happiness for oneself and others:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ethics", "target_page_ids": [ 39704, 12859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 88 ], [ 419, 439 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "(\"Justly\" here means to prevent a \"person from harming or being harmed by another\".)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ethics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Epicureanism incorporated a relatively full account of the social contract theory, and in part attempts to address issues with the society described in Plato's Republic. The social contract theory established by Epicureanism is based on mutual agreement, not divine decree.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ethics", "target_page_ids": [ 22954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Epicurean ideas on politics disagree with other philosophical traditions, namely the Stoic, Platonist and Aristotelian traditions. To Epicureans all our social relations are a matter of how we perceive each other, of customs and traditions. No one is inherently of higher value or meant to dominate another. That is because there is no metaphysical basis for the superiority of one kind of person, all people are made of the same atomic material and are thus naturally equal. Epicureans also discourage political participation and other involvement in politics. However Epicureans are not apolitical, it is possible that some political association could be seen as beneficial by some Epicureans. Some political associations could lead to certain benefits to the individual that would help to maximize pleasure and avoid physical or mental distress.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The avoidance or freedom from hardship and fear is ideal to the Epicureans. While this avoidance or freedom could conceivably be achieved through political means it was insisted by Epicurus that involvement in politics would not release one from fear and he advised against a life of politics. Epicurus also discouraged contributing to political society by starting a family, as the benefits of a wife and children are outweighed by the trouble brought about by having a family. Instead Epicurus encouraged a formation of a community of friends outside the traditional political state. This community of virtuous friends would focus on internal affairs and justice.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "However, Epicureanism is adaptable to circumstance as is the Epicurean approach to politics. The same approaches will not always work in protection from pain and fear. In some situations it will be more beneficial to have a family and in other situations it will be more beneficial to participate in politics. It is ultimately up to the Epicurean to analyse their circumstance and take whatever action befits the situation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Epicureanism does not deny the existence of the gods; rather it denies their involvement in the world. According to Epicureanism, the gods do not interfere with human lives or the rest of the universe in any way – thus, it shuns the idea that frightening weather events are divine retribution. One of the fears the Epicurean ought to be freed from is fear relating to the actions of the gods. The manner in which the Epicurean gods exist is still disputed. Some scholars say that Epicureanism believes that the gods exist outside the mind as material objects (the realist position), while others assert that the gods only exist in our minds as ideals (the idealist position). The realist position holds that Epicureans understand the gods as existing as physical and immortal beings made of atoms that reside somewhere in reality. However, the gods are completely separate from the rest of reality; they are uninterested in it, play no role in it, and remain completely undisturbed by it. Instead, the gods live in what is called the metakosmia, or the space between worlds. Contrarily, the idealist (sometimes called the “non-realist position” to avoid confusion) position holds that the gods are just idealized forms of the best human life, and it is thought that the gods were emblematic of the life one should aspire towards. The debate between these two positions was revived by A. A. Long and David Sedley in their 1987 book, The Hellenistic Philosophers, in which the two argued in favour of the idealist position. While a scholarly consensus has yet to be reached, the realist position remains the prevailing viewpoint at this time.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 6570646 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1034, 1044 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Epicureanism also offered arguments against the existence of the gods in the manner proposed by other belief systems. The Riddle of Epicurus, or Problem of evil, is a famous argument against the existence of an all-powerful and providential God or gods. As recorded by Lactantius:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 30104, 18385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 160 ], [ 269, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This type of trilemma argument (God is omnipotent, God is good, but Evil exists) was one favoured by the ancient Greek skeptics, and this argument may have been wrongly attributed to Epicurus by Lactantius, who, from his Christian perspective, regarded Epicurus as an atheist. According to Reinhold F. Glei, it is settled that the argument of theodicy is from an academical source which is not only not Epicurean, but even anti-Epicurean. The earliest extant version of this trilemma appears in the writings of the Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 488382, 204510, 15247542, 37829380, 1345560, 177582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 21 ], [ 119, 127 ], [ 268, 275 ], [ 290, 306 ], [ 515, 525 ], [ 538, 554 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Parallels may be drawn to Jainism and Buddhism, which similarly emphasize a lack of divine interference and aspects of its atomism. Epicureanism also resembles Buddhism in its temperateness, including the belief that great excess leads to great dissatisfaction. Some modern Epicureans have argued that Epicureanism is a type of religious identity, arguing that it fulfils Ninian Smart's \"seven dimensions of religion\", and that the Epicurean practices of feasting on the twentieth and declaring an oath to follow Epicurus, insistence on doctrinal adherence, and the sacredness of Epicurean friendship, make Epicureanism more similar to some non-theistic religions than to other philosophies.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 16016, 3267529, 5756554, 2920127, 65068397 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 33 ], [ 38, 46 ], [ 123, 130 ], [ 372, 384 ], [ 455, 480 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Epicurean physics held that the entire universe consisted of two things: matter and void. Matter is made up of atoms, which are tiny bodies that have only the unchanging qualities of shape, size, and weight. Atoms were felt to be unchanging because the Epicureans believed that the world was ordered and that changes had to have specific and consistent sources, e.g. a plant species only grows from a seed of the same species.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Epicurean physics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Epicurus holds that there must be an infinite supply of atoms, although only a finite number of types of atoms, as well as an infinite amount of void. Epicurus explains this position in his letter to Herodotus:Moreover, the sum of things is unlimited both by reason of the multitude of the atoms and the extent of the void. For if the void were infinite and bodies finite, the bodies would not have stayed anywhere but would have been dispersed in their course through the infinite void, not having any supports or counterchecks to send them back on their upward rebound. Again, if the void were finite, the infinity of bodies would not have anywhere to be.Because of the infinite supply of atoms, there are an infinite amount of worlds, or cosmoi. Some of these worlds could be vastly different than our own, some quite similar, and all of the worlds were separated from each other by vast areas of void (metakosmia).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Epicurean physics", "target_page_ids": [ 6570646 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 906, 916 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Epicureanism states that atoms are unable to be broken down into any smaller parts, and Epicureans offered multiple arguments to support this position. Epicureans argue that because void is necessary for matter to move, anything which consists of both void and matter can be broken down, while if something contains no void then it has no way to break apart because no part of the substance could be broken down into a smaller subsection of the substance. They also argued that in order for the universe to persist, what it is ultimately made up of must not be able to be changed or else the universe would be essentially destroyed.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Epicurean physics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Atoms are constantly moving in one of four different ways. Atoms can simply collide with each other and then bounce off of each other. When joined with each other and forming a larger object, atoms can vibrate as they collide into each other while still maintaining the overall shape of the larger object. When not prevented by other atoms, all atoms move at the same speed naturally downwards in relation to the rest of the world. This downwards motion is natural for atoms; however, as their fourth means of motion, atoms can at times randomly swerve out of their usual downwards path. This swerving motion is what allowed for the creation of the universe, since as more and more atoms swerved and collided with each other, objects were able to take shape as the atoms joined together. Without the swerve, the atoms would never have interacted with each other, and simply continued to move downwards at the same speed.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Epicurean physics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Epicurus also felt that the swerve was what accounted for humanity's free will. If it were not for the swerve, humans would be subject to a never-ending chain of cause and effect. This was a point which Epicureans often used to criticize Democritus' atomic theory.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Epicurean physics", "target_page_ids": [ 8211, 5756554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 238, 248 ], [ 250, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Epicureans believed that senses also relied on atoms. Every object was continually emitting particles from itself that would then interact with the observer. All sensations, such as sight, smell, or sound, relied on these particles. While the atoms that were emitted did not have the qualities that the senses were perceiving, the manner in which they were emitted caused the observer to experience those sensations, e.g. red particles were not themselves red but were emitted in a manner that caused the viewer to experience the color red. The atoms are not perceived individually, but rather as a continuous sensation because of how quickly they move.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Epicurean physics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Epicurean philosophy employs an empirical epistemology. The Epicureans believed that all sense perceptions were true, and that errors arise in how we judge those perceptions. When we form judgments about things (hupolepsis), they can be verified and corrected through further sensory information. For example, if someone sees a tower from far away that appears to be round, and upon approaching the tower they see that it is actually square, they would come to realize that their original judgement was wrong and correct their wrong opinion.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Epistemology", "target_page_ids": [ 10174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Epicurus is said to have proposed three criteria of truth: sensations (aisthêsis), preconceptions (prolepsis), and feelings (pathê). A fourth criterion called \"presentational applications of the mind\" (phantastikai epibolai tês dianoias) was said to have been added by later Epicureans. These criteria formed the method through which Epicureans thought we gained knowledge.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Epistemology", "target_page_ids": [ 23233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since Epicureans thought that sensations could not deceive, sensations are the first and main criterion of truth for Epicureans. Even in cases where sensory input seems to mislead, the input itself is true and the error arises from our judgments about the input. For example, when one places a straight oar in the water, it appears bent. The Epicurean would argue that image of the oar, that is the atoms travelling from the oar to the observer's eyes, have been shifted and thus really do arrive at the observer's eyes in the shape of a bent oar. The observer makes the error in assuming that the image he or she receives correctly represents the oar and has not been distorted in some way. In order to not make erroneous judgments about perceivable things and instead verify one's judgment, Epicureans believed that one needed to obtain \"clear vision\" (enargeia) of the perceivable thing by closer examination. This acted as a justification for one's judgements about the thing being perceived. Enargeia is characterized as sensation of an object that has been unchanged by judgments or opinions and is a clear and direct perception of that object.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Epistemology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An individual's preconceptions are his or her concepts of what things are, e.g. what someone's idea of a horse is, and these concepts are formed in a person's mind through sensory input over time. When the word that relates to the preconception is used, these preconceptions are summoned up by the mind into the person's thoughts. It is through our preconceptions that we are able to make judgments about the things that we perceive. Preconceptions were also used by Epicureans to avoid the paradox proposed by Plato in the Meno regarding learning. Plato argues that learning requires us to already have knowledge of what we are learning, or else we would be unable to recognize when we had successfully learned the information. Preconceptions, Epicureans argue, provide individuals with that pre-knowledge required for learning.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Epistemology", "target_page_ids": [ 594486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 524, 528 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Our feelings or emotions (pathê) are how we perceive pleasure and pain. They are analogous to sensations in that they are a means of perception, but they perceive our internal state as opposed to external things. According to Diogenes Laertius, feelings are how we determine our actions. If something is pleasurable, we pursue that thing, and if something is painful, we avoid that thing.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Epistemology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The idea of \"presentational applications of the mind\" is an explanation for how we can discuss and inquire about things we cannot directly perceive. We receive impressions of such things directly in our minds, instead of perceiving them through other senses. The concept of \"presentational applications of the mind\" may have been introduced to explain how we learn about things that we cannot directly perceive, such as the gods.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Epistemology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tetrapharmakos, or \"The four-part cure\", is Philodemus of Gadara's basic guideline as to how to live the happiest possible life, based on the first four of Epicurus' Principal Doctrines. This poetic doctrine was handed down by an anonymous Epicurean who summed up Epicurus' philosophy on happiness in four simple lines:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Tetrapharmakos", "target_page_ids": [ 2625475, 10073, 65614927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 64 ], [ 156, 164 ], [ 166, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the earliest Roman writers espousing Epicureanism was Amafinius. Other adherents to the teachings of Epicurus included the poet Horace, whose famous statement Carpe Diem (\"Seize the Day\") illustrates the philosophy, as well as Lucretius, who wrote the poem De rerum natura about the tenets of the philosophy. The poet Virgil was another prominent Epicurean (see Lucretius for further details). The Epicurean philosopher Philodemus of Gadara, until the 18th century only known as a poet of minor importance, rose to prominence as most of his work along with other Epicurean material was discovered in the Villa of the Papyri. In the second century AD, comedian Lucian of Samosata and wealthy promoter of philosophy Diogenes of Oenoanda were prominent Epicureans.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable Epicureans", "target_page_ids": [ 521555, 4315476, 13693, 37145, 32359, 37145, 2625475, 879245, 165457, 10077153 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 25 ], [ 61, 70 ], [ 135, 141 ], [ 234, 243 ], [ 325, 331 ], [ 369, 378 ], [ 427, 447 ], [ 611, 630 ], [ 667, 685 ], [ 721, 741 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Julius Caesar leaned considerably toward Epicureanism, which led to his plea against the death sentence during the trial against Catiline, during the Catiline conspiracy where he spoke out against the Stoic Cato. His father-in-law, Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, was also an adept of the school.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable Epicureans", "target_page_ids": [ 15924, 46607, 38759642, 19224834, 312698, 237750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 129, 137 ], [ 150, 169 ], [ 201, 206 ], [ 207, 211 ], [ 232, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In modern times Thomas Jefferson referred to himself as an Epicurean:If I had time I would add to my little book the Greek, Latin and French texts, in columns side by side. And I wish I could subjoin a translation of Gassendi's Syntagma of the doctrines of Epicurus, which, notwithstanding the calumnies of the Stoics and caricatures of Cicero, is the most rational system remaining of the philosophy of the ancients, as frugal of vicious indulgence, and fruitful of virtue as the hyperbolical extravagances of his rival sects.Other modern-day Epicureans were Gassendi, Walter Charleton, François Bernier, Saint-Évremond, Ninon de l'Enclos, Denis Diderot, Frances Wright and Jeremy Bentham.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable Epicureans", "target_page_ids": [ 29922, 197030, 996719, 2436661, 292715, 21886, 8199, 98954, 46038 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 32 ], [ 560, 568 ], [ 570, 586 ], [ 588, 604 ], [ 606, 620 ], [ 622, 639 ], [ 641, 654 ], [ 656, 670 ], [ 675, 689 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In France, where perfumer/restaurateur Gérald Ghislain refers to himself as an Epicurean, Michel Onfray is developing a post-modern approach to Epicureanism. In his recent book titled The Swerve, Stephen Greenblatt identified himself as strongly sympathetic to Epicureanism and Lucretius. Humanistic Judaism as a denomination also claims the Epicurean label.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable Epicureans", "target_page_ids": [ 1917730, 23603, 35962042, 226510, 462984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 103 ], [ 120, 131 ], [ 184, 194 ], [ 196, 214 ], [ 289, 307 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In modern popular usage, an Epicurean is a connoisseur of the arts of life and the refinements of sensual pleasures; Epicureanism implies a love or knowledgeable enjoyment especially of good food and drink.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Modern usage and misconceptions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Because Epicureanism posits that pleasure is the ultimate good (telos), it has been commonly misunderstood since ancient times as a doctrine that advocates the partaking in fleeting pleasures such as sexual excess and decadent food. This is not the case. Epicurus regarded ataraxia (tranquility, freedom from fear) and aponia (absence of pain) as the height of happiness. He also considered prudence an important virtue and perceived excess and overindulgence to be contrary to the attainment of ataraxia and aponia.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Modern usage and misconceptions", "target_page_ids": [ 246544, 3051043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 273, 281 ], [ 319, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Epicurus preferred \"the good\", and \"even wisdom and culture\", to the \"pleasure of the stomach\". While twentieth-century commentary has generally sought to diminish this and related quotations, the consistency of the lower-case epicureanism of meals with Epicurean materialism overall has more recently been explained.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Modern usage and misconceptions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "While Epicurus sought moderation at meals, he was also not averse to moderation in moderation, that is, to occasional luxury. Called \"The Garden\" for being based in what would have been a kitchen garden, his community also became known for its feasts of the twentieth (of the Greek month).", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Modern usage and misconceptions", "target_page_ids": [ 65068397 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 244, 288 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Francis Bacon wrote an apothegm related to Epicureanism:", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 11319, 145008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 23, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There was an Epicurean vaunted, that divers of other sects of philosophers did after turn Epicureans, but there was never any Epicurean that turned to any other sect. Whereupon a philosopher that was of another sect, said; The reason was plain, for that cocks may be made capons, but capons could never be made cocks. ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 627099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 272, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This echoed what the Academic skeptic philosopher Arcesilaus had said when asked \"why it was that pupils from all the other schools went over to Epicurus, but converts were never made from the Epicureans?\" to which he responded: \"Because men may become eunuchs, but a eunuch never becomes a man.\"", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 25390717, 171276, 68555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 37 ], [ 50, 60 ], [ 253, 259 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Charvaka, a hedonic Indian school", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 72080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cyrenaics, a sensual hedonist Greek school of philosophy founded in the 4th century BC", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 262635 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Epicurea", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28095078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Epikoros", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28140089 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hedonic treadmill", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2828828 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of English translations of De rerum natura", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 42442545 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Philosophy of happiness", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31564169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roman decadence", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3557918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Separation of church and state", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 168714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Zeno of Sidon", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1819956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dane R. Gordon and David B. Suits, Epicurus. His Continuing Influence and Contemporary Relevance, Rochester, N.Y.: RIT Cary Graphic Arts Press, 2003.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Holmes, Brooke & Shearin, W. H. Dynamic Reading: Studies in the Reception of Epicureanism, New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jones, Howard. The Epicurean Tradition, New York: Routledge, 1989.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Neven Leddy and Avi S. Lifschitz, Epicurus in the Enlightenment, Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 2009.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Long, A.A. & Sedley, D.N. The Hellenistic Philosophers Volume 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. ()", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 17795480, 17620437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 14, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Martin Ferguson Smith (ed.), Diogenes of Oinoanda. The Epicurean inscription, edited with introduction, translation, and notes, Naples: Bibliopolis, 1993.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Martin Ferguson Smith, Supplement to Diogenes of Oinoanda. The Epicurean Inscription, Naples: Bibliopolis, 2003.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Warren, James (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Epicureanism, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Wilson, Catherine. Epicureanism at the Origins of Modernity, New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Zeller, Eduard; Reichel, Oswald J., The Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics, Longmans, Green, and Co., 1892", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 171884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vassallo, Christian, The Presocratics at Herculaneum: A Study of Early Greek Philosophy in the Epicurean Tradition, Berlin-Boston: De Gruyter, 2021.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Society of Friends of Epicurus", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Epicureans on PhilPapers", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Epicurus.info – Epicurean Philosophy Online", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Epicurus.net – Epicurus and Epicurean Philosophy", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Karl Marx's Notebooks on Epicurean Philosophy", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Marx's Doctoral Dissertation On the Difference between the Democritean and Epicurean Philosophy of Nature", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Epicureanism", "Philosophical_schools_and_traditions", "Philosophy_of_life", " Naturalism_(philosophy)", " Ancient_Greek_philosophy" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Robert I Estienne (; 15037 September 1559), known as Robertus Stephanus in Latin and sometimes referred to as Robert Stephens, was a 16th-century printer and classical scholar in Paris. He was the proprietor of the Estienne print shop after the death of his father Henri Estienne, the founder of the Estienne printing firm. Estienne published and republished many classical texts as well as Greek and Latin translations of the Bible. Known as \"Printer to the King\" in Latin, Hebrew, and Greek, Estienne's most prominent work was the Thesaurus linguae latinae which is considered to be the foundation of modern Latin lexicography. Additionally, he was the first to print the New Testament divided into standard numbered verses.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 17730, 22989, 12238143, 21433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 80 ], [ 179, 184 ], [ 265, 279 ], [ 674, 687 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was a former Catholic who became a Protestant late in his life. Many of his published Bibles included commentary which upset the Catholic theologians of the Sorbonne who sought to censor Estienne's work. Eventually, overcome by the prejudice of the Sorbonne, Estienne and his family fled to Geneva where he continued his printing uncensored, publishing many of the works of John Calvin. In 1556 he became a citizen of Geneva, where he would die on 7 September, 1559.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 606848, 25814008, 3320653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 24 ], [ 38, 48 ], [ 156, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Of Estienne's four sons, two became accomplished printers, one of whom was Henri Estienne who continued the legacy of his grandfather Estienne's printing firm. Robert Estienne was one of the most successful printers in the Estienne family and one of the greatest scholars of the time. Along with other printers, Estienne contributed to the \"Golden Age of French Typography\".", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 39399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Robert Estienne was born in Paris in 1503. The second son of the famous humanist printer Henri Estienne, he became knowledgeable in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. After his father's death in 1520, the Estienne printing establishment was maintained by his father's former partner Simon de Colines who also married Estienne's mother, the widow Estienne. As Estienne was not yet of age at the time of his father's death, Colines and Gilles Nepveu (the husband or fiancé of his sister Nicole) became his legal guardians. Estienne and Colines likely collaborated in Estienne print shop for a time. Colines was known for his exquisite type cutting, whereas Estienne was known for his accuracy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 12238143, 23830309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 103 ], [ 274, 290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1526, Robert Estienne assumed control of his father's printing shop while Colines established his own firm nearby. The parties agreed to divide the house, printing equipment, and printing supplies in half. Colines moved his shop down the street from the Estienne shop. Though the nature of their relationship after this is largely unknown, scholars suggest that they had mutual respect for one another and may have continued to collaborate, sharing fonts and materials. Even though Estienne re-established his father's printing shop in 1526, his first independent project as a scholar-printer can be traced back to 1524. He was in the process of publishing a Latin version of the Bible as he searched Paris for manuscripts. He had already printed a New Testament, and some slight alterations which he had introduced into the text brought upon him the censures of the faculty of theology. It was the first of a long series of disputes between him and that body. Around this time, he apparently joined the Reformed Church.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 21433, 6024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 753, 766 ], [ 1008, 1023 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Estienne married Perrette Badius in 1526 whose father Josse Badius Ascensius owned a print shop, giving Estienne the resources to print that he lacked from his father's materials alone. After her father's death in 1535, Estienne merged the Estienne and Badius printing business. His first Biblia or version of the Vulgate Bible was published in 1527. While he was working on the Bible, he increased his revenue and reputation by publishing a series of octavos, which in this case were small, inexpensive educational books from scholars such as Cicero and Lucian. Estienne's trade was primarily as printer-bookseller and though he did publish his own prints, he did not publish in partnership with other printers as was a common practice for printers of the time. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 599190 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 452, 458 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With his title of \"royal typographer\" Robert Estienne promoted the Estienne print shop by his numerous editions of grammatical works and other schoolbooks (among them many of Melanchthon's) and of classical and Patristic authors, such as Dio Cassius, Cicero, Sallust, Julius Caesar, Justin, Socrates Scholasticus, and Sozomen. During the first fifteen years of his career, Estienne focused his printing on five Latin classic authors, specifically, Cicero, Terence, Plautus, Pliny, and Virgil. He printed works from Horace and Persisus, but he printed them far less frequently. He nearly tripled the number of authors' works he published from 1541 to 1545. Scholars suggest that Estienne's trouble with his published Bibles and the Catholic Church led him to publish more authors of Latin Classics as a buffer.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 39209, 159964, 6046, 161420, 15924, 85775, 44387, 717673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 175, 186 ], [ 238, 249 ], [ 251, 257 ], [ 259, 266 ], [ 268, 281 ], [ 283, 289 ], [ 291, 312 ], [ 318, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many of Estienne's published classics, especially the Greek editions (which were printed with typefaces made by Claude Garamond), were famous for their typographical elegance. The editiones principes issued from Estienne's press were eight in number. He began with the Historia ecclesiastica (1544) and ended with Appian (1551). The last was completed after Estienne's departure from Paris by his brother Charles and appeared under Charles's name. Estienne also printed numerous editions of Latin classics, of which the folio Virgil of 1532 is the most noteworthy. He printed a large number of Latin grammars and other educational works, many of which were written by Mathurin Cordier, his friend and co-worker in the cause of humanism. He was trained as a punchcutter, but no font has been identified as his. Estienne did, however, oversee the work of the best punchcutters of the time such as Claude Garamond and Guillaume Le Bé. Under Estienne, Garamond designed the Greek type used by the King of France which was used to print the first edition of Roman History. Consequently, Estienne was the first printer granted permission to use the grecs du roi or Greek types of the king. In the 1530s Estienne's printing represents the first use of apostrophes and grave and acute accents in France. Moreover, Estienne was known as one of the printers responsible for adapting the Aldine roman type in France.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 3131570, 4193686, 741776, 447030, 2412671, 2870582, 3131570, 27289910, 59126, 5110779, 167200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 127 ], [ 180, 199 ], [ 269, 291 ], [ 314, 320 ], [ 668, 684 ], [ 757, 768 ], [ 895, 910 ], [ 915, 930 ], [ 1245, 1255 ], [ 1261, 1266 ], [ 1271, 1283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the best printers of his time, Robert Estienne was asked to either compile a dictionary from the best Latin authors or make one himself; in 1531 he published Thesaurus linguae latinae, which is considered by some scholars to be the foundation of modern Latin lexicography. Moreover, this dictionary made Estienne the \"father of French lexicography\". He had worked on it for two years, with the assistance only of Thierry of Beauvais. It was 964 pages and was improved in 1536 and 1543 in three volumes. Considered his \"greatest monument of Latin scholarship\", he employed research assistants for the 1543 version: Andreas Gruntleus, Gerardus Clericus, and Adam Nodius. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From his work on the Thesaurus linguae latinae, he published Dictionarium latino-gallicum in 1538 and Dictionaire francoislatin in 1540. These dictionaries were superior to others at the time because non-classical elements had been edited out; when determining words, they were checked for correctness and applicability in context; and citations were exclusively from classical authors. Furthermore, it applied consistency to word order since lexicographers disagreed about whether words should be ordered alphabetically or etymologically. Estienne's thesaurus was alphabetical based on the first three letters of the word, then grouped etymologically. In the 1540s, he began publishing more concise school dictionaries. Many of these dictionaries were translated into other languages such as German and Flemish. From 1528 to 1580, he published several editions of Alphabetum graecum, a representation of Renaissance Greek orthography.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Although Robert Estienne was printing Bibles in Latin as early as 1528, he printed his first Greek New Testament in 1546. Despite its similarity to the works of Erasmus, Estienne did not credit Erasmus and rather claimed to be influenced by ancient codices. The first two are beautiful Greek texts, called O mirifica. The third and most significant is known as the Editio Regia or the \"Royal Edition\", published in 1550 for King Henri II. It is significant because the Greek font made by Garamond became the most used Greek font for European printers and it combined over 15 Greek sources with annotations in the margins. The 1550 version became known as the Textus Receptus, the standard text for many generations. The 1551 edition contains the Latin translation of Erasmus and the Vulgate. Scholars have qualified his editing of the Vulgate to be mediocre and lacking effort or depth. This edition of the Vulgate, Estienne introduced the division of the New Testament into chapter and verses for the first time. After he finished the Vulgate, he began developing his style. He was interested in working on original texts rather than translations. Additionally, he was interested in writing commentaries to help an average reader understand the academic texts to the point of adding his own interpretation. Moreover, Estienne's commentary in the fourth edition of the Greek New Testament initiated the antagonism of the Sorbonne against Estienne.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 19510070, 210241, 10152, 32576, 21433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 365, 377 ], [ 659, 674 ], [ 767, 774 ], [ 783, 790 ], [ 956, 969 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He published two editions of the Hebrew Bible: one in 13 volumes and another one in 10 volumes. Estienne acquired Vulgate manuscripts while in Paris and printed a number of editions throughout his career. The principle editions are the 1527, 1532, 1540 (one of the ornaments of his press), and 1546. In the 1532 edition, he placed the Acts in between the gospels and epistles of Paul as is standard in most Bibles. Before this, the Acts were usually found at the end. Furthermore, typographer and printing historian Stanley Morison claimed that Estienne's 1532 folio Bible contained, \"what is probably the finest use ever made of [the Garamond] letter.\" Estienne printed this edition of the Bible in a grand folio format; his expected buyers were the nobility and the wealthy rather than the university faculty/students. Though in 1543, his style shifted to that of sextodecimo format, printing Bibles in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, which assumes the buyers are students and professors.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1236133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 516, 531 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His editions, especially that of 1546, containing a new translation at the side of the Vulgate, was the subject of sharp and acrimonious criticism from the clergy. In 1539 he received the distinguishing title of \"Printer to the king\" for Latin and Hebrew, and later for Greek. This incited anger from the Sorbonne because Estienne had converted from Catholicism to Protestantism. The Sorbonne was opposed to the humanist ideals of the time and was attempting to censor Estienne's publishing firm. He was protected by Francis I of France with whom he enjoyed strong patronage and friendship; Estienne aided Francis I in printing documents ratifying policies which established and justified his power. Later, Estienne published a document to inform the public how alliances between French royalty, German Protestants, and Turkish royalty were beneficial for European religious peace. In 1538, Francis I requested that Estienne give a copy of every Greek book he had printed to create the royal library, which became the first copyright library. However, after Francis I died in 1547 and was succeeded by Henry II, Estienne fled to Geneva around 1550. With him, he brought his printing material, including his Greek type made by Garamond.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 50012, 75910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 517, 536 ], [ 1102, 1110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On his arrival at Geneva, Robert Estienne published a defense against the attacks of the Sorbonne in 1552 called his Réponse. It was first published in Latin. He later translated it into French and published it again. The central theme of his Réponse is that the Sorbonne had a great ability to persuade or intimidate people. Estienne established his printing firm in Geneva and his brother Charles helped run the firm in Paris. However, after Charles died in a debtors' prison, Robert II (the son of Robert I) took over the business. In Geneva, Estienne issued the French Bible in 1553 and many of John Calvin's writings, including the Institutio in 1553. His 1556 edition of the Latin Bible contained the translation of the Old Testament by Santes Pagninus and the first edition of Theodore Beza's Latin edition of the New Testament. In 1556 he became a citizen of the Republic of Geneva, where he died on 7 September, 1559. Estienne's other sons, Henri II and François, helped Estienne run the shop in Geneva after the death of Estienne. Robert Estienne was one of the most successful printers in the Estienne family, and one of the best scholars of the time. It was in part, due to Estienne that the reign of Francis I was considered the \"Golden Age of French Typography.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 15930, 414852, 6196273, 40322, 292834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 599, 610 ], [ 637, 647 ], [ 743, 758 ], [ 784, 797 ], [ 871, 889 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Robert Estienne used several pressmarks or devices on his prints. Estienne's pressmark with an olive branch and a serpent wound around a spear was first seen in 1544 on the title page of Preparatio Evangelica. It was symbolic of wisdom in times of war and peace. The motto below it translates to \"to the wise king and the valiant warrior\". Another device was called Oliva Stephanorum or the olive of the Stephens family with the words of Romans 11:20, Noli altum sapere (\"Do not be proud\") and later Noli altum sapere, sed time ... (\"Be not high-minded but fear\"). The device shows a man standing by an olive tree. Scholars believe this man is Paul the Apostle who is affirming the importance of faith. This is consistent with Estienne's connection to the Protestant Reformation. The olive tree is meant to represent the tree of knowledge. The device may have been a subtle attack on the Catholic theologians at the Sorbonne for their \"lack of humility\". Pressmarks function best when they are immediately recognized, and scholars criticize Estienne's pressmarks for not being easily recognizable.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Pressmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 9961, 24140, 37857, 174365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 438, 444 ], [ 644, 660 ], [ 756, 778 ], [ 821, 838 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Robert Estienne encouraged his four sons to study and perfect his professions. His will indicated that he wished all of his sons follow in his profession. Two of Robert's sons, Henri and Robert became successful printers. François (born 1540) printed in Geneva from 1562 to 1582. As well as issuing editions of the Bible in Latin and French, he published some of Calvin's works.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 39399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 177, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Robert Estienne II (1530–1570) studied Hebrew as his father recommended. Uninterested in the Reformation, he stayed in Paris instead of following his father to Geneva, opening his own printing shop in 1556. He earned the title of Typographus regius in 1563. He printed the New Testament of 1568–1569, a reprint of his father's first edition. He printed the Decalogue in Hebrew and Aramaic in 1566. Additionally, Estienne printed books in Hebrew for professors in Paris, but fled to Geneva in 1569, because he worked for Anglican clients. He died in 1570.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chapters and verses of the Bible", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1047161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Martin, Henri-Jean (1982) « Le temps de Robert Estienne », Histoire de l'édition française, vol. 1, Paris, pp.230–235 ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Schreiber, Fred (1982) The Estiennes: an annotated catalogue of 300 highlights of their various presses. New York: E. K. Schreiber", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "List of Estienne's works with options to read and view the works ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Exemplaires numérisés d'anciennes éditions d'œuvres de Robert Estienne in Bibliothèques virtuelles humanistes", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "List of Robert Estienne's works (in French) with options to read more about each work and read and view the works themselves ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Alphabetum Græcum From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 18944081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Archive of Estienne's 1550 Alphabetum Græcum from the Library of Congress, available for reading and viewing", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1503_births", "1559_deaths", "Businesspeople_from_Paris", "Printers_from_the_Republic_of_Geneva", "French_printers", "16th-century_French_businesspeople", "French_Protestants", "French_classical_scholars", "French_biblical_scholars", "Renaissance_humanists", "Harold_B._Lee_Library-related_rare_books_articles", "16th-century_people_from_the_Republic_of_Geneva" ]

[ "Robert I Estienne" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Henri Estienne (; ; 1528 or 15311598), also known as Henricus Stephanus (), was a French printer and classical scholar. He was the eldest son of Robert Estienne. He was instructed in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew by his father and would eventually take over the Estienne printing firm which his father owned in 1559 when his father died. His most well-known work was the Thesaurus graecae linguae, which was printed in five volumes. The basis of Greek lexicology, no thesaurus would rival that of Estienne's for three hundred years.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 44723, 39398, 18532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 96 ], [ 145, 160 ], [ 447, 457 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Among his many publications of Greek authors, his publications of Plato are the source of Stephanus pagination, which is still used to refer to Plato's works. Estienne died in Lyon in 1598.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 738307 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Henri Estienne was born in Paris in 1528 or 1531. His father instructed him in Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and typography, and according to a note in his edition of Aulus Gellius (1585), he picked up some Latin as a child, as that language was used as a in the multi-national household. However, he was primarily instructed in Greek by Pierre Danès. He was also educated by other French scholars such as Adrianus Turnebus. He began working for his father's business at age eighteen and was employed by his father to collate a manuscript of Dionysius of Halicarnassus. In 1547, as part of his training, he traveled to Italy, England, and Flanders, where he learned Spanish and busied himself in collecting and collating manuscripts for his father's press. Around 1551, Robert Estienne fled to Geneva with his family, including Henri Estienne, to escape religious persecution in Paris. The same year, he translated Calvin's catechism into Greek, which was printed in 1554 in his father's printing room.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 22989, 143258, 159387, 14532, 10878, 15930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 32 ], [ 399, 416 ], [ 535, 561 ], [ 612, 617 ], [ 632, 640 ], [ 908, 914 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Estienne published the Anacreon in 1554, was his first independent work. Afterwards, he returned to Italy to assist the Aldine Press in Venice. In Italy, he discovered a copy of Diodorus Siculus in Rome, and returned to Geneva in 1555. In 1557 he likely had a printing establishment of his own, advertising himself as the \"Parisian printer\" (typographus parisiensis). The following year he assumed the title illustris viri Huldrici Fuggeri typographus from his patron, Ulrich Fugger who saved him from financial despair after the death of his father. Estienne published the first anthology that included sections from Parmenides, Empedocles, and other Pre-Socratic philosophers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 1581, 32616, 99425, 25458, 149300, 23575, 9553, 30340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 132 ], [ 136, 142 ], [ 178, 194 ], [ 198, 202 ], [ 470, 483 ], [ 619, 629 ], [ 631, 641 ], [ 653, 678 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1559, on his father's death, Estienne assumed charge of his presses and became Printer of the Republic of Geneva. In the same year he produced his own Latin translation of the works of Sextus Empiricus, and an edition of Diodorus Siculus based on his earlier discoveries. In 1565, he printed a large French Bible. The following year he published his best-known French work, the Apologie pour Hérodote. Some passages being considered objectionable by the Geneva consistory, he was compelled to cancel the pages containing them. The book became highly popular, and within sixteen years twelve editions were printed. Estienne used the type he inherited and did not invent any new types.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 292834, 177582, 3390, 40964735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 115 ], [ 188, 204 ], [ 310, 315 ], [ 464, 474 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His most celebrated work, the Thesaurus graecae linguae or Greek thesaurus, appeared in five volumes in 1572. This thesaurus was a sequel to Robert Estienne's Latin thesaurus. The basis of Greek lexicography, a Greek thesaurus to rival that of Estiennes was not printed for over 300 years. This work was begun by his father and served up to the nineteenth century as the basis of Greek lexicography. However, the sale of this thesaurus was impeded due to its high price and the printing of an abridged copy later. In 1576 and 1587, Estienne published two Greek versions of the New Testament. The 1576 version contained the first scientific treatise on the language of the apostolic writers. The 1587 version contained a discussion on the ancient divisions of the text. Estienne's other publications included those of Herodotus, Plato, Horace, Virgil, Plutarch, and Pliny the Elder. He also published an edition of Aeschylus, in which Agamemnon was printed in its entirety and as a separate play for the first time.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 18483, 13574, 22954, 13693, 32359, 24517, 44920, 2023, 157180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 386, 398 ], [ 817, 826 ], [ 828, 833 ], [ 835, 841 ], [ 843, 849 ], [ 851, 859 ], [ 865, 880 ], [ 914, 923 ], [ 934, 943 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1578 he published the first and one of the most important editions of the complete works of Plato, translated by Jean de Serres, with commentary. This work is the source of the standard \"Stephanus numbers\" used by scholars today to refer to the works of Plato.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 22954, 48566057, 738307 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 100 ], [ 116, 130 ], [ 189, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The publication in 1578 of his Deux Dialogues du nouveau françois italianizé brought him into a fresh dispute with the consistory. To avoid their censure he went to Paris, and resided at the French court for a year. On his return to Geneva he was summoned before the consistory and was imprisoned for a week. From this time his life became more and more nomadic. He traveled to Basel, Heidelberg, Vienna, and Pest. He also spent time in Paris and other regions in France. These journeys were undertaken partly in the hope of procuring patrons and purchasers, for the large sums which he had spent on such publications as the Thesaurus and the Plato of 1578 had almost ruined him. He published a concordance of the New Testament in 1594.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 22989, 4911, 46743, 55866, 209240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 165, 170 ], [ 378, 383 ], [ 385, 395 ], [ 397, 403 ], [ 409, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After visiting the University of Montpellier, where Isaac Casaubon, his son-in-law, was now professor, he started for Paris. He was taken ill in Lyon, and died there at the end of January 1598.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 627315, 213016, 8638634 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 44 ], [ 52, 66 ], [ 145, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Henri Estienne was married three times. He married Marguerite Pillot in 1555, Barbe de Wille in 1556, and Abigail Pouppart in 1586. Estienne had fourteen children, three of whom survived him. His daughter was married to Isaac Casaubon. His son Paul (born 1567) assumed control of the presses in Geneva with Casaubon but he fled to Paris from the authorities. Paul's son Antoine became \"Printer to the King\" in Paris and \"Guardian of the Greek Matrices\"; however his death in 1674 ended the nearly two-century-long Estienne printing business.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 213016 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 220, 234 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Henri Estienne is considered by some scholars to be the most prominent printer in the Estienne family. Estienne was one of the \"greatest and last scholarly editors and publishers of the Renaissance.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Stephanus pagination", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 738307 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jean de Serres, collaborator on Plato edition", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 48566057 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Comparison of Ancient Greek dictionaries", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 63827009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " This includes a detailed assessment of his work by the author.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1528_births", "1598_deaths", "Printers_from_the_Republic_of_Geneva", "French_printers", "French_lexicographers", "Businesspeople_from_Paris", "16th-century_French_people", "French_Renaissance_humanists", "French_philologists", "Greek–Latin_translators", "Harold_B._Lee_Library-related_rare_books_articles" ]

[ "Henricus Stephanus" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In probability theory, the central limit theorem (CLT) establishes that, in many situations, when independent random variables are summed up, their properly normalized sum tends toward a normal distribution even if the original variables themselves are not normally distributed. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23542, 27593, 2978513, 21462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 21 ], [ 98, 126 ], [ 157, 167 ], [ 187, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The theorem is a key concept in probability theory because it implies that probabilistic and statistical methods that work for normal distributions can be applicable to many problems involving other types of distributions. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This theorem has seen many changes during the formal development of probability theory. Previous versions of the theorem date back to 1811, but in its modern general form, this fundamental result in probability theory was precisely stated as late as 1920, thereby serving as a bridge between classical and modern probability theory.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If are random samples drawn from a population with overall mean and finite variance and if is the sample mean of the first samples, then the limiting form of the distribution, with , is a standard normal distribution.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 160361, 9653, 32344, 10005756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 23 ], [ 61, 65 ], [ 78, 86 ], [ 103, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For example, suppose that a sample is obtained containing many observations, each observation being randomly generated in a way that does not depend on the values of the other observations, and that the arithmetic mean of the observed values is computed. If this procedure is performed many times, the central limit theorem says that the probability distribution of the average will closely approximate a normal distribution. A simple example of this is that if one flips a coin many times, the probability of getting a given number of heads will approach a normal distribution, with the mean equal to half the total number of flips. At the limit of an infinite number of flips, it will equal a normal distribution.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 160361, 3262850, 612, 23543, 494410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 34 ], [ 63, 75 ], [ 203, 218 ], [ 338, 362 ], [ 466, 489 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The central limit theorem has several variants. In its common form, the random variables must be independent and identically distributed (i.i.d.). In variants, convergence of the mean to the normal distribution also occurs for non-identical distributions or for non-independent observations, if they comply with certain conditions.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 30876902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest version of this theorem, that the normal distribution may be used as an approximation to the binomial distribution, is the de Moivre–Laplace theorem.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3876, 19451264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 127 ], [ 136, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Let be a sequence of random samples — that is, a sequence of i.i.d. random variables drawn from a distribution of expected value given by and finite variance given by Suppose we are interested in the sample average", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Independent sequences", "target_page_ids": [ 160361, 9653, 32344, 10005756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 36 ], [ 115, 129 ], [ 151, 159 ], [ 203, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "of the first samples. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Independent sequences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By the law of large numbers, the sample averages converge almost surely (and therefore also converge in probability) to the expected value as ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Independent sequences", "target_page_ids": [ 157055, 50723, 50723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 27 ], [ 49, 71 ], [ 92, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The classical central limit theorem describes the size and the distributional form of the stochastic fluctuations around the deterministic number during this convergence. More precisely, it states that as gets larger, the distribution of the difference between the sample average and its limit when multiplied by the factor approximates the normal distribution with mean 0 and variance For large enough , the distribution of is close to the normal distribution with mean and variance ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Independent sequences", "target_page_ids": [ 21462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 347, 366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The usefulness of the theorem is that the distribution of approaches normality regardless of the shape of the distribution of the individual Formally, the theorem can be stated as follows:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Independent sequences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the case convergence in distribution means that the cumulative distribution functions of converge pointwise to the cdf of the distribution: for every real ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Independent sequences", "target_page_ids": [ 5793 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where is the standard normal cdf evaluated The convergence is uniform in in the sense that", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Independent sequences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where denotes the least upper bound (or supremum) of the set.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Independent sequences", "target_page_ids": [ 39382 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The theorem is named after Russian mathematician Aleksandr Lyapunov. In this variant of the central limit theorem the random variables have to be independent, but not necessarily identically distributed. The theorem also requires that random variables have moments of some order and that the rate of growth of these moments is limited by the Lyapunov condition given below.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Independent sequences", "target_page_ids": [ 65425, 368684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 67 ], [ 259, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In practice it is usually easiest to check Lyapunov's condition for ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Independent sequences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If a sequence of random variables satisfies Lyapunov's condition, then it also satisfies Lindeberg's condition. The converse implication, however, does not hold.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Independent sequences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the same setting and with the same notation as above, the Lyapunov condition can be replaced with the following weaker one (from Lindeberg in 1920).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Independent sequences", "target_page_ids": [ 1218207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Suppose that for every ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Independent sequences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is the indicator function. Then the distribution of the standardized sums", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Independent sequences", "target_page_ids": [ 240790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "converges towards the standard normal distribution ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Independent sequences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Proofs that use characteristic functions can be extended to cases where each individual is a random vector in with mean vector and covariance matrix (among the components of the vector), and these random vectors are independent and identically distributed. Summation of these vectors is being done component-wise. The multidimensional central limit theorem states that when scaled, sums converge to a multivariate normal distribution.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Independent sequences", "target_page_ids": [ 49821, 191752, 50347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 107 ], [ 134, 151 ], [ 405, 437 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Let", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Independent sequences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "be the -vector. The bold in means that it is a random vector, not a random (univariate) variable. Then the sum of the random vectors will be", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Independent sequences", "target_page_ids": [ 246160 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "and the average is", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Independent sequences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and therefore", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Independent sequences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The multivariate central limit theorem states that", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Independent sequences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where the covariance matrix is equal to", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Independent sequences", "target_page_ids": [ 191752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The rate of convergence is given by the following Berry–Esseen type result:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Independent sequences", "target_page_ids": [ 508012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is unknown whether the factor is necessary.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Independent sequences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The central limit theorem states that the sum of a number of independent and identically distributed random variables with finite variances will tend to a normal distribution as the number of variables grows. A generalization due to Gnedenko and Kolmogorov states that the sum of a number of random variables with a power-law tail (Paretian tail) distributions decreasing as where (and therefore having infinite variance) will tend to a stable distribution as the number of summands grows. If then the sum converges to a stable distribution with stability parameter equal to 2, i.e. a Gaussian distribution.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Independent sequences", "target_page_ids": [ 21462, 1526742, 91161, 53057, 1117869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 174 ], [ 233, 241 ], [ 246, 256 ], [ 332, 345 ], [ 525, 544 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A useful generalization of a sequence of independent, identically distributed random variables is a mixing random process in discrete time; \"mixing\" means, roughly, that random variables temporally far apart from one another are nearly independent. Several kinds of mixing are used in ergodic theory and probability theory. See especially strong mixing (also called α-mixing) defined by where is so-called strong mixing coefficient.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Dependent processes", "target_page_ids": [ 1308185, 1308185, 1308185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 106 ], [ 339, 352 ], [ 408, 433 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A simplified formulation of the central limit theorem under strong mixing is:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Dependent processes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In fact,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Dependent processes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where the series converges absolutely.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Dependent processes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The assumption cannot be omitted, since the asymptotic normality fails for where are another stationary sequence.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Dependent processes", "target_page_ids": [ 8199698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is a stronger version of the theorem: the assumption is replaced with and the assumption is replaced with", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Dependent processes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Existence of such ensures the conclusion. For encyclopedic treatment of limit theorems under mixing conditions see .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Dependent processes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The central limit theorem has a proof using characteristic functions. It is similar to the proof of the (weak) law of large numbers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Remarks", "target_page_ids": [ 3229401, 157055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 68 ], [ 111, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Assume are independent and identically distributed random variables, each with mean and finite variance The sum has mean and variance Consider the random variable", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Remarks", "target_page_ids": [ 9653, 32344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 124 ], [ 130, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where in the last step we defined the new random variables each with zero mean and unit variance The characteristic function of is given by", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Remarks", "target_page_ids": [ 3229401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where in the last step we used the fact that all of the are identically distributed. The characteristic function of is, by Taylor's theorem,", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Remarks", "target_page_ids": [ 51714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where is \"little notation\" for some function of that goes to zero more rapidly than By the limit of the exponential function the characteristic function of equals", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Remarks", "target_page_ids": [ 44578, 9678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 27 ], [ 108, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All of the higher order terms vanish in the limit The right hand side equals the characteristic function of a standard normal distribution , which implies through Lévy's continuity theorem that the distribution of will approach as Therefore, the sample average", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Remarks", "target_page_ids": [ 1775513, 10005756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 189 ], [ 250, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "is such that ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Remarks", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "converges to the normal distribution from which the central limit theorem follows.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Remarks", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The central limit theorem gives only an asymptotic distribution. As an approximation for a finite number of observations, it provides a reasonable approximation only when close to the peak of the normal distribution; it requires a very large number of observations to stretch into the tails.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Remarks", "target_page_ids": [ 3001287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The convergence in the central limit theorem is uniform because the limiting cumulative distribution function is continuous. If the third central moment exists and is finite, then the speed of convergence is at least on the order of (see Berry–Esseen theorem). Stein's method can be used not only to prove the central limit theorem, but also to provide bounds on the rates of convergence for selected metrics.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Remarks", "target_page_ids": [ 50652, 368684, 508012, 12933953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 55 ], [ 146, 152 ], [ 240, 260 ], [ 263, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The convergence to the normal distribution is monotonic, in the sense that the entropy of increases monotonically to that of the normal distribution.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Remarks", "target_page_ids": [ 15445, 48260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 86 ], [ 101, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The central limit theorem applies in particular to sums of independent and identically distributed discrete random variables. A sum of discrete random variables is still a discrete random variable, so that we are confronted with a sequence of discrete random variables whose cumulative probability distribution function converges towards a cumulative probability distribution function corresponding to a continuous variable (namely that of the normal distribution). This means that if we build a histogram of the realizations of the sum of independent identical discrete variables, the curve that joins the centers of the upper faces of the rectangles forming the histogram converges toward a Gaussian curve as approaches infinity, this relation is known as de Moivre–Laplace theorem. The binomial distribution article details such an application of the central limit theorem in the simple case of a discrete variable taking only two possible values.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Remarks", "target_page_ids": [ 25685, 25685, 25685, 25685, 21462, 13266, 19451264, 3876 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 123 ], [ 136, 160 ], [ 173, 197 ], [ 244, 268 ], [ 445, 464 ], [ 498, 507 ], [ 762, 787 ], [ 793, 814 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The law of large numbers as well as the central limit theorem are partial solutions to a general problem: \"What is the limiting behavior of as approaches infinity?\" In mathematical analysis, asymptotic series are one of the most popular tools employed to approach such questions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Remarks", "target_page_ids": [ 157055, 642090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ], [ 193, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Suppose we have an asymptotic expansion of :", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Remarks", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dividing both parts by and taking the limit will produce , the coefficient of the highest-order term in the expansion, which represents the rate at which changes in its leading term.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Remarks", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Informally, one can say: \" grows approximately as \". Taking the difference between and its approximation and then dividing by the next term in the expansion, we arrive at a more refined statement about :", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Remarks", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Here one can say that the difference between the function and its approximation grows approximately as . The idea is that dividing the function by appropriate normalizing functions, and looking at the limiting behavior of the result, can tell us much about the limiting behavior of the original function itself.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Remarks", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Informally, something along these lines happens when the sum, , of independent identically distributed random variables, , is studied in classical probability theory. If each has finite mean , then by the law of large numbers, . If in addition each has finite variance , then by the central limit theorem,", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Remarks", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is distributed as . This provides values of the first two constants in the informal expansion", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Remarks", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the case where the do not have finite mean or variance, convergence of the shifted and rescaled sum can also occur with different centering and scaling factors:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Remarks", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "or informally", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Remarks", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Distributions which can arise in this way are called stable. Clearly, the normal distribution is stable, but there are also other stable distributions, such as the Cauchy distribution, for which the mean or variance are not defined. The scaling factor may be proportional to , for any ; it may also be multiplied by a slowly varying function of .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Remarks", "target_page_ids": [ 1117869, 7003, 17053182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 60 ], [ 166, 185 ], [ 322, 345 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The law of the iterated logarithm specifies what is happening \"in between\" the law of large numbers and the central limit theorem. Specifically it says that the normalizing function , intermediate in size between of the law of large numbers and of the central limit theorem, provides a non-trivial limiting behavior.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Remarks", "target_page_ids": [ 496558, 157055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 33 ], [ 79, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The density of the sum of two or more independent variables is the convolution of their densities (if these densities exist). Thus the central limit theorem can be interpreted as a statement about the properties of density functions under convolution: the convolution of a number of density functions tends to the normal density as the number of density functions increases without bound. These theorems require stronger hypotheses than the forms of the central limit theorem given above. Theorems of this type are often called local limit theorems. See Petrov for a particular local limit theorem for sums of independent and identically distributed random variables.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Remarks", "target_page_ids": [ 43487, 7519, 30876902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 11 ], [ 67, 78 ], [ 611, 667 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the characteristic function of a convolution is the product of the characteristic functions of the densities involved, the central limit theorem has yet another restatement: the product of the characteristic functions of a number of density functions becomes close to the characteristic function of the normal density as the number of density functions increases without bound, under the conditions stated above. Specifically, an appropriate scaling factor needs to be applied to the argument of the characteristic function.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Remarks", "target_page_ids": [ 3229401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An equivalent statement can be made about Fourier transforms, since the characteristic function is essentially a Fourier transform.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Remarks", "target_page_ids": [ 52247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Let be the sum of random variables. Many central limit theorems provide conditions such that converges in distribution to (the normal distribution with mean 0, variance 1) as . In some cases, it is possible to find a constant and function such that converges in distribution to as .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Remarks", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The logarithm of a product is simply the sum of the logarithms of the factors. Therefore, when the logarithm of a product of random variables that take only positive values approaches a normal distribution, the product itself approaches a log-normal distribution. Many physical quantities (especially mass or length, which are a matter of scale and cannot be negative) are the products of different random factors, so they follow a log-normal distribution. This multiplicative version of the central limit theorem is sometimes called Gibrat's law.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Extensions", "target_page_ids": [ 17860, 102476, 19196523, 1466015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 13 ], [ 240, 263 ], [ 401, 407 ], [ 537, 549 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Whereas the central limit theorem for sums of random variables requires the condition of finite variance, the corresponding theorem for products requires the corresponding condition that the density function be square-integrable.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Extensions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Asymptotic normality, that is, convergence to the normal distribution after appropriate shift and rescaling, is a phenomenon much more general than the classical framework treated above, namely, sums of independent random variables (or vectors). New frameworks are revealed from time to time; no single unifying framework is available for now.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Beyond the classical framework", "target_page_ids": [ 50723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These two -close distributions have densities (in fact, log-concave densities), thus, the total variance distance between them is the integral of the absolute value of the difference between the densities. Convergence in total variation is stronger than weak convergence.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Beyond the classical framework", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An important example of a log-concave density is a function constant inside a given convex body and vanishing outside; it corresponds to the uniform distribution on the convex body, which explains the term \"central limit theorem for convex bodies\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Beyond the classical framework", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Another example: where and . If then factorizes into which means are independent. In general, however, they are dependent.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Beyond the classical framework", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The condition ensures that are of zero mean and uncorrelated; still, they need not be independent, nor even pairwise independent. By the way, pairwise independence cannot replace independence in the classical central limit theorem.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Beyond the classical framework", "target_page_ids": [ 173981, 804155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 62 ], [ 110, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Here is a Berry–Esseen type result.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Beyond the classical framework", "target_page_ids": [ 508012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The distribution of need not be approximately normal (in fact, it can be uniform). However, the distribution of is close to (in the total variation distance) for most vectors according to the uniform distribution on the sphere .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Beyond the classical framework", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The same also holds in all dimensions greater than 2.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Beyond the classical framework", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The polytope is called a Gaussian random polytope.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Beyond the classical framework", "target_page_ids": [ 1817885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A similar result holds for the number of vertices (of the Gaussian polytope), the number of edges, and in fact, faces of all dimensions.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Beyond the classical framework", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A linear function of a matrix is a linear combination of its elements (with given coefficients), where is the matrix of the coefficients; see Trace (linear algebra).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Beyond the classical framework", "target_page_ids": [ 43270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A random orthogonal matrix is said to be distributed uniformly, if its distribution is the normalized Haar measure on the orthogonal group ; see Rotation matrix.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Beyond the classical framework", "target_page_ids": [ 105620, 40645, 173954, 856005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 26 ], [ 102, 114 ], [ 122, 138 ], [ 145, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The central limit theorem may be established for the simple random walk on a crystal lattice (an infinite-fold abelian covering graph over a finite graph), and is used for design of crystal structures.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Beyond the classical framework", "target_page_ids": [ 235451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A simple example of the central limit theorem is rolling many identical, unbiased dice. The distribution of the sum (or average) of the rolled numbers will be well approximated by a normal distribution. Since real-world quantities are often the balanced sum of many unobserved random events, the central limit theorem also provides a partial explanation for the prevalence of the normal probability distribution. It also justifies the approximation of large-sample statistics to the normal distribution in controlled experiments.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Applications and examples", "target_page_ids": [ 26703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 465, 474 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Published literature contains a number of useful and interesting examples and applications relating to the central limit theorem. One source states the following examples:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Applications and examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The probability distribution for total distance covered in a random walk (biased or unbiased) will tend toward a normal distribution.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Applications and examples", "target_page_ids": [ 235451, 21462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 72 ], [ 113, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flipping many coins will result in a normal distribution for the total number of heads (or equivalently total number of tails).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Applications and examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From another viewpoint, the central limit theorem explains the common appearance of the \"bell curve\" in density estimates applied to real world data. In cases like electronic noise, examination grades, and so on, we can often regard a single measured value as the weighted average of many small effects. Using generalisations of the central limit theorem, we can then see that this would often (though not always) produce a final distribution that is approximately normal.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Applications and examples", "target_page_ids": [ 554671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In general, the more a measurement is like the sum of independent variables with equal influence on the result, the more normality it exhibits. This justifies the common use of this distribution to stand in for the effects of unobserved variables in models like the linear model.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Applications and examples", "target_page_ids": [ 17904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 266, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Regression analysis and in particular ordinary least squares specifies that a dependent variable depends according to some function upon one or more independent variables, with an additive error term. Various types of statistical inference on the regression assume that the error term is normally distributed. This assumption can be justified by assuming that the error term is actually the sum of many independent error terms; even if the individual error terms are not normally distributed, by the central limit theorem their sum can be well approximated by a normal distribution.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Regression", "target_page_ids": [ 826997, 1651906, 437701, 437701, 461509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 38, 60 ], [ 78, 96 ], [ 149, 169 ], [ 189, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Given its importance to statistics, a number of papers and computer packages are available that demonstrate the convergence involved in the central limit theorem.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Regression", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dutch mathematician Henk Tijms writes:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 22494467 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sir Francis Galton described the Central Limit Theorem in this way:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 49072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The actual term \"central limit theorem\" (in German: \"zentraler Grenzwertsatz\") was first used by George Pólya in 1920 in the title of a paper. Pólya referred to the theorem as \"central\" due to its importance in probability theory. According to Le Cam, the French school of probability interprets the word central in the sense that \"it describes the behaviour of the centre of the distribution as opposed to its tails\". The abstract of the paper On the central limit theorem of calculus of probability and the problem of moments by Pólya in 1920 translates as follows.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 12955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A thorough account of the theorem's history, detailing Laplace's foundational work, as well as Cauchy's, Bessel's and Poisson's contributions, is provided by Hald. Two historical accounts, one covering the development from Laplace to Cauchy, the second the contributions by von Mises, Pólya, Lindeberg, Lévy, and Cramér during the 1920s, are given by Hans Fischer. Le Cam describes a period around 1935. Bernstein presents a historical discussion focusing on the work of Pafnuty Chebyshev and his students Andrey Markov and Aleksandr Lyapunov that led to the first proofs of the CLT in a general setting.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1842, 11574, 44670, 821517, 12955, 1218207, 556462, 223129, 149568, 915, 65425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 101 ], [ 105, 111 ], [ 118, 125 ], [ 274, 283 ], [ 285, 290 ], [ 292, 301 ], [ 303, 307 ], [ 313, 319 ], [ 472, 489 ], [ 507, 520 ], [ 525, 543 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A curious footnote to the history of the Central Limit Theorem is that a proof of a result similar to the 1922 Lindeberg CLT was the subject of Alan Turing's 1934 Fellowship Dissertation for King's College at the University of Cambridge. Only after submitting the work did Turing learn it had already been proved. Consequently, Turing's dissertation was not published.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1208, 151267, 25978572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 155 ], [ 191, 205 ], [ 213, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Asymptotic equipartition property", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 248710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Asymptotic distribution", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3001287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bates distribution", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31100511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Benford's law – Result of extension of CLT to product of random variables.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 36782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Berry–Esseen theorem", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 508012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Central limit theorem for directional statistics – Central limit theorem applied to the case of directional statistics", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31797677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Delta method – to compute the limit distribution of a function of a random variable.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2826026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Erdős–Kac theorem – connects the number of prime factors of an integer with the normal probability distribution", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6046005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fisher–Tippett–Gnedenko theorem – limit theorem for extremum values (such as )", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20962073 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Irwin–Hall distribution", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15329594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Markov chain central limit theorem", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 60544754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Normal distribution", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tweedie convergence theorem – A theorem that can be considered to bridge between the central limit theorem and the Poisson convergence theorem", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15204099, 19465941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ], [ 116, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ".", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Central Limit Theorem at Khan Academy", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A music video demonstrating the central limit theorem with a Galton board by Carl McTague", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Central_limit_theorem", "Probability_theorems", "Theorems_in_statistics", "Articles_containing_proofs", "Asymptotic_theory_(statistics)" ]

[ "CLT" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In particle physics, the Dirac equation is a relativistic wave equation derived by British physicist Paul Dirac in 1928. In its free form, or including electromagnetic interactions, it describes all spin- massive particles such as electrons and quarks for which parity is a symmetry. It is consistent with both the principles of quantum mechanics and the theory of special relativity, and was the first theory to account fully for special relativity in the context of quantum mechanics. It was validated by accounting for the fine details of the hydrogen spectrum in a completely rigorous way.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23259, 577162, 24742, 39407, 39407, 3017092, 869832, 9476, 25179, 1240666, 2715469, 25202, 26962, 3071612 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 19 ], [ 45, 71 ], [ 101, 111 ], [ 128, 137 ], [ 152, 180 ], [ 199, 204 ], [ 205, 221 ], [ 231, 239 ], [ 245, 250 ], [ 262, 268 ], [ 274, 282 ], [ 329, 346 ], [ 365, 383 ], [ 546, 563 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The equation also implied the existence of a new form of matter, antimatter, previously unsuspected and unobserved and which was experimentally confirmed several years later. It also provided a theoretical justification for the introduction of several component wave functions in Pauli's phenomenological theory of spin. The wave functions in the Dirac theory are vectors of four complex numbers (known as bispinors), two of which resemble the Pauli wavefunction in the non-relativistic limit, in contrast to the Schrödinger equation which described wave functions of only one complex value. Moreover, in the limit of zero mass, the Dirac equation reduces to the Weyl equation.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1317, 33972, 2757018, 19593829, 5826, 19263783, 59874, 33162584 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 75 ], [ 280, 285 ], [ 288, 304 ], [ 315, 319 ], [ 380, 394 ], [ 406, 414 ], [ 513, 533 ], [ 663, 676 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Dirac did not at first fully appreciate the importance of his results, the entailed explanation of spin as a consequence of the union of quantum mechanics and relativity—and the eventual discovery of the positron—represents one of the great triumphs of theoretical physics. This accomplishment has been described as fully on a par with the works of Newton, Maxwell, and Einstein before him. In the context of quantum field theory, the Dirac equation is reinterpreted to describe quantum fields corresponding to spin- particles.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 24731, 19594028, 14627, 28989696, 736, 25267 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 213, 221 ], [ 262, 281 ], [ 358, 364 ], [ 366, 373 ], [ 379, 387 ], [ 418, 438 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Dirac equation appears on the floor of Westminster Abbey on the plaque commemorating Paul Dirac's life, which was unveiled on 13November 1995.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 43245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In its modern formulation for field theory, the Dirac equation is written in terms of a Dirac spinor field taking values in a complex vector space described concretely as , defined on flat spacetime (Minkowski space) . Its expression also contains gamma matrices and a parameter interpreted as the mass, as well as other physical constants.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [ 292800, 230488, 2907966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 100 ], [ 201, 216 ], [ 249, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In terms of a field , the Dirac equation is then", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and in natural units, with Feynman's slash notation,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [ 33710742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The gamma matrices are a set of four complex matrices (elements of ) which satisfy the defining anti-commutation relations:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These matrices can be realized explicitly under a choice of representation. Two common choices are the Dirac representation", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where are the Pauli matrices, and the chiral representation: the are the same, but ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [ 24868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The slash notation is a compact notation for", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is a four-vector (often it is the four-vector differential operator ). The summation over the index is implied.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Dirac adjoint of the spinor field is defined as", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Using the property of gamma matrices (which follows straightforwardly from Hermicity properties of the ) that", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "one can derive the adjoint Dirac equation by taking the Hermitian conjugate of the Dirac equation and multiplying on the right by :", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where the partial derivative acts from the right on : written in the usual way in terms of a left action of the derivative, we have", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Applying to the Dirac equation gives", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "That is, each component of the Dirac spinor field satisfies the Klein−Gordon equation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A conserved current of the theory is", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Another approach to derive this expression is by variational methods, applying Noether's theorem for the global symmetry to derive the conserved current ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since the Dirac operator acts on 4-tuples of square-integrable function, its solutions should be members of the same Hilbert space. The fact that the energies of the solutions do not have a lower bound is unexpected.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [ 20598932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Plane-wave solutions are those arising from an ansatz", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "which models a particle with definite 4-momentum where ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For this ansatz, the Dirac equation becomes an equation for :", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After picking a representation for the gamma matrices , solving this is a matter of solving a system of linear equations. It is a representation-free property of gamma matrices that the solution space is two-dimensional (see here).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [ 2907966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 225, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For example, in the chiral representation for , the solution space is parametrised by a vector , with", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where and is the Hermitian matrix square-root.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These plane-wave solutions provide a starting point for canonical quantization.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Both the Dirac equation and the Adjoint Dirac equation can be obtained from (varying) the action with a specific Lagrangian density that is given by:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If one varies this with respect to one gets the adjoint Dirac equation. Meanwhile, if one varies this with respect to one gets the Dirac equation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In natural units and with the slash notation, the action is then", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For this action, the conserved current above arises as the conserved current corresponding to the global symmetry through Noether's theorem for field theory. Gauging this field theory by changing the symmetry to a local, spacetime point dependent one gives gauge symmetry (really, gauge redundancy). The resultant theory is quantum electrodynamics or QED. See below for a more detailed discussion.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [ 150159, 25268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 141 ], [ 326, 349 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Dirac equation is invariant under Lorentz transformations, that is, under the action of the Lorentz group or strictly , the component connected to the identity.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For a Dirac spinor viewed concretely as taking values in , the transformation under a Lorentz transformation is given by a complex matrix . There are some subtleties in defining the corresponding , as well as a standard abuse of notation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Most treatments occur at the Lie algebra level. For a more detailed treatment see here. The Lorentz group of real matrices acting on is generated by a set of six matrices with components", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [ 17944, 230489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 40 ], [ 82, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When both the indices are raised or lowered, these are simply the 'standard basis' of antisymmetric matrices.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These satisfy the Lorentz algebra commutation relations", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the article on the Dirac algebra, it is also found that the spin generators ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [ 10290343 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "satisfy the Lorentz algebra commutation relations. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A Lorentz transformation can be written as", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where the components are antisymmetric in .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The corresponding transformation on spin space is", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This is an abuse of notation, but a standard one. The reason is is not a well-defined function of , since there are two different sets of components (up to equivalence) which give the same but different . In practice we implicitly pick one of these and then is well defined in terms of ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Under a Lorentz transformation, the Dirac equation", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "becomes", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Associated to Lorentz invariance is a conserved Noether current, or rather a tensor of conserved Noether currents . Similarly, since the equation is invariant under translations, there is a tensor of conserved Noether currents , which can be identified as the stress-energy tensor of the theory. The Lorentz current can be written in terms of the stress-energy tensor in addition to a tensor representing internal angular momentum.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical formulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Dirac equation was also used (historically) to define a quantum-mechanical theory where is instead interpreted as a wave-function.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 145343 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Dirac equation in the form originally proposed by Dirac is:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 24742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where is the wave function for the electron of rest mass with spacetime coordinates . The are the components of the momentum, understood to be the momentum operator in the Schrödinger equation. Also, is the speed of light, and is the reduced Planck constant. These fundamental physical constants reflect special relativity and quantum mechanics, respectively.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 145343, 162321, 28758, 20431, 2288549, 59874, 28736, 19594213, 23205 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 27 ], [ 48, 57 ], [ 64, 73 ], [ 119, 127 ], [ 150, 167 ], [ 175, 195 ], [ 211, 225 ], [ 239, 262 ], [ 282, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dirac's purpose in casting this equation was to explain the behavior of the relativistically moving electron, and so to allow the atom to be treated in a manner consistent with relativity. His rather modest hope was that the corrections introduced this way might have a bearing on the problem of atomic spectra.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 27752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 296, 310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Up until that time, attempts to make the old quantum theory of the atom compatible with the theory of relativity, which were based on discretizing the angular momentum stored in the electron's possibly non-circular orbit of the atomic nucleus, had failed – and the new quantum mechanics of Heisenberg, Pauli, Jordan, Schrödinger, and Dirac himself had not developed sufficiently to treat this problem. Although Dirac's original intentions were satisfied, his equation had far deeper implications for the structure of matter and introduced new mathematical classes of objects that are now essential elements of fundamental physics.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 2839, 19916559, 33130, 33972, 1354698, 9942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 167 ], [ 228, 242 ], [ 290, 300 ], [ 302, 307 ], [ 309, 315 ], [ 317, 328 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The new elements in this equation are the four matrices , , and , and the four-component wave function . There are four components in because the evaluation of it at any given point in configuration space is a bispinor. It is interpreted as a superposition of a spin-up electron, a spin-down electron, a spin-up positron, and a spin-down positron.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 20556859, 145343, 19263783, 3017092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 56 ], [ 91, 104 ], [ 213, 221 ], [ 265, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The matrices and are all Hermitian and are involutory:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 189682, 7917643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 37 ], [ 46, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "and they all mutually anticommute:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 294358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These matrices and the form of the wave function have a deep mathematical significance. The algebraic structure represented by the gamma matrices had been created some 50years earlier by the English mathematician W. K. Clifford. In turn, Clifford's ideas had emerged from the mid-19th-century work of the German mathematician Hermann Grassmann in his Lineare Ausdehnungslehre (Theory of Linear Extensions). The latter had been regarded as almost incomprehensible by most of his contemporaries. The appearance of something so seemingly abstract, at such a late date, and in such a direct physical manner, is one of the most remarkable chapters in the history of physics.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 2907966, 250820, 99242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 145 ], [ 213, 227 ], [ 326, 343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The single symbolic equation thus unravels into four coupled linear first-order partial differential equations for the four quantities that make up the wave function. The equation can be written more explicitly in Planck units as:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 52564, 33710707 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 109 ], [ 214, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "which makes it clearer that it is a set of four partial differential equations with four unknown functions.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Dirac equation is superficially similar to the Schrödinger equation for a massive free particle:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 1297539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The left side represents the square of the momentum operator divided by twice the mass, which is the non-relativistic kinetic energy. Because relativity treats space and time as a whole, a relativistic generalization of this equation requires that space and time derivatives must enter symmetrically as they do in the Maxwell equations that govern the behavior of light — the equations must be differentially of the same order in space and time. In relativity, the momentum and the energies are the space and time parts of a spacetime vector, the four-momentum, and they are related by the relativistically invariant relation", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 19737, 204680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 318, 334 ], [ 547, 560 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "which says that the length of this four-vector is proportional to the rest mass . Substituting the operator equivalents of the energy and momentum from the Schrödinger theory produces the Klein–Gordon equation describing the propagation of waves, constructed from relativistically invariant objects,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 204680, 209627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 46 ], [ 188, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "with the wave function being a relativistic scalar: a complex number which has the same numerical value in all frames of reference. Space and time derivatives both enter to second order. This has a telling consequence for the interpretation of the equation. Because the equation is second order in the time derivative, one must specify initial values both of the wave function itself and of its first time-derivative in order to solve definite problems. Since both may be specified more or less arbitrarily, the wave function cannot maintain its former role of determining the probability density of finding the electron in a given state of motion. In the Schrödinger theory, the probability density is given by the positive definite expression", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 43487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 578, 597 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "and this density is convected according to the probability current vector", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "with the conservation of probability current and density following from the continuity equation:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The fact that the density is positive definite and convected according to this continuity equation implies that one may integrate the density over a certain domain and set the total to 1, and this condition will be maintained by the conservation law. A proper relativistic theory with a probability density current must also share this feature. To maintain the notion of a convected density, one must generalize the Schrödinger expression of the density and current so that space and time derivatives again enter symmetrically in relation to the scalar wave function. The Schrödinger expression can be kept for the current, but the probability density must be replaced by the symmetrically formed expression", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 649616, 6956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 46 ], [ 233, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "which now becomes the 4th component of a spacetime vector, and the entire probability 4-current density has the relativistically covariant expression", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 3545648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The continuity equation is as before. Everything is compatible with relativity now, but the expression for the density is no longer positive definite; the initial values of both and may be freely chosen, and the density may thus become negative, something that is impossible for a legitimate probability density. Thus, one cannot get a simple generalization of the Schrödinger equation under the naive assumption that the wave function is a relativistic scalar, and the equation it satisfies, second order in time.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Although it is not a successful relativistic generalization of the Schrödinger equation, this equation is resurrected in the context of quantum field theory, where it is known as the Klein–Gordon equation, and describes a spinless particle field (e.g. pi meson or Higgs boson). Historically, Schrödinger himself arrived at this equation before the one that bears his name but soon discarded it. In the context of quantum field theory, the indefinite density is understood to correspond to the charge density, which can be positive or negative, and not the probability density.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 25267, 209627, 36961, 20556903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 156 ], [ 183, 204 ], [ 252, 260 ], [ 264, 275 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dirac thus thought to try an equation that was first order in both space and time. One could, for example, formally (i.e. by abuse of notation) take the relativistic expression for the energy", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 1698066, 2875647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 142 ], [ 153, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "replace by its operator equivalent, expand the square root in an infinite series of derivative operators, set up an eigenvalue problem, then solve the equation formally by iterations. Most physicists had little faith in such a process, even if it were technically possible.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 15287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the story goes, Dirac was staring into the fireplace at Cambridge, pondering this problem, when he hit upon the idea of taking the square root of the wave operator thus:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On multiplying out the right side it is apparent that, in order to get all the cross-terms such as to vanish, one must assume", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "with", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dirac, who had just then been intensely involved with working out the foundations of Heisenberg's matrix mechanics, immediately understood that these conditions could be met if , , and are matrices, with the implication that the wave function has multiple components. This immediately explained the appearance of two-component wave functions in Pauli's phenomenological theory of spin, something that up until then had been regarded as mysterious, even to Pauli himself. However, one needs at least matrices to set up a system with the properties required — so the wave function had four components, not two, as in the Pauli theory, or one, as in the bare Schrödinger theory. The four-component wave function represents a new class of mathematical object in physical theories that makes its first appearance here.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 396320, 19593829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 114 ], [ 382, 386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Given the factorization in terms of these matrices, one can now write down immediately an equation", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "with to be determined. Applying again the matrix operator on both sides yields", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Taking shows that all the components of the wave function individually satisfy the relativistic energy–momentum relation. Thus the sought-for equation that is first-order in both space and time is", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Setting", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and because , the Dirac equation is produced as written above.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To demonstrate the relativistic invariance of the equation, it is advantageous to cast it into a form in which the space and time derivatives appear on an equal footing. New matrices are introduced as follows:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 543568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "and the equation takes the form (remembering the definition of the covariant components of the 4-gradient and especially that )", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 1717865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where there is an implied summation over the values of the twice-repeated index , and is the 4-gradient. In practice one often writes the gamma matrices in terms of 2 × 2 sub-matrices taken from the Pauli matrices and the 2 × 2 identity matrix. Explicitly the standard representation is", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 195407, 2907966, 24868, 59718, 2907966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 35 ], [ 139, 153 ], [ 200, 214 ], [ 229, 244 ], [ 261, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The complete system is summarized using the Minkowski metric on spacetime in the form", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 230488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where the bracket expression", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "denotes the anticommutator. These are the defining relations of a Clifford algebra over a pseudo-orthogonal 4-dimensional space with metric signature . The specific Clifford algebra employed in the Dirac equation is known today as the Dirac algebra. Although not recognized as such by Dirac at the time the equation was formulated, in hindsight the introduction of this geometric algebra represents an enormous stride forward in the development of quantum theory.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 7193, 45305, 463225, 10290343, 12939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 26 ], [ 66, 82 ], [ 133, 149 ], [ 235, 248 ], [ 370, 387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Dirac equation may now be interpreted as an eigenvalue equation, where the rest mass is proportional to an eigenvalue of the 4-momentum operator, the proportionality constant being the speed of light:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 2161429, 2288549, 81863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 58 ], [ 129, 148 ], [ 154, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Using ( is pronounced \"d-slash\"), according to Feynman slash notation, the Dirac equation becomes:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 1394385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In practice, physicists often use units of measure such that , known as natural units. The equation then takes the simple form", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 33710742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A fundamental theorem states that if two distinct sets of matrices are given that both satisfy the Clifford relations, then they are connected to each other by a similarity transformation:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 45305, 341149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 117 ], [ 162, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If in addition the matrices are all unitary, as are the Dirac set, then itself is unitary;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 236007, 129222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 43 ], [ 83, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The transformation is unique up to a multiplicative factor of absolute value 1. Let us now imagine a Lorentz transformation to have been performed on the space and time coordinates, and on the derivative operators, which form a covariant vector. For the operator to remain invariant, the gammas must transform among themselves as a contravariant vector with respect to their spacetime index. These new gammas will themselves satisfy the Clifford relations, because of the orthogonality of the Lorentz transformation. By the fundamental theorem, one may replace the new set by the old set subject to a unitary transformation. In the new frame, remembering that the rest mass is a relativistic scalar, the Dirac equation will then take the form", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 18404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If the transformed spinor is defined as", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "then the transformed Dirac equation is produced in a way that demonstrates manifest relativistic invariance:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 29425253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thus, settling on any unitary representation of the gammas is final, provided the spinor is transformed according to the unitary transformation that corresponds to the given Lorentz transformation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The various representations of the Dirac matrices employed will bring into focus particular aspects of the physical content in the Dirac wave function. The representation shown here is known as the standard representation – in it, the wave function's upper two components go over into Pauli's 2spinor wave function in the limit of low energies and small velocities in comparison to light.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The considerations above reveal the origin of the gammas in geometry, hearkening back to Grassmann's original motivation; they represent a fixed basis of unit vectors in spacetime. Similarly, products of the gammas such as represent oriented surface elements, and so on. With this in mind, one can find the form of the unit volume element on spacetime in terms of the gammas as follows. By definition, it is", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 187446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 234, 250 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For this to be an invariant, the epsilon symbol must be a tensor, and so must contain a factor of , where is the determinant of the metric tensor. Since this is negative, that factor is imaginary. Thus", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 195982, 29965, 8468, 195795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 47 ], [ 58, 64 ], [ 114, 125 ], [ 133, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This matrix is given the special symbol , owing to its importance when one is considering improper transformations of space-time, that is, those that change the orientation of the basis vectors. In the standard representation, it is", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This matrix will also be found to anticommute with the other four Dirac matrices:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It takes a leading role when questions of parity arise because the volume element as a directed magnitude changes sign under a space-time reflection. Taking the positive square root above thus amounts to choosing a handedness convention on spacetime.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical developments and further mathematical details", "target_page_ids": [ 1240666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The necessity of introducing half-integer spin goes back experimentally to the results of the Stern–Gerlach experiment. A beam of atoms is run through a strong inhomogeneous magnetic field, which then splits into parts depending on the intrinsic angular momentum of the atoms. It was found that for silver atoms, the beam was split in two; the ground state therefore could not be integer, because even if the intrinsic angular momentum of the atoms were as small as possible, 1, the beam would be split into three parts, corresponding to atoms with . The conclusion is that silver atoms have net intrinsic angular momentum of . Pauli set up a theory which explained this splitting by introducing a two-component wave function and a corresponding correction term in the Hamiltonian, representing a semi-classical coupling of this wave function to an applied magnetic field, as so in SI units: (Note that bold faced characters imply Euclidean vectors in 3dimensions, whereas the Minkowski four-vector can be defined as .)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Comparison with related theories", "target_page_ids": [ 19593829, 962171, 3180547, 36563, 19593829, 27119, 225982, 14563, 33972, 4852151, 26764, 32533, 8398, 230488, 226424 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 46 ], [ 94, 118 ], [ 160, 173 ], [ 174, 188 ], [ 237, 263 ], [ 300, 306 ], [ 345, 357 ], [ 381, 388 ], [ 629, 634 ], [ 770, 781 ], [ 883, 891 ], [ 932, 949 ], [ 954, 964 ], [ 978, 987 ], [ 988, 999 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Here and represent the components of the electromagnetic four-potential in their standard SI units, and the three sigmas are the Pauli matrices. On squaring out the first term, a residual interaction with the magnetic field is found, along with the usual classical Hamiltonian of a charged particle interacting with an applied field in SI units:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Comparison with related theories", "target_page_ids": [ 731884, 24868, 20431, 26764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 73 ], [ 131, 145 ], [ 257, 300 ], [ 338, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This Hamiltonian is now a matrix, so the Schrödinger equation based on it must use a two-component wave function. On introducing the external electromagnetic 4-vector potential into the Dirac equation in a similar way, known as minimal coupling, it takes the form:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Comparison with related theories", "target_page_ids": [ 32708967 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 229, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A second application of the Dirac operator will now reproduce the Pauli term exactly as before, because the spatial Dirac matrices multiplied by , have the same squaring and commutation properties as the Pauli matrices. What is more, the value of the gyromagnetic ratio of the electron, standing in front of Pauli's new term, is explained from first principles. This was a major achievement of the Dirac equation and gave physicists great faith in its overall correctness. There is more however. The Pauli theory may be seen as the low energy limit of the Dirac theory in the following manner. First the equation is written in the form of coupled equations for 2-spinors with the SI units restored:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Comparison with related theories", "target_page_ids": [ 1228679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 251, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "so", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Comparison with related theories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Assuming the field is weak and the motion of the electron non-relativistic, the total energy of the electron is approximately equal to its rest energy, and the momentum going over to the classical value,", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Comparison with related theories", "target_page_ids": [ 162321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "and so the second equation may be written", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Comparison with related theories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "which is of order – thus at typical energies and velocities, the bottom components of the Dirac spinor in the standard representation are much suppressed in comparison to the top components. Substituting this expression into the first equation gives after some rearrangement", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Comparison with related theories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The operator on the left represents the particle energy reduced by its rest energy, which is just the classical energy, so one can recover Pauli's theory upon identifying his 2-spinor with the top components of the Dirac spinor in the non-relativistic approximation. A further approximation gives the Schrödinger equation as the limit of the Pauli theory. Thus, the Schrödinger equation may be seen as the far non-relativistic approximation of the Dirac equation when one may neglect spin and work only at low energies and velocities. This also was a great triumph for the new equation, as it traced the mysterious that appears in it, and the necessity of a complex wave function, back to the geometry of spacetime through the Dirac algebra. It also highlights why the Schrödinger equation, although superficially in the form of a diffusion equation, actually represents the propagation of waves.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Comparison with related theories", "target_page_ids": [ 645335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 832, 850 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It should be strongly emphasized that this separation of the Dirac spinor into large and small components depends explicitly on a low-energy approximation. The entire Dirac spinor represents an irreducible whole, and the components just neglected here to arrive at the Pauli theory will bring in new phenomena in the relativistic regime – antimatter and the idea of creation and annihilation of particles.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Comparison with related theories", "target_page_ids": [ 1317, 2362494, 346133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 339, 349 ], [ 366, 374 ], [ 379, 391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the massless case , the Dirac equation reduces to the Weyl equation, which describes relativistic massless spin- particles.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Comparison with related theories", "target_page_ids": [ 33162584 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The theory acquires a second symmetry: see below.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Comparison with related theories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The critical physical question in a quantum theory is this: what are the physically observable quantities defined by the theory? According to the postulates of quantum mechanics, such quantities are defined by Hermitian operators that act on the Hilbert space of possible states of a system. The eigenvalues of these operators are then the possible results of measuring the corresponding physical quantity. In the Schrödinger theory, the simplest such object is the overall Hamiltonian, which represents the total energy of the system. To maintain this interpretation on passing to the Dirac theory, the Hamiltonian must be taken to be", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Physical interpretation", "target_page_ids": [ 294248, 187408, 20598932, 773292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 94 ], [ 210, 228 ], [ 246, 259 ], [ 360, 369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where, as always, there is an implied summation over the twice-repeated index . This looks promising, because one can see by inspection the rest energy of the particle and, in the case of , the energy of a charge placed in an electric potential . What about the term involving the vector potential? In classical electrodynamics, the energy of a charge moving in an applied potential is", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Physical interpretation", "target_page_ids": [ 195407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thus, the Dirac Hamiltonian is fundamentally distinguished from its classical counterpart, and one must take great care to correctly identify what is observable in this theory. Much of the apparently paradoxical behavior implied by the Dirac equation amounts to a misidentification of these observables.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Physical interpretation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The negative solutions to the equation are problematic, for it was assumed that the particle has a positive energy. Mathematically speaking, however, there seems to be no reason for us to reject the negative-energy solutions. Since they exist, they cannot simply be ignored, for once the interaction between the electron and the electromagnetic field is included, any electron placed in a positive-energy eigenstate would decay into negative-energy eigenstates of successively lower energy. Real electrons obviously do not behave in this way, or they would disappear by emitting energy in the form of photons.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Physical interpretation", "target_page_ids": [ 23535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 602, 608 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To cope with this problem, Dirac introduced the hypothesis, known as hole theory, that the vacuum is the many-body quantum state in which all the negative-energy electron eigenstates are occupied. This description of the vacuum as a \"sea\" of electrons is called the Dirac sea. Since the Pauli exclusion principle forbids electrons from occupying the same state, any additional electron would be forced to occupy a positive-energy eigenstate, and positive-energy electrons would be forbidden from decaying into negative-energy eigenstates.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Physical interpretation", "target_page_ids": [ 32502, 312308, 24669 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 97 ], [ 266, 275 ], [ 287, 312 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If an electron is forbidden from simultaneously occupying positive-energy and negative-energy eigenstates, then the feature known as Zitterbewegung, which arises from the interference of positive-energy and negative-energy states, would have to be considered to be an unphysical prediction of time-dependent Dirac theory. This conclusion may be inferred from the explanation of hole theory given in the preceding paragraph. Recent results have been published in Nature [R. Gerritsma, G. Kirchmair, F. Zaehringer, E. Solano, R. Blatt, and C. Roos, Nature 463, 68-71 (2010)] in which the Zitterbewegung feature was simulated in a trapped-ion experiment. This experiment impacts the hole interpretation if one infers that the physics-laboratory experiment is not merely a check on the mathematical correctness of a Dirac equation solution but the measurement of a real effect whose detectability in electron physics is still beyond reach.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Physical interpretation", "target_page_ids": [ 1850013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dirac further reasoned that if the negative-energy eigenstates are incompletely filled, each unoccupied eigenstate – called a hole – would behave like a positively charged particle. The hole possesses a positive energy because energy is required to create a particle–hole pair from the vacuum. As noted above, Dirac initially thought that the hole might be the proton, but Hermann Weyl pointed out that the hole should behave as if it had the same mass as an electron, whereas the proton is over 1800 times heavier. The hole was eventually identified as the positron, experimentally discovered by Carl Anderson in 1932.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Physical interpretation", "target_page_ids": [ 187544, 24731, 396485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 373, 385 ], [ 558, 566 ], [ 597, 610 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is not entirely satisfactory to describe the \"vacuum\" using an infinite sea of negative-energy electrons. The infinitely negative contributions from the sea of negative-energy electrons have to be canceled by an infinite positive \"bare\" energy and the contribution to the charge density and current coming from the sea of negative-energy electrons is exactly canceled by an infinite positive \"jellium\" background so that the net electric charge density of the vacuum is zero. In quantum field theory, a Bogoliubov transformation on the creation and annihilation operators (turning an occupied negative-energy electron state into an unoccupied positive energy positron state and an unoccupied negative-energy electron state into an occupied positive energy positron state) allows us to bypass the Dirac sea formalism even though, formally, it is equivalent to it.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Physical interpretation", "target_page_ids": [ 1600866, 25267, 1146338, 701991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 396, 403 ], [ 482, 502 ], [ 506, 531 ], [ 539, 574 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In certain applications of condensed matter physics, however, the underlying concepts of \"hole theory\" are valid. The sea of conduction electrons in an electrical conductor, called a Fermi sea, contains electrons with energies up to the chemical potential of the system. An unfilled state in the Fermi sea behaves like a positively charged electron, though it is referred to as a \"hole\" rather than a \"positron\". The negative charge of the Fermi sea is balanced by the positively charged ionic lattice of the material.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Physical interpretation", "target_page_ids": [ 5387, 46870556, 198984, 22863481, 218628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 51 ], [ 125, 144 ], [ 152, 172 ], [ 183, 192 ], [ 237, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In quantum field theories such as quantum electrodynamics, the Dirac field is subject to a process of second quantization, which resolves some of the paradoxical features of the equation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Physical interpretation", "target_page_ids": [ 25267, 25268, 418156 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 25 ], [ 34, 57 ], [ 102, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Dirac equation is Lorentz covariant. Articulating this helps illuminate not only the Dirac equation, but also the Majorana spinor and Elko spinor, which although closely related, have subtle and important differences.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further discussion of Lorentz covariance of the Dirac equation", "target_page_ids": [ 543568, 2914802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 39 ], [ 118, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Understanding Lorentz covariance is simplified by keeping in mind the geometric character of the process. Let be a single, fixed point in the spacetime manifold. Its location can be expressed in multiple coordinate systems. In the physics literature, these are written as and , with the understanding that both and describe the same point , but in different local frames of reference (a frame of reference over a small extended patch of spacetime). ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further discussion of Lorentz covariance of the Dirac equation", "target_page_ids": [ 28758, 2073470, 47436, 2434383, 74263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 152 ], [ 153, 161 ], [ 205, 223 ], [ 362, 387 ], [ 391, 409 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One can imagine as having a fiber of different coordinate frames above it. In geometric terms, one says that spacetime can be characterized as a fiber bundle, and specifically, the frame bundle. The difference between two points and in the same fiber is a combination of rotations and Lorentz boosts. A choice of coordinate frame is a (local) section through that bundle.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further discussion of Lorentz covariance of the Dirac equation", "target_page_ids": [ 6603892, 276526, 366550, 39789, 18404, 367621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 34 ], [ 146, 158 ], [ 182, 194 ], [ 274, 282 ], [ 288, 301 ], [ 346, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Coupled to the frame bundle is a second bundle, the spinor bundle. A section through the spinor bundle is just the particle field (the Dirac spinor, in the present case). Different points in the spinor fiber correspond to the same physical object (the fermion) but expressed in different Lorentz frames. Clearly, the frame bundle and the spinor bundle must be tied together in a consistent fashion to get consistent results; formally, one says that the spinor bundle is the associated bundle; it is associated to a principal bundle, which in the present case is the frame bundle. Differences between points on the fiber correspond to the symmetries of the system. The spinor bundle has two distinct generators of its symmetries: the total angular momentum and the intrinsic angular momentum. Both correspond to Lorentz transformations, but in different ways.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further discussion of Lorentz covariance of the Dirac equation", "target_page_ids": [ 348085, 398874, 310950, 3171371, 1633547, 19593829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 65 ], [ 475, 492 ], [ 516, 532 ], [ 700, 710 ], [ 734, 756 ], [ 765, 791 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The presentation here follows that of Itzykson and Zuber. It is very nearly identical to that of Bjorken and Drell. A similar derivation in a general relativistic setting can be found in Weinberg. Here we fix our spacetime to be flat, that is, our spacetime is Minkowski space.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further discussion of Lorentz covariance of the Dirac equation", "target_page_ids": [ 12024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under a Lorentz transformation the Dirac spinor to transform as", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further discussion of Lorentz covariance of the Dirac equation", "target_page_ids": [ 18404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It can be shown that an explicit expression for is given by", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further discussion of Lorentz covariance of the Dirac equation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where parameterizes the Lorentz transformation, and is the 4×4 matrix", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further discussion of Lorentz covariance of the Dirac equation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This matrix can be interpreted as the intrinsic angular momentum of the Dirac field. That it deserves this interpretation arises by contrasting it to the generator of Lorentz transformations, having the form", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further discussion of Lorentz covariance of the Dirac equation", "target_page_ids": [ 19593829, 18404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 64 ], [ 168, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This can be interpreted as the total angular momentum. It acts on the spinor field as", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further discussion of Lorentz covariance of the Dirac equation", "target_page_ids": [ 1633547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Note the above does not have a prime on it: the above is obtained by transforming obtaining the change to and then returning to the original coordinate system .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further discussion of Lorentz covariance of the Dirac equation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The geometrical interpretation of the above is that the frame field is affine, having no preferred origin. The generator generates the symmetries of this space: it provides a relabelling of a fixed point The generator generates a movement from one point in the fiber to another: a movement from with both and still corresponding to the same spacetime point These perhaps obtuse remarks can be elucidated with explicit algebra.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further discussion of Lorentz covariance of the Dirac equation", "target_page_ids": [ 2336109, 298834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 67 ], [ 71, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Let be a Lorentz transformation. The Dirac equation is", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further discussion of Lorentz covariance of the Dirac equation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If the Dirac equation is to be covariant, then it should have exactly the same form in all Lorentz frames:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further discussion of Lorentz covariance of the Dirac equation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The two spinors and should both describe the same physical field, and so should be related by a transformation that does not change any physical observables (charge, current, mass, etc.) The transformation should encode only the change of coordinate frame. It can be shown that such a transformation is a 4×4 unitary matrix. Thus, one may presume that the relation between the two frames can be written as", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further discussion of Lorentz covariance of the Dirac equation", "target_page_ids": [ 129222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 311, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Inserting this into the transformed equation, the result is", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further discussion of Lorentz covariance of the Dirac equation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Lorentz transformation is", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further discussion of Lorentz covariance of the Dirac equation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The original Dirac equation is then regained if", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further discussion of Lorentz covariance of the Dirac equation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An explicit expression for (equal to the expression given above) can be obtained by considering an infinitesimal Lorentz transformation", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further discussion of Lorentz covariance of the Dirac equation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is the metric tensor and is antisymmetric. After plugging and chugging, one obtains", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further discussion of Lorentz covariance of the Dirac equation", "target_page_ids": [ 195795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "which is the (infinitesimal) form for above. To obtain the affine relabelling, write", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further discussion of Lorentz covariance of the Dirac equation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After properly antisymmetrizing, one obtains the generator of symmetries given earlier. Thus, both and can be said to be the \"generators of Lorentz transformations\", but with a subtle distinction: the first corresponds to a relabelling of points on the affine frame bundle, which forces a translation along the fiber of the spinor on the spin bundle, while the second corresponds to translations along the fiber of the spin bundle (taken as a movement along the frame bundle, as well as a movement along the fiber of the spin bundle.) Weinberg provides additional arguments for the physical interpretation of these as total and intrinsic angular momentum.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further discussion of Lorentz covariance of the Dirac equation", "target_page_ids": [ 366550, 348085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 264, 276 ], [ 342, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Dirac equation can be formulated in a number of other ways.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Other formulations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This article has developed the Dirac equation in flat spacetime according to special relativity. It is possible to formulate the Dirac equation in curved spacetime.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Other formulations", "target_page_ids": [ 39171284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This article developed the Dirac equation using four vectors and Schrödinger operators. The Dirac equation in the algebra of physical space uses a Clifford algebra over the real numbers, a type of geometric algebra.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Other formulations", "target_page_ids": [ 2363928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Natural units are used in this section. The coupling constant is labelled by convention with : this parameter can also be viewed as modelling the electron charge.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Dirac equation and action admits a symmetry where the fields transform as", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This is a global symmetry, known as the vector symmetry (as opposed to the axial symmetry: see below). By Noether's theorem there is a corresponding conserved current: this has been mentioned previously as", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [ 150159 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If we 'promote' the global symmetry, parametrised by the constant , to a local symmetry, parametrised by a function , or equivalently the Dirac equation is no longer invariant: there is a residual derivative of .", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The fix proceeds as in scalar electrodynamics: the partial derivative is promoted to a covariant derivative ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [ 4370367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The covariant derivative depends on the field being acted on. The newly introduced is the 4-vector potential from electrodynamics, but also can be viewed as a gauge field, or a connection.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [ 23912155, 308815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 161, 172 ], [ 180, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The transformation law under gauge transformations for is then the usual", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "but can also be derived by asking that covariant derivatives transform under a gauge transformation as", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "We then obtain a gauge-invariant Dirac action by promoting the partial derivative to a covariant one:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The final step needed to write down a gauge-invariant Lagrangian is to add a Maxwell Lagrangian term,", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Putting these together gives", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Expanding out the covariant derivative allows the action to be written in a second useful form:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Massless Dirac fermions, that is, fields satisfying the Dirac equation with , admit a second, inequivalent symmetry.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This is seen most easily by writing the four-component Dirac fermion as a pair of two-component vector fields,", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and adopting the chiral representation for the gamma matrices, so that may be written", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [ 2907966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where has components and has components .", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Dirac action then takes the form", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "That is, it decouples into a theory of two Weyl spinors or Weyl fermions.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [ 33162584 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The earlier vector symmetry is still present, where and rotate identically. This form of the action makes the second inequivalent symmetry manifest:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This can also be expressed at the level of the Dirac fermion as ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is the exponential map for matrices.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This isn't the only symmetry possible, but it is conventional. Any 'linear combination' of the vector and axial symmetries is also a symmetry.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Classically, the axial symmetry admits a well-formulated gauge theory. But at the quantum level, there is an anomaly, that is, an obstruction to gauging.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [ 364731 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "We can extend this discussion from an abelian symmetry to a general non-abelian symmetry under a gauge group , the group of color symmetries for a theory.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [ 23912155, 180870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 109 ], [ 125, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For concreteness, we fix , the special unitary group of matrices acting on .", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [ 173997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before this section, could be viewed as a spinor field on Minkowski space, in other words a function , and its components in are labelled by spin indices, conventionally Greek indices taken from the start of the alphabet . ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Promoting the theory to a gauge theory, informally acquires a part transforming like , and these are labelled by color indices, conventionally Latin indices . In total, has components, given in indices by . The 'spinor' labels only how the field transforms under spacetime transformations. ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Formally, is valued in a tensor product, that is, it is a function ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Gauging proceeds similarly to the abelian case, with a few differences. Under a gauge transformation the spinor fields transform as", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The matrix-valued gauge field or connection transforms as", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and the covariant derivatives defined ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "transform as ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Writing down a gauge-invariant action proceeds exactly as with the case, replacing the Maxwell Lagrangian with the Yang–Mills Lagrangian", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [ 672202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where the Yang–Mills field strength or curvature is defined here as", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and is the matrix commutator. ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The action is then", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For physical applications, the case describes the quark sector of the Standard model which models strong interactions. Quarks are modelled as Dirac spinors; the gauge field is the gluon field. The case describes part of the electroweak sector of the Standard model. Leptons such as electrons and neutrinos are the Dirac spinors; the gauge field is the gauge boson.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [ 25179, 47641, 27984, 12666, 10103 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 56 ], [ 71, 85 ], [ 99, 118 ], [ 181, 186 ], [ 226, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This expression can be generalised to arbitrary Lie group with connection and a representation , where the colour part of is valued in . Formally, the Dirac field is a function ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [ 12695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Then transforms under a gauge transformation as", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and the covariant derivative is defined", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where here we view as a Lie algebra representation of the Lie algebra associated to .", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [ 17944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This theory can be generalised to curved spacetime, but there are subtleties which arise in gauge theory on a general spacetime (or more generally still, a manifold) which, on flat spacetime, can be ignored. This is ultimately due to the contractibility of flat spacetime which allows us to view a gauge field and gauge transformations as defined globally on .", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "U(1) symmetry", "target_page_ids": [ 1752414 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 238, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dirac field", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2240310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dirac spinor", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 292800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gordon decomposition", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 47796972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Klein paradox", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3126592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nonlinear Dirac equation", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38549774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Breit equation", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1989515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dirac–Kähler equation", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 70663611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Klein–Gordon equation", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 209627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rarita–Schwinger equation", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1531781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Two-body Dirac equations", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 36054202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Weyl equation", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 33162584 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Majorana equation", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2914802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fermionic field", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2240310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Feynman checkerboard", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13293546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Foldy–Wouthuysen transformation", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18527330 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Quantum electrodynamics", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 25268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Quantum chromodynamics", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 25264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Dirac Equation at MathPages", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Nature of the Dirac Equation, its solutions, and Spin", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dirac equation for a spin particle", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Pedagogic Aids to Quantum Field Theory click on Chap. 4 for a step-by-small-step introduction to the Dirac equation, spinors, and relativistic spin/helicity operators.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " BBC Documentary Atom 3 The Illusion of Reality", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Dirac_equation", "1928_introductions", "Fermions", "Partial_differential_equations", "Paul_Dirac", "Quantum_field_theory", "Spinors" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "XYY syndrome, also known as Jacobs syndrome, is an aneuploid genetic condition in which a male has an extra Y chromosome. There are usually few symptoms. These may include being taller than average, acne, and an increased risk of learning disabilities. The person is generally otherwise normal, including typical rates of fertility.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 308793, 12437, 246891, 74555, 10970082, 257215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 60 ], [ 61, 78 ], [ 108, 120 ], [ 199, 203 ], [ 230, 251 ], [ 322, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The condition is generally not inherited from a person's parents but rather occurs as a result of a random event during sperm development. Diagnosis is by a chromosomal analysis, but most of those affected are not diagnosed within their lifetime. There are 47 chromosomes, instead of the usual 46, giving a 47,XYY karyotype.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 13457, 505484, 344879, 152038 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 64 ], [ 120, 137 ], [ 157, 177 ], [ 314, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Treatment may include speech therapy or extra help with schoolwork, but outcomes are generally good. The condition occurs in about 1 in 1,000 male births. Many people with the condition are unaware that they have it. The condition was first described in 1961.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7032057 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "People with the 47,XYY karyotype have an increased growth rate from early childhood, with an average final height approximately 7cm (3\") above expected final height. In Edinburgh, Scotland, eight 47,XYY boys born 1967–1972 and identified in a newborn screening programme had an average height of 188.1cm (6'2\") at age 18—their fathers' average height was 174.1cm (5'8\"), their mothers' average height was 162.8cm (5'4\"). The increased gene dosage of three X/Y chromosome pseudoautosomal region (PAR1) SHOX genes has been postulated as a cause of the increased stature seen in all three sex chromosome trisomies: 47,XXX, 47,XXY, and 47,XYY.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Signs and symptoms", "target_page_ids": [ 152038, 9602, 26994, 4629978, 4988765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 32 ], [ 169, 178 ], [ 180, 188 ], [ 471, 493 ], [ 501, 505 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Severe acne was noted in a very few early case reports, but dermatologists specializing in acne now doubt the existence of a relationship with 47,XYY.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Signs and symptoms", "target_page_ids": [ 74555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prenatal testosterone levels are normal in 47,XYY males. Most 47,XYY males have normal sexual development and have normal fertility.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Signs and symptoms", "target_page_ids": [ 30983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In contrast to the other common sex chromosome aneuploidies—47,XXX and 47,XXY (Klinefelter syndrome)—the average IQ scores of 47,XYY boys identified by newborn screening programs were not reduced compared to the general population. In a summary of six prospective studies of 47,XYY boys identified by newborn screening programmes, twenty-eight 47,XYY boys had an average 100.76 verbal IQ, 108.79 performance IQ, and 105.00 full-scale IQ. In a systematic review including two prospective studies of 47,XYY boys identified by newborn screening programs and one retrospective study of 47,XYY men identified by screening men over 184cm (6'\") in height, forty-two 47,XYY boys and men had an average 99.5 verbal IQ and 106.4 performance IQ.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Signs and symptoms", "target_page_ids": [ 308793, 67599209, 19833554, 14892, 2994579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 59 ], [ 60, 66 ], [ 79, 99 ], [ 113, 115 ], [ 443, 460 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In prospective studies of 47,XYY boys identified by newborn screening programs, the IQ scores of 47,XYY boys were usually slightly lower than those of their siblings. In Edinburgh, fifteen 47,XYY boys with siblings identified in a newborn screening program had an average 104.0 verbal IQ and 106.7 performance IQ, while their siblings had an average 112.9 verbal IQ and 114.6 performance IQ.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Signs and symptoms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Approximately half of 47,XYY boys identified by newborn screening programs had learning difficulties—a higher proportion than found among siblings and above-average-IQ control groups. In Edinburgh, 54% of 47,XYY boys (7 of 13) identified in a newborn screening program received remedial reading teaching compared to 18% (4 of 22) in an above-average-IQ control group of 46,XY boys matched by their father's social class. In Boston, USA 55% of 47,XYY boys (6 of 11) identified in a newborn screening program had learning difficulties and received part-time resource room help compared to 11% (1 of 9) in an above-average-IQ control group of 46,XY boys with familial balanced autosomal chromosome translocations.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Signs and symptoms", "target_page_ids": [ 24437894, 560502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 424, 430 ], [ 684, 709 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Developmental delays and behavioral problems are also possible, but these characteristics vary widely among affected boys and men, are not unique to 47,XYY and are managed no differently from in 46,XY males. Aggression is not seen more frequently in 47,XYY males.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Signs and symptoms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Patients with Jacobs syndrome have been shown to have a higher risk of developing certain diseases such as asthma, seizure problems, and tremors. Some 47,XYY patients have been found to have genitourinary malformations. These include cryptorchidism, hypoplastic scrotum, microphallus, and hypospadias. These men could be diagnosed with infertility as a result of oligospermia or sperm chromosomal abnormalities. According to certain psychological studies, these patients may probably have problems with impulse control and emotional regulation. Increased testosterone levels were found to be correlated with an increased risk of aggressive behavior in incarcerated males with 47,XYY syndrome. More recent studies have found these males to be at a greater risk for criminal behavior, although testosterone levels have not consistently been proven to be elevated or related to this increased risk. These patients are also at a higher risk of developing speech difficulties, ADHD, autism spectrum disorder, and learning disabilities.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Signs and symptoms", "target_page_ids": [ 44905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "47,XYY is not inherited, but usually occurs as a random event during the formation of sperm cells. An incident in chromosome separation during anaphase II (of meiosis II) called nondisjunction can result in sperm cells with an extra copy of the Y-chromosome. If one of these atypical sperm cells contributes to the genetic makeup of a child, the child will have an extra Y-chromosome in each of the body's cells.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cause", "target_page_ids": [ 27638, 18976, 481020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 91 ], [ 159, 169 ], [ 178, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In some cases, the addition of an extra Y-chromosome results from nondisjunction during cell division during a post-zygotic mitosis in early embryonic development. This can produce 46,XY/47,XYY mosaics.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cause", "target_page_ids": [ 20369, 604020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 131 ], [ 194, 201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "47,XYY syndrome is not usually diagnosed until learning issues are present. The syndrome is diagnosed in an increasing number of children prenatally by amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling in order to obtain a chromosome karyotype, where the abnormality can be observed.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Diagnosis", "target_page_ids": [ 187698, 697843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 165 ], [ 170, 195 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is estimated that only 15–20% of children with 47,XYY syndrome are ever diagnosed. Of these, approximately 30% are diagnosed prenatally. For the rest of those diagnosed after birth, around half are diagnosed during childhood or adolescence after developmental delays are observed. The rest are diagnosed after any of a variety of symptoms, including fertility problems (5%) have been seen.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Diagnosis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Around 1 in 1,000 boys are born with a 47,XYY karyotype. The incidence of 47,XYY is not known to be affected by the parents' ages.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Epidemiology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In April 1956, Hereditas published the discovery by cytogeneticists Joe Hin Tjio and Albert Levan at Lund University in Sweden that the normal number of chromosomes in diploid human cells was 46—not 48 as had been believed for the preceding thirty years. In the wake of the establishment of the normal number of human chromosomes, 47,XYY was the last of the common sex chromosome aneuploidies to be discovered, two years after the discoveries of 47,XXY, 45,X, and 47,XXX in 1959. Even the much less common 48,XXYY had been discovered in 1960, a year before 47,XYY.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 12281842, 344879, 7862519, 2356501, 17843, 5058739, 23219, 19833554, 49364, 67599209, 4948244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 24 ], [ 52, 67 ], [ 68, 80 ], [ 85, 97 ], [ 101, 116 ], [ 120, 126 ], [ 168, 175 ], [ 446, 452 ], [ 454, 458 ], [ 464, 470 ], [ 506, 513 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Screening for those X chromosome aneuploidies was possible by noting the presence or absence of \"female\" sex chromatin bodies (Barr bodies) in the nuclei of interphase cells in buccal smears, a technique developed a decade before the first reported sex chromosome aneuploidy. An analogous technique to screen for Y-chromosome aneuploidies by noting supernumerary \"male\" sex chromatin bodies was not developed until 1970, a decade after the first reported sex chromosome aneuploidy.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 208144, 52994, 6235, 222320, 23469354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 32 ], [ 127, 138 ], [ 147, 153 ], [ 157, 167 ], [ 177, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first published report of a man with a 47,XYY karyotype was by internist and cytogeneticist Avery Sandberg and colleagues at Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center (then known as Roswell Park Memorial Institute) in Buffalo, New York in 1961. It was an incidental finding in a normal 44-year-old, 6ft. [183cm] tall man of average intelligence who was karyotyped because he had a daughter with Down syndrome. Only a dozen isolated 47,XYY cases were reported in the medical literature in the four years following the first report by Sandberg.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3884421, 1303531, 3985, 8303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 110 ], [ 129, 169 ], [ 221, 238 ], [ 398, 411 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Then, in December 1965 and March 1966, Nature and The Lancet published the first preliminary reports by British cytogeneticist Patricia Jacobs and colleagues at the MRC Human Genetics Unit at Western General Hospital in Edinburgh of a chromosome survey of 315 male patients at State Hospital in Carstairs, Lanarkshire—Scotland's only special security hospital for developmentally disabled people —that found nine patients, ages 17 to 36, averaging almost 6ft. in height (avg. 5'11\", range: 5'7\" to 6'2\"), had a 47,XYY karyotype, and mischaracterized them as aggressive and violent criminals. Over the next decade, almost all published XYY studies were on height-selected, institutionalized XYY males.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 43427, 463899, 18509889, 22845470, 3429133, 9602, 4839537, 5371403, 164890, 26994, 2225882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 45 ], [ 50, 60 ], [ 127, 142 ], [ 165, 188 ], [ 192, 216 ], [ 220, 229 ], [ 277, 291 ], [ 295, 304 ], [ 306, 317 ], [ 318, 326 ], [ 364, 388 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In January 1968 and March 1968, The Lancet and Science published the first U.S. reports of tall, institutionalized XYY males by Mary Telfer, a biochemist, and colleagues at the Elwyn Institute. Telfer found five tall, developmentally disabled XYY boys and men in hospitals and penal institutions in Pennsylvania, and since four of the five had at least moderate facial acne, reached the erroneous conclusion that acne was a defining characteristic of XYY males. After learning that convicted mass murderer Richard Speck had been karyotyped, Telfer not only incorrectly assumed the acne-scarred Speck was XYY, but reached the false conclusion that Speck was the archetypical XYY male—or \"supermale\" as Telfer referred to XYY males outside of peer-reviewed scientific journals.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 463899, 193513, 306081, 9129609, 23332, 74555, 700374, 53917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 42 ], [ 47, 54 ], [ 143, 153 ], [ 177, 192 ], [ 299, 311 ], [ 369, 373 ], [ 506, 519 ], [ 661, 673 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In April 1968, The New York Times—using Telfer as a main source—introduced the XYY genetic condition to the general public in a three-part series on consecutive days that began with a Sunday front-page story about the planned use of the condition as a mitigating factor in two murder trials in Paris and Melbourne—and falsely reported that Richard Speck was an XYY male and that the condition would be used in an appeal of his murder conviction. The series was echoed the following week by articles—again using Telfer as a main source—in Time and Newsweek, and six months later in The New York Times Magazine.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 30680, 22989, 17306237, 31600, 214169, 1965416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 33 ], [ 294, 299 ], [ 304, 313 ], [ 538, 542 ], [ 547, 555 ], [ 581, 608 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December 1968, the Journal of Medical Genetics published the first XYY review article—by Michael Court Brown, director of the MRC Human Genetics Unit—which reported no overrepresentation of XYY males in nationwide chromosome surveys of prisons and hospitals for developmentally disabled and mentally ill people in Scotland, and concluded that studies confined to institutionalized XYY males may be guilty of selection bias, and that long-term longitudinal prospective studies of newborn XYY boys were needed.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23823802, 394392, 1557623, 16107025 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 49 ], [ 411, 425 ], [ 446, 458 ], [ 459, 470 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In May 1969, at the annual meeting of the American Psychiatric Association, Telfer and her Elwyn Institute colleagues reported that case studies of the institutionalized XYY and XXY males they had found convinced them that XYY males had been falsely stigmatized and that their behavior may not be significantly different from chromosomally normal 46,XY males.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 160911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 1969, the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) Center for Studies of Crime and Delinquency held a two-day XYY conference in Chevy Chase, Maryland. In December 1969, with a grant from the NIMH Center for Studies of Crime and Delinquency, cytogeneticist Digamber Borgaonkar at Johns Hopkins Hospital began a chromosome survey of (predominantly African-American) boys ages 8 to 18 in all Maryland institutions for delinquent, neglected, or mentally ill juveniles, which was suspended from February–May 1970 due to an American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) lawsuit about the lack of informed consent. Concurrently, through 1974, psychologist John Money at Johns Hopkins Hospital experimented on thirteen XYY boys and men (ages 15 to 37) in an unsuccessful attempt to treat their history of behavior problems by chemical castration using high-dose Depo-Provera—with side-effects of weight gain (avg. 26lbs.) and suicide.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 455909, 144921, 218873, 18858, 1950, 50355, 285544, 422572, 23484633 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 53 ], [ 138, 159 ], [ 289, 311 ], [ 399, 407 ], [ 528, 558 ], [ 592, 608 ], [ 651, 661 ], [ 820, 839 ], [ 856, 868 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the late 1960s and early 1970s, screening of consecutive newborns for sex chromosome abnormalities was undertaken at seven centers worldwide: in Denver (Jan 1964–1974), Edinburgh (Apr 1967–Jun 1979), New Haven (Oct 1967–Sep 1968), Toronto (Oct 1967–Sep 1971), Aarhus (Oct 1969–Jan 1974, Oct 1980–Jan 1989), Winnipeg (Feb 1970–Sep 1973), and Boston (Apr 1970–Nov 1974). The Boston study, led by Harvard Medical School child psychiatrist Stanley Walzer at Children's Hospital, was unique among the seven newborn screening studies in that it only screened newborn boys (non-private-ward newborn boys at the Boston Hospital for Women) and was funded in part by grants from the NIMH Center for Studies of Crime and Delinquency. The Edinburgh study was led by Shirley Ratcliffe who focused her career on it and published the results in 1999.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 8522, 9602, 53825, 64646, 1038, 100730, 24437894, 329529, 1493152, 1608724, 56657953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 154 ], [ 172, 181 ], [ 203, 212 ], [ 234, 241 ], [ 263, 269 ], [ 310, 318 ], [ 344, 350 ], [ 397, 419 ], [ 457, 476 ], [ 607, 632 ], [ 758, 775 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December 1969, Lore Zech at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm first reported intense fluorescence of the A T-rich distal half of the long arm of the Y chromosome in the nuclei of metaphase cells treated with quinacrine mustard. In April 1970, Peter Pearson and Martin Bobrow at the MRC Population Genetics Unit in Oxford and Canino Vosa at the University of Oxford reported fluorescent \"male\" sex chromatin bodies in the nuclei of interphase cells in buccal smears treated with quinacrine dihydrochloride, which could be used to screen for Y chromosome aneuploidies like 47,XYY.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 216908, 26741, 11555, 38571, 58550, 584504, 1362163, 636280, 22308, 31797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 55 ], [ 59, 68 ], [ 92, 104 ], [ 112, 113 ], [ 114, 115 ], [ 186, 195 ], [ 215, 225 ], [ 289, 292 ], [ 321, 327 ], [ 351, 371 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 1970, The XYY Man was published—the first of seven Kenneth Royce spy novels whose fictional tall, intelligent, nonviolent XYY hero was a reformed expert cat burglar recruited by British intelligence for dangerous assignments—and later adapted into a thirteen-episode British summer television series broadcast in 1976 and 1977. In other fictional television works, a January 1971 episode \"By the Pricking of My Thumbs ...\" of the British science fiction TV series Doomwatch featured an XYY boy expelled from school because his genetic condition led him to be falsely accused of nearly blinding another boy, a November 1993 episode \"Born Bad\" of the American police procedural TV series Law & Order portrayed a 14-year-old XYY sociopathic murderer, and the May 2007 season finale episode \"Born To Kill\" of the American police procedural TV series Miami depicted a 34-year-old XYY serial killer. The false stereotype of XYY boys and men as violent criminals has also been used as a plot device in the horror films Il gatto a nove code in February 1971 (dubbed into English as The Cat o' Nine Tails in May 1971) and Alien 3 in May 1992.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4581263, 11253988, 858518, 173629, 13451, 3417500, 213251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 25 ], [ 59, 72 ], [ 472, 481 ], [ 694, 705 ], [ 1008, 1019 ], [ 1083, 1104 ], [ 1122, 1129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December 1970, at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), its retiring president, geneticist H. Bentley Glass, cheered by the legalization of abortion in New York, envisioned a future where pregnant women would be required by the government to abort XYY \"sex deviants\". Mischaracterization of the XYY genetic condition was quickly incorporated into high school biology textbooks and medical school psychiatry textbooks, where misinformation still persists decades later.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 243062, 2674222, 8210131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 98 ], [ 142, 158 ], [ 203, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1973, child psychiatrist Herbert Schreier at Children's Hospital told Harvard Medical School microbiologist Jon Beckwith of Science for the People that he thought Walzer's Boston XYY study was unethical; Science for the People investigated the study and filed a complaint with Harvard Medical School about the study in March 1974. In November 1974, Science for the People went public with their objections to the Boston XYY study in a press conference and a New Scientist article alleging inadequate informed consent, a lack of benefit (since no specific treatment was available) but substantial risk (by stigmatization with a false stereotype) to the subjects, and that the unblinded experimental design could not produce meaningful results regarding the subjects' behavior. In December 1974, the Harvard Standing Committee on Medical Research issued a report supporting the Boston XYY study and in March 1975, the faculty voted 199–35 to allow continuation of the study. After April 1975, screening of newborns was discontinued—changes to informed consent procedures and pressure from additional advocacy groups, including the Children's Defense Fund, having led to the discontinuation of the last active U.S. newborn screening programs for sex chromosome abnormalities in Boston and Denver.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6465855, 5597919, 39431, 1577243 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 123 ], [ 127, 149 ], [ 461, 474 ], [ 1132, 1155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In August 1976, Science published a retrospective cohort study by Educational Testing Service psychologist Herman Witkin and colleagues that screened the tallest 16% of men (over 184cm (6'0\") in height) born in Copenhagen from 1944 to 1947 for XXY and XYY karyotypes, and found an increased rate of minor criminal convictions for property crimes among sixteen XXY and twelve XYY men may be related to the lower intelligence of those with criminal convictions, but found no evidence that XXY or XYY men were inclined to be aggressive or violent.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 14905844, 347550, 5166 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 62 ], [ 66, 93 ], [ 211, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The March of Dimes sponsored five international conferences in June 1974, November 1977, May 1981, June 1984, and June 1989 and published articles from the conferences in book form in 1979, 1982, 1986, and 1991 from seven longitudinal prospective cohort studies on the development of over 300 children and young adults with sex chromosome abnormalities identified in the screening of almost 200,000 consecutive births in hospitals in Denver, Edinburgh, New Haven, Toronto, Aarhus, Winnipeg, and Boston from 1964 to 1975. These seven studies—the only unbiased studies of unselected individuals with sex chromosome abnormalities—have replaced the older, biased studies of institutionalized individuals in understanding the development of individuals with sex chromosome abnormalities.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 859943, 16107025 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 235, 261 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In May 1997, Nature Genetics published the discovery by Ercole Rao and colleagues of the X/Y chromosome pseudoautosomal region (PAR1) SHOX gene, haploinsufficiency of which leads to short stature in Turner syndrome (45,X). It was subsequently postulated that the increased gene dosage of three SHOX genes leads to tall stature in the sex chromosome trisomies 47,XXX, 47,XXY, and 47,XYY.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 17011236, 4629978, 4988765, 1929037, 49364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 28 ], [ 104, 126 ], [ 134, 138 ], [ 145, 163 ], [ 199, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 1999, Psychological Medicine published a case-control study by Royal Edinburgh Hospital psychiatrist Michael Götz and colleagues that found an increased rate of criminal convictions among seventeen XYY men identified in the Edinburgh newborn screening study compared to an above-average-IQ control group of sixty XY men, which multiple logistic regression analysis indicated was mediated mainly through lowered intelligence.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18388923, 788661, 3875159, 226631 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 36 ], [ 49, 67 ], [ 71, 95 ], [ 344, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 2002, the American Journal of Medical Genetics published results from a longitudinal prospective cohort Denver Family Development Study led by pediatrician and geneticist Arthur Robinson, which found that in fourteen prenatally diagnosed 47,XYY boys (from high socioeconomic status families), IQ scores available for six boys ranged from 100 to 147 with a mean of 120. For the eleven of fourteen boys with siblings, in nine instances their siblings were stronger academically, but in one case the subject was performing equal to, and in another case superior to, his siblings.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19538529, 647286, 13059113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 54 ], [ 225, 245 ], [ 269, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some medical geneticists question whether the term \"syndrome\" is appropriate for this condition because many people with this karyotype appear normal.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 277102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Klinefelter syndrome", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19833554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " XXYY syndrome", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4948244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " XYYY syndrome", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 67137377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " XYYYY syndrome", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 67559908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Turner syndrome", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 49364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Trisomy X", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 67599209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nielsen, Johannes (1998). XYY males. An orientation.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Syndromes", "Sex_chromosome_aneuploidies", "Wikipedia_medicine_articles_ready_to_translate", "Rare_syndromes" ]

[ "47,XYY syndrome.", "Y disomy", "Disomy Y", "47,XYY", "Double Y", "XYY Karyotype", "XYY Syndrome", "47,XYY Syndrome", "Double Y syndrome" ]

[ { "plaintext": "A trisomy is a type of polysomy in which there are three instances of a particular chromosome, instead of the normal two. A trisomy is a type of aneuploidy (an abnormal number of chromosomes).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2883085, 6438, 308793 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 31 ], [ 83, 93 ], [ 145, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most organisms that reproduce sexually have pairs of chromosomes in each cell, with one chromosome inherited from each parent. In such organisms, a process called meiosis creates cells called gametes (eggs or sperm) that have only one set of chromosomes. The number of chromosomes is different for different species. Humans have 46 chromosomes (i.e. 23 pairs of chromosomes). Human gametes have only 23 chromosomes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description and causes", "target_page_ids": [ 18976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If the chromosome pairs fail to separate properly during cell division, the egg or sperm may end up with a second copy of one of the chromosomes. (See non-disjunction.) If such a gamete results in fertilization and an embryo, the resulting embryo may also have an entire copy of the extra chromosome.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description and causes", "target_page_ids": [ 481020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The number of chromosomes in the cell where trisomy occurs is represented as, for example, 2n+1 if one chromosome shows trisomy, 2n+1+1 if two show trisomy, etc.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description and causes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Full trisomy\", also called \"primary trisomy\", means that an entire extra chromosome has been copied.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description and causes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Partial trisomy\" means that there is an extra copy of part of a chromosome.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description and causes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Secondary trisomy\" - the extra chromosome has quadruplicated arms (the arms are identical; it is an \"isochromosome\"). ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description and causes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Tertiary trisomy\" - the extra chromosome is made up of copies of arms from two other chromosomes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description and causes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Trisomies are sometimes characterised as \"autosomal trisomies\" (trisomies of the non-sex chromosomes) and \"sex-chromosome trisomies.\" Autosomal trisomies are described by referencing the specific chromosome that has an extra copy. Thus, for example, the presence of an extra chromosome 21, which is found in Down syndrome, is called trisomy 21.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description and causes", "target_page_ids": [ 3092374, 8303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 277, 290 ], [ 310, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Trisomies can occur with any chromosome, but often result in miscarriage, rather than live birth. For example, Trisomy 16 is the most common trisomy in human pregnancies, occurring in more than 1% of pregnancies; only those pregnancies in which some normal cells occur in addition to the trisomic cells, or mosaic trisomy 16, survive. This condition, however, usually results in spontaneous miscarriage in the first trimester.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Human trisomy", "target_page_ids": [ 6438, 15511908, 604020, 144147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 39 ], [ 111, 121 ], [ 307, 313 ], [ 391, 402 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most common types of autosomal trisomy that survive to birth in humans are:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Human trisomy", "target_page_ids": [ 1916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Trisomy 21 (Down syndrome)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Human trisomy", "target_page_ids": [ 8303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Trisomy 18 (Edwards syndrome)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Human trisomy", "target_page_ids": [ 435802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Trisomy 13 (Patau syndrome)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Human trisomy", "target_page_ids": [ 422600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Trisomy 9", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Human trisomy", "target_page_ids": [ 2870914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Trisomy 8 (Warkany syndrome 2)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Human trisomy", "target_page_ids": [ 2631856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Of these, Trisomy 21 and Trisomy 18 are the most common. In rare cases, a fetus with Trisomy 13 can survive, giving rise to Patau syndrome. Autosomal trisomy can be associated with birth defects, intellectual disability and shortened life expectancy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Human trisomy", "target_page_ids": [ 422600, 18567040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 139 ], [ 197, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Trisomy of sex chromosomes can also occur and include:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Human trisomy", "target_page_ids": [ 7123751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "XXX (Triple X syndrome)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Human trisomy", "target_page_ids": [ 67599209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "XXY (Klinefelter syndrome)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Human trisomy", "target_page_ids": [ 19833554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "XYY", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Human trisomy", "target_page_ids": [ 39411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Compared to trisomy of the autosomal chromosomes, trisomy of the sex chromosomes normally has less severe consequences. Individuals may show few or no symptoms and have a normal life expectancy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Human trisomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Chromosome abnormalities", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6415314 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aneuploidy", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 308793 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Karyotype", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 152038 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sexual reproduction", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21304415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Monosomy", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1409861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] } ]

[ "Cytogenetics", "Chromosomal_abnormalities" ]

[ "chromosomal triplication" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Moore's law is the observation that the number of transistors in a dense integrated circuit (IC) doubles about every two years. Moore's law is an observation and projection of a historical trend. Rather than a law of physics, it is an empirical relationship linked to gains from experience in production.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4469365, 30011, 15150, 22649, 246074, 244629, 270045, 322332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 46 ], [ 50, 60 ], [ 73, 91 ], [ 146, 157 ], [ 162, 172 ], [ 210, 224 ], [ 235, 257 ], [ 268, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The observation is named after Gordon Moore, the co-founder of Fairchild Semiconductor and Intel (and former CEO of the latter), who in 1965 posited a doubling every year in the number of components per integrated circuit, and projected this rate of growth would continue for at least another decade. In 1975, looking forward to the next decade, he revised the forecast to doubling every two years, a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 41%. While Moore did not use empirical evidence in forecasting that the historical trend would continue, his prediction held since 1975 and has since become known as a \"law\".", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 196914, 180263, 14617, 191933, 1645226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 43 ], [ 63, 86 ], [ 91, 96 ], [ 151, 170 ], [ 401, 428 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Moore's prediction has been used in the semiconductor industry to guide long-term planning and to set targets for research and development, thus functioning to some extent as a self-fulfilling prophecy. Advancements in digital electronics, such as the reduction in quality-adjusted microprocessor prices, the increase in memory capacity (RAM and flash), the improvement of sensors, and even the number and size of pixels in digital cameras, are strongly linked to Moore's law. These ongoing changes in digital electronics have been a driving force of technological and social change, productivity, and economic growth.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 612813, 254769, 232445, 39068, 1355939, 19553, 6806, 21306150, 50595, 34286437, 23665, 52797, 424899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 62 ], [ 114, 138 ], [ 177, 201 ], [ 219, 238 ], [ 265, 281 ], [ 282, 296 ], [ 321, 336 ], [ 338, 341 ], [ 346, 351 ], [ 373, 380 ], [ 414, 419 ], [ 424, 438 ], [ 584, 596 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Industry experts have not reached a consensus on exactly when Moore's law will cease to apply. Microprocessor architects report that semiconductor advancement has slowed industry-wide since around 2010, slightly below the pace predicted by Moore's law. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1959, Douglas Engelbart studied the projected downscaling of integrated circuit (IC) size, publishing his results in the article \"Microelectronics, and the Art of Similitude\". Engelbart presented his findings at the 1960 International Solid-State Circuits Conference, where Moore was present in the audience.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 8081, 15150, 1464404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 26 ], [ 64, 82 ], [ 224, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1965, Gordon Moore, who at the time was working as the director of research and development at Fairchild Semiconductor, was asked to contribute to the thirty-fifth anniversary issue of Electronics magazine with a prediction on the future of the semiconductor components industry over the next ten years. His response was a brief article entitled \"Cramming more components onto integrated circuits\". Within his editorial, he speculated that by 1975 it would be possible to contain as many as 65,000 components on a single quarter-square-inch semiconductor.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 180263, 1730548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 121 ], [ 188, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The complexity for minimum component costs has increased at a rate of roughly a factor of two per year. Certainly over the short term this rate can be expected to continue, if not to increase. Over the longer term, the rate of increase is a bit more uncertain, although there is no reason to believe it will not remain nearly constant for at least 10 years.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Moore posited a log-linear relationship between device complexity (higher circuit density at reduced cost) and time. In a 2015 interview, Moore noted of the 1965 article: \"...I just did a wild extrapolation saying it’s going to continue to double every year for the next 10 years.\" One historian of the law cites Stigler's law of eponymy, to introduce the fact that the regular doubling of components was known to many working in the field.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 682348 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 313, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1974, Robert H. Dennard at IBM recognized the rapid MOSFET scaling technology and formulated what became known as Dennard scaling, which describes that as MOS transistors get smaller, their power density stays constant such that the power use remains in proportion with area. Evidence from the semiconductor industry shows that this inverse relationship between power density and areal density broke down in the mid-2000s.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 544712, 40379651, 41723875, 2207861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 26 ], [ 30, 33 ], [ 117, 132 ], [ 193, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the 1975 IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting, Moore revised his forecast rate, predicting semiconductor complexity would continue to double annually until about 1980, after which it would decrease to a rate of doubling approximately every two years. He outlined several contributing factors for this exponential behavior:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 39219444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The advent of metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) technology", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 40345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The exponential rate of increase in die sizes, coupled with a decrease in defective densities, with the result that semiconductor manufacturers could work with larger areas without losing reduction yields", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Finer minimum dimensions", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " What Moore called \"circuit and device cleverness\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Shortly after 1975, Caltech professor Carver Mead popularized the term \"Moore's law\". Moore's law eventually came to be widely accepted as a goal for the semiconductor industry, and it was cited by competitive semiconductor manufacturers as they strove to increase processing power. Moore viewed his eponymous law as surprising and optimistic: \"Moore's law is a violation of Murphy's law. Everything gets better and better.\" The observation was even seen as a self-fulfilling prophecy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5786, 684268, 47635, 232445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 27 ], [ 38, 49 ], [ 375, 387 ], [ 460, 484 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The doubling period is often misquoted as 18 months because of a prediction by Moore's colleague, Intel executive David House. In 1975, House noted that Moore's revised law of doubling transistor count every 2 years in turn implied that computer chip performance would roughly double every 18 months (with no increase in power consumption). Mathematically, Moore's Law predicted that transistor count would double every 2 years due to shrinking transistor dimensions and other improvements. As a consequence of shrinking dimensions, Dennard scaling predicted that power consumption per unit area would remain constant. Combining these effects, David House deduced that computer chip performance would roughly double every 18 months. Also due to Dennard scaling, this increased performance would not be accompanied by increased power, i.e., the energy-efficiency of silicon-based computer chips roughly doubles every 18 months. Dennard scaling ended in the 2000s. Koomey later showed that a similar rate of efficiency improvement predated silicon chips and Moore's Law, for technologies such as vacuum tubes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 27114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 866, 873 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Microprocessor architects report that since around 2010, semiconductor advancement has slowed industry-wide below the pace predicted by Moore's law. Brian Krzanich, the former CEO of Intel, cited Moore's 1975 revision as a precedent for the current deceleration, which results from technical challenges and is \"a natural part of the history of Moore's law\". The rate of improvement in physical dimensions known as Dennard scaling also ended in the mid-2000s. As a result, much of the semiconductor industry has shifted its focus to the needs of major computing applications rather than semiconductor scaling. Nevertheless, leading semiconductor manufacturers TSMC and Samsung Electronics have claimed to keep pace with Moore's law with 10 nm and 7 nm nodes in mass production and 5 nm nodes in risk production .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 39281395, 463574, 46445426 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 149, 163 ], [ 659, 663 ], [ 668, 687 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the cost of computer power to the consumer falls, the cost for producers to fulfill Moore's law follows an opposite trend: R&D, manufacturing, and test costs have increased steadily with each new generation of chips. Rising manufacturing costs are an important consideration for the sustaining of Moore's law. This led to the formulation of Moore's second law, also called Rock's law, which is that the capital cost of a semiconductor fab also increases exponentially over time.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7818, 1752893, 45807, 4107858 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 45 ], [ 344, 362 ], [ 406, 413 ], [ 424, 441 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Numerous innovations by scientists and engineers have sustained Moore's law since the beginning of the IC era. Some of the key innovations are listed below, as examples of breakthroughs that have advanced integrated circuit and semiconductor device fabrication technology, allowing transistor counts to grow by more than seven orders of magnitude in less than five decades.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [ 27696, 4469365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 228, 260 ], [ 282, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Integrated circuit (IC) The raison d'être for Moore's law. The germanium hybrid IC was invented by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments in 1958, followed by the invention of the silicon monolithic IC chip by Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1959.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [ 15150, 12242, 2437593, 64069, 47768, 27114, 15150, 25808, 180263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 65, 74 ], [ 75, 84 ], [ 101, 111 ], [ 115, 132 ], [ 175, 182 ], [ 183, 196 ], [ 205, 217 ], [ 221, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) The CMOS process was invented by Chih-Tang Sah and Frank Wanlass at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1963.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [ 49420, 14313519, 1212094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 39 ], [ 81, 94 ], [ 99, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) DRAM was developed by Robert H. Dennard at IBM in 1967.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [ 74567, 544712, 40379651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ], [ 59, 76 ], [ 80, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chemically-amplified photoresist Invented by Hiroshi Ito, C. Grant Willson and J. M. J. Fréchet at IBM circa 1980, which was 5–10 times more sensitive to ultraviolet light. IBM introduced chemically amplified photoresist for DRAM production in the mid-1980s.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [ 23781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Deep UV excimer laser photolithography Invented by Kanti Jain at IBM circa 1980. Prior to this, excimer lasers had been mainly used as research devices since their development in the 1970s. From a broader scientific perspective, the invention of excimer laser lithography has been highlighted as one of the major milestones in the 50-year history of the laser.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [ 23748, 581704 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 39 ], [ 98, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Interconnect innovations Interconnect innovations of the late 1990s, including chemical-mechanical polishing or chemical mechanical planarization (CMP), trench isolation, and copper interconnects—although not directly a factor in creating smaller transistors—have enabled improved wafer yield, additional layers of metal wires, closer spacing of devices, and lower electrical resistance.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [ 27696, 1253327, 41860, 27696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 114, 147 ], [ 283, 288 ], [ 307, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Computer industry technology road maps predicted in 2001 that Moore's law would continue for several generations of semiconductor chips.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One of the key challenges of engineering future nanoscale transistors is the design of gates. As device dimension shrinks, controlling the current flow in the thin channel becomes more difficult. Modern nanoscale transistors typically take the form of multi-gate MOSFETs, with the FinFET being the most common nanoscale transistor. The FinFET has gate dielectric on three sides of the channel. In comparison, the gate-all-around MOSFET (GAAFET) structure has even better gate control.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [ 8327305, 8857189, 1512217, 8857189, 8857189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 57 ], [ 252, 269 ], [ 281, 287 ], [ 413, 428 ], [ 437, 443 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A gate-all-around MOSFET (GAAFET) was first demonstrated in 1988, by a Toshiba research team led by Fujio Masuoka, who demonstrated a vertical nanowire GAAFET which he called a \"surrounding gate transistor\" (SGT). Masuoka, best known as the inventor of flash memory, later left Toshiba and founded Unisantis Electronics in 2004 to research surrounding-gate technology along with Tohoku University.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [ 8857189, 59703, 16379200, 50595, 573744 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 18 ], [ 72, 79 ], [ 101, 114 ], [ 254, 266 ], [ 380, 397 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 2006, a team of Korean researchers from the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) and the National Nano Fab Center developed a 3 nm transistor, the world's smallest nanoelectronic device at time, based on FinFET technology.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [ 16934, 8327305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 98 ], [ 190, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 2010, researchers at the Tyndall National Institute in Cork, Ireland announced a junctionless transistor. A control gate wrapped around a silicon nanowire can control the passage of electrons without the use of junctions or doping. They claim these may be produced at 10-nm scale using existing fabrication techniques.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In 2011, researchers at the University of Pittsburgh announced the development of a single-electron transistor, 1.5nm in diameter, made out of oxide-based materials. Three \"wires\" converge on a central \"island\" that can house one or two electrons. Electrons tunnel from one wire to another through the island. Conditions on the third wire result in distinct conductive properties including the ability of the transistor to act as a solid state memory. Nanowire transistors could spur the creation of microscopic computers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In 2012, a research team at the University of New South Wales announced the development of the first working transistor consisting of a single atom placed precisely in a silicon crystal (not just picked from a large sample of random transistors). Moore's law predicted this milestone to be reached for ICs in the lab by 2020.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [ 146078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 2015, IBM demonstrated 7 nm node chips with silicon-germanium transistors produced using EUVL. The company believes this transistor density would be four times that of current 14 nm chips.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [ 662175, 2154371 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 65 ], [ 93, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Samsung and TSMC plan to manufacture 3nm GAAFET nodes by 20212022. Note that node names, such as 3nm, have no relation to the physical size of device elements (transistors).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A Toshiba research team including T. Imoto, M. Matsui and C. Takubo developed a \"System Block Module\" wafer bonding process for manufacturing three-dimensional integrated circuit (3D IC) packages in 2001. In April 2007, Toshiba introduced an eight-layer 3D IC, the 16GB THGAM embedded NAND flash memory chip which was manufactured with eight stacked 2GB NAND flash chips. In September 2007, Hynix introduced 24-layer 3D IC, a 16GB flash memory chip that was manufactured with 24 stacked NAND flash chips using a wafer bonding process.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [ 59703, 15367982, 12570, 46630, 50595, 2806550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 10 ], [ 143, 179 ], [ 268, 270 ], [ 277, 285 ], [ 286, 296 ], [ 392, 397 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " V-NAND, also known as 3D NAND, allows flash memory cells to be stacked vertically using charge trap flash technology originally presented by John Szedon in 1967, significantly increasing the number of transistors on a flash memory chip. 3D NAND was first announced by Toshiba in 2007. V-NAND was first commercially manufactured by Samsung Electronics in 2013.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [ 50595, 6973208, 46445426 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 89, 106 ], [ 332, 351 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 2008, researchers at HP Labs announced a working memristor, a fourth basic passive circuit element whose existence only had been theorized previously. The memristor's unique properties permit the creation of smaller and better-performing electronic devices.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [ 14246162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 2014, bioengineers at Stanford University developed a circuit modeled on the human brain. Sixteen \"Neurocore\" chips simulate one million neurons and billions of synaptic connections, claimed to be 9,000 times faster as well as more energy efficient than a typical PC.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [ 26977, 30307873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 45 ], [ 94, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 2015, Intel and Micron announced 3D XPoint, a non-volatile memory claimed to be significantly faster with similar density compared to NAND. Production scheduled to begin in 2016 was delayed until the second half of 2017.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [ 487445, 47371808, 780629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 26 ], [ 37, 46 ], [ 50, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 2017, Samsung combined its V-NAND technology with eUFS 3D IC stacking to produce a 512GB flash memory chip, with eight stacked 64-layer V-NAND dies. In 2019, Samsung produced a 1TB flash chip with eight stacked 96-layer V-NAND dies, along with quad-level cell (QLC) technology (4-bit per transistor), equivalent to 2trillion transistors, the highest transistor count of any IC chip.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [ 13288318, 3365, 12401563, 520346, 4469365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 58 ], [ 182, 184 ], [ 248, 263 ], [ 282, 287 ], [ 354, 370 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 2020, Samsung Electronics plans to produce the 5 nm node, using FinFET and EUV technology.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [ 46445426, 2154371 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ], [ 79, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In May 2021, IBM announces the creation of the first 2 nm computer chip, with parts supposedly being smaller than human DNA.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [ 65397747 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Microprocessor architects report that semiconductor advancement has slowed industry-wide since around 2010, below the pace predicted by Moore's law. Brian Krzanich, the former CEO of Intel, announced, \"Our cadence today is closer to two and a half years than two.\" Intel stated in 2015 that improvements in MOSFET devices have slowed, starting at the 22 nm feature width around 2012, and continuing at 14 nm.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The physical limits to transistor scaling have been reached due to source-to-drain leakage, limited gate metals and limited options for channel material. Other approaches are being investigated, which do not rely on physical scaling. These include the spin state of electron spintronics, tunnel junctions, and advanced confinement of channel materials via nano-wire geometry. Spin-based logic and memory options are being developed actively in labs.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [ 61220, 12953027 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 275, 286 ], [ 288, 303 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The vast majority of current transistors on ICs are composed principally of doped silicon and its alloys. As silicon is fabricated into single nanometer transistors, short-channel effects adversely change desired material properties of silicon as a functional transistor. Below are several non-silicon substitutes in the fabrication of small nanometer transistors.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [ 860861, 20434413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 81 ], [ 166, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One proposed material is indium gallium arsenide, or InGaAs. Compared to their silicon and germanium counterparts, InGaAs transistors are more promising for future high-speed, low-power logic applications. Because of intrinsic characteristics of III-V compound semiconductors, quantum well and tunnel effect transistors based on InGaAs have been proposed as alternatives to more traditional MOSFET designs.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [ 2141015, 449667, 40578598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 48 ], [ 246, 275 ], [ 294, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In the early 2000s, the atomic layer deposition high-κ film and pitch double-patterning processes were invented by Gurtej Singh Sandhu at Micron Technology, extending Moore's law for planar CMOS technology to 30 nm class and smaller.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [ 3607910, 2332464, 1033036, 7908943, 42877490, 487445, 3847486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 48 ], [ 49, 55 ], [ 56, 60 ], [ 71, 88 ], [ 116, 135 ], [ 139, 156 ], [ 210, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 2009, Intel announced the development of 80-nm InGaAs quantum well transistors. Quantum well devices contain a material sandwiched between two layers of material with a wider band gap. Despite being double the size of leading pure silicon transistors at the time, the company reported that they performed equally as well while consuming less power.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [ 642886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 2011, researchers at Intel demonstrated 3-D tri-gate InGaAs transistors with improved leakage characteristics compared to traditional planar designs. The company claims that their design achieved the best electrostatics of any III-V compound semiconductor transistor. At the 2015 International Solid-State Circuits Conference, Intel mentioned the use of III-V compounds based on such an architecture for their 7nm node.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [ 8857189, 1464404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 56 ], [ 284, 329 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 2011, researchers at the University of Texas at Austin developed an InGaAs tunneling field-effect transistors capable of higher operating currents than previous designs. The first III-V TFET designs were demonstrated in 2009 by a joint team from Cornell University and Pennsylvania State University.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [ 32031, 7954422, 1209509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 58 ], [ 250, 268 ], [ 273, 302 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 2012, a team in MIT's Microsystems Technology Laboratories developed a 22nm transistor based on InGaAs which, at the time, was the smallest non-silicon transistor ever built. The team used techniques currently used in silicon device fabrication and aims for better electrical performance and a reduction to 10-nanometer scale.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [ 16567591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 311, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Biological computing research shows that biological material has superior information density and energy efficiency compared to silicon-based computing.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [ 10203313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Various forms of graphene are being studied for graphene electronics, e.g. graphene nanoribbon transistors have shown great promise since its appearance in publications in 2008. (Bulk graphene has a band gap of zero and thus cannot be used in transistors because of its constant conductivity, an inability to turn off. The zigzag edges of the nanoribbons introduce localized energy states in the conduction and valence bands and thus a bandgap that enables switching when fabricated as a transistor. As an example, a typical GNR of width of 10nm has a desirable bandgap energy of 0.4eV.) More research will need to be performed, however, on sub-50nm graphene layers, as its resistivity value increases and thus electron mobility decreases.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Major enabling factors", "target_page_ids": [ 911833, 42482555, 11652693, 42482555, 118396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 25 ], [ 48, 68 ], [ 75, 94 ], [ 95, 106 ], [ 199, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In April 2005, Gordon Moore stated in an interview that the projection cannot be sustained indefinitely: \"It can't continue forever. The nature of exponentials is that you push them out and eventually disaster happens.\" He also noted that transistors eventually would reach the limits of miniaturization at atomic levels:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Forecasts and roadmaps", "target_page_ids": [ 196914, 902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 27 ], [ 307, 311 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2016 the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors, after using Moore's Law to drive the industry since 1998, produced its final roadmap. It no longer centered its research and development plan on Moore's law. Instead, it outlined what might be called the More than Moore strategy in which the needs of applications drive chip development, rather than a focus on semiconductor scaling. Application drivers range from smartphones to AI to data centers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Forecasts and roadmaps", "target_page_ids": [ 3308500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IEEE began a road-mapping initiative in 2016, \"Rebooting Computing\", named the International Roadmap for Devices and Systems (IRDS).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Forecasts and roadmaps", "target_page_ids": [ 54658905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most forecasters, including Gordon Moore, expect Moore's law will end by around 2025. Although Moore’s Law will reach a physical limitation, some forecasters are optimistic about the continuation of technological progress in a variety of other areas, including new chip architectures, quantum computing, and AI and machine learning.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Forecasts and roadmaps", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Digital electronics have contributed to world economic growth in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. The primary driving force of economic growth is the growth of productivity, and Moore's law factors into productivity. Moore (1995) expected that \"the rate of technological progress is going to be controlled from financial realities\". The reverse could and did occur around the late-1990s, however, with economists reporting that \"Productivity growth is the key economic indicator of innovation.\" Moore's law describes a driving force of technological and social change, productivity, and economic growth.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Consequences", "target_page_ids": [ 69415, 424899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 61 ], [ 180, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An acceleration in the rate of semiconductor progress contributed to a surge in U.S. productivity growth, which reached 3.4% per year in 1997–2004, outpacing the 1.6% per year during both 1972–1996 and 2005–2013. As economist Richard G. Anderson notes, \"Numerous studies have traced the cause of the productivity acceleration to technological innovations in the production of semiconductors that sharply reduced the prices of such components and of the products that contain them (as well as expanding the capabilities of such products).\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Consequences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The primary negative implication of Moore's law is that obsolescence pushes society up against the Limits to Growth. As technologies continue to rapidly \"improve\", they render predecessor technologies obsolete. In situations in which security and survivability of hardware or data are paramount, or in which resources are limited, rapid obsolescence often poses obstacles to smooth or continued operations.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Consequences", "target_page_ids": [ 241563, 66618 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 68 ], [ 99, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because of the intensive resource footprint and toxic materials used in the production of computers, obsolescence leads to serious harmful environmental impacts. Americans throw out 400,000 cell phones every day, but this high level of obsolescence appears to companies as an opportunity to generate regular sales of expensive new equipment, instead of retaining one device for a longer period of time, leading to industry using planned obsolescence as a profit centre.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Consequences", "target_page_ids": [ 66618, 497852, 2310554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 160 ], [ 429, 449 ], [ 455, 468 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An alternative source of improved performance is in microarchitecture techniques exploiting the growth of available transistor count. Out-of-order execution and on-chip caching and prefetching reduce the memory latency bottleneck at the expense of using more transistors and increasing the processor complexity. These increases are described empirically by Pollack's Rule, which states that performance increases due to microarchitecture techniques approximate the square root of the complexity (number of transistors or the area) of a processor.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Consequences", "target_page_ids": [ 1410175, 1002307, 849181, 51540963, 17727950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 69 ], [ 134, 156 ], [ 169, 176 ], [ 181, 192 ], [ 357, 371 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For years, processor makers delivered increases in clock rates and instruction-level parallelism, so that single-threaded code executed faster on newer processors with no modification. Now, to manage CPU power dissipation, processor makers favor multi-core chip designs, and software has to be written in a multi-threaded manner to take full advantage of the hardware. Many multi-threaded development paradigms introduce overhead, and will not see a linear increase in speed vs number of processors. This is particularly true while accessing shared or dependent resources, due to lock contention. This effect becomes more noticeable as the number of processors increases. There are cases where a roughly 45% increase in processor transistors has translated to roughly 10–20% increase in processing power.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Consequences", "target_page_ids": [ 228385, 245960, 207561, 3503207, 45303, 244593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 61 ], [ 67, 96 ], [ 200, 221 ], [ 246, 256 ], [ 307, 321 ], [ 580, 584 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the other hand, manufacturers are adding specialized processing units to deal with features such as graphics, video, and cryptography. For one example, Intel's Parallel JavaScript extension not only adds support for multiple cores, but also for the other non-general processing features of their chips, as part of the migration in client side scripting toward HTML5.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Consequences", "target_page_ids": [ 7966125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 363, 368 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Moore's law has affected the performance of other technologies significantly: Michael S. Malone wrote of a Moore's War following the apparent success of shock and awe in the early days of the Iraq War. Progress in the development of guided weapons depends on electronic technology. Improvements in circuit density and low-power operation associated with Moore's law also have contributed to the development of technologies including mobile telephones and 3-D printing.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Consequences", "target_page_ids": [ 9695856, 6271840, 5043324, 19644137, 1305947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 95 ], [ 153, 166 ], [ 192, 200 ], [ 433, 450 ], [ 455, 467 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several measures of digital technology are improving at exponential rates related to Moore's law, including the size, cost, density, and speed of components. Moore wrote only about the density of components, \"a component being a transistor, resistor, diode or capacitor\", at minimum cost.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other formulations and similar observations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Transistors per integrated circuit – The most popular formulation is of the doubling of the number of transistors on ICs every two years. At the end of the 1970s, Moore's law became known as the limit for the number of transistors on the most complex chips. The graph at the top shows this trend holds true today. As of 2017, the commercially available processor possessing the highest number of transistors is the 48 core Centriq with over 18 billion transistors.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other formulations and similar observations", "target_page_ids": [ 52506997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 423, 430 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This is the formulation given in Moore's 1965 paper. It is not just about the density of transistors that can be achieved, but about the density of transistors at which the cost per transistor is the lowest.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other formulations and similar observations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As more transistors are put on a chip, the cost to make each transistor decreases, but the chance that the chip will not work due to a defect increases. In 1965, Moore examined the density of transistors at which cost is minimized, and observed that, as transistors were made smaller through advances in photolithography, this number would increase at \"a rate of roughly a factor of two per year\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other formulations and similar observations", "target_page_ids": [ 23748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 304, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dennard scaling – This posits that power usage would decrease in proportion to area (both voltage and current being proportional to length) of transistors. Combined with Moore's law, performance per watt would grow at roughly the same rate as transistor density, doubling every 1–2 years. According to Dennard scaling transistor dimensions would be scaled by 30% (0.7x) every technology generation, thus reducing their area by 50%. This would reduce the delay by 30% (0.7x) and therefore increase operating frequency by about 40% (1.4x). Finally, to keep electric field constant, voltage would be reduced by 30%, reducing energy by 65% and power (at 1.4x frequency) by 50%. Therefore, in every technology generation transistor density would double, circuit becomes 40% faster, while power consumption (with twice the number of transistors) stays the same. Dennard scaling came to end in 2005–2010, due to leakage currents.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other formulations and similar observations", "target_page_ids": [ 15929501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 183, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The exponential processor transistor growth predicted by Moore does not always translate into exponentially greater practical CPU performance. Since around 2005–2007, Dennard scaling has ended, so even though Moore's law continued for several years after that, it has not yielded dividends in improved performance. The primary reason cited for the breakdown is that at small sizes, current leakage poses greater challenges, and also causes the chip to heat up, which creates a threat of thermal runaway and therefore, further increases energy costs.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other formulations and similar observations", "target_page_ids": [ 2350918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 487, 502 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The breakdown of Dennard scaling prompted a greater focus on multicore processors, but the gains offered by switching to more cores are lower than the gains that would be achieved had Dennard scaling continued. In another departure from Dennard scaling, Intel microprocessors adopted a non-planar tri-gate FinFET at 22nm in 2012 that is faster and consumes less power than a conventional planar transistor. The rate of performance improvement for single-core microprocessors has slowed significantly. Single-core performance was improving by 52% per year in 1986–2003 and 23% per year in 2003–2011, but slowed to just seven percent per year in 2011–2018.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other formulations and similar observations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Quality adjusted price of IT equipment – The price of information technology (IT), computers and peripheral equipment, adjusted for quality and inflation, declined 16% per year on average over the five decades from 1959 to 2009. The pace accelerated, however, to 23% per year in 1995–1999 triggered by faster IT innovation, and later, slowed to 2% per year in 2010–2013.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other formulations and similar observations", "target_page_ids": [ 1355939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While quality-adjusted microprocessor price improvement continues, the rate of improvement likewise varies, and is not linear on a log scale. Microprocessor price improvement accelerated during the late 1990s, reaching 60% per year (halving every nine months) versus the typical 30% improvement rate (halving every two years) during the years earlier and later. Laptop microprocessors in particular improved 25–35% per year in 2004–2010, and slowed to 15–25% per year in 2010–2013.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other formulations and similar observations", "target_page_ids": [ 1355939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The number of transistors per chip cannot explain quality-adjusted microprocessor prices fully. Moore's 1995 paper does not limit Moore's law to strict linearity or to transistor count, \"The definition of 'Moore's Law' has come to refer to almost anything related to the semiconductor industry that on a semi-log plot approximates a straight line. I hesitate to review its origins and by doing so restrict its definition.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other formulations and similar observations", "target_page_ids": [ 4826806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 304, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hard disk drive areal density – A similar prediction (sometimes called Kryder's law) was made in 2005 for hard disk drive areal density. The prediction was later viewed as over-optimistic. Several decades of rapid progress in areal density slowed around 2010, from 30–100% per year to 10–15% per year, because of noise related to smaller grain size of the disk media, thermal stability, and writability using available magnetic fields.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other formulations and similar observations", "target_page_ids": [ 5448267, 13777, 1130688, 27852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 83 ], [ 106, 121 ], [ 122, 135 ], [ 330, 348 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fiber-optic capacity – The number of bits per second that can be sent down an optical fiber increases exponentially, faster than Moore's law. Keck's law, in honor of Donald Keck.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other formulations and similar observations", "target_page_ids": [ 22403882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Network capacity – According to Gerald Butters, the former head of Lucent's Optical Networking Group at Bell Labs, there is another version, called Butters' Law of Photonics, a formulation that deliberately parallels Moore's law. Butters' law says that the amount of data coming out of an optical fiber is doubling every nine months. Thus, the cost of transmitting a bit over an optical network decreases by half every nine months. The availability of wavelength-division multiplexing (sometimes called WDM) increased the capacity that could be placed on a single fiber by as much as a factor of 100. Optical networking and dense wavelength-division multiplexing (DWDM) is rapidly bringing down the cost of networking, and further progress seems assured. As a result, the wholesale price of data traffic collapsed in the dot-com bubble. Nielsen's Law says that the bandwidth available to users increases by 50% annually.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other formulations and similar observations", "target_page_ids": [ 80464, 80464, 9021, 349587 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 452, 484 ], [ 624, 662 ], [ 821, 835 ], [ 837, 850 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pixels per dollar – Similarly, Barry Hendy of Kodak Australia has plotted pixels per dollar as a basic measure of value for a digital camera, demonstrating the historical linearity (on a log scale) of this market and the opportunity to predict the future trend of digital camera price, LCD and LED screens, and resolution.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other formulations and similar observations", "target_page_ids": [ 17932, 18290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 286, 289 ], [ 294, 297 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The great Moore's law compensator (TGMLC), also known as Wirth's law – generally is referred to as software bloat and is the principle that successive generations of computer software increase in size and complexity, thereby offsetting the performance gains predicted by Moore's law. In a 2008 article in InfoWorld, Randall C. Kennedy, formerly of Intel, introduces this term using successive versions of Microsoft Office between the year 2000 and 2007 as his premise. Despite the gains in computational performance during this time period according to Moore's law, Office 2007 performed the same task at half the speed on a prototypical year 2007 computer as compared to Office 2000 on a year 2000 computer.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other formulations and similar observations", "target_page_ids": [ 2279892, 335766, 1811203, 20288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 68 ], [ 99, 113 ], [ 305, 314 ], [ 405, 421 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Library expansion – was calculated in 1945 by Fremont Rider to double in capacity every 16 years, if sufficient space were made available. He advocated replacing bulky, decaying printed works with miniaturized microform analog photographs, which could be duplicated on-demand for library patrons or other institutions. He did not foresee the digital technology that would follow decades later to replace analog microform with digital imaging, storage, and transmission media. Automated, potentially lossless digital technologies allowed vast increases in the rapidity of information growth in an era that now sometimes is called the Information Age.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other formulations and similar observations", "target_page_ids": [ 14658855, 2842268, 84632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 59 ], [ 210, 219 ], [ 633, 648 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carlson curve – is a term coined by The Economist to describe the biotechnological equivalent of Moore's law, and is named after author Rob Carlson. Carlson accurately predicted that the doubling time of DNA sequencing technologies (measured by cost and performance) would be at least as fast as Moore's law. Carlson Curves illustrate the rapid (in some cases hyperexponential) decreases in cost, and increases in performance, of a variety of technologies, including DNA sequencing, DNA synthesis, and a range of physical and computational tools used in protein expression and in determining protein structures.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other formulations and similar observations", "target_page_ids": [ 40314187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eroom's law – is a pharmaceutical drug development observation which was deliberately written as Moore's Law spelled backwards in order to contrast it with the exponential advancements of other forms of technology (such as transistors) over time. It states that the cost of developing a new drug roughly doubles every nine years.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other formulations and similar observations", "target_page_ids": [ 48037281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Experience curve effects says that each doubling of the cumulative production of virtually any product or service is accompanied by an approximate constant percentage reduction in the unit cost. The acknowledged first documented qualitative description of this dates from 1885. A power curve was used to describe this phenomenon in a 1936 discussion of the cost of airplanes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other formulations and similar observations", "target_page_ids": [ 322332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edholm's law – Phil Edholm observed that the bandwidth of telecommunication networks (including the Internet) is doubling every 18 months. The bandwidths of online communication networks has risen from bits per second to terabits per second. The rapid rise in online bandwidth is largely due to the same MOSFET scaling that enables Moore's law, as telecommunications networks are built from MOSFETs.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other formulations and similar observations", "target_page_ids": [ 13433476, 3967, 46545, 14539, 46545, 272290, 14832328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 45, 54 ], [ 58, 83 ], [ 100, 108 ], [ 164, 186 ], [ 202, 217 ], [ 221, 240 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Haitz's law predicts that the brightness of LEDs increases as their manufacturing cost goes down.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other formulations and similar observations", "target_page_ids": [ 15602793 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Swanson's law is the observation that the price of solar photovoltaic modules tends to drop 20 percent for every doubling of cumulative shipped volume. At present rates, costs go down 75% about every 10 years.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other formulations and similar observations", "target_page_ids": [ 38054389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Brock, David C. (ed.) (2006). Understanding Moore's Law: Four Decades of Innovation. Philadelphia: Chemical Heritage Foundation. . .", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Thackray, Arnold; David C. Brock, and Rachel Jones (2015). Moore's Law: The Life of Gordon Moore, Silicon Valley's Quiet Revolutionary. New York: Basic Books.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tuomi, Ilkka (2002). The lives and death of Moore's Law. First Monday, 7(11), November 2002. \t", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Intel press kit – released for Moore's Law's 40th anniversary, with a 1965 sketch by Moore", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " No Technology has been more disruptive... Slide show of microchip growth", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Intel (IA-32) CPU speeds 1994–2005 – speed increases in recent years have seemed to slow down with regard to percentage increase per year (available in PDF or PNG format)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ASML's 'Our Stories', Gordon Moore about Moore's Law, ASML Holding", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 2875651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 67 ] ] } ]

[ "1965_introductions", "Computer_architecture_statements", "Digital_Revolution", "History_of_computing_hardware", "MOSFETs", "Rules_of_thumb", "Technological_change" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "A right triangle (American English) or right-angled triangle (British), or more formally an orthogonal triangle , formerly called a rectangled triangle (), is a triangle in which one angle is a right angle (that is, a 90-degree angle) or two sides are perpendicular. The relation between the sides and other angles of the right triangle is the basis for trigonometry.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1890, 4179, 30654, 1196, 76956, 1195294, 12158034, 76944, 18717261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 34 ], [ 62, 69 ], [ 161, 169 ], [ 183, 188 ], [ 194, 205 ], [ 221, 227 ], [ 242, 247 ], [ 252, 265 ], [ 355, 367 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The side opposite to the right angle is called the hypotenuse (side c in the figure). The sides adjacent to the right angle are called legs (or catheti, singular: cathetus). Side a may be identified as the side adjacent to angle B and opposed to (or opposite) angle A, while side b is the side adjacent to angle A and opposed to angle B.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 251366, 2568071 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 61 ], [ 163, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If the lengths of all three sides of a right triangle are integers, the triangle is said to be a Pythagorean triangle and its side lengths are collectively known as a Pythagorean triple.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 24172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 167, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As with any triangle, the area is equal to one half the base multiplied by the corresponding height. In a right triangle, if one leg is taken as the base then the other is height, so the area of a right triangle is one half the product of the two legs. As a formula the area T is", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Principal properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where a and b are the legs of the triangle.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Principal properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If the incircle is tangent to the hypotenuse AB at point P, then denoting the semi-perimeter as s, we have and , and the area is given by", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Principal properties", "target_page_ids": [ 161260, 886617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 15 ], [ 78, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This formula only applies to right triangles.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Principal properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If an altitude is drawn from the vertex with the right angle to the hypotenuse then the triangle is divided into two smaller triangles which are both similar to the original and therefore similar to each other. From this:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Principal properties", "target_page_ids": [ 161241, 39377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 14 ], [ 150, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The altitude to the hypotenuse is the geometric mean (mean proportional) of the two segments of the hypotenuse.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Principal properties", "target_page_ids": [ 13046, 87837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 53 ], [ 55, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Each leg of the triangle is the mean proportional of the hypotenuse and the segment of the hypotenuse that is adjacent to the leg.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Principal properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In equations,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Principal properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (this is sometimes known as the right triangle altitude theorem)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Principal properties", "target_page_ids": [ 37981515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where a, b, c, d, e, f are as shown in the diagram. Thus", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Principal properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Moreover, the altitude to the hypotenuse is related to the legs of the right triangle by", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Principal properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For solutions of this equation in integer values of a, b, f, and c, see here.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Principal properties", "target_page_ids": [ 27430123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The altitude from either leg coincides with the other leg. Since these intersect at the right-angled vertex, the right triangle's orthocenter—the intersection of its three altitudes—coincides with the right-angled vertex.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Principal properties", "target_page_ids": [ 161241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Pythagorean theorem states that:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Principal properties", "target_page_ids": [ 26513034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In any right triangle, the area of the square whose side is the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the areas of the squares whose sides are the two legs (the two sides that meet at a right angle).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Principal properties", "target_page_ids": [ 659939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This can be stated in equation form as", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Principal properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where c is the length of the hypotenuse, and a and b are the lengths of the remaining two sides.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Principal properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pythagorean triples are integer values of a, b, c satisfying this equation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Principal properties", "target_page_ids": [ 24172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The radius of the incircle of a right triangle with legs a and b and hypotenuse c is", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Principal properties", "target_page_ids": [ 161260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The radius of the circumcircle is half the length of the hypotenuse,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Principal properties", "target_page_ids": [ 1926432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thus the sum of the circumradius and the inradius is half the sum of the legs:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Principal properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One of the legs can be expressed in terms of the inradius and the other leg as", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Principal properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A triangle ABC with sides , semiperimeter s, area T, altitude h opposite the longest side, circumradius R, inradius r, exradii ra, rb, rc (tangent to a, b, c respectively), and medians ma, mb, mc is a right triangle if and only if any one of the statements in the following six categories is true. All of them are of course also properties of a right triangle, since characterizations are equivalences.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Characterizations", "target_page_ids": [ 886617, 1209, 161241, 1926432, 161260, 161260, 1072006, 14922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 41 ], [ 45, 49 ], [ 53, 61 ], [ 91, 103 ], [ 107, 115 ], [ 119, 126 ], [ 177, 184 ], [ 216, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A and B are complementary.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Characterizations", "target_page_ids": [ 1196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " where P is the tangency point of the incircle at the longest side AB.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Characterizations", "target_page_ids": [ 161260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The length of one median is equal to the circumradius.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Characterizations", "target_page_ids": [ 1072006, 1926432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 25 ], [ 42, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The shortest altitude (the one from the vertex with the biggest angle) is the geometric mean of the line segments it divides the opposite (longest) side into. This is the right triangle altitude theorem.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Characterizations", "target_page_ids": [ 161241, 13046, 22634860, 37981515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 22 ], [ 79, 93 ], [ 101, 113 ], [ 172, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The triangle can be inscribed in a semicircle, with one side coinciding with the entirety of the diameter (Thales' theorem).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Characterizations", "target_page_ids": [ 617831, 267471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 46 ], [ 108, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The circumcenter is the midpoint of the longest side.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Characterizations", "target_page_ids": [ 1926432, 437979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 17 ], [ 25, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The longest side is a diameter of the circumcircle ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Characterizations", "target_page_ids": [ 8007, 1926432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 31 ], [ 39, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The circumcircle is tangent to the nine-point circle.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Characterizations", "target_page_ids": [ 31482, 161243 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 28 ], [ 36, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The orthocenter lies on the circumcircle.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Characterizations", "target_page_ids": [ 161241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The distance between the incenter and the orthocenter is equal to .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Characterizations", "target_page_ids": [ 161260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The trigonometric functions for acute angles can be defined as ratios of the sides of a right triangle. For a given angle, a right triangle may be constructed with this angle, and the sides labeled opposite, adjacent and hypotenuse with reference to this angle according to the definitions above. These ratios of the sides do not depend on the particular right triangle chosen, but only on the given angle, since all triangles constructed this way are similar. If, for a given angle α, the opposite side, adjacent side and hypotenuse are labeled O, A and H respectively, then the trigonometric functions are", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Trigonometric ratios", "target_page_ids": [ 30367, 39377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 27 ], [ 452, 459 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For the expression of hyperbolic functions as ratio of the sides of a right triangle, see the hyperbolic triangle of a hyperbolic sector.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Trigonometric ratios", "target_page_ids": [ 56567, 1139926, 1139926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 41 ], [ 94, 113 ], [ 119, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The values of the trigonometric functions can be evaluated exactly for certain angles using right triangles with special angles. These include the 30-60-90 triangle which can be used to evaluate the trigonometric functions for any multiple of π/6, and the 45-45-90 triangle which can be used to evaluate the trigonometric functions for any multiple of π/4.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Special right triangles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Let H, G, and A be the harmonic mean, the geometric mean, and the arithmetic mean of two positive numbers a and b with a > b. If a right triangle has legs H and G and hypotenuse A, then", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Special right triangles", "target_page_ids": [ 14463, 13046, 612 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 36 ], [ 42, 56 ], [ 66, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "and", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Special right triangles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is the golden ratio Since the sides of this right triangle are in geometric progression, this is the Kepler triangle.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Special right triangles", "target_page_ids": [ 12386, 23474670, 13938136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 26 ], [ 74, 95 ], [ 109, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thales' theorem states that if A is any point of the circle with diameter BC (except B or C themselves) ABC is a right triangle where A is the right angle. The converse states that if a right triangle is inscribed in a circle then the hypotenuse will be a diameter of the circle. A corollary is that the length of the hypotenuse is twice the distance from the right angle vertex to the midpoint of the hypotenuse. Also, the center of the circle that circumscribes a right triangle is the midpoint of the hypotenuse and its radius is one half the length of the hypotenuse.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Thales' theorem", "target_page_ids": [ 1926432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 450, 463 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following formulas hold for the medians of a right triangle:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Medians", "target_page_ids": [ 1072006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The median on the hypotenuse of a right triangle divides the triangle into two isosceles triangles, because the median equals one-half the hypotenuse.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Medians", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The medians ma and mb from the legs satisfy", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Medians", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In a right triangle, the Euler line contains the median on the hypotenuse—that is, it goes through both the right-angled vertex and the midpoint of the side opposite that vertex. This is because the right triangle's orthocenter, the intersection of its altitudes, falls on the right-angled vertex while its circumcenter, the intersection of its perpendicular bisectors of sides, falls on the midpoint of the hypotenuse.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Euler line", "target_page_ids": [ 203622, 152547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 35 ], [ 345, 377 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In any right triangle the diameter of the incircle is less than half the hypotenuse, and more strongly it is less than or equal to the hypotenuse times ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Inequalities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In a right triangle with legs a, b and hypotenuse c,", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Inequalities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "with equality only in the isosceles case.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Inequalities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If the altitude from the hypotenuse is denoted hc, then", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Inequalities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "with equality only in the isosceles case.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Inequalities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If segments of lengths p and q emanating from vertex C trisect the hypotenuse into segments of length c/3, then", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Other properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The right triangle is the only triangle having two, rather than one or three, distinct inscribed squares.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Other properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Given h > k. Let h and k be the sides of the two inscribed squares in a right triangle with hypotenuse c. Then", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Other properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These sides and the incircle radius r are related by a similar formula:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Other properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The perimeter of a right triangle equals the sum of the radii of the incircle and the three excircles:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Other properties", "target_page_ids": [ 161260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Acute and obtuse triangles (oblique triangles)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 44076423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Spiral of Theodorus", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17206552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Calculator for right triangles", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Advanced right triangle calculator", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Types_of_triangles" ]

[ "right-angled triangle" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Primo Michele Levi (; 31 July 1919 – 11 April 1987) was an Italian chemist, partisan, writer, and Jewish Holocaust survivor. He was the author of several books, collections of short stories, essays, poems and one novel. His best-known works include If This Is a Man (1947, published as Survival in Auschwitz in the United States), his account of the year he spent as a prisoner in the Auschwitz concentration camp in Nazi-occupied Poland; and The Periodic Table (1975), linked to qualities of the elements, which the Royal Institution named the best science book ever written.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3121306, 6373818, 4014891, 2006, 21212, 7997072, 332823, 8395216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 84 ], [ 105, 123 ], [ 249, 265 ], [ 385, 413 ], [ 417, 421 ], [ 443, 461 ], [ 517, 534 ], [ 545, 567 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Levi died in 1987 from injuries sustained in a fall from a third-story apartment landing. His death was officially ruled a suicide, but some, after careful consideration, have suggested that the fall was accidental because he left no suicide note, there were no witnesses, and he was on medication that could have affected his blood pressure and caused him to fall accidentally.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Levi was born in 1919 in Turin, Italy, at Corso Re Umberto 75, into a liberal Jewish family. His father, Cesare, worked for the manufacturing firm Ganz and spent much of his time working abroad in Hungary, where Ganz was based. Cesare was an avid reader and autodidact. Levi's mother, Ester, known to everyone as Rina, was well educated, having attended the . She too was an avid reader, played the piano, and spoke fluent French. The marriage between Rina and Cesare had been arranged by Rina's father. On their wedding day, Rina's father, Cesare Luzzati, gave Rina the apartment at , where Primo Levi lived for almost his entire life.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 19450529, 1146140, 255591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 30 ], [ 147, 151 ], [ 258, 268 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1921 Anna Maria, Levi's sister, was born; he remained close to her all her life. In 1925 he entered the primary school in Turin. A thin and delicate child, he was shy and considered himself ugly; he excelled academically. His school record includes long periods of absence during which he was tutored at home, at first by Emilia Glauda and then by Marisa Zini, daughter of philosopher Zino Zini. The children spent summers with their mother in the Waldensian valleys southwest of Turin, where Rina rented a farmhouse. His father remained in the city, partly because of his dislike of the rural life, but also because of his infidelities.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In September 1930 Levi entered the Royal Gymnasium a year ahead of normal entrance requirements. In class he was the youngest, the shortest and the cleverest, as well as being the only Jew. Only two boys there bullied him for being Jewish, but their animosity was traumatic. In August 1932, following two years attendance also at the Talmud Torah school in Turin to pick up the elements of doctrine and culture, he sang in the local synagogue for his Bar Mitzvah. In 1933, as was expected of all young Italian schoolboys, he joined the Avanguardisti movement for young Fascists. He avoided rifle drill by joining the ski division, and spent every Saturday during the season on the slopes above Turin. As a young boy Levi was plagued by illness, particularly chest infections, but he was keen to participate in physical activity. In his teens, Levi and a few friends would sneak into a disused sports stadium and conduct athletic competitions.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 3182397, 52526, 4413232, 5142662, 771217, 28489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 335, 347 ], [ 452, 463 ], [ 537, 550 ], [ 570, 578 ], [ 591, 602 ], [ 618, 621 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 1934 at the age of 14, he sat the exams for the Liceo Classico D'Azeglio, a Lyceum (sixth form or senior high school) specializing in the classics, and was admitted that year. The school was noted for its well-known anti-Fascist teachers, among them the philosopher Norberto Bobbio, and Cesare Pavese, who later became one of Italy's best-known novelists. Levi continued to be bullied during his time at the Lyceum, although six other Jews were in his class. Upon reading Concerning the Nature of Things by Australian scientist Sir William Bragg, Levi decided that he wanted to be a chemist.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 54718748, 529422, 985758, 554992, 5178, 41612950, 1406651, 1368802, 396459, 5636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 80 ], [ 84, 90 ], [ 92, 102 ], [ 106, 124 ], [ 146, 154 ], [ 224, 236 ], [ 274, 289 ], [ 295, 308 ], [ 536, 553 ], [ 591, 598 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1937, he was summoned before the War Ministry and accused of ignoring a draft notice from the Italian Royal Navy—one day before he was to write a final examination on Italy's participation in the Spanish Civil War, based on a quote from Thucydides: \"We have the singular merit of being brave to the utmost degree.\" Distracted and terrified by the draft accusation, he failed the exam—the first poor grade of his life—and was devastated. His father was able to keep him out of the Navy by enrolling him in the Fascist militia (Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale). He remained a member through his first year of university, until passage of the Italian Racial Laws of 1938 forced his expulsion. Levi later recounted this series of events in the short story \"Fra Diavolo on the Po\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1126949, 30864, 22573839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 115 ], [ 240, 250 ], [ 657, 676 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He retook and passed his final examinations, and in October enrolled at the University of Turin to study chemistry. As one of 80 candidates, he spent three months taking lectures, and in February, after passing his colloquio (oral examination), he was selected as one of 20 to move on to the full-time chemistry curriculum.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 453828 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the liberal period as well as in the first decade of the Fascist regime, Jews held many public positions, and were prominent in literature, science and politics. In 1929 Mussolini signed an agreement with the Catholic Church, the Lateran Treaty, which established Catholicism as the State religion, allowed the Church to influence many sectors of education and public life, and relegated other religions to the status of \"tolerated cults\". In 1936 Italy's conquest of Ethiopia and the expansion of what the regime regarded as the Italian \"colonial empire\" brought the question of \"race\" to the forefront. In the context set by these events, and the 1940 alliance with Hitler's Germany, the situation of the Jews of Italy changed radically.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 69898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 233, 247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 1938 a group of prominent Italian scientists and intellectuals published the \"Manifesto of Race,\" a mixture of racial and ideological antisemitic theories from ancient and modern sources. This treatise formed the basis for the Italian Racial Laws of October 1938. After its enactment Italian Jews lost their basic civil rights, positions in public offices, and their assets. Their books were prohibited: Jewish writers could no longer publish in magazines owned by Aryans. Jewish students who had begun their course of study were permitted to continue, but new Jewish students were barred from entering university. Levi had matriculated a year earlier than scheduled enabling him to take a degree.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 3117295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1939, Levi discovered his passion for mountain hiking. A friend, Sandro Delmastro, taught him how to hike, and they spent many weekends in the mountains above Turin. Physical exertion, the risk, and the battle with the elements while following Sandro's example enabled him to put out of his mind the nightmare situation precipitating all over Europe as, communing with the sky and earth, he managed to satisfy his desire for liberty realize fully his own strength, and the reasons behind his ardent need grasp the nature of things that had led him to study chemistry, as he later wrote in the chapter \"Iron\" of The Periodic Table (1975). In June 1940 Italy declared war as an ally of Germany against Britain and France, and the first Allied air raids on Turin began two days later. Levi's studies continued during the bombardments. The family suffered additional strain as his father became bedridden with bowel cancer.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 323167, 206979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 744, 753 ], [ 909, 921 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because of the new racial laws and the increasing intensity of prevalent fascism, Levi had difficulty finding a supervisor for his graduation thesis, which was on the subject of Walden inversion, a study of the asymmetry of the carbon atom. Eventually taken on by Dr. Nicolò Dallaporta, he graduated in mid-1941 with full marks and merit, having submitted additional theses on x-rays and electrostatic energy. His degree certificate bore the remark, \"of Jewish race\". The racial laws prevented Levi from finding a suitable permanent job after graduation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1714492, 5299, 34197, 1975956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 178, 194 ], [ 228, 234 ], [ 377, 382 ], [ 388, 408 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December 1941 Levi received an informal job offer from an Italian officer to work as a chemist, under a clandestine identity, at an asbestos mine in San Vittore. The project was to extract nickel from the mine spoil, a challenge he accepted with pleasure. Levi later understood that, if successful, he would be aiding the German war effort, which was suffering nickel shortages in the production of armaments. The job required Levi to work under a false name with false papers. Three months later, in March 1942, his father died. Levi left the mine in June to work in Milan. Recruited through a fellow student at Turin University, working for the Swiss firm of A Wander Ltd on a project to extract an anti-diabetic from vegetable matter, he took the job in a Swiss company to escape the race laws. It soon became clear that the project had no chance of succeeding, but it was in no one's interest to say so.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 21492663, 6477361, 36511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 143 ], [ 152, 163 ], [ 571, 576 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 1943, King Victor Emmanuel III deposed Mussolini and appointed a new government under Marshal Pietro Badoglio, prepared to sign the Armistice of Cassibile with the Allies. When the armistice was made public on 8 September, the Germans occupied northern and central Italy, liberated Mussolini from imprisonment and appointed him as head of the Italian Social Republic, a puppet state in German-occupied northern Italy. Levi returned to Turin to find his mother and sister in refuge in their holiday home 'La Saccarello' in the hills outside the city. The three embarked to Saint-Vincent in the Aosta Valley, where they could be hidden. Being pursued as Jews, many of whom had already been interned by the authorities, they moved up the hillside to Amay in the , a rebellious area highly suitable for guerilla activities.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 69840, 244600, 2998260, 1895278, 315427, 4025696, 6210527, 301306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 38 ], [ 102, 117 ], [ 140, 162 ], [ 280, 299 ], [ 351, 374 ], [ 511, 556 ], [ 580, 593 ], [ 601, 613 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Italian resistance movement became increasingly active in the German-occupied zone. Levi and some comrades took to the foothills of the Alps, and in October formed a partisan group in the hope of being affiliated to the liberal Giustizia e Libertà. Untrained for such a venture, he and his companions were arrested by the Fascist militia on 13 December 1943. When told he would be shot as an Italian partisan, Levi confessed to being Jewish. He was sent to the internment camp at Fossoli near Modena. He recalled that as long as Fossoli was under the control of the Italian Social Republic, rather than Nazi Germany, he was not harmed.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 883438, 7004415, 40628217, 883438, 36757902, 62418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 31 ], [ 232, 251 ], [ 326, 341 ], [ 396, 412 ], [ 465, 491 ], [ 497, 503 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fossoli was then taken over by the Nazis, who started arranging the deportations of the Jews to eastern concentration and death camps. On the second of these transports, on 21 February 1944, Levi and other inmates were transported in twelve cramped cattle trucks to Monowitz, one of the three main camps in the Auschwitz concentration camp complex. Levi (record number 174517) spent eleven months there before the camp was liberated by the Red Army on 27 January 1945. Before their arrival, people were sorted according to whether they could work or not. An acquaintance said that it would make no difference, in the end, and declared he was unable to work and was killed immediately. Of the 650 Italian Jews in his transport, Levi was one of twenty who left the camps alive. The average life expectancy of a new entrant at the camp was three to four months.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 4560757, 62890597, 25682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 266, 274 ], [ 410, 432 ], [ 440, 448 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Levi knew some German from reading German publications on chemistry; he worked to orient quickly to life in the camp without attracting the attention of the privileged inmates. He used bread to pay a more experienced Italian prisoner for German lessons and orientation in Auschwitz. He was given a smuggled soup ration each day by Lorenzo Perrone, an Italian civilian bricklayer working there as a forced labourer. Levi's professional qualifications were useful: in mid-November 1944, he secured a position as an assistant in IG Farben's Buna Werke laboratory that was intended to produce synthetic rubber. By avoiding hard labour in freezing outdoor temperatures he was able to survive; also, by stealing materials from the laboratory and trading them for extra food. Shortly before the camp was liberated by the Red Army, he fell ill with scarlet fever and was placed in the camp's sanatorium (camp hospital). On 18 January 1945, the SS hurriedly evacuated the camp as the Red Army approached, forcing all but the gravely ill on a long death march to a site further from the front, which resulted in the deaths of the vast majority of the remaining prisoners on the march. Levi's illness spared him this fate.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 21703612, 541048, 151417, 4560757, 1738731, 2388271, 25682, 92396, 27040, 30863081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 331, 346 ], [ 398, 411 ], [ 526, 535 ], [ 538, 548 ], [ 589, 605 ], [ 619, 630 ], [ 814, 822 ], [ 841, 854 ], [ 936, 938 ], [ 1038, 1049 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although liberated on 27 January 1945, Levi did not reach Turin until 19 October 1945. After spending some time in a Soviet camp for former concentration camp inmates, he embarked on an arduous journey home in the company of former Italian prisoners of war who had been part of the Italian Army in Russia. His long railway journey home to Turin took him on a circuitous route from Poland, through Belarus, Ukraine, Romania, Hungary, Austria, and Germany - an arduous journey described especially in his 1963 work The Truce - noting the millions of displaced people on the roads and trains throughout Europe in that period.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 25008, 15720876, 12295606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 240, 256 ], [ 282, 304 ], [ 513, 522 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Levi was almost unrecognisable on his return to Turin. Malnutrition edema had bloated his face. Sporting a scrawny beard and wearing an old Red Army uniform, he returned to Corso Re Umberto. The next few months gave him an opportunity to recover physically, re-establish contact with surviving friends and family, and start looking for work. Levi suffered from the psychological trauma of his experiences. Having been unable to find work in Turin, he started to look for work in Milan. On his train journeys, he began to tell people he met stories about his time at Auschwitz.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 70426, 25682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 73 ], [ 140, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At a Jewish New Year party in 1946, he met Lucia Morpurgo, who offered to teach him to dance. Levi fell in love with Lucia. At about this time, he started writing poetry about his experiences in Auschwitz.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 21 January 1946 he started work at DUCO, a Du Pont Company paint factory outside Turin. Because of the extremely limited train service, Levi stayed in the factory dormitory during the week. This gave him the opportunity to write undisturbed. He started to write the first draft of If This Is a Man. Every day he scribbled notes on train tickets and scraps of paper as memories came to him. At the end of February, he had ten pages detailing the last ten days between the German evacuation and the arrival of the Red Army. For the next ten months, the book took shape in his dormitory as he typed up his recollections each night.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 48792367, 4014891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 61 ], [ 284, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 22 December 1946, the manuscript was complete. Lucia, who now reciprocated Levi's love, helped him to edit it, to make the narrative flow more naturally. In January 1947, Levi was taking the finished manuscript around to publishers. It was rejected by Einaudi on the advice of Natalia Ginzburg, and in the United States was turned down by Little, Brown and Company on the advice of rabbi Joshua Liebman, an opinion which contributed to the neglect of his work in that country for four decades. The social wounds of the war years were still too fresh, and he had no literary experience to give him a reputation as an author.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 7889251, 2679662, 3896807, 20863358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 255, 262 ], [ 280, 296 ], [ 342, 367 ], [ 391, 405 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eventually Levi found a publisher, Franco Antonicelli, through a friend of his sister's. Antonicelli was an amateur publisher, but as an active anti-Fascist, he supported the idea of the book.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At the end of June 1947, Levi suddenly left DUCO and teamed up with an old friend Alberto Salmoni to run a chemical consultancy from the top floor of Salmoni's parents' house. Many of Levi's experiences of this time found their way into his later writing. They made most of their money from making and supplying stannous chloride for mirror makers, delivering the unstable chemical by bicycle across the city. The attempts to make lipsticks from reptile excreta and a coloured enamel to coat teeth were turned into short stories. Accidents in their laboratory filled the Salmoni house with unpleasant smells and corrosive gases.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 2020855, 314628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 312, 329 ], [ 477, 483 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 1947, Levi married Lucia and a month later, on 11 October, If This Is a Man was published with a print run of 2,000 copies. In April 1948, with Lucia pregnant with their first child, Levi decided that the life of an independent chemist was too precarious. He agreed to work for Accatti in the family paint business which traded under the name SIVA. In October 1948, his daughter Lisa was born.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During this period, his friend Lorenzo Perrone's physical and psychological health declined. Lorenzo had been a civilian forced worker in Auschwitz, who for six months had given part of his ration and a piece of bread to Levi without asking for anything in return. The gesture saved Levi's life. In his memoir, Levi contrasted Lorenzo with everyone else in the camp, prisoners and guards alike, as someone who managed to preserve his humanity. After the war, Lorenzo could not cope with the memories of what he had seen, and descended into alcoholism. Levi made several trips to rescue his old friend from the streets, but in 1952 Lorenzo died. In gratitude for his kindness in Auschwitz, Levi named both of his children, Lisa Lorenza and Renzo, after him.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 21703612 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1950, having demonstrated his chemical talents to Accatti, Levi was promoted to Technical Director at SIVA. As SIVA's principal chemist and trouble shooter, Levi travelled abroad. He made several trips to Germany and carefully engineered his contacts with senior German businessmen and scientists. Wearing short-sleeved shirts, he made sure they saw his prison camp number tattooed on his arm.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 30555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 376, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He became involved in organisations pledged to remembering and recording the horror of the camps. In 1954 he visited Buchenwald to mark the ninth anniversary of the camp's liberation from the Nazis. Levi dutifully attended many such anniversary events over the years and recounted his own experiences. In July 1957, his son Renzo was born.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 49266 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite a positive review by Italo Calvino in , only 1,500 copies of If This Is a Man were sold. In 1958 Einaudi, a major publisher, published it in a revised form and promoted it.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 14937, 2823942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 42 ], [ 105, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1958 Stuart Woolf, in close collaboration with Levi, translated If This Is a Man into English, and it was published in the UK in 1959 by Orion Press. Also in 1959 Heinz Riedt, also under close supervision by Levi, translated it into German. As one of Levi's primary reasons for writing the book was to get the German people to realise what had been done in their name, and to accept at least partial responsibility, this translation was perhaps the most significant to him.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 67669273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Levi began writing The Truce early in 1961; it was published in 1963, almost 16 years after his first book. That year it won the first annual Premio Campiello literary award. It is often published in one volume with If This Is a Man, as it covers his long return through eastern Europe from Auschwitz. Levi's reputation was growing. He regularly contributed articles to , the Turin newspaper. He worked to gain a reputation as a writer about subjects other than surviving Auschwitz.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 6084443 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1963, he suffered his first major bout of depression. At the time he had two young children, and a responsible job at a factory where accidents could and did have terrible consequences. He travelled and became a public figure. But the memory of what happened less than twenty years earlier still burned in his mind. Today the link between such trauma and depression is better understood. Doctors prescribed several different drugs over the years, but these had variable efficacy and side effects.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1964 Levi collaborated on a radio play based upon If This Is a Man with the state broadcaster RAI, and in 1966 with a theatre production.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 420162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He published two volumes of science fiction short stories under the pen name of Damiano Malabaila, which explored ethical and philosophical questions. These imagined the effects on society of inventions which many would consider beneficial, but which, he saw, would have serious implications. Many of the stories from the two books (Natural Histories, 1966) and (Structural Defect, 1971) were later collected and published in English as The Sixth Day and Other Tales.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1974 Levi arranged to go into semi-retirement from SIVA in order to have more time to write. He also wanted to escape the burden of responsibility for managing the paint plant.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1975 a collection of Levi's poetry was published under the title (The Bremen Beer Hall). It was published in English as Shema: Collected Poems.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He wrote two other highly praised memoirs, (Moments of Reprieve, 1978) and (The Periodic Table, 1975). Moments of Reprieve deals with characters he observed during imprisonment. The Periodic Table is a collection of short pieces, based in episodes from his life but including two short stories that he wrote while employed in 1941 at the asbestos mine in San Vittore. Each story was related in some way to one of the chemical elements. At London's Royal Institution on 19 October 2006, The Periodic Table was voted onto the shortlist for the best science book ever written.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 11483069, 7997072, 332823, 8395216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 124 ], [ 180, 198 ], [ 450, 467 ], [ 544, 566 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1977 at the age of 58, Levi retired as a part-time consultant at the SIVA paint factory to devote himself full-time to writing. Like all his books, La chiave a stella (1978), published in the US in 1986 as The Monkey Wrench and in the UK in 1987 as The Wrench, is difficult to categorize. Some reviews describe it as a collection of stories about work and workers told by a narrator who resembles Levi. Others have called it a novel, created by the linked stories and characters. Set in a Fiat-run company town in Russia called Togliattigrad, it portrays the engineer as a hero on whom others depend. The underlying philosophy is that pride in one's work is necessary for fulfillment. The engineer Faussone travels the world as an expert in erecting cranes and bridges. Left-wing critics said he did not describe the harsh working conditions on the assembly lines at Fiat. It brought Levi a wider audience in Italy. The Wrench won the Strega Prize in 1979. Most of the stories involve the solution of industrial problems by the use of troubleshooting skills; many stories come from the author's personal experience.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 10725534, 4475427, 1714274 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 920, 930 ], [ 939, 951 ], [ 1039, 1054 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1984 Levi published his only novel, If Not Now, When?— or his second novel, if The Monkey Wrench is counted. It traces the fortunes of a group of Jewish partisans behind German lines during World War II as they seek to survive and continue their fight against the occupier. With the ultimate goal of reaching Palestine to take part in the development of a Jewish national home, the partisan band reaches Poland and then German territory. There the surviving members are officially received as displaced persons in territory held by the Western allies. Finally, they succeed in reaching Italy, on their way to Palestine. The novel won both the and the .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 23713433, 3388556, 5873166, 1114732, 14240977, 477535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 37 ], [ 39, 56 ], [ 149, 165 ], [ 312, 321 ], [ 359, 379 ], [ 496, 513 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The book was inspired by events during Levi's train journey home after release from the camp, narrated in The Truce. At one point in the journey, a band of Zionists hitched their wagon to the refugee train. Levi was impressed by their strength, resolve, organisation, and sense of purpose.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Levi became a major literary figure in Italy, and his books were translated into many other languages. The Truce became a standard text in Italian schools. In 1985, he flew to the United States for a 20-day speaking tour. Although he was accompanied by Lucia, the trip was very draining for him.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the Soviet Union his early works were not accepted by censors as he had portrayed Soviet soldiers as slovenly and disorderly rather than heroic. In Israel, a country formed partly by Jewish survivors who lived through horrors similar to those Levi described, many of his works were not translated and published until after his death.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 26779, 9282173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ], [ 151, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March 1985 he wrote the introduction to the re-publication of the autobiography of Rudolf Höss, who was commandant of Auschwitz concentration camp from 1940 to 1943. In it he writes, \"It's filled with evil . . . and reading it is agony.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 409605 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also in 1985 a volume of his essays, previously published in , was published under the title (Other People's Trades). Levi used to write these stories and hoard them, releasing them to at the rate of about one a week. The essays ranged from book reviews and ponderings about strange things in nature, to fictional short stories.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1986 his book (The Drowned and the Saved), was published. In it he tried to analyse why people behaved the way they did at Auschwitz, and why some survived whilst others perished. In his typical style, he makes no judgments but presents the evidence and asks the questions. For example, one essay examines what he calls \"The grey zone\", those Jews who did the Germans' dirty work for them and kept the rest of the prisoners in line. He questioned, what made a concert violinist behave as a callous taskmaster?", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 583151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also in 1986 another collection of short stories, previously published in , was assembled and published as (some of which were published in the English volume The Mirror Maker).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 12738461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the time of his death in April 1987, Levi was working on another selection of essays called The Double Bond, which took the form of letters to . These essays are very personal in nature. Approximately five or six chapters of this manuscript exist. Carole Angier, in her biography of Levi, describes how she tracked some of these essays down. She wrote that others were being kept from public view by Levi's close friends, to whom he gave them, and they may have been destroyed.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 38935299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 251, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March 2007 Harper's Magazine published an English translation of Levi's story , about a fictitious weapon that is fatal at close range but harmless more than a meter away. It originally appeared in his 1971 book , but was published in English for the first time by Harper's.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A Tranquil Star, a collection of seventeen stories translated into English by Ann Goldstein and Alessandra Bastagli was published in April 2007.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 49180927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2015, Penguin published The Complete Works of Primo Levi, ed. Ann Goldstein. This is the first time that Levi's entire oeuvre has been translated into English.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Levi died on 11 April 1987 after a fall from the interior landing of his third-story apartment in Turin to the ground floor below. The coroner ruled his death a suicide. Three of his biographers (Angier, Thomson and Anissimov) agreed, but other writers (including at least one who knew him personally) questioned that determination.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In his later life, Levi indicated that he was suffering from depression; factors likely included responsibility for his elderly mother and mother-in-law, with whom he was living, and lingering traumatic memories of his experiences. According to the chief rabbi of Rome Elio Toaff, Levi telephoned him for the first time ten minutes before the incident. Levi said he found it impossible to look at his mother, who was ill with cancer, without recalling the faces of people stretched out on benches in Auschwitz. The Nobel laureate and Holocaust survivor Elie Wiesel said, at the time, \"Primo Levi died at Auschwitz forty years later.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1706529, 10518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 269, 279 ], [ 554, 565 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several of Levi's friends and associates have argued otherwise. The Oxford sociologist Diego Gambetta noted that Levi left no suicide note, nor any other indication that he was considering suicide. Documents and testimony suggested that he had plans for both the short- and longer-term at the time. In the days before his death, he had complained to his physician of dizziness due to an operation he had undergone some three weeks earlier. After visiting the apartment complex, Gambetta suggested that Levi lost his balance and fell accidentally. The Nobel laureate Rita Levi-Montalcini, a close friend of Levi, agreed. \"As a chemical engineer,\" she said, \"he might have chosen a better way [of exiting the world] than jumping into a narrow stairwell with the risk of remaining paralyzed.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 24361495, 708064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 101 ], [ 567, 587 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Levi wrote If This Is a Man to bear witness to the horrors of the Nazis' attempt to exterminate the Jewish people and others. In turn, he read many accounts by witnesses and survivors, and attended meetings of survivors, becoming a prominent symbolic figure for anti-fascists in Italy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Views on Nazism, Soviet Union and antisemitism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Levi visited over 130 schools to talk about his experiences in Auschwitz. He vigorously repudiated revisionist attitudes in German historiography that emerged in the Historikerstreit led by the works of people like Andreas Hillgruber and Ernst Nolte, who drew parallels between Nazism and Stalinism. Levi rejected the idea that the labor camp system depicted in Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn's The Gulag Archipelago and that of the Nazi (; see Nazi concentration camps) were comparable. The death rate in Stalin's gulags was 30% at worst, he wrote, while in the extermination camps he estimated it to be 90–98%.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Views on Nazism, Soviet Union and antisemitism", "target_page_ids": [ 13293, 1494870, 1703245, 2317493, 1625, 75229, 514725 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 120 ], [ 166, 182 ], [ 216, 234 ], [ 239, 250 ], [ 363, 385 ], [ 388, 409 ], [ 439, 463 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His view was that the Nazi death camps and the attempted annihilation of the Jews was a horror unique in history because the goal was the complete destruction of a race by one that saw itself as superior. He noted that it was highly organized and mechanized; it entailed the degradation of Jews to the point of using their ashes as materials for paths.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Views on Nazism, Soviet Union and antisemitism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The purpose of the Nazi camps was not the same as that of Stalin's gulags, Levi wrote in an appendix to If This Is a Man, though it is a \"lugubrious comparison between two models of hell.\" The goal of the was the extermination of the Jewish race in Europe. No one was excluded. No one could renounce Judaism; the Nazis treated Jews as a racial group rather than as a religious one. Levi, along with most of Turin's Jewish intellectuals, had not been religiously observant before World War II, but the Italian racial laws and the Nazi camps impressed on him his identity as a Jew. Of the many children deported to the camps, almost all were murdered.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Views on Nazism, Soviet Union and antisemitism", "target_page_ids": [ 32927, 22573839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 480, 492 ], [ 502, 521 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Levi wrote in clear, dispassionate style about his experiences in Auschwitz, with an embrace of whatever humanity he found, showing no lasting hatred of the Germans, although he made it clear that he did not forgive any of the culprits.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Views on Nazism, Soviet Union and antisemitism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Five of Levi's poems (Shema, 25 Febbraio 1944, Il canto del corvo, Cantare and Congedo) have been set to music by Simon Sargon in the song cycle Shema: 5 Poems of Primo Levi in 1987. In 2021 the work was performed by Megan Marie Hart during the opening event of the festival year commemorating the first documented mention of Jewish communities in the territory of present-day Germany.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 14268374, 308097, 55607527, 1263527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 127 ], [ 135, 145 ], [ 218, 234 ], [ 317, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The 1997 film (The Truce), starring John Turturro, was adapted from his 1963 memoir of the same title and recounts Levi's long journey home with other displaced people after his liberation from Auschwitz.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 14326973, 308577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 26 ], [ 38, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " If This Is a Man was adapted by Antony Sher into a one-man stage production Primo in 2004. A version of this production was broadcast on BBC Four in the UK on 20 September 2007.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 4014891, 954167, 11906988, 345439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 33, 44 ], [ 77, 82 ], [ 138, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Till My Tale is Told: Women's Memoirs of the Gulag (1999), uses a part of the quatrain by Coleridge quoted by Levi in The Drowned and the Saved as its title.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Christopher Hitchens' book The Portable Atheist, a collection of extracts of atheist texts, is dedicated to the memory of Levi, \"who had the moral fortitude to refuse false consolation even while enduring the 'selection' process in Auschwitz\". The dedication quotes Levi in The Drowned and the Saved, asserting, \"I too entered the Lager as a nonbeliever, and as a nonbeliever I was liberated and have lived to this day.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 228998, 14906588, 15247542, 583151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 28, 48 ], [ 78, 85 ], [ 275, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Primo Levi Center, a non-profit organisation dedicated to studying the history and culture of Italian Jewry, was named after the author and established in New York City in 2003.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A quotation from Levi appears on the sleeve of the second album by the Welsh rock band Manic Street Preachers, titled Gold Against the Soul. The quote is from Levi's poem \"Song of Those Who Died in Vain\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 169540, 459884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 110 ], [ 119, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " David Blaine has Primo Levi's Auschwitz camp number, 174517, tattooed on his left forearm.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 53131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In Lavie Tidhar's 2014 novel A Man Lies Dreaming, the protagonist Shomer (a Yiddish pulp writer) encounters Levi in Auschwitz, and is witness to a conversation between Levi and the author Ka-Tzetnik on the subject of writing the Holocaust.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 5962020, 34272, 23952494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 77, 84 ], [ 189, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the pilot episode of Black Earth Rising, Rwandan genocide survivor and self-described \"major depressive\" Kate Ashby tells her therapist, in her final session addressing her survivors' guilt and having overmedicated herself with antidepressants, that she has read the Primo Levi book he'd assigned her, and if she chooses to attempt suicide, she'll jump straight out of a third story window.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 53358989 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The last track on The Noise by Peter Hammill is entitled \"Primo on the Parapet\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 7762262, 431714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 27 ], [ 31, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Notes", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bibliography", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Further reading", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Giffuni, Cathe. \"An English Bibliography of the Writings of Primo Levi,\" Bulletin of Bibliography, Vol. 50 No. 3 September 1993, pp.213–221.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Announcement of The Complete Works of Primo Levi", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " International Primo Levi Studies Center", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Centro Primo Levi New York", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Primo Levi's journeys of peace\": an article in the TLS by Clive Sinclair, 11 July 2007", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Scriptorium – Primo Levi Includes writing by Levi", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Primo Levi page by the Operatist who composed in honor of Levi", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Primo Levi's Last Moments by Diego Gambetta, Boston Review, Summer 1999 issue.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Primo Levi's house", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " BBC Interview with Primo Levi", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Thames Television interview from 1972", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1919_births", "1987_deaths", "1987_suicides", "20th-century_Italian_Jews", "20th-century_Italian_novelists", "20th-century_Italian_poets", "20th-century_Italian_politicians", "20th-century_male_writers", "20th-century_memoirists", "Action_Party_(Italy)_politicians", "Auschwitz_concentration_camp_survivors", "Fossoli_camp_survivors", "Italian_anti-fascists", "Italian_atheists", "Italian_chemists", "Italian_male_novelists", "Italian_male_poets", "Italian_male_short_story_writers", "Italian_memoirists", "Italian_science_fiction_writers", "Jewish_atheists", "Jewish_anti-fascists", "Jewish_chemists", "Jewish_Italian_writers", "Jewish_partisans", "Levites", "Members_of_Giustizia_e_Libertà", "Modernist_writers", "Scientists_from_Turin", "Premio_Campiello_winners", "Strega_Prize_winners", "Suicides_by_jumping_in_Italy", "University_of_Turin_alumni", "Viareggio_Prize_winners" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse are figures in the Christian religion, first appearing in Revelation, an apocalypse written by John of Patmos.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5211, 4379, 528859, 2023036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 73 ], [ 94, 104 ], [ 109, 119 ], [ 131, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Revelation 6 tells of a book or scroll in God's right hand that is sealed with seven seals. The Lamb of God/Lion of Judah opens the first four of the seven seals, which summons four beings that ride out on white, red, black, and pale horses.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 48834910, 11003920, 7046172, 212235, 323508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 42, 45 ], [ 79, 90 ], [ 96, 107 ], [ 108, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In John's revelation, the first horseman rides on a white horse, carries a bow, and is given a crown – he rides forward as a figure of Conquest, perhaps invoking Pestilence, Christ, or the Antichrist. The second carries a sword and rides a red horse and is the creator of (civil) War, conflict and strife. The third, a food-merchant riding upon a black horse, symbolizes Famine. He carries The Scales. The fourth and final horse is pale, and upon it rides Death, accompanied by Hades. \"They were given authority over a quarter of the earth, to kill with sword, famine, and plague, and by means of the beasts of the earth.\"", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26414452, 37220, 5185, 19156399, 33158, 3598633, 7635021, 20810, 51329, 19075848, 8737046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 143 ], [ 162, 172 ], [ 174, 180 ], [ 189, 199 ], [ 280, 283 ], [ 285, 293 ], [ 298, 304 ], [ 324, 332 ], [ 371, 377 ], [ 456, 461 ], [ 478, 483 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apocalyptic Christianity sometimes interprets the Four Horsemen as a vision of harbingers of the Last Judgment, setting a divine end-time upon the world.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 840055, 5211, 161978, 9760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 12, 24 ], [ 97, 110 ], [ 129, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Based on the above passage, a common translation into English is the rider of the White Horse (sometimes referred to as the White Rider). He is thought to carry a bow (Greek τόξο, toxo) and wear a victor's crown (Greek stephanos).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "White Horse", "target_page_ids": [ 31353608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 219, 228 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Irenaeus, an influential Christian theologian of the 2nd century, was among the first to interpret this Horseman as Christ himself, his white horse representing the successful spread of the gospel. Various scholars have since supported this notion, citing the later appearance, in Revelation 19, of Christ mounted on a white horse, appearing as The Word of God. Furthermore, earlier in the New Testament, the Book of Mark indicates that the advance of the gospel may indeed precede and foretell the apocalypse. The color white also tends to represent righteousness in the Bible, and Christ is in other instances portrayed as a conqueror.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "White Horse", "target_page_ids": [ 15414, 30503, 1095706, 12627, 49026240, 5423521, 12490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 35, 45 ], [ 116, 122 ], [ 190, 196 ], [ 281, 294 ], [ 345, 360 ], [ 409, 421 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Besides Christ, the Horseman could represent the Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit was understood to have come upon the Apostles at Pentecost after Jesus' departure from Earth. The appearance of the Lion in Revelation 5 shows the triumphant arrival of Jesus in Heaven, and the first Horseman may represent the sending of the Holy Spirit by Jesus and the advance of the gospel of Jesus Christ.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "White Horse", "target_page_ids": [ 14379, 31663216, 45971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 60 ], [ 115, 123 ], [ 127, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For nearly nineteen centuries, Christians had thought that the first horseman was a positive figure representing either Christ or the Gospel, but a completely different interpretation of this character emerged in 1866, when C.F. Wimpel defended the first hypothesis that the first horseman was the Antichrist (and more precisely, according to him, Napoleon Bonaparte). The Antichrist interpretation later found champions in the United States, such as R. F. Franklin in 1898 and W. C. Stevens in 1928, and was then very successful in evangelical circles until today, for example with Pastor Billy Graham, for whom the horseman represented the Antichrist or false prophets in general.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "White Horse", "target_page_ids": [ 19156399, 69880, 690865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 298, 308 ], [ 348, 366 ], [ 590, 602 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Edward Bishop Elliott's interpretation, the Four Horsemen represent a prophecy of the subsequent history of the Roman Empire, the white color of this horse signifies triumph, prosperity and health in the political Roman body. For the next 80 or 90 years, succeeding the banishment of the prophet John to Patmos and covering the successive reigns of the emperors Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian and the two Antonines (Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius), a golden age of prosperity, union, civil liberty and good government unstained with civil blood unfolded. The agents of this prosperity, personified by the rider of the white horse, are these five emperors wearing crowns, who reigned with absolute authority and power under the guidance of virtue and wisdom, the armies being restrained by their firm and gentle hands.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "White Horse", "target_page_ids": [ 17549402, 23927371, 30570, 13621, 1256, 20155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 34 ], [ 375, 380 ], [ 382, 388 ], [ 390, 397 ], [ 421, 435 ], [ 440, 455 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This interpretation points out that the bow was preeminently a weapon of the inhabitants of the island of Crete and not of the Roman Empire in general. The Cretans were renowned for their archery skills. The significance of the rider of the white horse holding a bow indicates the place of origin of the line of emperors ruling during this time. This group of emperors can be classed together under one and the same head and family whose origins were from Crete.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "White Horse", "target_page_ids": [ 6591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to this interpretation, this period in Roman history, both at its commencement and at its close, illustrated the glory of the empire where its limits were extended, though not without occasional wars, which were always uniformly triumphant and successful on the frontiers. The triumphs of Emperor Trajan, a Roman Alexander, added to the empire Dacia, Armenia, Mesopotamia and other provinces during the course of the first 20 years of the period, which deepened the impression on the minds of the barbarians of the invincibility of the Roman Empire. The Roman war progressed triumphantly into the invader's own territory, and the Parthian war was successfully ended by the total overthrow of those people. Roman conquest is demonstrated even in the most mighty of these wars: the Marcomannic Wars, a succession of victories under the second Antonine, unleashed on the German barbarians, who were driven into their forests and reduced to Roman submission.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "White Horse", "target_page_ids": [ 45745, 10918072, 20189, 3891002 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 354, 359 ], [ 361, 368 ], [ 370, 381 ], [ 790, 806 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In some commentaries to Bibles, the white Horseman is said to symbolize (ordinary) War, which may possibly be exercised on righteous grounds in decent manner, hence the white color, but still is devastating. The red Horseman (see below) then rather more specifically symbolizes civil war.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "White Horse", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Under another interpretation, the first Horseman is called Pestilence, and is associated with infectious disease and plague. It appears at least as early as 1906, when it is mentioned in the Jewish Encyclopedia. This particular interpretation is common in popular culture references to the Four Horsemen.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "White Horse", "target_page_ids": [ 37220, 225815, 23394255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 69 ], [ 191, 210 ], [ 253, 282 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The origin of this interpretation is unclear. Some translations of the Bible mention \"plague\" (e.g. the New International Version) or \"pestilence\" (e.g. the Revised Standard Version) in connection with the riders in the passage following the introduction of the fourth rider; cf. \"They were given power over a fourth of the earth to kill by sword, famine, plague, and by the wild beasts of the earth.\" in the NASB. However, the original Greek does not use the word for \"plague\" or \"pestilence\" here, simply \"death\" (θάνατος). It is likely the use of \"pestilence\" was drawn from other parts of Revelation and simply included here as another form of death. Also, it is a matter of debate as to whether this passage refers to the fourth rider only, or to the four riders as a whole.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "White Horse", "target_page_ids": [ 4746, 21734, 274466 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 92 ], [ 104, 129 ], [ 157, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vicente Blasco Ibáñez, in his 1916 novel The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (filmed in 1921 and in 1962), provides an early example of this interpretation, writing, \"The horseman on the white horse was clad in a showy and barbarous attire... While his horse continued galloping, he was bending his bow in order to spread pestilence abroad. At his back swung the brass quiver filled with poisoned arrows, containing the germs of all diseases.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "White Horse", "target_page_ids": [ 1647254, 40621948, 2137591, 3251187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 41, 76 ], [ 85, 92 ], [ 97, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The rider of the second horse is often taken to represent War (he is often pictured holding a sword upwards as though ready for battle) or mass slaughter. His horse's color is red (πυρρός, pyrrhos from πῦρ, fire); and in some translations, the color is specifically a \"fiery\" red. The color red, as well as the rider's possession of a great sword (μάχαιρα, machaira), suggests blood that is to be spilled. The sword held upward by the second Horseman may represent war or a declaration of war, as seen in heraldry. In military symbolism, swords held upward, especially crossed swords held upward, signify war and entering into battle. (See, for example, the historical and modern images, as well as the coat of arms, of Joan of Arc.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Red Horse", "target_page_ids": [ 33158, 4181, 940389, 3997, 13610, 16509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 61 ], [ 128, 134 ], [ 357, 365 ], [ 377, 382 ], [ 505, 513 ], [ 720, 731 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The second Horseman represents civil war as opposed to the war of conquest that the first Horseman is said to bring. Other commentators have suggested that it might also represent the persecution of Christians.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Red Horse", "target_page_ids": [ 7085, 25074 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 40 ], [ 184, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Edward Bishop Elliott's interpretation of the Four Horsemen as symbolic prophecy of the history of the Roman Empire, the second seal is opened and the Roman nation that experienced joy, prosperity and triumph is made subject to the red horse which depicts war and bloodshed—civil war. Peace left the Roman Earth, resulting in the killing of one another as insurrection crept into and permeated the Empire, beginning shortly into the reign of the Emperor Commodus.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Red Horse", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Elliott points out that Commodus, who had nothing to wish for and everything to enjoy, that beloved son of Marcus Aurelius who ascended the throne with neither competitor to remove nor enemies to punish, became the slave of his attendants who gradually corrupted his mind. His cruelty degenerated into habit and became the ruling passion of his soul.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Red Horse", "target_page_ids": [ 44324, 20155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 32 ], [ 107, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Elliott further recites that, after the death of Commodus, a most turbulent period lasting 92 years unfolded, during which time 32 emperors and 27 pretenders to the Empire hurled each other from the throne by incessant civil warfare. The sword was a natural universal badge, among the Romans, of the military profession. The apocalyptic figure armed with a great sword indicated an undue authority and unnatural use of it. Military men in power, whose vocation was war and weapon the sword, rose by it and also fell. The unrestrained military, no longer subject to the Senate, transformed the Empire into a system of pure military despotism.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Red Horse", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The third Horseman rides a black horse and is popularly understood to be Famine, as the Horseman carries a pair of balances or weighing scales (Greek ζυγὸν, zygon), indicating the way that bread would have been weighed during a famine. Other authors interpret the third Horseman as the \"Lord as a Law-Giver,\" holding Scales of Justice. In the passage, it is read that the indicated price of grain is about ten times normal (thus the famine interpretation popularity), with an entire day's wages (a denarius) buying enough wheat for only one person (one choenix, about 1.1 litres), or enough of the less nutritious barley for three, so that workers would struggle to feed their families. In the Gospels, the denarius is repeatedly mentioned as a monetary unit, for example the denarius was the pay of a soldier for one day and the day labor of a seasonal worker in the harvesting of grapes is also valued at 1 denarius (). Thus, it is probably a fact that with the approach of the Apocalypse, the most necessary food will rise in price greatly and the wages earned per day will be enough only for the minimum subsistence for the same day and nothing more.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Black Horse", "target_page_ids": [ 51329, 964428, 21365887, 8349, 36858, 2347016, 18094, 19541428, 12627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 79 ], [ 127, 141 ], [ 317, 334 ], [ 498, 506 ], [ 522, 527 ], [ 553, 560 ], [ 572, 577 ], [ 614, 620 ], [ 694, 700 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Of the Four Horsemen, the black horse and its rider are the only ones whose appearance is accompanied by a vocalization. John hears a voice, unidentified but coming from among the four living creatures, that speaks of the prices of wheat and barley, also saying \"and see thou hurt not the oil and the wine\". This suggests that the black horse's famine is to drive up the price of grain but leave oil and wine supplies unaffected (though out of reach of the ordinary worker). One explanation for this is that grain crops would have been more naturally susceptible to famine years or locust plagues than olive trees and grapevines, which root more deeply.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Black Horse", "target_page_ids": [ 3758454, 22478, 32961, 74204, 12225681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 201 ], [ 289, 292 ], [ 301, 305 ], [ 582, 588 ], [ 618, 628 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The statement might also suggest a continuing abundance of luxuries for the wealthy, while staples, such as bread, are scarce, though not totally depleted; such selective scarcity may result from injustice and the deliberate production of luxury crops for the wealthy over grain, as would have happened during the time Revelation was written. Alternatively, the preservation of oil and wine could symbolize the preservation of the Christian faithful, who use oil and wine in their sacraments.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Black Horse", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to Edward Bishop Elliott's interpretation, through this third seal, the black horse is unleashed, representing aggravated distress and mourning. The balance in the rider's hand is not associated with a man's weighing out bits of bread in scanty measure for his family's eating, but in association with the buying and selling of corn and other grains. During the time of the apostle John's exile in Patmos, the balance was commonly a symbol of justice, since it was used to weigh out the grains for a set price. The balance of justice held in the hand of the rider of the black horse signified the aggravation of the other previous evil, with the bloodstained red of the Roman aspect morphing into the darker blackness of distress. The black horse rider is instructed not to harm the oil and the wine, which signifies that this scarcity should not fall upon the superfluities, such as oil and wine, which men can live without, but upon the necessities of life—bread.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Black Horse", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This interpretation also borrows from Edward Gibbon's The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, which claims the Roman Empire suffered as a result of excessive taxation of its citizens, particularly during the reign of Emperor Caracalla, whom history has largely remembered as a cruel tyrant and as among the worst of the Roman emperors. Under the necessity of gratifying the greed and excessive lifestyle which Caracalla had excited in the army, old as well as new taxes were at the same time levied in the provinces. The land tax, taxes for services and heavy contributions of corn, wine, oil and meat were exacted from the provinces for the use of the court, army and capital. \"This noxious weed not totally eradicated again sprang up with the most luxurious growth and going forward darkened the Roman world with its deadly shade\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Black Horse", "target_page_ids": [ 10310, 31375, 49907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 51 ], [ 54, 109 ], [ 242, 251 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Gibbon, this was exacerbated by the rise to power of the Emperor Maximin, who \"attacked the public property at length.\" Every city of the empire was destined to purchase corn for the multitudes, as well as supply expenses for the games. By the Emperor's authority, the whole mass of wealth was confiscated for use by the Imperial treasury—temples \"stripped of their most valuable offerings of gold, silver [and statues] which were melted down and coined into money.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Black Horse", "target_page_ids": [ 28030743, 1721195 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 85 ], [ 334, 351 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The fourth and final Horseman is named Death. Known as Θάνατος (Thanatos), of all the riders, he is the only one to whom the text itself explicitly gives a name. Unlike the other three, he is not described carrying a weapon or other object, instead he is followed by Hades (the resting place of the dead). However, illustrations commonly depict him carrying a scythe (like the Grim Reaper), sword, or other implement.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pale Horse", "target_page_ids": [ 19075848, 8737046, 19075848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 44 ], [ 267, 272 ], [ 377, 388 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The color of Death's horse is written as khlōros (χλωρός) in the original Koine Greek, which can mean either green/greenish-yellow or pale/pallid. The color is often translated as \"pale\", though \"ashen\", \"pale green\", and \"yellowish green\" are other possible interpretations (the Greek word is the root of \"chlorophyll\" and \"chlorine\"). Based on uses of the word in ancient Greek medical literature, several scholars suggest that the color reflects the sickly pallor of a corpse. In some modern artistic depictions, the horse is distinctly green.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pale Horse", "target_page_ids": [ 33696661, 6985, 5667, 12974846 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 85 ], [ 307, 318 ], [ 325, 333 ], [ 472, 478 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The verse beginning \"they were given power over a fourth of the earth\" is generally taken as referring to Death and Hades, although some commentators see it as applying to all four horsemen.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pale Horse", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This fourth, pale horse, was the personification of Death, with Hades following him, jaws open and receiving the victims slain by Death. Death's commission was to kill upon the Roman Earth with all of the four judgements of God—with sword, famine, pestilence and wild beasts. The deadly pale and livid appearance displays a hue symptomatic of approaching empire dissolution. According to Edward Bishop Elliott, an era in Roman history commencing within about 15 years after the death of Severus Alexander (in 235 AD) strongly marks every point of this terrible emblem.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pale Horse", "target_page_ids": [ 1600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 487, 504 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edward Gibbon speaks of a period from the celebration of the great secular games by the Emperor Philip to the death of Gallienus (in 268 AD) as the 20 years of shame and misfortune, of confusion and calamity, as a time when the ruined empire approached the last and fatal moment of its dissolution. Every instant of time in every province of the Roman world was afflicted by military tyrants and barbarous invaders—the sword from within and without.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pale Horse", "target_page_ids": [ 144163, 12677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 102 ], [ 119, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Elliott, famine, the inevitable consequence of carnage and oppression, which demolished the present crop as well as the hope of future harvests, produced the environment for an epidemic of diseases, the effects of scanty and unwholesome food. That furious plague (the Plague of Cyprian), which raged from the year 250 to the year 265, continued without interruption in every province, city and almost every family in the empire. During a portion of this time, 5000 people died daily in Rome; and many towns that had escaped the attacks of barbarians were entirely depopulated.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pale Horse", "target_page_ids": [ 16856479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 281, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For a time in the late 260s, the strength of Aurelian crushed the enemies of Rome, yet after his assassination certain of them revived. While the Goths had been destroyed for almost a century and the Empire reunited, the Sassanid Persians were uncowed in the East and, during the following year, hosts of central Asian Alani spread themselves over Pontus, Cappadocia, Cilicia and Galatia, etching their course by the flames of cities and villages they pillaged.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pale Horse", "target_page_ids": [ 43413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As for the wild beasts of the earth, according to Elliott, it is a well-known law of nature that they quickly occupy the scenes of waste and depopulation—where the reign of man fails and the reign of beasts begins. After the reign of Gallienus and 20 or 30 years had passed, the multiplication of the animals had risen to such an extent in parts of the empire that they made it a crying evil.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pale Horse", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One notable point of apparent difference between the prophecy and history might seem to be expressly limited to the fourth part of the Roman Earth, but in the history of the period the devastations of the pale horse extended over all. The fourth seal prophecy seems to mark the malignant climax of the evils of the two preceding seals, to which no such limitation is attached. Turning to a reading in Jerome's Latin Vulgate which reads \"over the four parts of the earth,\" it requires that the Roman empire should have some kind of quadripartition. Dividing from the central or Italian fourth, three great divisions of the Empire separated into the West, East and Illyricum under Posthumus, Aureolus and Zenobia respectively—divisions that were later legitimized by Diocletian.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pale Horse", "target_page_ids": [ 16005, 32576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 401, 407 ], [ 410, 423 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Diocletian ended this long period of anarchy, but the succession of civil wars and invasions caused much suffering, disorder and crime, which brought the empire into a state of moral lethargy from which it never recovered. After the plague had abated, the empire suffered from general distress, and its condition was very much like that which followed after the Black Death of the Middle Ages. Talent and art had become extinct in proportion to the desolation of the world.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pale Horse", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Before the Reformation and the woodcut by Albrecht Dürer, the usual and more influential commentaries of the Book of Revelation thought there was only one horseman riding successively these four horses, who was the Christ himself. So did some medieval illuminations, and after that some modern commentators: Oecumenius, a Greek exegete writing in the sixth-century, Berengaudus a French Benedictine monk of Ferrières Abbey at the same period, Luis del Alcázar a Spanish Jesuit in 1612, Benito Arias Montano, a Spanish Orientalist, in 1622, Jacques de Bordes, a French capuchin in 1639, Emanuel Swedenborg a Swedish theologian in 1766", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 37857, 162300, 2402, 4379, 6589534, 41196708, 4936354, 33278688, 2898654, 4349112, 224173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 22 ], [ 31, 38 ], [ 42, 56 ], [ 109, 127 ], [ 308, 318 ], [ 366, 377 ], [ 407, 422 ], [ 443, 459 ], [ 486, 506 ], [ 518, 529 ], [ 586, 604 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some Christians interpret the Horsemen as a prophecy of a future Tribulation, during which many on Earth will die as a result of multiple catastrophes. The Four Horsemen are the first in a series of \"Seal\" judgements. This is when God will judge the Earth, and is giving humans a chance to repent before they die. A new beautiful earth is created for all the people who are faithful to Him and accept him as their Savior. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 31394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Walvoord, a premillennialist, believed the Seals will be opened during the Great Tribulation and coincides with the arrival of the Antichrist as the first horseman, a global war as the second horseman, an economic collapse as the third horseman, and the general die-off of 1/4 of the World's population as the fourth horseman, which is followed by a global dictatorship under the Antichrist and the rest of the plagues.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 358014, 349832, 31394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 17, 33 ], [ 80, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to E.B. Elliott, the first seal, as revealed to John by the angel, was to signify what was to happen soon after John seeing the visions in Patmos, and that the second, third and fourth seals in like manner were to have commencing dates each in chronological sequence following the preceding seal. Its general subject is the decline and fall, after a previous prosperous era, of the Empire of Heathen Rome. The first four seals of Revelation, represented by four horses and horsemen, are fixed to events, or changes, within the Roman Earth.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some modern scholars interpret Revelation from a preterist point of view, arguing that its prophecy and imagery apply only to the events of the first century of Christian history. In this school of thought, Conquest, the white horse's rider, is sometimes identified as a symbol of Parthian forces: Conquest carries a bow, and the Parthian Empire was at that time known for its mounted warriors and their skill with bow and arrow. Parthians were also particularly associated with white horses. Some scholars specifically point to Vologases I, a Parthian shah who clashed with the Roman Empire and won one significant battle in 62 AD.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 24181, 22911628, 19180547, 1501124, 64648, 25507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 58 ], [ 140, 178 ], [ 281, 288 ], [ 529, 540 ], [ 553, 557 ], [ 579, 591 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Revelation's historical context may also influence the depiction of the black horse and its rider, Famine. In 92 AD, the Roman emperor Domitian attempted to curb excessive growth of grapevines and encourage grain cultivation instead, but there was major popular backlash against this effort, and it was abandoned. Famine's mission to make wheat and barley scarce but \"hurt not the oil and the wine\" could be an allusion to this episode. The red horse and its rider, who take peace from the earth, might represent the prevalence of civil strife at the time Revelation was written; internecine conflict ran rampant in the Roman Empire during and just prior to the 1st century AD.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 219117, 8592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 134 ], [ 135, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints believe their first prophet, Joseph Smith, revealed that the book described by John \"contains the revealed will, mysteries, and the works of God; the hidden things of his economy concerning this earth during the seven thousand years of its continuance, or its temporal existence\" and that the seals describe these things for the seven thousand years of the Earth's temporal existence, each seal representing 1,000 years.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 5935, 32387701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 58 ], [ 88, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "About the first seal and the white horse, LDS Apostle Bruce R. McConkie taught, \"The most transcendent happenings involved Enoch and his ministry. And it is interesting to note that what John saw was not the establishment of Zion and its removal to heavenly spheres, but the unparalleled wars in which Enoch, as a general over the armies of the saints, 'went forth conquering and to conquer' Revelation 6:2; see also Moses 7:13–18\" The second seal and the red horse represent the period from approximately 3,000 B.C. to 2,000 B.C. including the wickedness and violence leading to the Great Flood.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 363753, 909872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 53 ], [ 54, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The third seal and black horse describe the period of ancient Joseph, son of Israel, who was sold into Egypt, and the famines that swept that period (see Genesis 41–42; Abraham 1:29–30; 2:1, 17, 21). The fourth seal and the pale horse are interpreted to represent the thousand years leading up to the birth of Jesus Christ, both the physical death brought about by great warring empires and the spiritual death through apostasy among the Lord's chosen people.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 1095706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 311, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Artwork which shows the Horsemen as a group, such as the famous woodcut by Albrecht Dürer, suggests an interpretation where all four horsemen represent different aspects of the same tribulation.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 18607662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "American Protestant Evangelical interpreters regularly see ways in which the horsemen, and Revelation in general, speak to contemporary events. Some who believe Revelation applies to modern times can interpret the horses based on various ways their colors are used. Red, for example, often represents Communism, the white horse and rider with a crown representing Catholicism, Black has been used as a symbol of Capitalism, while Green represents the rise of Islam. Pastor Irvin Baxter Jr. of Endtime Ministries espoused such a belief.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 9209651, 606848, 5416, 6037917, 2453777, 2440286 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 301, 310 ], [ 364, 375 ], [ 412, 422 ], [ 459, 464 ], [ 473, 489 ], [ 493, 511 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some equate the Four Horsemen with the angels of the four winds. (See Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, and Uriel, angels often associated with four cardinal directions).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 318621, 159525, 303741, 588929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 77 ], [ 79, 86 ], [ 88, 95 ], [ 101, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some speculate that when the imagery of the Six Seals is compared to other eschatological descriptions throughout the Bible, the themes of the horsemen draw remarkable similarity to the events of the Olivet Discourse. The signs of the approaching end of the world are likened to birth pains, indicating that they would occur more frequently and with greater intensity the nearer the event of Christ's return. With this perspective the horsemen represent the rise of false religions, false prophets and false messiahs; the increase of wars and rumours of wars; the escalation of natural disasters and famines; and the growth of persecution, martyrdom, betrayal and loss of faith.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 7046172, 72345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 53 ], [ 200, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Anatoly Fomenko, the Book of Revelation is largely astrological in nature. The 'Four Horsemen' represent the planets Mercury, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 649501, 2122, 22915, 19694, 14640471, 38930, 44474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 28 ], [ 64, 76 ], [ 122, 129 ], [ 130, 137 ], [ 139, 143 ], [ 145, 152 ], [ 157, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sports writer Grandland Rice described the 1924 Notre Dame football backfield with the famous line: \"Outlined against a blue-gray October sky, the Four Horsemen rode again. In dramatic lore their names are Death, Destruction, Pestilence, and Famine. But those are aliases. Their real names are: Stuhldreher, Crowley, Miller and Layden.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Book of Zechariah twice mentions colored horses; in the first passage there are three colors (red, speckled/brown, and white), and in the second there are four teams of horses (red, black, white, and finally dappled/\"grisled and bay\") pulling chariots. The second set of horses are referred to as \"the four spirits of heaven, going out from standing in the presence of the Lord of the whole world.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Other Biblical references", "target_page_ids": [ 4456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "They are described as patrolling the earth, and keeping it peaceful. It may be assumed by some Christian interpretation that when the tribulation begins, the peace is taken away, so their job is to terrify the places in which they patrol.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Other Biblical references", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The four living creatures of Revelation 4:6-8 are written very similarly to the four living creatures in Ezekiel 1:5–12. In Revelation, each of the living creatures summons a horseman, where in Ezekiel the living creatures follow wherever the spirit leads, without turning.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Other Biblical references", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Ezekiel 14:21, the Lord enumerates His \"four disastrous acts of judgment\" (ESV), sword, famine, wild beasts, and pestilence, against the idolatrous elders of Israel. A symbolic interpretation of the Four Horsemen links the riders to these judgments, or the similar judgments in 6:11–12.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Other Biblical references", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Book with Seven Seals", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16818978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Events of Revelation (Chapter 6)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3758454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse in popular culture", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 23394255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Four Horsemen of the Infocalypse, an analogous usage in the use of computers", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16145656 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kalki", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 100241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Fifth Horseman (disambiguation), several concepts adding to the four horsemen", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7192088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bibliography", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Four_Horsemen_of_the_Apocalypse", "Judgment_in_Christianity", "Book_of_Revelation", "Christian_terminology", "Prophets_in_Christianity", "Quartets", "New_Testament_people" ]

[ "Horsemen of the Apocalypse", "the Horsemen of the Apocalypse", "the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse" ]

[ { "plaintext": "New Scientist is a magazine covering all aspects of science and technology. Based in London, it publishes weekly English-language editions in the United Kingdom, the United States and Australia. An editorially separate organisation publishes a monthly Dutch-language edition. First published on 22 November 1956, New Scientist has been available in online form since 1996.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21001, 17867, 19985174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 27 ], [ 85, 91 ], [ 252, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sold in retail outlets (paper edition) and on subscription (paper and/or online), the magazine covers news, features, reviews and commentary on science, technology and their implications. New Scientist also publishes speculative articles, ranging from the technical to the philosophical.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "New Scientist was acquired by Daily Mail and General Trust (DMGT) in March 2021.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 714373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The magazine was founded in 1956 by Tom Margerison, Max Raison and Nicholas Harrison as The New Scientist, with Issue 1 on 22 November 1956, priced at one shilling (a twentieth of a pound in pre-decimal UK currency; ). An article in the magazine's 10th anniversary issues provides anecdotes on the founding of the magazine. The British monthly science magazine Science Journal, published from 1965 until 1971, was merged with New Scientist to form New Scientist and Science Journal. In 1970, the Reed Group, which became Reed Elsevier, acquired New Scientist when it merged with IPC Magazines. Reed retained the magazine when it sold most of its consumer titles in a management buyout to what is now TI Media. In April 2017 New Scientist changed ownership when RELX Group, formerly known as Reed Elsevier, sold the magazine to Kingston Acquisitions, a group established by Sir Bernard Gray, Louise Rogers and Matthew O’Sullivan to acquire New Scientist. Kingston Acquisitions then renamed itself New Scientist Ltd. The New Scientist was subsequently sold to the Daily Mail and General Trust (DMGT) for £70 million in March 2021; DMGT guaranteed the magazine's editorial independence, and ruled out staff cuts and the sharing of editorial content.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 42290668, 33363888, 16522275, 270673, 521616, 420576, 2079616, 1001919, 2079616, 420576, 30108776, 714373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 50 ], [ 52, 62 ], [ 155, 163 ], [ 182, 187 ], [ 191, 214 ], [ 521, 534 ], [ 579, 592 ], [ 667, 684 ], [ 700, 708 ], [ 761, 771 ], [ 877, 889 ], [ 1062, 1090 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December 2021, DMGT announced that both New Scientist and the DMGT-owned daily i newspaper would be moved to a new division of the company, to be called Harmsworth Media.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 29261811 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Originally, the cover of New Scientist listed articles in plain text. Initially, page numbering followed academic practice with sequential numbering for each quarterly volume. So, for example, the first page of an issue in March could be 649 instead of 1. Later issues numbered issues separately. From the beginning of 1961 \"The\" was dropped from the title. From 1965, the front cover was illustrated. Until the 1970s, colour was not used except on the cover.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since its first issue, New Scientist has written about the applications of science, through its coverage of technology. For example, the first issue included an article \"Where next from Calder Hall?\" on the future of nuclear power in the UK, a topic that it has covered throughout its history. In 1964, there was a regular \"Science in British Industry\" section with several items.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Throughout most of its history, New Scientist has published cartoons as light relief and comment on the news, with contributions from regulars such as Mike Peyton and David Austin. The Grimbledon Down comic strip, by cartoonist Bill Tidy, appeared from 1970 to 1994. The Ariadne pages in New Scientist commented on the lighter side of science and technology and included contributions from David E. H. Jones, Daedalus. The fictitious inventor devised plausible but impractical and humorous inventions, often developed by the (fictitious) DREADCO corporation. Daedalus later moved to Nature.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 33711213, 3784675, 530372, 530350, 2326871, 2326871, 43427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 162 ], [ 167, 179 ], [ 185, 200 ], [ 228, 237 ], [ 390, 407 ], [ 409, 417 ], [ 583, 589 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Issues of (The) New Scientist from issue 1 to the end of 1989 are free to read online; subsequent issues require a subscription.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the first half of 2013, the international circulation of New Scientist averaged 125,172. While this was a 4.3% reduction on the previous year's figure, it was a much smaller reduction in circulation than many mainstream magazines of similar or greater circulation. UK circulation fell by 3.2% in 2014, but stronger international sales increased the circulation to 129,585.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A monthly Dutch edition of New Scientist was launched in June 2015. It replaced the former (NWT) magazine, adopting its staff and subscribers. The editorially independent magazine is published by Veen Media. It contains mainly translations of articles in the English-language edition, but also its own articles. These are typically focused on research in the Netherlands and Belgium, the main countries where it is purchased.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the 21st century, until May 2019, New Scientist contained the following sections: Leader, News (Upfront), Technology, Opinion (interviews, point-of-view articles and letters), Features (including cover article), CultureLab (book and event reviews), Feedback (humour), The Last Word (questions and answers) and Jobs & Careers. A Tom Gauld cartoon appears on the Letters page. A readers' letters section discusses recent articles and discussions also take place on the website. Readers contribute observations on examples of pseudoscience to Feedback, and offer questions and answers on scientific and technical topics to Last Word. New Scientist has produced a series of books compiled from contributions to Last Word.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 8635374, 23047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 331, 340 ], [ 526, 539 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From issue 3228 of 4 May 2019, New Scientist introduced a \"slightly updated design, with ... a fresher, brighter feel\". A dedicated \"Views\" section was added between news reports and in-depth features, including readers' letters, comment, and reviews on science, culture and society. Regular columnists were introduced, and columns in the culture pages. The light-hearted \"Back Pages\" includes the long-standing Feedback and The Last Word, puzzles, and a Q&A section.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Online readership takes various forms. Overall global views of an online database of over 100,000 articles are 10.8m by 7m unique users according to Google Analytics, . On social media there are 3.5m+ Twitter followers, 3.5m+ Facebook followers and 100,000+ Instagram followers .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3161187, 5897742, 9988187, 7529378, 31591547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 149, 165 ], [ 172, 184 ], [ 201, 208 ], [ 226, 234 ], [ 258, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Emily Wilson was appointed editor-in-chief in 2018. Current staff members are listed on page 5 of the magazine. Columnists included Annalee Newitz on novel tech. James Wong on food myths, Chanda Prescod-Weinstein's adventures in space-time and Graham Lawton on environment.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Staff and contributors", "target_page_ids": [ 56471212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Percy Cudlipp (1956–1962)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Staff and contributors", "target_page_ids": [ 17969399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nigel Calder (1962–1966)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Staff and contributors", "target_page_ids": [ 4485264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Donald Gould (1966–1969)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Staff and contributors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bernard Dixon (1969–1979)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Staff and contributors", "target_page_ids": [ 54414042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Michael Kenward (1979–1990)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Staff and contributors", "target_page_ids": [ 40970896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "David Dickson (1990–1992)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Staff and contributors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Alun Anderson (1992–2000)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Staff and contributors", "target_page_ids": [ 46627185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jeremy Webb (2000–2008)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Staff and contributors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Roger Highfield (2008–2011)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Staff and contributors", "target_page_ids": [ 40311818 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sumit Paul-Choudhury (2011–2018)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Staff and contributors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Emily Wilson (2018–)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Staff and contributors", "target_page_ids": [ 56471212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "New Scientist has published books derived from its content, many of which are selected questions and answers from the \"Last Word\" section of the magazine and website:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1998. The Last Word. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2000. The Last Word 2. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2005. Does Anything Eat Wasps?. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2006. Why Don't Penguins' Feet Freeze?. (selections from the first two books) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2007. How to Fossilise Your Hamster. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2008. Do Polar Bears Get Lonely?. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2009. How to Make a Tornado: The strange and wonderful things that happen when scientists break free. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2010. Why Can't Elephants Jump?. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2011. Why Are Orangutans Orange?: science questions in picture. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2012. Will We Ever Speak Dolphin?. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2014. Question Everything. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Other books published by New Scientist include:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Anti Zoo – 50 freaks of nature you won't see on TV (e-book based on the website's \"Zoologger\" column)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Nothing: Surprising insights everywhere from zero to oblivion. (compilation of articles previously published in the magazine) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " New Scientist: The Collection (compendiums of articles on specific scientific topics)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Volume 1 (2014, 4 issues):", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Big Questions", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Unknown Universe", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Guide to a Better You", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Human Story", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Volume 2 (2015, 5 issues):", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Human Brain", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Medical Frontiers", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Being Human", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Our Planet", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "15 Ideas you Need to Understand", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Volume 3 (2016, 5 issues):", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Wonders of Space", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Life: Origin, Evolution, Extinction", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Quantum World", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Wild Planet", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mind-Expanding Ideas", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Volume 4 (2017, 4 issues):", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Einstein's Mind-Bending Universe", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Scientific Guide to an Even Better You", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Essential Knowledge", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Infinity and Beyond", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Second Edition (2018-2019):", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Big Questions Big Answers (2nd Edition of \"The Big Questions\")", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "21 Great Mysteries of the Universe (2nd Edition of \"The Unknown Universe\")", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Civilisation", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Becoming Human (2nd Edition of \"The Human Story\")", 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"Nutrition and Diet", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Einstein's Universe", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Life on Earth", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Consciousness", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Solar System", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "New Scientist has also worked with other publishers to produce books based on the magazine's content:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1992 Inside Science, edited by Richard Fifield, published by Penguin Books. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [ 551953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1992 The New Scientist Guide to Chaos, edited by Nina Hall, published by Penguin Books. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [ 551953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2012 Arc, \"a new digital quarterly from the makers of New Scientist, exploring the future through the world of science fiction\" and fact was launched. In the same year the magazine launched a dating service, NewScientistConnect, operated by The Dating Lab.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since 2016 New Scientist has held an annual science festival in London. Styled New Scientist Live, the event has attracted high-profile scientists and science presenters.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spin-offs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In September 2006, New Scientist was criticised by science fiction writer Greg Egan, who wrote that \"a sensationalist bent and a lack of basic knowledge by its writers\" was making the magazine's coverage sufficiently unreliable \"to constitute a real threat to the public understanding of science\". In particular, Egan found himself \"gobsmacked by the level of scientific illiteracy\" in the magazine's coverage of Roger Shawyer's \"electromagnetic drive\", where New Scientist allowed the publication of \"meaningless double-talk\" designed to bypass a fatal objection to Shawyer's proposed space drive, namely that it violates the law of conservation of momentum. Egan urged others to write to New Scientist and pressure the magazine to raise its standards, instead of \"squandering the opportunity that the magazine's circulation and prestige provides\". The editor of New Scientist, then Jeremy Webb, replied defending the article, saying that it is \"an ideas magazine—that means writing about hypotheses as well as theories\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 26787, 12706, 6883009, 20431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 66 ], [ 74, 83 ], [ 430, 451 ], [ 627, 658 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In January 2009, New Scientist ran a cover with the title \"Darwin was wrong\". The actual story stated that specific details of Darwin's evolution theory had been shown incorrectly, mainly the shape of phylogenetic trees of interrelated species, which should be represented as a web instead of a tree. Some evolutionary biologists who actively oppose the intelligent design movement thought the cover was both sensationalist and damaging to the scientific community.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 8145410, 149326, 9236, 15295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 65 ], [ 201, 219 ], [ 306, 329 ], [ 354, 372 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Citizen science – first use of this term was in New Scientist in October 1979", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2155752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of scientific journals", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14238840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nominative determinism – first use of this term was in New Scientist in December 1994", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2326978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Digitized New Scientist magazines on Google Books", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 3190097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 49 ] ] } ]

[ "1956_establishments_in_the_United_Kingdom", "Science_and_technology_magazines_published_in_the_United_Kingdom", "Weekly_magazines_published_in_the_United_Kingdom", "Magazines_established_in_1956", "Popular_science_magazines", "Science_and_technology_in_the_United_Kingdom", "Magazines_published_in_London", "2017_mergers_and_acquisitions", "2021_mergers_and_acquisitions", "Daily_Mail_and_General_Trust" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Stephen Arthur Cook, (born December 14, 1939) is an American-Canadian computer scientist and mathematician who has made major contributions to the fields of complexity theory and proof complexity. He is a university professor at the University of Toronto, Department of Computer Science and Department of Mathematics.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 328784, 18902, 7543, 2801284, 20646803, 7955325, 25686449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 89 ], [ 94, 107 ], [ 158, 175 ], [ 180, 196 ], [ 206, 226 ], [ 234, 255 ], [ 292, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cook received his bachelor's degree in 1961 from the University of Michigan, and his master's degree and Ph.D. from Harvard University, respectively in 1962 and 1966, from the Mathematics Department. He joined the University of California, Berkeley, mathematics department in 1966 as an assistant professor, and stayed there until 1970 when he was denied reappointment. In a speech celebrating the 30th anniversary of the Berkeley electrical engineering and computer sciences department, fellow Turing Award winner and Berkeley professor Richard Karp said that, \"It is to our everlasting shame that we were unable to persuade the math department to give him tenure.\" Cook joined the faculty of the University of Toronto, Computer Science and Mathematics Departments in 1970 as an associate professor, where he was promoted to professor in 1975 and Distinguished Professor in 1985.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 188874, 31740, 170346, 21031297, 18426501, 31922, 31093, 298763, 7955325, 17535342 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 35 ], [ 53, 75 ], [ 85, 100 ], [ 105, 110 ], [ 116, 134 ], [ 214, 248 ], [ 495, 507 ], [ 538, 550 ], [ 698, 719 ], [ 848, 871 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stephen Cook is considered one of the forefathers of computational complexity theory.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Research", "target_page_ids": [ 7543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During his PhD, Cook worked on complexity of functions, mainly on multiplication. In his seminal 1971 paper \"The Complexity of Theorem Proving Procedures\", Cook formalized the notions of polynomial-time reduction (also known as Cook reduction) and NP-completeness, and proved the existence of an NP-complete problem by showing that the Boolean satisfiability problem (usually known as SAT) is NP-complete. This theorem was proven independently by Leonid Levin in the Soviet Union, and has thus been given the name the Cook–Levin theorem. The paper also formulated the most famous problem in computer science, the P vs. NP problem. Informally, the \"P vs. NP\" question asks whether every optimization problem whose answers can be efficiently verified for correctness/optimality can be solved optimally with an efficient algorithm. Given the abundance of such optimization problems in everyday life, a positive answer to the \"P vs. NP\" question would likely have profound practical and philosophical consequences.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Research", "target_page_ids": [ 159695, 1188375, 23385892, 23385892, 4715, 23385892, 402708, 26779, 663047, 6115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 187, 212 ], [ 228, 242 ], [ 248, 259 ], [ 296, 307 ], [ 336, 366 ], [ 393, 404 ], [ 447, 459 ], [ 467, 479 ], [ 514, 536 ], [ 613, 629 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cook conjectures that there are optimization problems (with easily checkable solutions) that cannot be solved by efficient algorithms, i.e., P is not equal to NP. This conjecture has generated a great deal of research in computational complexity theory, which has considerably improved our understanding of the inherent difficulty of computational problems and what can be computed efficiently. Yet, the conjecture remains open and is among the seven famous Millennium Prize Problems.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Research", "target_page_ids": [ 7543, 27599234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 221, 252 ], [ 458, 483 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1982, Cook received the Turing Award for his contributions to complexity theory. His citation reads:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Research", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For his advancement of our understanding of the complexity of computation in a significant and profound way. His seminal paper, The Complexity of Theorem Proving Procedures, presented at the 1971 ACM SIGACT Symposium on the Theory of Computing, laid the foundations for the theory of NP-Completeness. The ensuing exploration of the boundaries and nature of NP-complete class of problems has been one of the most active and important research activities in computer science for the last decade.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Research", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In his \"Feasibly Constructive Proofs and the Propositional Calculus\" paper published in 1975, he introduced the equational theory PV (standing for Polynomial-time Verifiable) to formalize the notion of proofs using only polynomial-time concepts. He made another major contribution to the field in his 1979 paper, joint with his student Robert A. Reckhow, \"The Relative Efficiency of Propositional Proof Systems\", in which they formalized the notions of p-simulation and efficient propositional proof system, which started an area now called propositional proof complexity. They proved that the existence of a proof system in which every true formula has a short proof is equivalent to NP = coNP. Cook co-authored a book with his student Phuong The Nguyen in this area titled \"Logical Foundations of Proof Complexity\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Research", "target_page_ids": [ 29696524, 2801284, 21562, 6184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 480, 506 ], [ 555, 571 ], [ 685, 687 ], [ 690, 694 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His main research areas are complexity theory and proof complexity, with excursions into programming language semantics, parallel computation, and artificial intelligence. Other areas that he has contributed to include bounded arithmetic, bounded reverse mathematics, complexity of higher type functions, complexity of analysis, and lower bounds in propositional proof systems.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Research", "target_page_ids": [ 7543, 2801284, 397608, 145162, 1164, 51814011, 326365, 1250665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 45 ], [ 50, 66 ], [ 89, 119 ], [ 121, 141 ], [ 147, 170 ], [ 219, 237 ], [ 247, 266 ], [ 363, 375 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He named the complexity class NC after Nick Pippenger. The complexity class SC is named after him. The definition of the complexity class AC0 and its hierarchy AC are also introduced by him.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Research", "target_page_ids": [ 22073, 477439, 18449916, 7400698, 7401755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 32 ], [ 39, 53 ], [ 76, 78 ], [ 138, 141 ], [ 160, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Don Knuth the KMP algorithm was inspired by Cook's automata for recognizing concatenated palindromes in linear time.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Research", "target_page_ids": [ 8095, 253227, 405944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 22 ], [ 27, 40 ], [ 117, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cook was awarded an NSERC E.W.R. Steacie Memorial Fellowship in 1977, a Killam Research Fellowship in 1982, and received the CRM-Fields-PIMS prize in 1999. He has won John L. Synge Award and Bernard Bolzano Medal, and is a fellow of the Royal Society of London and Royal Society of Canada. Cook was elected to membership in the National Academy of Sciences (United States) and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 599737, 19284033, 18754589, 496064, 461510, 46510, 3434750, 391882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 25 ], [ 125, 146 ], [ 167, 186 ], [ 237, 260 ], [ 265, 288 ], [ 328, 356 ], [ 358, 371 ], [ 381, 418 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cook won the ACM Turing Award in 1982. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 31093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Association for Computing Machinery honored him as a Fellow of ACM in 2008 for his", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 2928, 2928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 35 ], [ 63, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "fundamental contributions to the theory of computational complexity.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He was selected by the Association for Symbolic Logic to give the Gödel Lecture in 1999.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 3770438, 69216431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 53 ], [ 66, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Government of Ontario appointed him to the Order of Ontario in 2013, the highest honor in Ontario. He has won the 2012 Gerhard Herzberg Canada Gold Medal for Science and Engineering, the highest honor for scientists and engineers in Canada. The Herzberg Medal is awarded by NSERC for \"both the sustained excellence and overall influence of research work conducted in Canada in the natural sciences or engineering\". He was named an Officer of the Order of Canada in 2015.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 2670174, 382287, 22218, 30275324, 5042916, 599737, 160112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 25 ], [ 47, 63 ], [ 94, 101 ], [ 123, 185 ], [ 237, 243 ], [ 278, 283 ], [ 435, 465 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cook was granted the BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award 2015 in the Information and Communication Technologies category \"for his important role in identifying what computers can and cannot solve efficiently,\" in the words of the jury's citation. His work, it continues, \"has had a dramatic impact in all fields where complex computations are crucial.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 44497180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cook has supervised numerous MSc students, and 34 PhD students have completed their degrees under his supervision.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cook lives with his wife in Toronto. They have two sons, Gordon and James. He plays the violin and enjoys sailing. He is often called by his short name Steve Cook.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 64646, 36583731, 32427, 27672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 35 ], [ 57, 63 ], [ 88, 94 ], [ 106, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of pioneers in computer science", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3310078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Home page of Stephen A. Cook", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ‘P versus NP’ and the Limits of Computation - Public lecture given by Stephen Cook at the University of Toronto", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Oral history interview with Stephen Cook at Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Cook discussed his education at the University of Michigan and Harvard University and early work at the University of California, Berkeley, and his growing interest in problems of computational complexity. Cook recounted his move to the University of Toronto in 1970 and the reception of his work on NP-completeness, leading up to his A.M. Turing Award.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 2469248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 70 ] ] } ]

[ "Living_people", "1939_births", "Members_of_the_United_States_National_Academy_of_Sciences", "Members_of_the_Order_of_Ontario", "American_computer_scientists", "Canadian_computer_scientists", "Turing_Award_laureates", "Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society", "Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Canada", "Fellows_of_the_Association_for_Computing_Machinery", "University_of_Toronto_faculty", "University_of_Michigan_alumni", "Harvard_Graduate_School_of_Arts_and_Sciences_alumni", "University_of_California,_Berkeley_College_of_Letters_and_Science_faculty", "American_emigrants_to_Canada", "Officers_of_the_Order_of_Canada", "Theoretical_computer_scientists", "Gödel_Lecturers" ]

[ "Stephen Arthur Cook", "Stephen A. Cook", "S. A. Cook" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Sir Charles Antony Richard Hoare (Tony Hoare or C. A. R. Hoare) (born 11 January 1934) is a British computer scientist who has made foundational contributions to programming languages, algorithms, operating systems, formal verification, and concurrent computing. His work earned him the Turing Award, usually regarded as the highest distinction in computer science, in 1980.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 328784, 23015, 775, 22194, 270054, 2581605, 31093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 119 ], [ 163, 184 ], [ 186, 195 ], [ 198, 214 ], [ 217, 236 ], [ 242, 262 ], [ 288, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hoare developed the sorting algorithm quicksort in 1959–1960. He developed Hoare logic, an axiomatic basis for verifying program correctness. In the semantics of concurrency, he introduced the formal language communicating sequential processes (CSP) to specify the interactions of concurrent processes, and along with Edsger Dijkstra, formulated the dining philosophers problem. He is also credited with development (and later criticism) of the null pointer, having introduced it in the ALGOL family of languages. Since 1977, he has held positions at the University of Oxford and Microsoft Research in Cambridge.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 28442, 3268249, 182708, 518199, 357339, 928467, 247370, 10018, 285344, 1175028, 1453, 31797, 2163522, 36995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 37 ], [ 38, 47 ], [ 75, 86 ], [ 91, 100 ], [ 121, 140 ], [ 162, 173 ], [ 209, 243 ], [ 318, 333 ], [ 350, 377 ], [ 445, 457 ], [ 487, 492 ], [ 555, 575 ], [ 580, 598 ], [ 602, 611 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tony Hoare was born in Colombo, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) to British parents; his father was a colonial civil servant and his mother was the daughter of a tea planter. Hoare was educated in England at the Dragon School in Oxford and the King's School in Canterbury. He then studied Classics and Philosophy (\"Greats\") at Merton College, Oxford. On graduating in 1956 he did 18 months National Service in the Royal Navy, where he learned Russian. He returned to the University of Oxford in 1958 to study for a postgraduate certificate in statistics, and it was here that he began computer programming, having been taught Autocode on the Ferranti Mercury by Leslie Fox. He then went to Moscow State University as a British Council exchange student, where he studied machine translation under Andrey Kolmogorov.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Education and early life", "target_page_ids": [ 56636, 26750, 160793, 9316, 186986, 22308, 47124, 48274, 1789779, 128351, 15180157, 26061, 31797, 26685, 5311, 1619142, 1682954, 11295827, 374544, 429846, 19980, 91161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 30 ], [ 44, 53 ], [ 101, 114 ], [ 187, 194 ], [ 202, 215 ], [ 219, 225 ], [ 234, 247 ], [ 251, 261 ], [ 279, 302 ], [ 317, 339 ], [ 380, 396 ], [ 404, 414 ], [ 461, 481 ], [ 533, 543 ], [ 575, 595 ], [ 616, 624 ], [ 632, 648 ], [ 652, 662 ], [ 680, 703 ], [ 709, 724 ], [ 760, 779 ], [ 786, 803 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1960, Hoare left the Soviet Union and began working at Elliott Brothers Ltd, a small computer manufacturing firm located in London. There, he implemented the language ALGOL 60 and began developing major algorithms.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Research and career", "target_page_ids": [ 26779, 2849306, 692878, 775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 36 ], [ 58, 78 ], [ 170, 178 ], [ 206, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was involved with developing international standards in programming and informatics, as a member of the International Federation for Information Processing (IFIP) Working Group 2.1 on Algorithmic Languages and Calculi, which specified, maintains, and supports the languages ALGOL 60 and ALGOL 68.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Research and career", "target_page_ids": [ 15402, 1568613, 31837758, 14171448, 692880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 54 ], [ 107, 158 ], [ 166, 183 ], [ 228, 237 ], [ 290, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He became the Professor of Computing Science at the Queen's University of Belfast in 1968, and in 1977 returned to Oxford as the Professor of Computing to lead the Programming Research Group in the Oxford University Computing Laboratory (now Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford), following the death of Christopher Strachey. He is now an Emeritus Professor there, and is also a principal researcher at Microsoft Research in Cambridge, England.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Research and career", "target_page_ids": [ 5323, 322010, 238920, 2443907, 2443907, 932784, 20646803, 2163522, 36995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 44 ], [ 52, 81 ], [ 164, 190 ], [ 198, 236 ], [ 242, 294 ], [ 320, 340 ], [ 355, 373 ], [ 419, 437 ], [ 441, 450 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hoare's most significant work has been in the following areas: his sorting and selection algorithm (Quicksort and Quickselect), Hoare logic, the formal language communicating sequential processes (CSP) used to specify the interactions between concurrent processes (and implemented in various programming languages such as occam), structuring computer operating systems using the monitor concept, and the axiomatic specification of programming languages.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Research and career", "target_page_ids": [ 3268249, 2899536, 182708, 247370, 2581605, 22660, 22194, 1367789, 928, 23015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 109 ], [ 114, 125 ], [ 128, 139 ], [ 161, 195 ], [ 243, 261 ], [ 322, 327 ], [ 351, 367 ], [ 379, 386 ], [ 404, 409 ], [ 431, 451 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Speaking at a software conference in 2009, Tony Hoare apologized for inventing the null reference:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Research and career", "target_page_ids": [ 1175028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For many years under his leadership, Hoare's Oxford department worked on formal specification languages such as CSP and Z. These did not achieve the expected take-up by industry, and in 1995 Hoare was led to reflect upon the original assumptions:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Research and career", "target_page_ids": [ 247370, 34521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 115 ], [ 120, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Distinguished Fellow of the British Computer Society (1978)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 18181630 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Turing Award for \"fundamental contributions to the definition and design of programming languages\". The award was presented to him at the ACM Annual Conference in Nashville, Tennessee, on 27 October 1980, by Walter Carlson, chairman of the Awards committee. A transcript of Hoare's speech was published in Communications of the ACM.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 31093, 23015, 22018, 291161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 77, 97 ], [ 164, 184 ], [ 307, 332 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Harry H. Goode Memorial Award (1981)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 15254255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fellow of the Royal Society (1982)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 510795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Honorary Doctorate of Science by the Queen's University Belfast (1987)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 322010 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Honorary Doctorate of Science, from the University of Bath (1993)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 153992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Honorary Fellow, Kellogg College, Oxford (1998)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 158892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Knighted for services to education and computer science (2000)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 390067, 5323, 21986867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 40, 56 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kyoto Prize for Information science (2000)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 216053, 149354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 17, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering (2005)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 381889, 709237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 15, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Member of the National Academy of Engineering (2006) for fundamental contributions to computer science in the areas of algorithms, operating systems, and programming languages.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 5521184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Computer History Museum (CHM) in Mountain View, California Fellow of the Museum \"for development of the Quicksort algorithm and for lifelong contributions to the theory of programming languages\" (2006)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 1115478, 108161, 3268249, 23015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 34, 59 ], [ 105, 114 ], [ 173, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Honorary Doctorate from Heriot-Watt University (2007)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 661379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Honorary Doctorate of Science from the Department of Informatics of the Athens University of Economics and Business (AUEB) (2007)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 203463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Friedrich L. Bauer-Prize, Technical University of Munich (2007)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 349679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " SIGPLAN Programming Languages Achievement Award (2011)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 1226658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " IEEE John von Neumann Medal (2011)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 12953311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Honorary Doctorate, University of Warsaw (2012)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 11157563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Honorary Doctorate, Complutense University of Madrid (2013)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 90168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1973 ACM Programming Systems and Languages Paper Award, for the paper \"Proof of correctness of data representations\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1962, Hoare married Jill Pym, a member of his research team.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " C. A. R. Hoare (1985). Communicating Sequential Processes. Prentice Hall International Series in Computer Science. (hardback) or (paperback). (Available online at in PDF format.)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [ 247370, 5421050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 58 ], [ 60, 73 ] ] } ]

[ "1934_births", "Living_people", "People_from_Colombo", "People_educated_at_The_Dragon_School", "People_educated_at_The_King's_School,_Canterbury", "Alumni_of_Merton_College,_Oxford", "Academics_of_Queen's_University_Belfast", "British_computer_scientists", "Fellows_of_the_British_Computer_Society", "Fellows_of_the_Royal_Academy_of_Engineering", "Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society", "Foreign_associates_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences", "Fellows_of_Wolfson_College,_Oxford", "Formal_methods_people", "History_of_computing_in_the_United_Kingdom", "Knights_Bachelor", "Kyoto_laureates_in_Advanced_Technology", "Members_of_the_Department_of_Computer_Science,_University_of_Oxford", "Microsoft_employees", "Moscow_State_University_alumni", "Programming_language_researchers", "Turing_Award_laureates", "Computer_science_writers", "British_expatriates_in_Sri_Lanka", "British_expatriates_in_the_Soviet_Union", "Fellows_of_Merton_College,_Oxford" ]

[ "C. A. R. Hoare", "Charles Antony Richard Hoare", "Sir Charles Antony Richard Hoare", "C.A.R. Hoare" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Anahuac, 2.5 kilometres (1.5mi) above sea level between 19° and 20° north latitude and 98°45’ to 99°20’ west longitude, is the ancient core of Mexico. Anahuac is a Nahuatl name which means \"close to water.\" It can be broken down like this: A(tl) + nahuac. Atl means \"water\" and nahuac, which is a relational word that can be affixed to a noun, means \"close to.\" Anahuac is sometimes used interchangeably with \"Valley of Mexico\", but Anahuac properly designates the south-central part of the valley, where well-developed prehispanic culture traits had created distinctive landscapes now hidden by the urban sprawl of Mexico City. In the sense of modern geomorphological terminology, \"Valley of Mexico\" is misnamed. It is a closed basin of internal drainage, not a valley, in the technical sense.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3966054, 27642638, 2040058, 90001, 655311, 18987, 318980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 149 ], [ 164, 171 ], [ 410, 426 ], [ 521, 532 ], [ 601, 613 ], [ 617, 628 ], [ 723, 756 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, Anáhuac (sic) is \"limited by the traditional and vaguely defined boundaries of an ancient American empire or confederation of that name previous to the Spanish conquest.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Boundaries", "target_page_ids": [ 72624, 53091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 57 ], [ 211, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the possible etymologies proposed for the name \"Nicaragua\" is that it is derived from any of the following Nahuatl words: nic-anahuac, which meant \"Anahuac reached this far\", or \"the Nahuas came this far\", or \"those who come from Anahuac came this far\"; nican-nahua, which meant \"here are the Nahuas\"; or nic-atl-nahuac, which meant \"here by the water\" or \"surrounded by water\". The first two explanations would have a bearing on the above issue of the borders.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Boundaries", "target_page_ids": [ 21362, 385801 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 64 ], [ 190, 196 ] ] } ]

[ "Geography_of_Mesoamerica", "History_of_Mesoamerica" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Aragon ( , ; Spanish and ; ) is an autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. In northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces (from north to south): Huesca, Zaragoza, and Teruel. Its capital is Zaragoza. The current Statute of Autonomy declares Aragon a historic nationality of Spain.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 55002, 26667, 586776, 213409, 143507, 143508, 143509, 64203, 5825364, 4813514 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 58 ], [ 62, 67 ], [ 99, 116 ], [ 192, 201 ], [ 225, 231 ], [ 233, 241 ], [ 247, 253 ], [ 270, 278 ], [ 292, 311 ], [ 330, 350 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Covering an area of , the region's terrain ranges diversely from permanent glaciers to verdant valleys, rich pasture lands and orchards, through to the arid steppe plains of the central lowlands. Aragon is home to many rivers—most notably, the river Ebro, Spain's largest river in volume, which runs west–east across the entire region through the province of Zaragoza. It is also home to the highest mountains of the Pyrenees.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23592059, 24707, 24707 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 250, 254 ], [ 392, 409 ], [ 417, 425 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ", the population of Aragon was , with slightly over half of it living in its capital city, Zaragoza. In 2020, the economy of Aragon generated a GDP of million, which represents 3.1% of Spain's national GDP, and is currently 6th in per capita production behind Madrid, Basque Country, Navarre, Catalonia and La Rioja.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 64203, 12594, 20514897, 59731, 6822 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 99 ], [ 144, 147 ], [ 269, 283 ], [ 285, 292 ], [ 294, 303 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to its three provinces, Aragon is subdivided into 33 comarcas or counties. All comarcas of Aragon have a rich geopolitical and cultural history from its pre-Roman, Celtic and Roman days, four centuries of Islamic rule as Marca Superior of Al-Andalus or kingdom (or taifa) of Saraqusta, as lands that once belonged to the Frankish Marca Hispanica, counties that later formed the Kingdom of Aragon, and eventually the Crown of Aragon.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 299284, 163225, 9896870, 461337, 20597079, 355643, 453117, 19253734, 718661, 586776, 824490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 73 ], [ 122, 134 ], [ 165, 174 ], [ 176, 182 ], [ 187, 192 ], [ 251, 261 ], [ 277, 282 ], [ 287, 296 ], [ 342, 357 ], [ 390, 407 ], [ 428, 443 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The area of Aragon is of which belong to the province of Huesca, to the province of Zaragoza and to the province of Teruel. The total represents a 9.43% of the surface of Spain, being thus the fourth autonomous community in size behind Castile and León, Andalusia, and Castile-La Mancha.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 143507, 143508, 143509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 65 ], [ 75, 95 ], [ 108, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is located in the northeast of the Iberian Peninsula, at a latitude between 39º and 43º'N in the temperate zone. Its boundaries and borders are in the north with France (the regions of Nouvelle-Aquitaine and Occitanie), in the west with the autonomous communities of Castile-La Mancha (provinces of Guadalajara and Cuenca), Castile and León (province of Soria), La Rioja and Navarre, and in the east with the autonomous communities of Catalonia (provinces of Lérida and Tarragona) and the Valencian Community (provinces of Castellón and Valencia).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 14883, 50051, 5843419, 45092904, 45093609, 55002, 73205, 143516, 143510, 70260, 143645, 20515134, 59731, 6822, 143464, 143463, 20514168, 143460, 44741236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 55 ], [ 100, 114 ], [ 165, 171 ], [ 188, 206 ], [ 211, 220 ], [ 244, 266 ], [ 270, 287 ], [ 302, 313 ], [ 318, 324 ], [ 327, 343 ], [ 345, 362 ], [ 365, 373 ], [ 378, 385 ], [ 438, 447 ], [ 462, 468 ], [ 473, 482 ], [ 492, 511 ], [ 526, 535 ], [ 540, 548 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The orography of the community has as central axis the Ebro valley (with heights between 150 and 300 meters approx.) which transits between two foothills, the Pyrenean and the Ibérico, preambles of two great mountain formations, the Pyrenees to the north and the Sistema Ibérico to the south; the Community has the highest peaks of both mountain ranges, the Aneto and the Moncayo respectively.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 23592059, 24707, 21918590, 515517, 29175037 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 66 ], [ 233, 241 ], [ 263, 278 ], [ 358, 363 ], [ 372, 379 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Aragonese Pyrenees is located in the north of the province of Huesca and is arranged longitudinally in three large units: High Pyrenees, Intrapirenaic Depression and Outer Ranges.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 24707, 143507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 22 ], [ 54, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Aragonese High Pyrenees contains the maximum heights of all the Pyrenees mountainous chain. The High Pyrenees is formed in turn by the axial Pyrenees and the Inland Ranges.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 24707 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the axial Pyrenees are the oldest materials: granites, quartzites, slates and limestones and the highest peaks like: the Aneto (), Maladeta () and the Perdiguero (). The inner Pre-Pyrenees, composed of more modern rocks (limestones) also has large mountains such as Monte Perdido (), Collarada () and Tendeñera ().", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 13088, 450636, 44214, 17748, 515517, 25904403, 43041741, 2295452, 6109323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 55 ], [ 58, 67 ], [ 70, 75 ], [ 81, 90 ], [ 124, 129 ], [ 134, 142 ], [ 154, 164 ], [ 269, 282 ], [ 287, 296 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The main Pyrenean valleys are formed by the rivers that are born there, which are:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ansó Valley: Veral river", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hecho Valley: Aragón Subordán river", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 13170332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Canfranc Valley: Aragón river", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 79809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tena Valley: Gállego river", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 7952792, 27539693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Broto Valley: Ara river", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Aínsa Valley: Cinca river", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 23117173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pineta Valley: Cinca river", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gistau Valley: Cinqueta river", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 64043735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Benasque Valley: Ésera river", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 31000885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The intrapirenaic depression is a broad perpendicular corridor. Its best represented section is the Canal de Berdún. The southern limit of the Depression corresponds to the energetic reliefs of San Juan de la Peña () and Oroel Rock (), modeled on conglomerates of the Campodarbe Formation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 5855159 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 194, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The pre-Pyrenean outer ranges are in the Huescan foothills and constitute the southernmost unit of the Pyrenees; formed by predominantly calcareous materials, reach heights between and meters. The Sierra de Guara, one of the most important mountain ranges of the Spanish Pre-Pyrenees, stands out; its summit, the Guara Peak, reaches metres. The Mallos de Riglos, near the town of Ayerbe, stand out for their beauty.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 26629430, 626416, 6011307, 1032327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 214 ], [ 273, 285 ], [ 348, 364 ], [ 383, 389 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It extends a wide plain, after passing the foothills, corresponding to the Depression of the Ebro. To the southwest is the Sierra de Alcubierre ranges () one of the typical limestone plateaus of the Depression.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 23592059, 29399714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 97 ], [ 123, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The depression of the Ebro is a tectonic pit filled with sedimentary materials, accumulated in the Tertiary age in horizontal series. In the center, fine materials such as clays, plasters and limestones were deposited. To the south of the Ebro have been the limestone plateaus of Borja and of Zaragoza.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 23592059, 5816, 36980, 331731, 17748, 23592059, 26914167, 64203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 26 ], [ 99, 111 ], [ 172, 176 ], [ 179, 186 ], [ 192, 201 ], [ 239, 243 ], [ 280, 285 ], [ 293, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Aragonese Sistema Ibérico is divided between the provinces of Zaragoza and Teruel. It is a set of hills without a clear structural unit, which can be divided into two zones: Sistema Ibérico del Jalón and Sistema Ibérico turolense. In the first, the Moncayo stands out with , formed by Paleozoic quartzites and slates, partly covered by Mesozoic limestones; to the southeast of the Moncayo the Sistema Ibérico descends of height. The second is formed by elevated terrain (from to in general), but flattened and massive. To the southwest of the depression the summits of the Sierra de Albarracín range are reached above , southeast the are reached in the Sierra de Javalambre range and finally we arrive at the Sierra de Gúdar range () transition to Maestrazgo.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 21918590, 143508, 143509, 29175037, 44214, 17748, 31162704, 31153766, 31569131, 25100217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 29 ], [ 66, 74 ], [ 79, 85 ], [ 253, 260 ], [ 314, 319 ], [ 349, 358 ], [ 579, 599 ], [ 660, 680 ], [ 716, 731 ], [ 755, 765 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The climate of Aragon is predominated, in general, by two different climates, the Semi-arid climate and the Oceanic climate. Its irregular orography creates several climates or microclimates throughout the entire community. From the High mountain Alpine climate of the central Pyrenees to the north, with perpetual ice (glaciers), to the Humid subtropical climate (which is very common in Huesca's lower altitude areas) to the steppe or semi-desert zones, such as the Monegros Desert, passing through the intense continental climate of the Teruel-Daroca area and the Mediterranean climate in the southern areas bordering Castilla La Mancha and the Valencian Community.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 569881, 560047, 49786, 496730, 24707, 19792392, 143507, 170350, 37770603, 1225918, 349628, 73205, 20514168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 99 ], [ 108, 123 ], [ 177, 190 ], [ 247, 261 ], [ 277, 285 ], [ 338, 363 ], [ 389, 395 ], [ 427, 454 ], [ 468, 483 ], [ 513, 532 ], [ 567, 588 ], [ 621, 639 ], [ 648, 667 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The main characteristics of the Aragonese climate are:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rainfall is mostly low, with much of Aragon placed in a bowl of low ground between the Pyrenean mountain range to the north and the Sistema Ibérico mountain range to the south, cut off from maritime air masses. This situation means that the rain falls mainly in the higher areas, and that the temperature range features large contrasts, with cold winters and hot summers, as typical of continental climates.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 24707, 21918590, 249613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 111 ], [ 133, 148 ], [ 387, 406 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rainfall is also irregular, as typical of Mediterranean climates, with randomly alternating dry and wet years.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 349628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The air currents are often encased in the middle Ebro Valley from northwest to southeast, giving a characteristic wind, the cierzo, which stands out for its intensity and frequency.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 23592059, 40742435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 61 ], [ 125, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Temperatures are very dependent on the altitude. In the Ebro Valley the winters are relatively moderate, although the frosts are very common and the thermal sensation can decrease a lot with the cierzo. Temperatures in summer can exceed 40°C in the central areas. In mountain areas winters are long and rigorous, average temperatures can be up to 10°C lower than in the valley.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 23592059, 31582944, 40742435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 67 ], [ 118, 123 ], [ 195, 201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The two most important winds of Aragon are the cierzo and the bochorno or levant. The first is a cold and dry wind that crosses the Ebro Valley from northwest to southeast and that can become quite strong. The second is a warm wind, more irregular and smooth, coming from the south-east.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 40742435, 15485964, 23592059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 53 ], [ 74, 80 ], [ 132, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The vegetation follows the oscillations of relief and climate. There is a great variety, both in natural vegetation and in crops. In the high areas there are forests (pines, firs, beech trees, oaks), bush and meadows, and in the central Ebro Valley, evergreen oak and juniper are the most common trees.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 216226, 23592059, 344877, 170104 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 237, 248 ], [ 250, 263 ], [ 268, 275 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most Aragonese rivers are tributaries of the Ebro River, which is the largest river in Spain and divides the community in two. Of the tributaries of the left bank of the river, the ones originating in the Pyrenees, the Aragón River stands out. Its headwaters are in Huesca, but it ends at the community of Navarre, the Gállego and the Cinca, which joins the Segre just before emptying into the Ebro at the height of Mequinenza. On the right bank, the Jalón, Huerva and Guadalope stand out.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 23592059, 79809, 27539693, 23117173, 69163, 106189, 25147507, 31873090, 19162567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 49 ], [ 219, 231 ], [ 319, 326 ], [ 335, 340 ], [ 358, 363 ], [ 416, 426 ], [ 451, 456 ], [ 458, 464 ], [ 469, 478 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the stream bed of the Ebro river, near the border with Catalonia, the Mequinenza Reservoir, of and a length of about 110km; it is popularly known as the \"Sea of Aragon\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 106189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The small Pyrenean mountain lakes called ibones merit special mention. These lakes are very scenic, originating during the last glaciation, and are usually found above .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 43006910, 1067415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 45 ], [ 128, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Autonomous Community lies within three hydrographic regions, the Ebro River, the Tagus River (which originates in the Sierra de Albarracín range), and the Júcar, which has as its main river in this community the Turia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 64205, 31162704, 1844791, 806570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 90 ], [ 122, 142 ], [ 159, 164 ], [ 216, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Aragon, protected natural spaces are managed through the Red Natural de Aragón, an entity created in 2004 to protect all elements with ecological, landscape and cultural value and at the same time coordinate and establish common standards that contribute to their conservation and sustainable use. In this entity are integrated national parks, natural parks, nature reserves, biosphere reserves and other protected natural areas that have been declared by the autonomous community, the Ramsar Convention or the Natura 2000.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 9630, 21818, 5974759, 113261, 113261, 195228, 100410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 138, 148 ], [ 331, 344 ], [ 347, 359 ], [ 362, 376 ], [ 379, 396 ], [ 489, 506 ], [ 514, 525 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Within the protected areas is the only national park of Aragon: the Ordesa y Monte Perdido National Park, the second national park created in Spain, in 1918, it is found in the Pyrenees in the comarca of Sobrarbe, occupies an area of , a part of the of the peripheral area of protection. It also enjoys other figures of protection like the Biosphere Reserve of Ordesa-Viñamala and is cataloged as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 381665, 5917404, 26667, 24707, 2304514, 113721, 6011450, 44940, 21786641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 52 ], [ 68, 104 ], [ 142, 147 ], [ 177, 185 ], [ 204, 212 ], [ 341, 358 ], [ 362, 377 ], [ 400, 419 ], [ 423, 429 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition there are other 4 natural parks: the Moncayo Natural Park with an extension of , the Sierra y Cañones de Guara Natural Park with and of peripheral area of protection, the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park with and of peripheral area of protection, and the Valles Occidentales Natural Park with and of peripheral area of protection.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 34330027, 26637740 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 135 ], [ 185, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are also three nature reserves, five natural monuments and three protected landscapes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At the confluence of the Segre and Ebro rivers, the Aiguabarreig Ebro-Segre-Cinca is a space with great natural wealth and a great variety of ecosystems that range from Mediterranean steppes to impenetrable riverside forests, making this space a paradise for biodiversity. Territorially, the Aiguabarreig is at the center of the Middle Depression of the Ebro. It borders to the west with the Monegros, to the east with the Tossals de Montmeneu and Almatret and to the south with the tail of the Ribarroja reservoir. This space is named with Catalan word of origin that designates the place where two or more water streams meet and form one. The Segre and Cinca form a first Aiguabarreig between the towns of La Granja d'Escarp, Massalcoreig and Torrente de Cinca, a few kilometers downstream they converge with the waters of the Ebro, already in the municipality of Mequinenza, forming one of the largest river confluences of the entire Iberian Peninsula.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 69163, 23592059, 106189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 30 ], [ 35, 39 ], [ 866, 876 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aragon, occupying the northeast of the Iberian Peninsula has served as a bridge between the Mediterranean Sea, the peninsular center and the coasts of the Cantabrian Sea. The human presence in the lands that today form the autonomous community date back several millennia, but the current Aragon, like many of the current historical nationalities, were formed during the Middle Ages.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 14883, 19006, 1365272, 18836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 56 ], [ 92, 109 ], [ 155, 169 ], [ 371, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The oldest testimonies of human life in the lands that today make up Aragon go back to the time of the glaciations, in the Pleistocene, some years ago. This population left the Acheulean industry that found its best weapons in the hand axes of flint or the cleavers of quartzite.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23310, 320336, 43701, 3741966, 450636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 134 ], [ 232, 240 ], [ 245, 250 ], [ 258, 266 ], [ 270, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Upper Palaeolithic appeared two new cultures: Solutrean and Magdalenian.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1158651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Epipaleolithic was centered in Lower Aragon, occupying the epoch between the 7th and the 5th millennium.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 55027, 29356375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 35, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the first half of the 5th millennium BCE, Neolithic remains are found in the Huescan Outer Ranges and in Lower Aragon.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6088, 21189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 43 ], [ 45, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Eneolithic was characterized in the province of Huesca presenting two important megalithic nuclei: the Pre-Pyrenees of the Outer Ranges and the High Pyrenean valleys.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7446, 143507, 626416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 40, 58 ], [ 107, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Late Bronze Age begins in Aragon around 1100 BCE with the arrival of the Urnfield culture. They are Indo-European people, with an alleged origin in Central Europe, who incinerate their dead by placing the ashes in a funeral urn. There are examples in the Cave del Moro of Olvena, the Masada del Ratón in Fraga, Palermo and the Cabezo de Monleón in Caspe.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4620, 278159, 13170074, 70630, 4647872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 19 ], [ 77, 93 ], [ 276, 282 ], [ 308, 313 ], [ 352, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the metallurgical point of view there seems to be a boom given the increase in foundry molds that are located in the populations.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Iron Age is the most important, since throughout the centuries it is the true substratum of the Aragonese historical population.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 14711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The arrival of Central Europeans during the Bronze Age by Pyrenees until reaching the Lower Aragon area, supposed an important ethnic contribution that prepared the way to the invasions of Iron Age.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4620, 24707 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 54 ], [ 58, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Mediterranean contributions represented a commercial activity that will constitute a powerful stimulus for the iron metallurgy, promoting the modernization of the tools and the indigenous armament, replacing the old bronze with the iron. There is presence of Phoenician, Greek and Etruscan products.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19006, 34076091, 42056, 37353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 263, 272 ], [ 275, 280 ], [ 285, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 6th century BCE there are six groups with different social organization: Vascones, Suessetani, Sedetani, Iacetani, Ilergetes and Citerior Celtiberians.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 698315, 41781313, 31771703, 38023612, 3142715, 461337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 88 ], [ 90, 100 ], [ 102, 110 ], [ 112, 120 ], [ 122, 131 ], [ 145, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "They are Iberized groups with a tendency towards stability, fixing their habitat in durable populations, with dwellings that evolve towards more enduring and stable models. There are many examples in Aragon, among which Cabezo de Monleón in Caspe, Puntal of Fraga, Roquizal del Rullo or Loma de los Brunos.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 415870, 4647872, 70630 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 17 ], [ 241, 246 ], [ 258, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The type of social organization was based on the family group, consisting of four generations. Self-sufficient societies in which the greater part of the population was dedicated to agricultural and livestock activities. In the Iberian scope the power was monarchical, exercised by a king; there was a democratic assembly with participation of the male population.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There were visible social differentiations and established legal-political statutes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Romans arrived and progressed easily into the interior.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 521555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the territorial distribution that Rome made of Hispania, the current Aragon was included in the Hispania Citerior. In the year 197 BCE, Sempronius Tuditanus is the praetor of the Citerior and had to face a general uprising in their territories that ended with the Roman defeat and the own death of Tuditanus. In view of these facts the Senate sent the consul Marcus Porcius Cato with an army of men. The indigenous peoples of the area were rebelling, except for the Ilergetes who negotiated peace with Cato.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 20597079, 2802462, 21767355, 16685964, 75861, 3142715 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 58 ], [ 99, 116 ], [ 139, 159 ], [ 339, 345 ], [ 362, 381 ], [ 470, 479 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There were different uprisings of the Iberian peoples against the Romans, in 194 BCE sees a general uprising with elimination of half of the Roman army, in 188 BCE Manlius Acidinus Fulvianus, praetor of the Citerior, must confront in Calagurris (Calahorra) with the Celtiberians, in the 184 BCE Terentius Varro did it with the Suessetani, to those who took the capital, Corbio.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 13582796, 230898, 461337, 41781313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 190 ], [ 246, 255 ], [ 266, 278 ], [ 327, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1st century BCE Aragon was the scene of the civil war to seize the power of Rome where the governor Quintus Sertorius made Osca (Huesca) the capital of all the territories controlled by them.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6469961, 25458, 160716, 68298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 60 ], [ 83, 87 ], [ 107, 124 ], [ 136, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Already in the 1st century BCE, the today Aragonese territory became part of the province Tarraconensis and there was the definitive romanization of it creating roads and consolidating ancient Celtiberian and Iberian cities such as Caesaraugusta (Zaragoza), Turiaso (Tarazona), Osca (Huesca) or Bilbilis (Calatayud).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 322876, 64203, 1674655, 68298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 103 ], [ 232, 245 ], [ 267, 275 ], [ 284, 290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the middle of the 3rd century the decay of the Roman Empire began. Between the years 264 and 266 the Franks and the Alemanni, two Germanic peoples who passed through the Pyrenees and came to Tarazona, which they sacked. In the agony of the Empire groups of bandits emerged who were dedicated to pillage. The Ebro Valley was ravaged in the 5th century by several gangs of evildoers called Bagaudae.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 25507, 2462183, 1486, 24707, 1674655, 23592059, 204581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 62 ], [ 104, 110 ], [ 119, 127 ], [ 173, 181 ], [ 194, 202 ], [ 311, 322 ], [ 391, 399 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the disintegration of the Western Roman Empire, the current area of Aragon was occupied by the Visigoths, forming the Visigothic Kingdom.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 504379, 32530, 11778448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 52 ], [ 101, 110 ], [ 124, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the year 714 muslims from North Africa conquered the central area of Aragon, converting to Islam the ancient Roman cities such as Saraqusta (Zaragoza) or Wasqa (Huesca). It was at this time that an important Muwallad family arose, the Banu Qasi (بنو قاسي), their domains were located in the Ebro Valley between the 8th and 10th centuries.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19541, 6037917, 19253734, 68298, 4181828, 1120754, 23592059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 23 ], [ 94, 99 ], [ 133, 142 ], [ 164, 170 ], [ 211, 219 ], [ 238, 247 ], [ 294, 305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the disappearance of the Caliphate of Córdoba at the beginning of the 11th century, the Taifa of Zaragoza arose, one of the most important Taifas of Al-Andalus, leaving a great artistic, cultural and philosophical legacy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 30870683, 19253734, 453117, 355643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 51 ], [ 94, 111 ], [ 145, 150 ], [ 155, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The name of Aragon is documented for the first time during the Early Middle Ages in the year 828, when the small County of Aragon of Frankish origin, would emerge between the rivers that bear its name, the Aragón river, and its brother the Aragón Subordán river.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 532476, 8776083, 2462183, 79809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 80 ], [ 113, 129 ], [ 133, 141 ], [ 206, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "That County of Aragon would be linked to the Kingdom of Pamplona until 1035, and under its wing it would grow to form a dowry of García Sánchez III of Pamplona to the death of the king Sancho \"the Great\", in a period characterized by Muslim hegemony in almost the entire Iberian Peninsula. Under the reign of Ramiro I of Aragon would be extended borders with the annexation of the counties of Sobrarbe and Ribagorza (year 1044), after having incorporated populations of the historical comarca of Cinco Villas.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 693507, 2579322, 254595, 106492, 127858, 29388924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 64 ], [ 129, 159 ], [ 185, 203 ], [ 309, 327 ], [ 406, 415 ], [ 496, 508 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1076, on the death of Sancho IV of Pamplona, Aragon incorporated part of the Navarrese kingdom into its territories while Castile did the same with the western area of the former domains of Sancho \"the Great\". During the reigns of Sancho Ramírez and Peter I of Aragon and Pamplona, the kingdom extended its borders to the south, established threatening fortresses on the capital of Zaragoza in El Castellar and Juslibol and took Huesca, which became the new capital.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2580649, 106495, 106497, 13170703, 46537429, 68298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 46 ], [ 234, 248 ], [ 253, 283 ], [ 397, 409 ], [ 414, 422 ], [ 432, 438 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This leads to the reign of Alfonso I of Aragon that would conquer the flat lands of the middle Ebro Valley for Aragon: Ejea de los Caballeros, Valtierra, Calatayud, Tudela and Zaragoza, the capital of the Taifa of Saraqusta. At his death the nobles would choose his brother Ramiro II of Aragon, who left his religious life to assume the royal scepter and perpetuate the dynasty, which he achieved with the dynastic union of the House of Aragon with the owner of the County of Barcelona in 1137, year in which the union of both patrimonies would give rise to the Crown of Aragon and would add the forces that to its they would make the conquests of the Kingdom of Majorca and the Kingdom of Valencia possible. The Crown of Aragon would become the hegemonic power of the Mediterranean, controlling territories as important as Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia or Naples.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1679, 72307, 2927666, 1369011, 291852, 64203, 19253734, 106500, 754889, 3409591, 824490, 432494, 2265909, 641373, 5714828, 21486771, 258779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 46 ], [ 119, 141 ], [ 143, 152 ], [ 154, 163 ], [ 165, 171 ], [ 176, 184 ], [ 205, 223 ], [ 274, 293 ], [ 428, 443 ], [ 466, 485 ], [ 562, 577 ], [ 652, 670 ], [ 679, 698 ], [ 824, 830 ], [ 832, 839 ], [ 841, 849 ], [ 853, 859 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The monarch was known as King of Aragon and also held the titles of King of Valencia, King of Majorca (for a time), Count of Barcelona, Lord of Montpellier, and (temporarily) Duke of Athens and Neopatria. Each of these titles gave him sovereignty over the specific region, and the titles changed as territories were lost and won.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 979547, 1589246, 422013, 1906466, 310288, 6946008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 84 ], [ 86, 101 ], [ 116, 134 ], [ 136, 155 ], [ 175, 189 ], [ 194, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Aragonese law, the monarch had to swear allegiance to the Kingdom's laws before being accepted as king. Like other Pyrenean and Basque realms, the Aragonese justice and decision-making system was based on Pyrenean consuetudinary law, the King was considered primus inter pares ('first among equals') within the nobility. A nobleman with the title \"Chustizia d'Aragón\" acted as ombudsman and was responsible for ensuring that the King obeyed the Aragonese laws. An old saying goes, \"en Aragón antes de Rey hubo Ley\" (\"in Aragon Law came before King\"), similar to the saying in Navarre, \"antes fueron Leyes que Reyes\", with much the same meaning.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 728603, 218798, 429857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 26 ], [ 227, 245 ], [ 271, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The subsequent legend made the Aragonese monarchy eligible and created a phrase of coronation of the king that would be perpetuated for centuries:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 824490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This situation would be repeated in the Commitment of Caspe (1412), which avoids a war that had dismembered the Crown of Aragon when a good handful of aspirants to the throne emerged after the death of Martin of Aragon a year after the death of his first-born, Martin I of Sicily. Ferdinand I of Aragon is the chosen one, of the Castilian House of Trastámara, but also directly connected with the Aragonese king Peter IV of Aragon, through his mother Eleanor of Aragon.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 824490, 280996, 280987, 1159512, 3602853, 127830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 127 ], [ 202, 218 ], [ 261, 279 ], [ 281, 302 ], [ 339, 358 ], [ 412, 430 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aragon is already a large-scale political entity: the Crown, the Cortes, the Deputation of the Kingdom and the Foral Law constitute its nature and its character. The marriage of Ferdinand II of Aragon with Isabella I of Castile, celebrated in 1469 in Valladolid, derived later in the union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile, creating the bases of the Modern State.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18836110, 23909513, 69311, 28151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 178, 200 ], [ 206, 227 ], [ 251, 261 ], [ 353, 365 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Early Modern Age was marked by increasing tension between the power of the Spanish Monarchy and those of the regions. The appointment of a Castilian as Viceroy in 1590, contrary to the agreement all Royal officials be Aragonese caused widespread unrest; when the Madrid authorities attempted to arrest the Aragonese writer and politician Antonio Perez in May 1591, it caused street violence in Zaragossa and a revolt known as the Alterations of Aragon. The unrest was largely confined to Zaragossa and quickly suppressed, with Perez going into exile. Philip then ordered a reduction in the proportion of taxes retained by the Generality of Aragon to lessen their capacity to raise an army against him.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1291656, 180762 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ], [ 79, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The decay of independent institutions meant political activity focused instead on the preservation of Aragonese history, culture and art. The Archive of the Kingdom of Aragon preserved legal documents and records from the Justiciar and the Palace of Deputation or Parliament, unfortunately largely destroyed by the French in the battles of 1809. Debates on the causes of the 1590/91 revolt became a contest between opposing views of history that arguably persist in modern Spain.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The new emphasis on Aragonese history led to the creation of the position of Chronicler or Historian of Aragon; its holders included Jerónimo Zurita y Castro, the De Argensola brothers, Bartolomé and Lupercio, Juan Costa and Jerónimo Martel. Much of the work produced by Aragonese writers challenged Philip II's version of events and were censored by the central government. In retaliation, the Generality of Aragon ordered the work of Castilian historian Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas to be burned and commissioned Vicencio Blasco de Lanuza to write an alternative. His 'History of Aragon' was published in two volumes, 1616 and 1619 respectively; the urgency shows the importance placed on responding to Herrera. Other works commissioned at this time for the same purpose include a History of the Aragonese Deputation by Lorenzo Ibáñez de Aoiz and a detailed cartography of the Kingdom of Aragon by João Baptista Lavanha.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 58641, 2979639, 2979606, 1472599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 157 ], [ 186, 195 ], [ 200, 208 ], [ 456, 488 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1590/91, the Spanish monarchy was at the height of its strength but during the 17th century Spanish power declined for a number of reasons. Famine, disease and almost continuous warfare, largely in the Spanish Netherlands drained money, energy and men and weakened the economy; it is estimated the population of Spain fell nearly 25% between 1600 and 1700.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "War and economic decline inevitably led to increases in taxes, with predictable results; the refusal of the Catalan Cortes to contribute their share of the 1626 Union of Arms eventually led to a full-scale revolt in 1640. While Aragon itself remained relatively peaceful, it had to be treated with care by the Madrid government; during the reign of Charles II from 1665 to 1700, it provided his half-brother John of Austria with a power base in his battle for control of government with the Queen Regent Mariana of Austria.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 519703, 46596579, 163002, 774162, 1130360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 122 ], [ 161, 174 ], [ 349, 359 ], [ 408, 423 ], [ 504, 522 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 1701–1714 War of the Spanish Succession, Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia and Majorca supported the Austrian claimant Charles. The victory of Philip V accelerated the trend towards greater centralisation; the Nueva Planta decrees of 1707 abolished the fueros and Aragonese political structures with their powers transferred to the Deputation of the Kingdom in Madrid; Aragon and Valencia were brought into the system in 1712, Catalonia and Majorca following in 1767.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 33604, 151094, 63857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 50 ], [ 124, 131 ], [ 148, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The French invasion of 1808 that made Joseph Bonaparte King led to the outbreak of the Guerra de la Independencia Española or War of Independence in May. Zaragoza was largely destroyed in February 1809 during the Second Siege of Zaragoza, bringing a halt to its economic development. The 1812 Constitution proposed a number of reforms, including the creation of provincial territories and dividing Aragon into the four provinces of Calatayud, Teruel, Soria and Guadalajara. However, these reforms were delayed by Ferdinand VII's refusal to accept the constitution and finally implemented in 1822 during the 1820-23 Trienio Liberal. When Ferdinand was restored by French Bourbon forces in 1823, he abolished the Constitution along with the provincial reforms. When he died in 1833, the provincial division of 1833 divided Aragon into its current three provinces.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 26478362, 4537571, 25670582, 143509, 143645, 143516, 149127, 566318, 25616199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 54 ], [ 213, 237 ], [ 432, 441 ], [ 443, 449 ], [ 451, 456 ], [ 461, 472 ], [ 513, 526 ], [ 615, 630 ], [ 785, 812 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Throughout the 19th century, Aragon was a stronghold of the Carlists, who offered to restore the fueros and other rights associated with the former Kingdom of Aragon. This period saw a massive exodus from the countryside into the larger cities of Aragon such as Huesca, Zaragoza, Teruel or Calatayud and other nearby regions, such as Catalonia or Madrid.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 293530, 586776, 68298, 64203, 68299, 1369011, 6822, 41188263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 68 ], [ 148, 165 ], [ 262, 268 ], [ 270, 278 ], [ 280, 286 ], [ 290, 299 ], [ 334, 343 ], [ 347, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The history of Aragon in the first half of the 20th century was similar to that of the rest of Spain; the building of infrastructure and reforms made by Miguel Primo de Rivera led to a brief economic boom, with new civil and individual liberties during the Second Spanish Republic. In June 1936, a draft Statute of Autonomy of Aragon was presented to the Cortes Generales but the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War prevented the development of this autonomist project.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 361803, 5195347, 519703, 18842471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 175 ], [ 257, 280 ], [ 355, 371 ], [ 396, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 1936–1939 civil war, Aragon was divided between the two sides. The Eastern Area which was closer to Catalonia was run by the Republican Regional Defence Council of Aragon, while the larger Western Area was controlled by the Nationalists. Some of the most important battles were fought in or near Aragon, including Belchite, Teruel and Ebro. After the defeat of the Republic in April 1939, Aragon and the rest of Spain was governed by the Francoist dictatorship.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 40697581, 31594699, 4748667, 5904963, 690964, 5195347, 294034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 181 ], [ 235, 247 ], [ 325, 333 ], [ 335, 341 ], [ 346, 350 ], [ 376, 384 ], [ 449, 471 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Especially during the 1960s, there were large migrations, with a depopulation of the rural areas, towards the industrial areas like the provincial capitals, other areas of Spain, and other European countries. In 1964, one of the so-called Development Poles was created in Zaragoza.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 64203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 272, 280 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1970s, the old town of Mequinenza was demolished almost completely due to the construction of the Ribarroja reservoir. The inhabitants of Mequinenza had to leave their homes to move to the new town on the banks of the River Segre. Some left for more industrial areas such as Barcelona or Zaragoza or even abroad to continue working in mining industries. By the end of 1974 all of the population had already abandoned the Old Town of Mequinenza and was living in the new town.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 106189, 50383172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 40 ], [ 105, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1970s a period of transition as in the rest of the country was experienced, after the extinction of the previous regime, with the recovery of democratic normality and the creation of a new constitutional framework.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It began to demand an own political autonomy, for the Aragonese historical territory; sentiment that was reflected in the historic manifestation of April 23, 1978 that brought together more than aragoneses through the streets of Zaragoza.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 64203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 230, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Not having plebiscited, in the past, affirmatively a draft Statute of autonomy (second transitory provision of the constitution) and not making use of the difficult access to autonomy by Article 151 whose aggravated procedure required, apart from the initiative of the process autonomic follow the steps of article 143, which was ratified by three quarters of the municipalities of each of the affected provinces that represent at least the majority of the electoral census, and that this initiative was approved by referendum by the affirmative vote of the majority absolute of the electors of each province, Aragon acceded to the self-government by the slow way of article 143 obtaining lower competence top, and less self-management of resources, during more than 20 years.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On August 10, 1982, Aragon's autonomy statute was approved by the Cortes Generales, signed by the then president of the Government, Leopoldo Calvo-Sotelo, and sanctioned by His Majesty Juan Carlos I of Spain.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 519703, 623764, 353654, 75795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 82 ], [ 103, 130 ], [ 159, 169 ], [ 185, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On May 7, 1992, a Special Commission of the Aragonese Corts, elaborated a reformed text that was approved by the Aragonese Corts and by the Spanish Cortes. Again, a small statutory reform in the year 1996 extended the competence framework, forcing a definitive comprehensive review for several years, a new statutory text was approved in 2007, by majority but without reaching total unanimity.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23918877 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1990s the Aragonese society increases a significant qualitative step in the quality of life due to the economic progress of the State at all levels.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At the beginning of the 21st century, a significant increase in infrastructures was established, such as the arrival of the High Speed Train (AVE), the construction of the new dual carriageway Somport-Sagunto and the promotion of the two airports in the Autonomous Community, Zaragoza and Huesca-Pirineos. At the same time, large technological projects are being undertaken, such as the Walqa Technology Park and the implementation of a telematic network throughout the community.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 523382, 7943691, 5461779, 16455479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 145 ], [ 172, 208 ], [ 276, 284 ], [ 289, 304 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2007 the Statute of Autonomy of Aragon was reformed again -which was approved by a broad consensus in the Aragonese Corts, having the support of the PSOE, the PP, the PAR and the IU, whereas CHA abstained- granting the Autonomous Community the recognition of historical nationality (since the Organic Law of 1996 reform of the statute, it had the condition of nationality), includes a new title on the Administration of Chustizia and another on the rights and duties of the Aragoneses and guiding principles of public policies, the possibility of creating an own tax agency in collaboration with that of the State, and also the obligation to public authorities to ensure to avoid transfers from watersheds such as transfer of the Ebro, among many other modifications of the Statute of Autonomy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 272596, 404727, 357456, 30876254, 920962, 4813514, 21583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 156 ], [ 162, 164 ], [ 170, 173 ], [ 182, 184 ], [ 194, 197 ], [ 262, 284 ], [ 363, 374 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The designation of Zaragoza as the venue for the 2008 International Exhibition, whose thematic axis was Water and Sustainable development, represented a series of changes and accelerated growth for the autonomous community. In addition, two anniversaries were celebrated that same year, the bicentennial of Sieges of Zaragoza of the War of Independence against the Napoleonic invasion, occurred in 1808 and the centenary of the Hispano-French Exposition of 1908 that it supposed as a modern event, to demonstrate the cultural and economic thrust of Aragon and at the same time serve to strengthen ties and staunch wounds with the French neighbors after the events of the Napoleonic Wars of the previous century.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 64203, 1286484, 33306, 29501, 55002, 3969315, 102485, 69880, 4634254, 5843419, 45420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 27 ], [ 49, 78 ], [ 104, 109 ], [ 114, 137 ], [ 202, 222 ], [ 307, 325 ], [ 333, 352 ], [ 365, 375 ], [ 428, 461 ], [ 630, 636 ], [ 671, 686 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ", half of Aragon's population, 50.45%, live in the capital city of Zaragoza. Huesca is the only other city in the region with a population greater than .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 64203, 68298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 75 ], [ 77, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The majority of Aragonese citizens, 71.8%, live in the province of Zaragoza. 17.1% live in the province of Huesca, and 11.1% in the province of Teruel. The population density of the region is the second lowest in Spain after Castilla-La Mancha: only 26.8/km2. The most densely populated areas are around the valley of the river Ebro, particularly around Zaragoza, and in the Pyrenean foothills, while the areas with the fewest inhabitants tend to be those that are higher up in the Pyrenean mountains, and in most of the southern province of Teruel.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 73205, 23592059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 225, 243 ], [ 328, 332 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Only four cities have a population of more than : Zaragoza , Huesca , Teruel , and Calatayud .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 68299, 1369011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 76 ], [ 83, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Spanish is the native language in most of Aragon, and it is the only official language, understood and spoken by virtually everyone in the region. In addition to it, the Aragonese language continues to be spoken in several local varieties in the mountainous northern counties of the Pyrenees, particularly in western Ribagorza, Sobrarbe, Jacetania and Somontano; it is enjoying a resurgence of popularity as a tool for regional identity. In the easternmost areas of Aragon, along the border with Catalonia, varieties of the Catalan language are spoken, including the comarcas of eastern Ribagorza, La Litera, Bajo Cinca, Bajo Aragón-Caspe, Bajo Aragón and Matarraña. The strip-shaped Catalan-speaking area in Aragon is often called La Franja.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 26825, 2813, 24707, 30874117, 2304514, 29360999, 17539602, 6822, 5282, 934389, 934375, 29115049, 21470724, 934394, 934403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 170, 188 ], [ 283, 291 ], [ 317, 326 ], [ 328, 336 ], [ 338, 347 ], [ 352, 361 ], [ 496, 505 ], [ 524, 540 ], [ 598, 607 ], [ 609, 619 ], [ 621, 638 ], [ 640, 651 ], [ 656, 665 ], [ 732, 741 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Declaration of Mequinenza (Declaració de Mequinensa in Catalan) was a document signed on February 1, 1984, in Mequinenza by the mayors of 17 municipalities of the Aragonese Catalan-speaking area together with José Bada Paniello (Minister of Culture of Government of Aragon at the time). Following the declaration, and complying with one of the proposals contained therein, on October 1, 1985, an agreement between the Government of Aragon and the Ministry of Education and Science was implemented for the teaching of the Catalan language as a voluntary and assessable subject in schools in the area.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 106189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Languages Acts of Aragon of 2009 and 2013 have been passed to try to regulate the languages in this autonomous community. An update of these laws was announced but as of 2019 it has not been carried out.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 62409871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aragon is divided into three provinces from north to south, named after their capitals: Huesca, Zaragoza and Teruel. The provinces are further divided into 33 comarcas, three of which are in more than one province. There are a total of 732 municipalities in the region.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 143507, 143508, 143509, 299284, 8767500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 94 ], [ 96, 104 ], [ 109, 115 ], [ 159, 167 ], [ 240, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some medieval monuments of Teruel and Zaragoza are protected by UNESCO as part of the World Heritage Sites Mudéjar Architecture of Aragon.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 21786641, 44940, 5192233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 70 ], [ 86, 105 ], [ 107, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The traditional dance of Aragon is known as jota and is one of the faster Spanish dances. It is also the most widespread in Aragon and the exact style and music depend on the area.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 7754224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are other less popular dances named \"paloteaos\" similar to the sword/stick dances of other regions.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The music to one local dance, \"The Dance of Majordomos\" of Benasque, was so enjoyed by Rafael del Riego on a visit to the town that he ordered it to be copied resulting in the \"Hymn of Riego\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 152934, 1189432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 67 ], [ 87, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Typical Aragonese instruments include the stringed drum or \"Chicotén\", bagpipes such as the \"gaita de boto\", oboes such as the \"Dulzaina\", and small flutes like the \"Chiflo\". Some instruments have been lost, such as the \"trompa de Ribagorza\", although there have been efforts to reconstruct them. In contrast to other Pyrenean regions, the \"Chicotén\" and \"Chiflo\" never have stopped being played.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Carnival of Bielsa (Huesca) has ancient origins and includes a group of men carrying long sticks, wearing skirts, cowbells and boucard/goat-like horns and skins with black-painted faces called \"Trangas\" symbolising \"virility\" who surround another man wearing skins playing the part of a bear called \"l'onso\". In Aragonese mythology the bear carried souls between the world of the living and the world of the dead. Trangas dance with young females named \"madamas\" symbolising \"purity\" and wearing colourful dresses. Other traditional figures include a horse rider named \"Caballé\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 68298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With its lush Pyrenean pastures, lamb, beef, and dairy products are, not surprisingly, predominant in Aragonese cuisine. Also of note is its ham from Teruel; olive oil from Empeltre and Arbequina; longaniza from Graus; rainbow trout and salmon, boar, truffles and wild mushrooms from the upper river valleys of the Jacetania, Gallego, Sobrarbe, and Ribagorza regions; and wines from Cariñena, Somontano, Calatayud, and Campo de Borja; and fruit, especially peaches, from its fertile lower valleys. The region also features a unique local haggis, known as chireta, several interesting seafood dishes, including various crab pastes, which developed from an old superstition that crabs help prevent illness, and sweets such as \"Adoquines del Pilar\" and \"Frutas de Aragón\". There are also other sweets like \"Tortas de alma\" from Teruel and \"Trenza de Almudevar\" or \"Castañas de Huesca\" from Huesca.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 3789463, 68299, 1854570, 1854492, 7803213, 2673701, 291692, 29360999, 27539693, 2304514, 30874117, 11356137, 11002639, 11171745, 11271347, 14320, 13261015, 68299, 39359642, 68298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 119 ], [ 150, 156 ], [ 173, 181 ], [ 186, 195 ], [ 197, 206 ], [ 212, 217 ], [ 251, 258 ], [ 315, 324 ], [ 326, 333 ], [ 335, 343 ], [ 349, 358 ], [ 383, 391 ], [ 393, 402 ], [ 404, 413 ], [ 419, 433 ], [ 538, 544 ], [ 555, 562 ], [ 825, 831 ], [ 837, 856 ], [ 887, 893 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aragon is among the richest autonomous regions in Spain, with GDP per capita above the nation's average. The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the autonomous community was 37.0billion euros in 2018, accounting for 3.1% of Spanish economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 30,200 euros or 100% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 101% of the EU average.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 12594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The traditional agriculture-based economy from the mid-20th century has been greatly transformed in the past several decades and now service and industrial sectors are the backbone of the economy in the region.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The well-developed irrigation system around the Ebro has greatly supported the productive agriculture. The most important crops include wheat, barley, rye, fruit and grapes. Livestock-breeding is essential especially in the northern areas, where the lush meadows provide excellent conditions for sheep and cattle. As of November 2020 the regional livestock includes 8.8 million pigs (around six pigs per person), and, as of January 2021, 73.1 million gallifowls. Also as of November 2020, there were more than 1.6 million sheep and about 50,000 goats, as well as about 400,000 head of cattle, most of them in Huesca province. According to Greenpeace, 30% of the Aragonese territory is endangered by liquid manure from intensive farming, putting aquifers and other water reserves at risk.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 36858, 19541428, 46574, 12436, 144355, 12233, 39695031, 47481 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 141 ], [ 143, 149 ], [ 151, 154 ], [ 166, 171 ], [ 451, 461 ], [ 639, 649 ], [ 699, 712 ], [ 745, 752 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The chief industrial centre is the capital Zaragoza, where the largest factories are located. The largest plant is the Opel automotive plant with employees and production of per year. It supports many related industries in the area. Other large plants in the city include factories for trains and household appliances. Mining of iron ore and coal is developed to the south, near Ojos Negros. Electricity production is concentrated to the north where numerous hydro power plants are located along the Pyrenean rivers and in the Teruel Power Plant. There is an aluminium refinery in the town of Sabiñánigo. The main centres of electronics industry are Zaragoza, Huesca and Benabarre. Chemical industry is developed in Zaragoza, Sabiñánigo, Monzón, Teruel, Ojos Negros, Fraga, Benabarre and others.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 22284, 14734, 5987, 3501583, 68298, 82740, 12419069, 70630 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 123 ], [ 331, 335 ], [ 344, 348 ], [ 530, 548 ], [ 663, 669 ], [ 674, 683 ], [ 741, 747 ], [ 770, 775 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The transport infrastructure has been greatly improved. There are more than[data missing] of motorways which run from Zaragoza to Madrid, Teruel, Basque country, Huesca and Barcelona. The condition of the other roads is also good. there are cars in Aragon. Through the territory of the province runs the new high-speed railway between Madrid and Barcelona with siding from Zaragoza to Huesca, which is going to be continued to the French border. There is an International Airport at Zaragoza, as well as several smaller airports at Huesca, Caudé, Santa Cilia de Jaca and Villanueva de Gállego.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 2411002, 41188263, 4443, 5843419, 5461779, 16455479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 101 ], [ 130, 136 ], [ 173, 182 ], [ 433, 439 ], [ 474, 493 ], [ 534, 540 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The unemployment rate stood at 11.6% in 2017 and was lower than the national average.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As an autonomous community of Spain, Aragon has an elected regional parliament (, , ) with 67 seats. It meets in the Aljafería, a Moorish palace in the capital city, Zaragoza. The Parliament chooses a President for the Diputación General de Aragón or Aragon Government, for a four-year term. The current president (since July 2015) is Javier Lambán of the PSOE. Nationally, Aragon elects 13 Deputies and 14 Senators to the Cortes Generales.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 55002, 23918877, 8274745, 64203, 38964539, 59757144, 272596, 519703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 26 ], [ 59, 78 ], [ 117, 126 ], [ 166, 174 ], [ 201, 247 ], [ 335, 348 ], [ 356, 360 ], [ 423, 439 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to the Spanish-based political parties, there are a number of Aragón-based parties, such as the Chunta Aragonesista, a left-wing Aragonese nationalist party, and the Aragonese Party, more conservative. Chunta Aragonesista had a seat in Spain's national Congress of Deputies from 2000 to 2008, while the centrist Aragonese Party has three national senators, who are in coalition with the ruling People's Party.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 920962, 357456, 352254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 127 ], [ 178, 193 ], [ 265, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a 2011 regional government survey, 47.6% of the population wanted greater autonomy for Aragon, while 35.2% were satisfied with its current level of autonomy. A total of 6% wanted an end to autonomy and 3.2% wanted full independence.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aragon in the Middle Ages was the hub of the wider Crown of Aragon. The Crown was represented in the region from 1517 by a viceroy.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 824490, 180708 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 66 ], [ 123, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1479, King Ferdinand II of Aragon married Isabella I of Castile, a kingdom covering much of the rest of modern Spain. However, until the Nueva Planta decrees of 1707, Aragon maintained its own separate laws and institutions.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 18836110, 23909513, 1173697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 36 ], [ 45, 66 ], [ 140, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aragon has media set-ups in television, radio and numerous newspapers.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 21 April 2006, regional television broadcasts in Aragon officially began with the launch of Aragón TV. The law which established the CARTV (Aragon Corporation Radio and Television) dated from 1987, but various political disputes delayed the project for several legislatures.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 12123093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the years that Aragon had no public television, several media groups sought to supplement their absence. For one TVE-Aragon, taking the Territorial Centre in Zaragoza, produced several programs and educational activities with the Aragonese town. As for private groups, there were several projects. The most widely accepted for many years had been Antena Aragón, which came to be regarded as regional television. This channel was created in 1998 and disappeared in 2005 shortly after having to leave the Media Production Centre (CPA), as this was built by the DGA for future public television host Aragon. With the push for the creation of public television, Antena Aragón merged with RTVA (Radio Television Aragonesa) belonging to the Herald Group. Merging RTVA Antena Aragón and led to channel ZTV (Zaragoza Television). Moreover, Antena 3 Televisión aired for several years, and off to Aragon, a news report fully Aragonese, having a central issue in the Pinares de Venecia in Zaragoza, within the premises of the Theme Park of Zaragoza.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aragón TV was launched in 2006 after spending a season broadcasting a letter and a loop with images of Aragonese villages and audio of regional radio programs.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aragon Radio, began broadcasting on 18 August 2005 at 5 p.m. with the sound of drums and drums of Calanda and a group song Zaragoza \"The Fish\". Estimates of its audience range from 20 000 listeners, according to the latest EMG, to , according to private findings. The channel has regional news bulletins every hour from 7 a.m. to midnight and coverage of sports.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Nowadays, SD Huesca is the best football team in Aragon. In the year 2017/2018 the team had been playing in La Liga (Football First Division), this achievement was reached for the first time in the club's history.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 5590251, 37981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ], [ 108, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, historically, Aragon's most successful football club is Real Zaragoza. The club was founded in 1932 and spent 58 seasons in First Division, having played at its current ground, La Romareda, since 1957. Real Zaragoza have won six Copa del Rey titles from 1964 to 2004, and the 1995 European Cup Winners' Cup.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 84496, 3309635, 80967, 14138230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 78 ], [ 186, 197 ], [ 238, 250 ], [ 285, 315 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are plenty of smaller clubs in the region, like CD Teruel.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 9543787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Skiing is popular in the Pyrenean north of Aragon, at resorts such as Formigal and Candanchú. The Aragonese city of Jaca in the Pyrenees bid to host the Winter Olympics from 2002 to 2014. Zaragoza was considering a bid for the 2022 Winter Olympics, but dropped it in 2011 to strengthen the chance of Barcelona winning the games.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 28478, 5271233, 5271751, 947512, 34069, 64203, 8351234, 4443 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 70, 78 ], [ 83, 92 ], [ 116, 120 ], [ 153, 168 ], [ 188, 196 ], [ 227, 247 ], [ 300, 309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Ciudad del Motor de Aragón, also known as Motorland Aragón, is a motorsport race track located near Alcañiz in Aragon. It is home to the Aragon motorcycle Grand Prix.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 20279399, 293861, 301925, 6488827, 26604927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 30 ], [ 69, 79 ], [ 80, 90 ], [ 104, 111 ], [ 141, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Saint Elizabeth of Portugal (1271–1336), queen consort of Portugal and a saint of the Roman Catholic Church", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 1858520, 23033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 27 ], [ 58, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antipope Benedict XIII (1328–1423), known as Papa Luna, Avignon pope and art patron-sponsor", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 1778562 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "King Ferdinand II of Aragon (1452–1516), married queen Isabella I of Castile and united the Crown of Aragon with the Crown of Castile, giving form to the actual Spain", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 18836110, 23909513, 824490, 4711133, 26667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 27 ], [ 55, 76 ], [ 92, 107 ], [ 117, 133 ], [ 161, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Michael Servetus (1509/11–1552), theologian and physician who received numerous charges of heresy by both Catholics and Protestants and was burnt at the stake in Calvin's Geneva during the 16th century", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 191400, 15930, 12521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 162, 168 ], [ 171, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Joseph Calasanz (1557–1648), Catholic priest who dedicated himself to the education of poor boys at Rome and founded a society pledged to that work", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 5509551, 8655005, 25458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 29, 44 ], [ 100, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Baltasar Gracián (1601–1658), writer of Spanish Baroque literature", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 1632292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pablo Bruna (1611–1679), blind composer, organist", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 8004749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gaspar Sanz (1640–1710), composer, guitarist and organist", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 2385951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rocque Joaquin de Alcubierre (1702–1780), military engineer who discovered the ruins of Pompeii", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 23095122, 21476593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ], [ 88, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Francisco Garcés (1738–1781), missionary priest to North America who founded two pueblo missions", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 1228673, 53831, 23707, 21139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 30, 40 ], [ 41, 47 ], [ 51, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Francisco de Goya (1746–1828) 18th-century painter.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 10868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eva Amaral Lallana, singer-songwriter and member of the rock band Amaral", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 9150714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Enrique Bunbury (Enrique Ortiz de Landázuri Izarduy), rock singer-songwriter for Héroes del Silencio and Enrique Bunbury Band", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 2053166, 30862757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 81, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Luis Buñuel Portolés, filmmaker", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 169033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "St. Josemaría Escrivá de Balaguer y Albás, Spanish Catholic priest, founder of Opus Dei", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 100397, 100390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 41 ], [ 79, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pablo Gargallo Catalán, sculptor and painter", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 841086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jesús Moncada Estruga, writer", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 4863415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ramon J. Sender Garcés, writer", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 3468916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "José Antonio Labordeta Subías, singer, writer, politician (deputy) and TV presenter", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 437006, 352254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ], [ 59, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine recipient for his research on the human brain and nervous system", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 256599, 52502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ], [ 24, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carlos Saura Atarés, filmmaker", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 3380174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pablo Serrano Aguilar, sculptor", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 27486074 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alberto Zapater Arjol, footballer", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 5561530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "María Pilar León Cebrián, footballer", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 51536242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Teresa Perales Fernández, Paralympic swimmer, politician and university professor", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 36894978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fernando Simón Soria, epidemiologist and director of the Coordination Centre for Health Alerts and Emergencies of the Spanish Ministry of Health during the ebola and COVID-19 outbreaks", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 63286123, 63974212, 33528060, 44066160, 63217011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 57, 110 ], [ 118, 144 ], [ 156, 161 ], [ 166, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Federico Jiménez Losantos, radio presenter and right wing pundit", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 1064869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sheila Herrero Lapuente, inline speed skater", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 12360952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antón García Abril, music composer", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 20466247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soledad Puértolas Villanueva, writer, member of the Royal Spanish Academy and winner of the Premio Planeta de Novela", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 26211153, 59889, 8903135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ], [ 52, 73 ], [ 92, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Juan Alberto Belloch Julbe, judge, former Spanish Minister of Justice and of Justice and Interior, former mayor of Zaragoza, former deputy and senator and former member of the General Council of the Judiciary", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 39194716, 29157120, 62409589, 64203, 352254, 352256, 4612818 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ], [ 50, 69 ], [ 77, 97 ], [ 115, 123 ], [ 132, 138 ], [ 143, 150 ], [ 176, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Luisa Fernanda Rudi Úbeda, senator, former and first female President of the Congress of the Deputies, former and first female President of Aragon, former and first female mayor of Zaragoza, former deputy, MEP and autonomic deputy and former president of the Aragonese People's Party", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 1799694, 352254, 38964539, 9581, 23918877, 53689844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ], [ 60, 101 ], [ 127, 146 ], [ 206, 209 ], [ 214, 230 ], [ 259, 283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Marcelino Iglesias Ricou, former President of Aragon, former senator and autonomic deputy and former secretary-general of the Socialists' Party of Aragon and former member of the executive committee of the PSOE", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 46353716, 53558018, 272596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ], [ 126, 153 ], [ 206, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Román Escolano Olivares, economist, former Spanish Minister of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness and former vice-president of the European Investment Bank", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 56775344, 23094799, 27326933, 57038 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ], [ 51, 70 ], [ 72, 80 ], [ 134, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Miki (Miguel) Nadal Furriel, comedian, actor and TV presenter", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 25424813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Luisa Gavasa Moragón, actress", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 53133434 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hana Jalloul Muro, university professor, politician and Secretary of State of Migrations", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 62045767, 58574888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 56, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Guitarricadelafuente (Álvaro Lafuente Calvo), singer-songwriter, guitarist and musician", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 63630831 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ara Malikian, violinist", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 9653577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ana Santos Aramburo, librarian and director of the National Library of Spain", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 51142191, 3198808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 51, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "José Luis Gil Sanz, television, cinema, theatre and voice actor", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 6498831 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alexandra Jiménez Arrechea, actress and TV presenter", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 19977265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Conchita Martínez Bernat, tennis player", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 784152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pilar Palomero, film director and screenwriter", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 66965381 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Paco Martínez Soria, actor and theatre entrepreneur", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 8984134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Miguel Ángel Tirado Vinués (also known as \"Marianico el Corto\"), comedian and actor", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 63252976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Violadores del Verso, rap music crew", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 1264512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Álvaro Arbeloa Coca, footballer", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 2500538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Juan Antonio San Epifanio Ruiz (most commonly known as \"Epi\"), basketball player", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 11701963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Manuel Pizarro Moreno, economist, jurist and former politician (deputy)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people from Aragon", "target_page_ids": [ 57463534, 352254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 64, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The current coat of arms of Aragon is composed of the four barracks and is attested for the first time in 1499, consolidating since the Early Modern Ages to take root decisively in the 19th century and be approved, according to precept, by the Real Academia de la Historia in 1921.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Symbols", "target_page_ids": [ 55284, 1291656, 13856070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 24 ], [ 136, 153 ], [ 244, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first quartering appears at the end of the 15th century and commemorates, according to traditional interpretation, the legendary kingdom of Sobrarbe; in the second quarter there is the so-called \"Cross of Íñigo Arista\", innovation of Peter IV of Aragon (from an anachronistic interpretation of the cross that symbolized the religion of the Asturian, Navarrese and Aragonese Christian kings), who took it as shields of the ancient kings of Aragon, although historically there were no heraldic emblems in the peninsula (or \"signal shields\", as it was said in the Middle Ages) before the union dynastic of 1137 of the House of Aragon with the House of Barcelona; in the third quartering appears the Saint George's Cross escutcheoned of four heads of Moors (the call \"Cross of Alcoraz\"), that is witnessed for the first time in a seal of 1281 of Peter III of Aragon and would remember, according to tradition arising from the 14th century, the battle in which Peter I of Aragon and Pamplona and the future Alfonso I of Aragon took Huesca and was considered in the Early modern Ages one of the proprietary emblems of the kingdom of Aragon; and in the fourth is the emblem of the so-called \"bars of Aragon\" or Royal Sign of Aragon, the oldest of the heraldic emblems that are part of the current coat of arms, dated in the second half of the 12th century.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Symbols", "target_page_ids": [ 23610737, 127830, 824490, 754889, 205479, 67458764, 65621, 106497, 1679, 1291656, 586776, 17838069, 17838069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 152 ], [ 238, 256 ], [ 619, 634 ], [ 644, 662 ], [ 700, 720 ], [ 768, 784 ], [ 846, 865 ], [ 960, 990 ], [ 1006, 1025 ], [ 1064, 1081 ], [ 1120, 1137 ], [ 1189, 1203 ], [ 1208, 1228 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This emblem of gules and gold was used in seals, banners, shields and standards indistinctly, not being but a familiar emblem that later denoted the authority as King of Aragon until, with the birth of Modern State, began to be a territorial symbol.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Symbols", "target_page_ids": [ 28151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 202, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The current flag was approved in 1984, with the provisions of Article 3 of the Statute of Autonomy of Aragon, the flag is the traditional of the four horizontal red bars on a yellow background with the coat of arms of Aragon shifted towards the flagpole.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Symbols", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The bars of Aragon, common historic element of the current four autonomous communities that once were integrated into the Crown of Aragon, present in the third quartering of the coat of arms of Spain.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Symbols", "target_page_ids": [ 17838069, 824490, 1941598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 122, 137 ], [ 178, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The anthem of Aragon (himno de Aragón) was regulated in 1989 with music by the Aragonese composer Antón García Abril that combines the old Aragonese musical tradition with popular musical elements within a modern conception. The lyrics were elaborated by the Aragonese poets Ildefonso Manuel Gil, Ángel Guinda, Rosendo Tello and Manuel Vilas and highlights within its poetic framework, values such as freedom, justice, reason, truth, open land ... that historically represent the expression of Aragon as a people.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Symbols", "target_page_ids": [ 13839295, 20466247, 65328528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 37 ], [ 98, 116 ], [ 329, 341 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Day of Aragon is celebrated on April 23 and commemorates Saint George, patron of the Kingdom of Aragon since the 15th century. It appears in Article 3 of the Statute of Autonomy of Aragon since 1984. Institutional acts such as the delivery of the Aragon Awards by the Government of Aragon or the composition of a flag of Aragon of flowers, with the collaboration of citizens, in the Plaza de Aragón square of Zaragoza.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Symbols", "target_page_ids": [ 29010, 586776, 39443, 64203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 73 ], [ 89, 106 ], [ 272, 292 ], [ 413, 421 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aragonese Wikipedia", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19109771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Auberge d'Aragon", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4441388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Excrex", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28209531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fiestas del Pilar", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13774842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of Aragonese people", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10753941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of municipalities in Aragon", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 67976775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of mountains in Aragon", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31506386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Current art's artifacts dispute between Aragon and Catalonia, see: Monastery of Santa María de Sigena", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28330497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Music of Aragon", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 444166 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "La Vaquilla del Ángel ", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Argensola, Lupercio; The events in Aragon, 1590 and 1591.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Argensola, Lupercio; Popular alterations of Zaragoza, 1591.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Costa, Juan; Annals.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " De Aoiz, Lorenzo Ibáñez; Ceremonial and brief relation of all the charges and ordinary things of the Deputation of the Kingdom of Aragon. Published 1611. ", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " De Herrera y Tordesillas, Antonio; History of the things that happened in this Kingdom.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " De Lanuza, Vicencio Blasco; Secular and Ecclesiastical histories of Aragon. Volume 1 published 1616, Volume 2 1619.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lavanha, João Baptista; Cartography of the Kingdom of Aragon. Published 1611.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Zurita y Castro, Jerónimo; Anales de la Corona de Aragón. Multi-volume history published between 1562 and 1580.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Government of Aragon ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Senderos de Aragón Aragon government tourism site", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Guide to the Aragon Pyrenees Mountains ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Maps of Aragon ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Aragon", "1982_establishments_in_Spain", "Autonomous_communities_of_Spain", "NUTS_2_statistical_regions_of_the_European_Union", "States_and_territories_established_in_1982" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Anti-psychiatry is a movement based on the view that psychiatric treatment is often more damaging than helpful to patients, highlighting controversies about psychiatry. Objections may include concerns about the effectiveness and potential harm of treatments such as electroconvulsive treatment or insulin shock therapy.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18973869, 46881815, 44093, 2900960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 74 ], [ 137, 167 ], [ 266, 293 ], [ 297, 318 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Beyond concerns about effectiveness, Anti-psychiatry might question the philosophical and ethical underpinnings of psychotherapy and psychoactive medication, seeing them as shaped by social and political concerns rather than the autonomy and integrity of the individual mind. They may believe that \"judgements on matters of sanity should be the prerogative of the philosophical mind\", and that the mind should not be a medical concern. Some activists reject the psychiatric notion of mental illness. Anti-psychiatry considers psychiatry a coercive instrument of oppression due to an unequal power relationship between doctor and patient, and a highly subjective diagnostic process. Wrongful involuntary commitment is an important issue in the movement.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 24931, 33632441, 19356, 147885, 15416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 128 ], [ 133, 156 ], [ 484, 498 ], [ 591, 609 ], [ 682, 713 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The decentralized movement has been active in various forms for two centuries. In the 1960s, there were many challenges to psychoanalysis and mainstream psychiatry, where the very basis of psychiatric practice was characterized as repressive and controlling. Psychiatrists identified with the movement included Thomas Szasz, Timothy Leary, Giorgio Antonucci, R. D. Laing, Franco Basaglia, Theodore Lidz, Silvano Arieti, and David Cooper. Others involved were Michel Foucault, Gilles Deleuze, Félix Guattari, and Erving Goffman. Cooper coined the term \"anti-psychiatry\" in 1967, and wrote the book Psychiatry and Anti-psychiatry in 1971. Thomas Szasz introduced the definition of mental illness as a myth in the book The Myth of Mental Illness (1961), Giorgio Antonucci introduced the definition of psychiatry as a prejudice in the book I pregiudizi e la conoscenza critica alla psichiatria (1986).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23585, 58397, 31088, 40420729, 311840, 8984320, 4383129, 4920480, 311843, 47643, 12557, 11109, 186417, 179580 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 137 ], [ 311, 323 ], [ 325, 338 ], [ 340, 357 ], [ 359, 370 ], [ 372, 387 ], [ 389, 402 ], [ 404, 418 ], [ 424, 436 ], [ 459, 474 ], [ 476, 490 ], [ 492, 506 ], [ 512, 526 ], [ 716, 742 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The movement continues to influence thinking about psychiatry and psychology, both within and outside of those fields, particularly in terms of the relationship between providers of treatment and those receiving it. Contemporary issues include freedom versus coercion, nature versus nurture, and the right to be different.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Critics of antipsychiatry from within psychiatry itself object to the underlying principle that psychiatry is by definition harmful. Most psychiatrists accept that issues exist that need addressing, but that the abolition of psychiatry is harmful. Medical professionals often consider Anti-psychiatry movements to be promoting mental illness denial, and has been compared with conspiracy theories.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 69190374, 5530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 327, 348 ], [ 377, 396 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first widespread challenge to the prevailing medical approach in Western countries occurred in the late 18th century. Part of the progressive Age of Enlightenment, a \"moral treatment\" movement challenged the harsh, pessimistic, somatic (body-based) and restraint-based approaches that prevailed in the system of hospitals and \"madhouses\" for people considered mentally disturbed, who were generally seen as wild animals without reason. Alternatives were developed, led in different regions by ex-patient staff, physicians themselves in some cases, and religious and lay philanthropists. This \"moral treatment\" was seen as pioneering more humane psychological and social approaches, whether or not in medical settings; however, it also involved some use of physical restraints, threats of punishment, and personal and social methods of control. As it became the establishment approach in the 19th century, opposition to its negative aspects also grew.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 30758, 4038083, 35885810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 166 ], [ 171, 186 ], [ 232, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Michel Foucault, there was a shift in the perception of madness, whereby it came to be seen as less about delusion, i.e. disturbed judgment about the truth, than about a disorder of regular, normal behaviour or will. Foucault argued that, prior to this, doctors could often prescribe travel, rest, walking, retirement and generally engaging with nature, seen as the visible form of truth, as a means to break with artificialities of the world (and therefore delusions). Another form of treatment involved nature's opposite, the theatre, where the patient's madness was acted out for him or her in such a way that the delusion would reveal itself to the patient.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 47643, 125296 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 28 ], [ 119, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thus the most prominent therapeutic technique became to confront patients with a healthy sound will and orthodox passions, ideally embodied by the physician . The \"cure\" involved a process of opposition, of struggle and domination, of the patient's troubled will by the healthy will of the physician. It was thought the confrontation would lead not only to bring the illness into broad daylight by its resistance, but also to the victory of the sound will and the renunciation of the disturbed will. We must apply a perturbing method, to break the spasm by means of the spasm.... We must subjugate the whole character of some patients, subdue their transports, break their pride, while we must stimulate and encourage the others (Esquirol, J.E.D., 1816). Foucault also argued that the increasing internment of the \"mentally ill\" (the development of more and bigger asylums) had become necessary not just for diagnosis and classification but because an enclosed place became a requirement for a treatment that was now understood as primarily the contest of wills, a question of submission and victory.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7062239, 191537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 730, 746 ], [ 796, 806 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The techniques and procedures of the asylums at this time included \"isolation, private or public interrogations, punishment techniques such as cold showers, moral talks (encouragements or reprimands), strict discipline, compulsory work, rewards, preferential relations between the physician and his patients, relations of vassalage, of possession, of domesticity, even of servitude between patient and physician at times\". Foucault summarised these as \"designed to make the medical personage the 'master of madness'\" through the power the physician's will exerts on the patient. The effect of this shift then served to inflate the power of the physician relative to the patient, correlated with the rapid rise of internment (asylums and forced detention).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Other analyses suggest that the rise of asylums was primarily driven by industrialization and capitalism, including the breakdown of traditional family structures. By the end of the 19th century, psychiatrists often had little power in the overcrowded asylum system, acting mainly as administrators who rarely attended to patients in a system where therapeutic ideals had turned into institutional routines. In general, critics point to negative aspects of the shift toward so-called \"moral treatments\", and the concurrent widespread expansion of asylums, medical power and involuntary hospitalization laws, that played an important part in the development of the anti-psychiatry movement.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 25242181, 210545, 5416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 47 ], [ 72, 89 ], [ 94, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Various 19th-century critiques of the newly emerging field of psychiatry overlap thematically with 20th-century anti-psychiatry, for example in their questioning of the medicalisation of \"madness\". Those critiques occurred at a time when physicians had not yet achieved hegemony through psychiatry, however, so there was no single, unified force to oppose. Nevertheless, there was increasing concern at the ease with which people could be confined, with frequent reports of abuse and illegal confinement. For example, Daniel Defoe, the author of Robinson Crusoe, had previously argued for more government oversight of \"madhouses\" and for due process prior to involuntary internment. He later argued that husbands used asylum hospitals to incarcerate their disobedient wives, and in a subsequent pamphlet that wives even did the same to their husbands. It was also proposed that the role of asylum keeper be separated from doctor, to discourage exploitation of patients. There was general concern that physicians were undermining personhood by medicalizing problems, by claiming they alone had the expertise to judge, and by arguing that mental disorder was physical and hereditary. The Alleged Lunatics' Friend Society arose in England in the mid-19th century to challenge the system and campaign for rights and reforms. In the United States, Elizabeth Packard published a series of books and pamphlets describing her experiences in the Illinois insane asylum, to which she had been committed at the request of her husband.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1371050, 53451, 8193, 55483, 18737783, 1074024, 15416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 169, 183 ], [ 270, 278 ], [ 518, 530 ], [ 546, 561 ], [ 1186, 1218 ], [ 1343, 1360 ], [ 1483, 1492 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Throughout, the class nature of mental hospitals and their role as agencies of control were well recognized. The new psychiatry was partially challenged by two powerful social institutions – the church and the legal system. These trends have been thematically linked to the later 20th century anti-psychiatry movement.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 29174, 38722 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 21 ], [ 32, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As psychiatry became more professionally established during the nineteenth century (the term itself was coined in 1808 in Germany, as \"Psychiatriein\") and developed allegedly more invasive treatments, opposition increased. In the Southern US, black slaves and abolitionists encountered drapetomania, a pseudo-scientific diagnosis that presented the desire of slaves to run away from their masters as a symptom of pathology.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 66460095, 253264, 40318770, 1773453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 129 ], [ 243, 255 ], [ 260, 273 ], [ 286, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There was some organized challenge to psychiatry in the late 1870s from the new speciality of neurology. Practitioners criticized mental hospitals for failure to conduct scientific research and adopt the modern therapeutic methods such as nonrestraint. Together with lay reformers and social workers, neurologists formed the National Association for the Protection of the Insane and the Prevention of Insanity. However, when the lay members questioned the competence of asylum physicians to even provide proper care at all, the neurologists withdrew their support and the association floundered.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It has been noted that \"the most persistent critics of psychiatry have always been former mental hospital patients\", but that very few were able to tell their stories publicly or to confront the psychiatric establishment openly, and those who did so were commonly considered so extreme in their charges that they could seldom gain credibility. In the early 20th century, ex-patient Clifford W. Beers campaigned to improve the plight of individuals receiving public psychiatric care, particularly those committed to state institutions, publicizing the issues in his book, A Mind that Found Itself (1908). While Beers initially condemned psychiatrists for tolerating mistreatment of patients, and envisioned more ex-patient involvement in the movement, he was influenced by Adolf Meyer and the psychiatric establishment, and toned down his hostility since he needed their support for reforms. In Germany during this time were similar efforts which used the term \"Antipsychiatrie\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7575500, 2452836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 382, 399 ], [ 772, 783 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Beers' reliance on rich donors and his need for approval from experts led him to hand over to psychiatrists the organization he helped found, the National Committee for Mental Hygiene, which eventually became the National Mental Health Association. In the UK, the National Society for Lunacy Law Reform was established in 1920 by angry ex-patients who sought justice for abuses committed in psychiatric custody, and were aggrieved that their complaints were patronisingly discounted by the authorities, who were seen to value the availability of medicalized internment as a 'whitewashed' extrajudicial custodial and punitive process. In 1922, ex-patient Rachel Grant-Smith added to calls for reform of the system of neglect and abuse she had suffered by publishing \"The Experiences of an Asylum Patient\". In the US, We Are Not Alone (WANA) was founded by a group of patients at Rockland State Hospital in New York, and continued to meet as an ex-patient group.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7532615 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 816, 832 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1920s extreme hostility to psychiatrists and psychiatry was expressed by the French playwright and theater director Antonin Artaud, in particular, in his book on van Gogh. Much influenced by the Dada and surrealist enthusiasms of the day, he considered dreams, thoughts and visions no less real than the \"outside\" world", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 215217, 32603, 8240, 28766, 44785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 137 ], [ 169, 177 ], [ 202, 206 ], [ 211, 221 ], [ 260, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In this era before penicillin was discovered, eugenics was popular. People believed diseases of the mind could be passed on so compulsory sterilization of the mentally ill was enacted in many countries.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23312, 9737, 20723, 720902, 5567144 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 29 ], [ 46, 54 ], [ 84, 104 ], [ 127, 151 ], [ 159, 201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1930s several controversial medical practices were introduced and framed as \"treatments\" for mental disorders, including inducing seizures (by electroshock, insulin or other drugs) or psychosurgery (lobotomy). In the US, beginning in 1939 through 1951, over 50,000 lobotomy operations were performed in mental hospitals, a procedure ultimately seen as inhumane.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 44093, 14895, 46187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 150, 162 ], [ 164, 171 ], [ 206, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Holocaust historians argued that the medicalization of social programs and systematic euthanasia of people in German mental institutions in the 1930s provided the institutional, procedural, and doctrinal origins of the mass murder of the 1940s. The Nazi programs were called Action T4 and Action 14f13. The Nuremberg Trials convicted a number of psychiatrists who held key positions in Nazi regimes. As one Swiss psychiatrist stated: \"A not so easy question to be answered is whether it should be allowed to destroy lives objectively 'unworthy of living' without the expressed request of its bearers. (...) Even in incurable mentally ill ones suffering seriously from hallucinations and melancholic depressions and not being able to act, to a medical colleague I would ascript the right and in serious cases the duty to shorten — often for many years — the suffering\" (Bleuler, Eugen, 1936: \"Die naturwissenschaftliche Grundlage der Ethik\". Schweizer Archiv Neurologie und Psychiatrie, Band 38, Nr.2, S. 206).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 10396793, 1371050, 9587, 38722, 72819, 154125, 27364014, 21875 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 37, 51 ], [ 86, 96 ], [ 117, 135 ], [ 219, 230 ], [ 275, 284 ], [ 289, 301 ], [ 307, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The post-World War II decades saw an enormous growth in psychiatry; many Americans were persuaded that psychiatry and psychology, particularly psychoanalysis, were a key to happiness. Meanwhile, most hospitalized mental patients received at best decent custodial care, and at worst, abuse and neglect.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan has been identified as an influence on later anti-psychiatry theory in the UK, and as being the first, in the 1940s and 50s, to professionally challenge psychoanalysis to reexamine its concepts and to appreciate psychosis as understandable. Other influences on Lacan included poetry and the surrealist movement, including the poetic power of patients' experiences. Critics disputed this and questioned how his descriptions linked to his practical work. The names that came to be associated with the anti-psychiatry movement knew of Lacan and acknowledged his contribution even if they did not entirely agree. The psychoanalyst Erich Fromm is also said to have articulated, in the 1950s, the secular humanistic concern of the coming anti-psychiatry movement. In The Sane Society (1955), Fromm wrote \"An unhealthy society is one which creates mutual hostility [and] distrust, which transforms man into an instrument of use and exploitation for others, which deprives him of a sense of self, except inasmuch as he submits to others or becomes an automaton\"...\"Yet many psychiatrists and psychologists refuse to entertain the idea that society as a whole may be lacking in sanity. They hold that the problem of mental health in a society is only that of the number of 'unadjusted' individuals, and not of a possible unadjustment of the culture itself\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 16153, 45343 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 31 ], [ 659, 670 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1950s new psychiatric drugs, notably the antipsychotic chlorpromazine, slowly came into use. Although often accepted as an advance in some ways, there was opposition, partly due to serious adverse effects such as tardive dyskinesia, and partly due their \"chemical straitjacket\" effect and their alleged use to control and intimidate patients. Patients often opposed psychiatry and refused or stopped taking the drugs when not subject to psychiatric control. There was also increasing opposition to the large-scale use of psychiatric hospitals and institutions, and attempts were made to develop services in the community.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 148980, 321556, 18718330 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 76 ], [ 220, 238 ], [ 602, 627 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1950s in the United States, a right-wing anti-mental health movement opposed psychiatry, seeing it as liberal, left-wing, subversive and anti-American or pro-Communist. There were widespread fears that it threatened individual rights and undermined moral responsibility. An early skirmish was over the Alaska Mental Health Bill, where the right wing protestors were joined by the emerging Scientology movement.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 56522, 8939450, 18499, 283205, 9480344, 13118744 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 47 ], [ 109, 116 ], [ 118, 127 ], [ 144, 157 ], [ 309, 334 ], [ 396, 407 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The field of psychology sometimes came into opposition with psychiatry. Behaviorists argued that mental disorder was a matter of learning not medicine; for example, Hans Eysenck argued that psychiatry \"really has no role to play\". The developing field of clinical psychology in particular came into close contact with psychiatry, often in opposition to its methods, theories and territories.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 22921, 540801, 183403, 177650, 492271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 23 ], [ 72, 84 ], [ 129, 137 ], [ 165, 177 ], [ 255, 274 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Coming to the fore in the 1960s, \"anti-psychiatry\" (a term first used by David Cooper in 1967) defined a movement that vocally challenged the fundamental claims and practices of mainstream psychiatry. While most of its elements had precedents in earlier decades and centuries, in the 1960s it took on a national and international character, with access to the mass media and incorporating a wide mixture of grassroots activist organizations and prestigious professional bodies.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 311843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cooper was a South African psychiatrist working in Britain. A trained Marxist revolutionary, he argued that the political context of psychiatry and its patients had to be highlighted and radically challenged, and warned that the fog of individualized therapeutic language could take away people's ability to see and challenge the bigger social picture. He spoke of having a goal of \"non-psychiatry\" as well as anti-psychiatry.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1960s fresh voices mounted a new challenge to the pretensions of psychiatry as a science and the mental health system as a successful humanitarian enterprise. These voices included: Ernest Becker, Erving Goffman, R.D. Laing; Laing and Aaron Esterson, Thomas Scheff, and Thomas Szasz. Their writings, along with others such as articles in the journal The Radical Therapist, were given the umbrella label \"antipsychiatry\" despite wide divergences in philosophy. This critical literature, in concert with an activist movement, emphasized the hegemony of medical model psychiatry, its spurious sources of authority, its mystification of human problems, and the more oppressive practices of the mental health system, such as involuntary hospitalisation, drugging, and electroshock.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 15835437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 357, 378 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The psychiatrists R D Laing (from Scotland), Theodore Lidz (from America), Silvano Arieti (from Italy) and others, argued that \"schizophrenia\" and psychosis were understandable, and resulted from injuries to the inner-self inflicted by psychologically invasive \"schizophrenogenic\" parents or others. It was sometimes seen as a transformative state involving an attempt to cope with a sick society. Laing, however, partially dissociated himself from his colleague Cooper's term \"anti-psychiatry\". Laing had already become a media icon through bestselling books (such as The Divided Self and The Politics of Experience) discussing mental distress in an interpersonal existential context; Laing was somewhat less focused than his colleague Cooper on wider social structures and radical left wing politics, and went on to develop more romanticized or mystical views (as well as equivocating over the use of diagnosis, drugs and commitment). Although the movement originally described as anti-psychiatry became associated with the general counter-culture movement of the 1960s, Lidz and Arieti never became involved in the latter. Franco Basaglia promoted anti-psychiatry in Italy and secured reforms to mental health law there.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 311840, 4383129, 4920480, 24514, 33631921, 9593, 144633, 8984320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 27 ], [ 45, 58 ], [ 75, 89 ], [ 147, 156 ], [ 591, 617 ], [ 666, 677 ], [ 1035, 1050 ], [ 1127, 1142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Laing, through the Philadelphia Association founded with Cooper in 1965, set up over 20 therapeutic communities including Kingsley Hall, where staff and residents theoretically assumed equal status and any medication used was voluntary. Non-psychiatric Soteria houses, starting in the United States, were also developed as were various ex-patient-led services.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1774923, 4966519, 1004803, 4341815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 43 ], [ 88, 111 ], [ 122, 135 ], [ 253, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Psychiatrist Thomas Szasz argued that \"mental illness\" is an inherently incoherent combination of a medical and a psychological concept. He opposed the use of psychiatry to forcibly detain, treat, or excuse what he saw as mere deviance from societal norms or moral conduct. As a libertarian, Szasz was concerned that such usage undermined personal rights and moral responsibility. Adherents of his views referred to \"the myth of mental illness\", after Szasz's controversial 1961 book of that name (based on a paper of the same name that Szasz had written in 1957 that, following repeated rejections from psychiatric journals, had been published in the American Psychologist in 1960). Although widely described as part of the main anti-psychiatry movement, Szasz actively rejected the term and its adherents; instead, in 1969, he collaborated with Scientology to form the Citizens Commission on Human Rights. It was later noted that the view that insanity was not in most or even in any instances a \"medical\" entity, but a moral issue, was also held by Christian Scientists and certain Protestant fundamentalists, as well as Szasz. Szasz was not a Scientologist himself and was non-religious; he commented frequently on the parallels between religion and psychiatry.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 58397, 19356, 3225498, 13118744, 20949376, 125309, 25814008, 11582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 25 ], [ 39, 53 ], [ 279, 290 ], [ 847, 858 ], [ 871, 906 ], [ 1052, 1072 ], [ 1085, 1095 ], [ 1096, 1111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Erving Goffman, Gilles Deleuze, Félix Guattari and others criticized the power and role of psychiatry in society, including the use of \"total institutions\" and the use of models and terms that were seen as stigmatizing. The French sociologist and philosopher Foucault, in his 1961 publication Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason, analyzed how attitudes towards those deemed \"insane\" had changed as a result of changes in social values. He argued that psychiatry was primarily a tool of social control, based historically on a \"great confinement\" of the insane and physical punishment and chains, later exchanged in the moral treatment era for psychological oppression and internalized restraint. American sociologist Thomas Scheff applied labeling theory to psychiatry in 1966 in \"Being Mentally Ill\". Scheff argued that society views certain actions as deviant and, in order to come to terms with and understand these actions, often places the label of mental illness on those who exhibit them. Certain expectations are then placed on these individuals and, over time, they unconsciously change their behavior to fulfill them.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 186417, 12557, 11109, 471600, 2649767, 18717981, 2329154, 1371224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 16, 30 ], [ 32, 46 ], [ 136, 153 ], [ 206, 218 ], [ 231, 242 ], [ 293, 317 ], [ 772, 787 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Observation of the abuses of psychiatry in the Soviet Union in the so-called Psikhushka hospitals also led to questioning the validity of the practice of psychiatry in the West. In particular, the diagnosis of many political dissidents with schizophrenia led some to question the general diagnosis and punitive usage of the label schizophrenia. This raised questions as to whether the schizophrenia label and resulting involuntary psychiatric treatment could not have been similarly used in the West to subdue rebellious young people during family conflicts.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 26779, 13792783, 286526, 27790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 59 ], [ 77, 87 ], [ 215, 234 ], [ 330, 343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "New professional approaches were developed as an alternative or reformist complement to psychiatry. The Radical Therapist, a journal begun in 1971 in North Dakota by Michael Glenn, David Bryan, Linda Bryan, Michael Galan and Sara Glenn, challenged the psychotherapy establishment in a number of ways, raising the slogan \"Therapy means change, not adjustment.\" It contained articles that challenged the professional mediator approach, advocating instead revolutionary politics and authentic community making. Social work, humanistic or existentialist therapies, family therapy, counseling and self-help and clinical psychology developed and sometimes opposed psychiatry.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 15835437, 146717, 5135982, 9593, 31700563, 13139134, 146075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 121 ], [ 508, 519 ], [ 521, 531 ], [ 535, 549 ], [ 561, 575 ], [ 577, 587 ], [ 592, 601 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Psychoanalysis was increasingly criticized as unscientific or harmful. Contrary to the popular view, critics and biographers of Freud, such as Alice Miller, Jeffrey Masson and Louis Breger, argued that Freud did not grasp the nature of psychological trauma. Non-medical collaborative services were developed, for example therapeutic communities or Soteria houses.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 54517, 47151, 23902342 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 155 ], [ 157, 171 ], [ 176, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The psychoanalytically trained psychiatrist Szasz, although professing fundamental opposition to what he perceives as medicalization and oppressive or excuse-giving \"diagnosis\" and forced \"treatment\", was not opposed to other aspects of psychiatry (for example attempts to \"cure-heal souls\", although he also characterizes this as non-medical). Although generally considered anti-psychiatry by others, he sought to dissociate himself politically from a movement and term associated with the radical left-wing. In a 1976 publication \"Anti-psychiatry: The paradigm of a plundered mind\", which has been described as an overtly political condemnation of a wide sweep of people, Szasz claimed Laing, Cooper and all of anti-psychiatry consisted of \"self-declared socialists, communists, anarchists or at least anti-capitalists and collectivists\". While saying he shared some of their critique of the psychiatric system, Szasz compared their views on the social causes of distress/deviance to those of anti-capitalist anti-colonialists who claimed that Chilean poverty was due to plundering by American companies, a comment Szasz made not long after a CIA-backed coup had deposed the democratically elected Chilean president and replaced him with Pinochet. Szasz argued instead that distress/deviance is due to the flaws or failures of individuals in their struggles in life.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 26847, 9209651, 12, 5416, 46399294, 7299, 5489, 5183633, 18933396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 757, 767 ], [ 769, 779 ], [ 781, 791 ], [ 809, 820 ], [ 825, 838 ], [ 1016, 1028 ], [ 1046, 1051 ], [ 1145, 1148 ], [ 1240, 1248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The anti-psychiatry movement was also being driven by individuals with adverse experiences of psychiatric services. This included those who felt they had been harmed by psychiatry or who felt that they could have been helped more by other approaches, including those compulsorily (including via physical force) admitted to psychiatric institutions and subjected to compulsory medication or procedures. During the 1970s, the anti-psychiatry movement was involved in promoting restraint from many practices seen as psychiatric abuses.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The gay rights movement continued to challenge the classification of homosexuality as a mental illness and in 1974, in a climate of controversy and activism, the American Psychiatric Association membership (following a unanimous vote by the trustees in 1973) voted by a small majority (58%) to remove it as an illness category from the DSM, replacing it with a category of \"sexual orientation disturbance\" and then \"ego-dystonic homosexuality,\" which was deleted in 1986, although a wide variety of \"paraphilias\" remain. It has been noted that gay activists in the 1970s and 1980s adopted many of Szasz's arguments against the psychiatric system, but also that Szasz had written in 1965 that: \"I believe it is very likely that homosexuality is, indeed, a disease in the second sense [expression of psychosexual immaturity] and perhaps sometimes even in the stricter sense [a condition somewhat similar to ordinary organic maladies perhaps caused by genetic error or endocrine imbalance]. Nevertheless, if we believe that by categorising homosexuality as a disease we have succeeded in removing it from the realm of moral judgement, we are in error.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 924166, 160911, 8498, 23592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 162, 194 ], [ 336, 339 ], [ 500, 511 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The diagnostic label gender identity disorder (GID) was used by the DSM until its reclassification as gender dysphoria in 2013, with the release of the DSM-5. The diagnosis was reclassified to better align it with medical understanding of the condition and to remove the stigma associated with the term disorder. The American Psychiatric Association, publisher of the DSM-5, stated that gender nonconformity is not the same thing as gender dysphoria, and that \"gender nonconformity is not in itself a mental disorder. The critical element of gender dysphoria is the presence of clinically significant distress associated with the condition.\" Some transgender people and researchers support declassification of the condition because they say the diagnosis pathologizes gender variance and reinforces the binary model of gender. Szasz also publicly endorsed the transmisogynist work of Janice Raymond. In a 1979 New York Times book review of Raymond's The Transsexual Empire, Szasz drew connections between his ongoing critique of psychiatric diagnosis and Raymond's feminist critique of trans women.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 43097, 8498, 11973479, 2649767, 4611451, 4519053, 3115280, 30680, 7065350 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 45 ], [ 68, 71 ], [ 152, 157 ], [ 271, 277 ], [ 387, 407 ], [ 803, 825 ], [ 884, 898 ], [ 910, 924 ], [ 950, 972 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Increased legal and professional protections, and a merging with human rights and disability rights movements, added to anti-psychiatry theory and action.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 13831, 436022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 77 ], [ 82, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anti-psychiatry came to challenge a \"biomedical\" focus of psychiatry (defined to mean genetics, neurochemicals and pharmaceutic drugs). There was also opposition to the increasing links between psychiatry and pharmaceutical companies, which were becoming more powerful and were increasingly claimed to have excessive, unjustified and underhand influence on psychiatric research and practice. There was also opposition to the codification of, and alleged misuse of, psychiatric diagnoses into manuals, in particular the American Psychiatric Association, which publishes the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1043627, 12266, 542291, 24354, 560876 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 47 ], [ 86, 94 ], [ 96, 109 ], [ 115, 127 ], [ 209, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anti-psychiatry increasingly challenged alleged psychiatric pessimism and institutionalized alienation regarding those categorized as mentally ill. An emerging consumer/survivor movement often argues for full recovery, empowerment, self-management and even full liberation. Schemes were developed to challenge stigma and discrimination, often based on a social model of disability; to assist or encourage people with mental health issues to engage more fully in work and society (for example through social firms), and to involve service users in the delivery and evaluation of mental health services. However, those actively and openly challenging the fundamental ethics and efficacy of mainstream psychiatric practice remained marginalized within psychiatry, and to a lesser extent within the wider mental health community.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7532615, 8600080, 167703, 2649767, 1117658, 8392185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 186 ], [ 209, 217 ], [ 219, 230 ], [ 310, 316 ], [ 354, 380 ], [ 500, 512 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Three authors came to personify the movement against psychiatry, and two of these were practising psychiatrists. The initial and most influential of these was Thomas Szasz who rose to fame with his book The Myth of Mental Illness, although Szasz himself did not identify as an anti-psychiatrist. The well-respected R D Laing wrote a series of best-selling books, including The Divided Self. Intellectual philosopher Michel Foucault challenged the very basis of psychiatric practice and cast it as repressive and controlling. The term \"anti-psychiatry\" was coined by David Cooper in 1967. In parallel with the theoretical production of the mentioned authors, the Italian physician Giorgio Antonucci questioned the basis themselves of psychiatry through the dismantling of the psychiatric hospitals Osservanza and Luigi Lolli and the liberation – and restitution to life – of the people there secluded.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 58397, 179580, 311840, 311840, 47643, 311843, 40420729 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 159, 171 ], [ 203, 229 ], [ 316, 325 ], [ 374, 390 ], [ 418, 433 ], [ 569, 581 ], [ 683, 700 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In recent years, psychotherapists David Smail and Bruce E. Levine, considered part of the anti-psychiatry movement, have written widely on how society, culture, politics and psychology intersect. They have written extensively of the \"embodied nature\" of the individual in society, and the unwillingness of even therapists to acknowledge the obvious part played by power and financial interest in modern Western society. They argue that feelings and emotions are not, as is commonly supposed, features of the individual, but rather responses of the individual to their situation in society. Even psychotherapy, they suggest, can only change feelings in as much as it helps a person to change the \"proximal\" and \"distal\" influences on their life, which range from family and friends, to the workplace, socio-economics, politics and culture.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [ 3966963, 1806493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 45 ], [ 50, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "R. D. Laing emphasized family nexus as a mechanism by which individuals become victimized by those around them, and spoke about a dysfunctional society.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [ 3922934, 18055330 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 35 ], [ 79, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Psychiatrists have been trying to differentiate mental disorders based on clinical interviews since the era of Kraepelin, but now realize that their diagnostic criteria are imperfect. Tadafumi Kato writes, \"We psychiatrists should be aware that we cannot identify 'diseases' only by interviews. What we are doing now is just like trying to diagnose diabetes mellitus without measuring blood sugar.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2013, psychiatrist Allen Frances said that \"psychiatric diagnosis still relies exclusively on fallible subjective judgments rather than objective biological tests\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [ 29302019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reasons have been put forward to doubt the ontic status of mental disorders. Mental disorders engender ontological skepticism on three levels:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [ 2788896, 22261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 48 ], [ 103, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mental disorders are abstract entities that cannot be directly appreciated with the human senses or indirectly, as one might with macro- or microscopic objects.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mental disorders are not clearly natural processes whose detection is untarnished by the imposition of values, or human interpretation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " It is unclear whether they should be conceived as abstractions that exist in the world apart from the individual persons who experience them, and thus instantiate them.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [ 6978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the scientific and academic literature on the definition or classification of mental disorder, one extreme argues that it is entirely a matter of value judgements (including of what is normal) while another proposes that it is or could be entirely objective and scientific (including by reference to statistical norms). Common hybrid views argue that the concept of mental disorder is objective but a \"fuzzy prototype\" that can never be precisely defined, or alternatively that it inevitably involves a mix of scientific facts and subjective value judgments.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [ 43851, 4410781, 26700, 72718 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 188, 194 ], [ 251, 260 ], [ 265, 275 ], [ 411, 420 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One remarkable example of psychiatric diagnosis being used to reinforce cultural bias and oppress dissidence is the diagnosis of drapetomania. In the US prior to the American Civil War, physicians such as Samuel A. Cartwright diagnosed some slaves with drapetomania, a mental illness in which the slave possessed an irrational desire for freedom and a tendency to try to escape. By classifying such a dissident mental trait as abnormal and a disease, psychiatry promoted cultural bias about normality, abnormality, health, and unhealth. This example indicates the probability for not only cultural bias but also confirmation bias and bias blind spot in psychiatric diagnosis and psychiatric beliefs.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [ 1773453, 9282112, 49333, 59160, 893668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 141 ], [ 205, 225 ], [ 589, 602 ], [ 612, 629 ], [ 634, 649 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It has been argued by philosophers like Foucault that characterizations of \"mental illness\" are indeterminate and reflect the hierarchical structures of the societies from which they emerge rather than any precisely defined qualities that distinguish a \"healthy\" mind from a \"sick\" one. Furthermore, if a tendency toward self-harm is taken as an elementary symptom of mental illness, then humans, as a species, are arguably insane in that they have tended throughout recorded history to destroy their own environments, to make war with one another, etc.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [ 6427405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mental disorders were first included in the sixth revision of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-6) in 1949. Three years later, the American Psychiatric Association created its own classification system, DSM-I. The definitions of most psychiatric diagnoses consist of combinations of phenomenological criteria, such as symptoms and signs and their course over time. Expert committees combined them in variable ways into categories of mental disorders, defined and redefined them again and again over the last half century.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [ 15459, 18182399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 106 ], [ 250, 271 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The majority of these diagnostic categories are called disorders and are not validated by biological criteria, as most medical diseases are; although they purport to represent medical diseases and take the form of medical diagnoses. These diagnostic categories are actually embedded in top-down classifications, similar to the early botanic classifications of plants in the 17th and 18th centuries, when experts decided a priori about which classification criterion to use, for instance, whether the shape of leaves or fruiting bodies were the main criterion for classifying plants. Since the era of Kraepelin, psychiatrists have been trying to differentiate mental disorders by using clinical interviews.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1972, psychologist David Rosenhan published the Rosenhan experiment, a study questioning the validity of psychiatric diagnoses. The study arranged for eight individuals with no history of psychopathology to attempt admission into psychiatric hospitals. The individuals included a graduate student, psychologists, an artist, a housewife, and two physicians, including one psychiatrist. All eight individuals were admitted with a diagnosis of schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. Psychiatrists then attempted to treat the individuals using psychiatric medication. All eight were discharged within 7 to 52 days. In a later part of the study, psychiatric staff were warned that pseudo-patients might be sent to their institutions, but none were actually sent. Nevertheless, a total of 83 patients out of 193 were believed by at least one staff member to be actors. The study concluded that individuals without mental disorders were indistinguishable from those with mental disorders.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [ 1977361, 449532, 449532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 36 ], [ 51, 70 ], [ 615, 638 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Critics such as Robert Spitzer cast doubt on the validity and credibility of the study, but did concede that the consistency of psychiatric diagnoses needed improvement. The challenge of the validity versus the reliability of diagnostic categories continues to plague diagnostic systems. Neuroscientist Tadafumi Kato advocates for a new classification of diseases based on the neurobiological features of each mental disorder. while Austrian psychiatrist Heinz Katsching advises psychiatrists to replace the term \"mental illness\" by \"brain illness.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [ 3013006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are recognized problems regarding the diagnostic reliability and validity of mainstream psychiatric diagnoses, both in ideal and controlled circumstances and even more so in routine clinical practice (McGorry et al.. 1995). Criteria in the principal diagnostic manuals, the DSM and ICD, are not consistent between the two manuals. Some psychiatrists in critiquing diagnostic criteria point out that comorbidity, when an individual meets criteria for two or more disorders, is the rule rather than the exception, casting doubt on the distinctness of the categories, with overlap and vaguely defined or changeable boundaries between what are asserted to be distinct disorders.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [ 15459, 217631 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 288, 291 ], [ 405, 416 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other concerns raised include using standard diagnostic criteria in different countries, cultures, genders or ethnic groups. Critics contend that Westernized, white, male-dominated psychiatric practices and diagnoses disadvantage and misunderstand those from other groups. For example, several studies have shown that African Americans are more often diagnosed with schizophrenia than white people, and men more than women. Some within the anti-psychiatry movement are critical of the use of diagnosis at all as it conforms with the biomedical model, seen as illegitimate.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [ 2154, 236796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 318, 335 ], [ 533, 549 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Franco Basaglia, Giorgio Antonucci, and Bruce E. Levine, whose approach pointed out the role of psychiatric institutions in the control and medicalization of deviant behaviors and social problems, psychiatry is used as the provider of scientific support for social control to the existing establishment, and the ensuing standards of deviance and normality brought about repressive views of discrete social groups. According to Mike Fitzpatrick, resistance to medicalization was a common theme of the gay liberation, anti-psychiatry, and feminist movements of the 1970s, but now there is actually no resistance to the advance of government intrusion in lifestyle if it is thought to be justified in terms of public health.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [ 40420729, 1806493, 14534297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 47 ], [ 53, 68 ], [ 171, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the opinion of Mike Fitzpatrick, the pressure for medicalization also comes from society itself. As one example, Fitzpatrick claims that feminists who once opposed state intervention as oppressive and patriarchal, now demand more coercive and intrusive measures to deal with child abuse and domestic violence. According to Richard Gosden, the use of psychiatry as a tool of social control is becoming obvious in preventive medicine programmes for various mental diseases. These programmes are intended to identify children and young people with divergent behavioral patterns and thinking and send them to treatment before their supposed mental diseases develop. Clinical guidelines for best practice in Australia include the risk factors and signs which can be used to detect young people who are in need of prophylactic drug treatment to prevent the development of schizophrenia and other psychotic conditions.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Critics of psychiatry commonly express a concern that the path of diagnosis and treatment in contemporary society is primarily or overwhelmingly shaped by profit prerogatives, echoing a common criticism of general medical practice in the United States, where many of the largest psychopharmaceutical producers are based.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Psychiatric research has demonstrated varying degrees of efficacy for improving or managing a number of mental health disorders through either medications, psychotherapy, or a combination of the two. Typical psychiatric medications include stimulants, antidepressants, anxiolytics, and antipsychotics (neuroleptics).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [ 896469, 66391, 2388, 2869, 2870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 65 ], [ 240, 249 ], [ 252, 266 ], [ 269, 279 ], [ 286, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the other hand, organizations such as MindFreedom International and World Network of Users and Survivors of Psychiatry maintain that psychiatrists exaggerate the evidence of medication and minimize the evidence of adverse drug reaction. They and other activists believe individuals are not given balanced information, and that current psychiatric medications do not appear to be specific to particular disorders in the way mainstream psychiatry asserts; and psychiatric drugs not only fail to correct measurable chemical imbalances in the brain, but rather induce undesirable side effects. For example, though children on Ritalin and other psycho-stimulants become more obedient to parents and teachers, critics have noted that they can also develop abnormal movements such as tics, spasms and other involuntary movements. This has not been shown to be directly related to the therapeutic use of stimulants, but to neuroleptics. The diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder on the basis of inattention to compulsory schooling also raises critics' concerns regarding the use of psychoactive drugs as a means of unjust social control of children.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [ 1558989, 3781123, 1274833, 7532615, 205878, 64976, 81682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 66 ], [ 71, 121 ], [ 217, 238 ], [ 255, 264 ], [ 625, 632 ], [ 949, 989 ], [ 1133, 1147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The influence of pharmaceutical companies is another major issue for the anti-psychiatry movement. As many critics from within and outside of psychiatry have argued, there are many financial and professional links between psychiatry, regulators, and pharmaceutical companies. Drug companies routinely fund much of the research conducted by psychiatrists, advertise medication in psychiatric journals and conferences, fund psychiatric and healthcare organizations and health promotion campaigns, and send representatives to lobby general physicians and politicians. Peter Breggin, Sharkey, and other investigators of the psycho-pharmaceutical industry maintain that many psychiatrists are members, shareholders or special advisors to pharmaceutical or associated regulatory organizations.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [ 1546447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 565, 578 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is evidence that research findings and the prescribing of drugs are influenced as a result. A United Kingdom cross-party parliamentary inquiry into the influence of the pharmaceutical industry in 2005 concludes: \"The influence of the pharmaceutical industry is such that it dominates clinical practice\" and that there are serious regulatory failings resulting in \"the unsafe use of drugs; and the increasing medicalization of society\". The campaign organization No Free Lunch details the prevalent acceptance by medical professionals of free gifts from pharmaceutical companies and the effect on psychiatric practice. The ghostwriting of articles by pharmaceutical company officials, which are then presented by esteemed psychiatrists, has also been highlighted. Systematic reviews have found that trials of psychiatric drugs that are conducted with pharmaceutical funding are several times more likely to report positive findings than studies without such funding.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [ 16341681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The number of psychiatric drug prescriptions have been increasing at an extremely high rate since the 1950s and show no sign of abating. In the United States antidepressants and tranquilizers are now the top selling class of prescription drugs, and neuroleptics and other psychiatric drugs also rank near the top, all with expanding sales. As a solution to the apparent conflict of interests, critics propose legislation to separate the pharmaceutical industry from the psychiatric profession.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "John Read and Bruce E. Levine have advanced the idea of socioeconomic status as a significant factor in the development and prevention of mental disorders such as schizophrenia and have noted the reach of pharmaceutical companies through industry sponsored websites as promoting a more biological approach to mental disorders, rather than a comprehensive biological, psychological and social model.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [ 35090521, 1806493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 14, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Psychiatrists may advocate psychiatric drugs, psychotherapy or more controversial interventions such as electroshock or psychosurgery to treat mental illness. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is administered worldwide typically for severe mental disorders. Across the globe it has been estimated that approximately 1million patients receive ECT per year. Exact numbers of how many persons per year have ECT in the United States are unknown due to the variability of settings and treatment. Researchers' estimates generally range from 100,000 to 200,000 persons per year.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [ 43963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some persons receiving ECT die during the procedure (ECT is performed under a general anaesthetic, which always carries a risk). Leonard Roy Frank writes that estimates of ECT-related death rates vary widely. The lower estimates include: ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [ 23264200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2–4 in 100,000 (from Kramer's 1994 study of 28,437 patients) ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1 in 10,000 (Boodman's first entry in 1996)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1 in 1,000 (Impastato's first entry in 1957)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1 in 200, among the elderly, over 60 (Impastato's in 1957) ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Higher estimates include:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1 in 102 (Martin's entry in 1949)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1 in 95 (Boodman's first entry in 1996)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1 in 92 (Freeman and Kendell's entry in 1976)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1 in 89 (Sagebiel's in 1961)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1 in 69 (Gralnick's in 1946)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1 in 63, among a group undergoing intensive ECT (Perry's in 1963–1979)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1 in 38 (Ehrenberg's in 1955)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1 in 30 (Kurland's in 1959)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1 in 9, among a group undergoing intensive ECT (Weil's in 1949)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1 in 4, among the very elderly, over 80 (Kroessler and Fogel's in 1974–1986).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Psychiatrists around the world have been involved in the suppression of individual rights by states in which the definitions of mental disease have been expanded to include political disobedience. Nowadays, in many countries, political prisoners are sometimes confined and abused in mental institutions. Psychiatry possesses a built-in capacity for abuse which is greater than in other areas of medicine. The diagnosis of mental disease can serve as proxy for the designation of social dissidents, allowing the state to hold persons against their will and to insist upon therapies that work in favour of ideological conformity and in the broader interests of society. In a monolithic state, psychiatry can be used to bypass standard legal procedures for establishing guilt or innocence and allow political incarceration without the ordinary odium attaching to such political trials.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Under the Nazi regime in the 1940s, the \"duty to care\" was violated on an enormous scale. In Germany alone 300,000 individuals that had been deemed mentally ill, work-shy or feeble-minded were sterilized. An additional 200,000 were euthanized. These practices continued in territories occupied by the Nazis further afield (mainly in eastern Europe), affecting thousands more. From the 1960s up to 1986, political abuse of psychiatry was reported to be systematic in the Soviet Union, and to surface on occasion in other Eastern European countries such as Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia, as well as in Western European countries, such as Italy. An example of the use of psychiatry in the political field is the \"case Sabattini\", described by Giorgio Antonucci in his book Il pregiudizio psichiatrico. A \"mental health genocide\" reminiscent of the Nazi aberrations has been located in the history of South African oppression during the apartheid era. A continued misappropriation of the discipline was later attributed to the People's Republic of China.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [ 21212, 720902, 37403, 27207328, 297157, 5298454, 1810963, 297809, 40420729 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ], [ 193, 203 ], [ 334, 348 ], [ 404, 433 ], [ 556, 563 ], [ 565, 572 ], [ 574, 588 ], [ 594, 604 ], [ 761, 778 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "K. Fulford, A. Smirnov, and E. Snow state: \"An important vulnerability factor, therefore, for the abuse of psychiatry, is the subjective nature of the observations on which psychiatric diagnosis currently depends.\" In an article published in 1994 by the Journal of Medical Ethics, American psychiatrist Thomas Szasz stated that \"the classification by slave owners and slave traders of certain individuals as Negroes was scientific, in the sense that whites were rarely classified as blacks. But that did not prevent the 'abuse' of such racial classification, because (what we call) its abuse was, in fact, its use.\" Szasz argued that the spectacle of the Western psychiatrists loudly condemning Soviet colleagues for their abuse of professional standards was largely an exercise in hypocrisy. Szasz states that K. Fulford, A. Smirnov, and E. Snow, who correctly emphasize the value-laden nature of psychiatric diagnoses and the subjective character of psychiatric classifications, fail to accept the role of psychiatric power. He stated that psychiatric abuse, such as people usually associated with practices in the former USSR, was connected not with the misuse of psychiatric diagnoses, but with the political power built into the social role of the psychiatrist in democratic and totalitarian societies alike. Musicologists, drama critics, art historians, and many other scholars also create their own subjective classifications; however, lacking state-legitimated power over persons, their classifications do not lead to anyone's being deprived of property, liberty, or life. For instance, a plastic surgeon's classification of beauty is subjective, but the plastic surgeon cannot treat his or her patient without the patient's consent, so there cannot be any political abuse of plastic surgery.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [ 21609739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 254, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The bedrock of political medicine is coercion masquerading as medical treatment. In this process, physicians diagnose a disapproved condition as an \"illness\" and declare the intervention they impose on the victim a \"treatment,\" and legislators and judges legitimate these categorizations. In the same way, physician-eugenicists advocated killing certain disabled or ill persons as a form of treatment for both society and patient long before the Nazis came to power.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [ 9737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 316, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the commencement of his political career, Hitler put his struggle against \"enemies of the state\" in medical rhetoric. In 1934, addressing the Reichstag, he declared, \"I gave the order… to burn out down to the raw flesh the ulcers of our internal well-poisoning.\" The entire German nation and its National Socialist politicians learned to think and speak in such terms. Werner Best, Reinhard Heydrich's deputy, stated that the task of the police was \"to root out all symptoms of disease and germs of destruction that threatened the political health of the nation… [In addition to Jews,] most [of the germs] were weak, unpopular and marginalized groups, such as gypsies, homosexuals, beggars, 'antisocials', 'work-shy', and 'habitual criminals'.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [ 2120026, 25914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 374, 385 ], [ 387, 404 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In spite of all the evidence, people ignore or underappreciate the political implications of the pseudotherapeutic character of Nazism and of the use of medical metaphors in modern democracies. Dismissed as an \"abuse of psychiatry\", this practice is a controversial subject not because the story makes psychiatrists in Nazi Germany look bad, but because it highlights the dramatic similarities between pharmacratic controls in Germany under Nazism and those that have emerged in the US under the free market economy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [ 27207328, 11826 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 211, 230 ], [ 496, 507 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The \"therapeutic state\" is a phrase coined by Szasz in 1963. The collaboration between psychiatry and government leads to what Szasz calls the \"therapeutic state\", a system in which disapproved actions, thoughts, and emotions are repressed (\"cured\") through pseudomedical interventions. Thus suicide, unconventional religious beliefs, racial bigotry, unhappiness, anxiety, shyness, sexual promiscuity, shoplifting, gambling, overeating, smoking, and illegal drug use are all considered symptoms or illnesses that need to be cured. When faced with demands for measures to curtail smoking in public, binge-drinking, gambling or obesity, ministers say that \"we must guard against charges of nanny statism\". The \"nanny state\" has turned into the \"therapeutic state\" where nanny has given way to counselor. Nanny just told people what to do; counselors also tell them what to think and what to feel. The \"nanny state\" was punitive, austere, and authoritarian, the therapeutic state is touchy-feely, supportive—and even more authoritarian. According to Szasz, \"the therapeutic state swallows up everything human on the seemingly rational ground that nothing falls outside the province of health and medicine, just as the theological state had swallowed up everything human on the perfectly rational ground that nothing falls outside the province of God and religion\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Faced with the problem of \"madness\", Western individualism proved to be ill-prepared to defend the rights of the individual: modern man has no more right to be a madman than medieval man had a right to be a heretic because if once people agree that they have identified the one true God, or Good, it brings about that they have to guard members and nonmembers of the group from the temptation to worship false gods or goods. A secularization of God and the medicalization of good resulted in the post-Enlightenment version of this view: once people agree that they have identified the one true reason, it brings about that they have to guard against the temptation to worship unreason—that is, madness.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Civil libertarians warn that the marriage of the State with psychiatry could have catastrophic consequences for civilization. In the same vein as the separation of church and state, Szasz believes that a solid wall must exist between psychiatry and the State.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [ 6258, 168714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 124 ], [ 150, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his book Asylums, Erving Goffman coined the term 'total institution' for mental hospitals and similar places which took over and confined a person's whole life. Goffman placed psychiatric hospitals in the same category as concentration camps, prisons, military organizations, orphanages, and monasteries. In Asylums Goffman describes how the institutionalisation process socialises people into the role of a good patient, someone 'dull, harmless and inconspicuous'; it in turn reinforces notions of chronicity in severe mental illness.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Challenges to psychiatry", "target_page_ids": [ 4435948, 471600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 19 ], [ 53, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the US, critics of psychiatry contend that the intersection of the law and psychiatry create extra-legal entities. For example, the insanity defense, leading to detainment in a psychiatric institution versus a prison, can be worse than criminal imprisonment according to some critics, as it involves the risk of compulsory medication with neuroleptics or the use of electroshock treatment.. While a criminal imprisonment has a predetermined and known time of duration, patients are typically committed to psychiatric hospitals for indefinite durations, an arguably outrageous imposition of fundamental uncertainty. It has been argued that such uncertainty risks aggravating mental instability, and that it substantially encourages a lapse into hopelessness and acceptance that precludes recovery.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Law", "target_page_ids": [ 15358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Critics see the use of legally sanctioned force in involuntary commitment as a violation of the fundamental principles of free or open societies. The political philosopher John Stuart Mill and others have argued that society has no right to use coercion to subdue an individual as long as they do not harm others. Research evidence regarding violent behavior by people with mental illness does not support a direct connection in most studies. The growing practice, in the United Kingdom and elsewhere, of Care in the Community was instituted partly in response to such concerns. Alternatives to involuntary hospitalization include the development of non-medical crisis care in the community.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Law", "target_page_ids": [ 15626, 1212177 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 172, 188 ], [ 505, 526 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The American Soteria project was developed by psychiatrist Loren Mosher as an alternative model of care in a residential setting to support those experiencing psychiatric symptoms or extreme states. The Soteria houses closed in 1983 in the United States due to lack of financial support . Similar programs were established in Europe, including in Sweden and other North European countries. More recently, a Soteria House opened in Vermont, USA ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Law", "target_page_ids": [ 4341815, 10637866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 20 ], [ 59, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The physician Giorgio Antonucci, during his activity as a director of the Ospedale Psichiatrico Osservanza of Imola in Italy from 1979 to 1996, refused any form of coercion and any violation of the fundamental principles of freedom, questioning the basis of psychiatry itself.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Law", "target_page_ids": [ 40420729 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many of the above issues lead to the claim that psychiatry is a pseudoscience. According to some philosophers of science, for a theory to qualify as science it needs to exhibit the following characteristics:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Psychiatry as pseudoscience and failed enterprise", "target_page_ids": [ 23047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " parsimony, as straightforward as the phenomena to be explained allow (see Occam's razor);", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Psychiatry as pseudoscience and failed enterprise", "target_page_ids": [ 36797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " empirically testable and falsifiable (see Falsifiability);", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Psychiatry as pseudoscience and failed enterprise", "target_page_ids": [ 11283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " changeable, i.e. if necessary, changes may be made to the theory as new data are discovered;", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Psychiatry as pseudoscience and failed enterprise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " progressive, encompasses previous successful descriptions and explains and adds more;", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Psychiatry as pseudoscience and failed enterprise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " provisional, i.e. tentative; the theory does not attempt to assert that it is a final description or explanation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Psychiatry as pseudoscience and failed enterprise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Psychiatrist Colin A. Ross and Alvin Pam maintain that biopsychiatry does not qualify as a science on many counts.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Psychiatry as pseudoscience and failed enterprise", "target_page_ids": [ 39393328, 60553244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 26 ], [ 31, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Psychiatric researchers have been criticised on the basis of the replication crisis and textbook errors. Questionable research practices are known to bias key sources of evidence.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Psychiatry as pseudoscience and failed enterprise", "target_page_ids": [ 44984325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stuart A. Kirk has argued that psychiatry is a failed enterprise, as mental illness has grown, not shrunk, with about 20% of American adults diagnosable as mentally ill in 2013.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Psychiatry as pseudoscience and failed enterprise", "target_page_ids": [ 36310775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to a 2014 meta-analysis, psychiatric treatment is no less effective for psychiatric illnesses in terms of treatment effects than treatments by practitioners of other medical specialties for physical health conditions. The analysis found that the effect sizes for psychiatric interventions are, on average, on par with other fields of medicine.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Psychiatry as pseudoscience and failed enterprise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Szasz has since (2008) re-emphasized his disdain for the term anti-psychiatry, arguing that its legacy has simply been a \"catchall term used to delegitimize and dismiss critics of psychiatric fraud and force by labeling them antipsychiatrists\". He points out that the term originated in a meeting of four psychiatrists (Cooper, Laing, Berke and Redler) who never defined it yet \"counter-label[ed] their discipline as anti-psychiatry\", and that he considers Laing most responsible for popularizing it despite also personally distancing himself. Szasz describes the deceased (1989) Laing in vitriolic terms, accusing him of being irresponsible and equivocal on psychiatric diagnosis and use of force, and detailing his past \"public behavior\" as \"a fit subject for moral judgment\" which he gives as \"a bad person and a fraud as a professional\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Diverse paths", "target_page_ids": [ 4883965, 29247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 335, 340 ], [ 589, 598 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Daniel Burston, however, has argued that overall the published works of Szasz and Laing demonstrate far more points of convergence and intellectual kinship than Szasz admits, despite the divergence on a number of issues related to Szasz being a libertarian and Laing an existentialist; that Szasz employs a good deal of exaggeration and distortion in his criticism of Laing's personal character, and unfairly uses Laing's personal failings and family woes to discredit his work and ideas; and that Szasz's \"clear-cut, crystalline ethical principles are designed to spare us the agonizing and often inconclusive reflections that many clinicians face frequently in the course of their work\". Szasz has indicated that his own views came from libertarian politics held since his teens, rather than through experience in psychiatry; that in his \"rare\" contacts with involuntary mental patients in the past he either sought to discharge them (if they were not charged with a crime) or \"assisted the prosecution in securing [their] conviction\" (if they were charged with a crime and appeared to be prima facie guilty); that he is not opposed to consensual psychiatry and \"does not interfere with the practice of the conventional psychiatrist\", and that he provided \"listening-and-talking (\"psychotherapy\")\" for voluntary fee-paying clients from 1948 until 1996, a practice he characterizes as non-medical and not associated with his being a psychoanalytically trained psychiatrist.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Diverse paths", "target_page_ids": [ 83859, 24696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 775, 780 ], [ 1091, 1102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The gay rights or gay liberation movement is often thought to have been part of anti-psychiatry in its efforts to challenge oppression and stigma and, specifically, to get homosexuality removed from the American Psychiatric Association's (APA) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. However, a psychiatric member of APA's Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Issues Committee has recently sought to distance the two, arguing that they were separate in the early 70s protests at APA conventions and that APA's decision to remove homosexuality was scientific and happened to coincide with the political pressure. Reviewers have responded, however, that the founders and movements were closely aligned; that they shared core texts, proponents and slogans; and that others have stated that, for example, the gay liberation critique was \"made possible by (and indeed often explicitly grounded in) traditions of antipsychiatry\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Diverse paths", "target_page_ids": [ 13070, 1727494, 5488304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 18, 32 ], [ 172, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the clinical setting, the two strands of anti-psychiatry—criticism of psychiatric knowledge and reform of its practices—were never entirely distinct. In addition, in a sense, anti-psychiatry was not so much a demand for the end of psychiatry, as it was an often self-directed demand for psychiatrists and allied professionals to question their own judgements, assumptions and practices. In some cases, the suspicion of non-psychiatric medical professionals towards the validity of psychiatry was described as anti-psychiatry, as well the criticism of \"hard-headed\" psychiatrists towards \"soft-headed\" psychiatrists. Most leading figures of anti-psychiatry were themselves psychiatrists, and equivocated over whether they were really \"against psychiatry\", or parts thereof. Outside the field of psychiatry, however—e.g. for activists and non-medical mental health professionals such as social workers and psychologists—'anti-psychiatry' tended to mean something more radical. The ambiguous term \"anti-psychiatry\" came to be associated with these more radical trends, but there was debate over whether it was a new phenomenon, whom it best described, and whether it constituted a genuinely singular movement. In order to avoid any ambiguity intrinsic to the term anti-psychiatry, a current of thought that can be defined as critique of the basis of psychiatry, radical and unambiguous, aims for the complete elimination of psychiatry. The main representative of the critique of the basis of psychiatry is an Italian physician, Giorgio Antonucci, the founder of the non-psychiatric approach to psychological suffering, who posited that the \"essence of psychiatry lies in an ideology of discrimination\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Diverse paths", "target_page_ids": [ 40420729 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1528, 1545 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1990s, a tendency was noted among psychiatrists to characterize and to regard the anti-psychiatric movement as part of the past, and to view its ideological history as flirtation with the polemics of radical politics at the expense of scientific thought and enquiry. It was also argued, however, that the movement contributed towards generating demand for grassroots involvement in guidelines and advocacy groups, and to the shift from large mental institutions to community services. Additionally, community centers have tended in practice to distance themselves from the psychiatric/medical model and have continued to see themselves as representing a culture of resistance or opposition to psychiatry's authority. Overall, while antipsychiatry as a movement may have become an anachronism by this period and was no longer led by eminent psychiatrists, it has been argued that it became incorporated into the mainstream practice of mental health disciplines. On the other hand, mainstream psychiatry became more biomedical, increasing the gap between professionals.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Diverse paths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Henry Nasrallah claims that while he believes anti-psychiatry consists of many historical exaggerations based on events and primitive conditions from a century ago, \"antipsychiatry helps keep us honest and rigorous about what we do, motivating us to relentlessly seek better diagnostic models and treatment paradigms. Psychiatry is far more scientific today than it was a century ago, but misperceptions about psychiatry continue to be driven by abuses of the past. The best antidote for antipsychiatry allegations is a combination of personal integrity, scientific progress, and sound evidence-based clinical care\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Diverse paths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A criticism was made in the 1990s that three decades of anti-psychiatry had produced a large literature critical of psychiatry, but little discussion of the deteriorating situation of the mentally troubled in American society. Anti-psychiatry crusades have thus been charged with failing to put suffering individuals first, and therefore being similarly guilty of what they blame psychiatrists for. The rise of anti-psychiatry in Italy was described by one observer as simply \"a transfer of psychiatric control from those with medical knowledge to those who possessed socio-political power\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Diverse paths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Critics of this view, however, from an anti-psychiatry perspective, are quick to point to the industrial aspects of psychiatric treatment itself as a primary causal factor in this situation that is described as \"deteriorating\". The numbers of people labeled \"mentally ill\", and in treatment, together with the severity of their conditions, have been going up primarily due to the direct efforts of the mental health movement, and mental health professionals, including psychiatrists, and not their detractors. Envisioning \"mental health treatment\" as violence prevention has been a big part of the problem, especially as you are dealing with a population that is not significantly more violent than any other group and, in fact, are less so than many.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Diverse paths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On October 7, 2016, the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE) at the University of Toronto announced that they had established a scholarship for students doing theses in the area of antipsychiatry. Called \"The Bonnie Burstow Scholarship in Antipsychiatry\", it is to be awarded annually to an OISE thesis student. An unprecedented step, the scholarship should further the cause of freedom of thought and the exchange of ideas in academia. The scholarship is named in honor of Bonnie Burstow, a faculty member at the University of Toronto, a radical feminist, and an antipsychiatry activist. She is also the author of Psychiatry and the Business of Madness (2015).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Diverse paths", "target_page_ids": [ 3134288, 61435175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 66 ], [ 222, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some components of antipsychiatric theory have in recent decades been reformulated into a critique of \"corporate psychiatry\", heavily influenced by the pharmaceutical industry. A recent editorial about this was published in the British Journal of Psychiatry by Moncrieff, arguing that modern psychiatry has become a handmaiden to conservative political commitments. David Healy is a psychiatrist and professor in psychological medicine at Cardiff University School of Medicine, Wales. He has a special interest in the influence of the pharmaceutical industry on medicine and academia.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Diverse paths", "target_page_ids": [ 560876, 621870, 2204526, 69894, 149170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 175 ], [ 366, 377 ], [ 439, 476 ], [ 478, 483 ], [ 575, 583 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the meantime, members of the psychiatric consumer/survivor movement continued to campaign for reform, empowerment and alternatives, with an increasingly diverse representation of views. Groups often have been opposed and undermined, especially when they proclaim to be, or when they are labelled as being, \"anti-psychiatry\". However, as of the 1990s, more than 60 percent of ex-patient groups reportedly support anti-psychiatry beliefs and consider themselves to be \"psychiatric survivors\". Although anti-psychiatry is often attributed to a few famous figures in psychiatry or academia, it has been pointed out that consumer/survivor/ex-patient individuals and groups preceded it, drove it and carried on through it.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Diverse paths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A schism exists among those critical of conventional psychiatry between radical abolitionists and more moderate reformists. Laing, Cooper and others associated with the initial anti-psychiatry movement stopped short of actually advocating for the abolition of coercive psychiatry. Thomas Szasz, from near the beginning of his career, crusaded for the abolition of forced psychiatry. Today, believing that coercive psychiatry marginalizes and oppresses people with its harmful, controlling, and abusive practices, many who identify as anti-psychiatry activists are proponents of the complete abolition of non-consensual and coercive psychiatry.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Critics of antipsychiatry from within psychiatry itself object to the underlying principle that psychiatry is by definition harmful. Most psychiatrists accept that issues exist that need addressing, but that the abolition of psychiatry is harmful. Nimesh Desai concludes: \"To be a believer and a practitioner of multidisciplinary mental health, it is not necessary to reject the medical model as one of the basics of psychiatry.\" and admits \"Some of the challenges and dangers to psychiatry are not so much from the avowed antipsychiatrists, but from the misplaced and misguided individuals and groups in related fields.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Against Therapy", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 23387381 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bioconservatism", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 55031001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Biopsychiatry controversy", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5580470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Conversion therapy ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Drapetomania", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1773453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Duplessis Orphans, children diagnosed mentally ill for financial benefit", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1418234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flexner Report", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1251006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of mental disorders", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 354628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Icarus Project", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8385823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Interpretation of Schizophrenia", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4919310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ivar Lovaas", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1317207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Joanna Moncrieff, psychiatrist", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41627354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Law of the instrument", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 193583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A Comparative Study of Slavery and Psychiatry", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mad Pride", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8977613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Memento mori", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 302278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mental illness denial", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 69190374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mind Freedom", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1558989 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Neurodiversity", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1073739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Political abuse of psychiatry", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27207328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Positive disintegration", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3421321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Psychiatric survivors movement", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7532615 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Psychoanalytic theory", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 145880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Radical Psychology Network", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5603308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rosenhan experiment", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 449532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Self-help groups for mental health", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13039200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Therapeutic nihilism", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6278148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " World Network of Users and Survivors of Psychiatry", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3781123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wrongful involuntary commitment", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anatomy of an Epidemic, book by author Robert Whitaker", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 29072318, 4221754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 40, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of long term side effects of antipsychotics", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 53568855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " (Original edition: Tavistock Publications, 1960)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 12–13 February 2013", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Anti-psychiatry", "Psychiatry_controversies", "Ethics_in_psychiatry" ]

[ "Antipsychiatry" ]

[ { "plaintext": " is the Latin name under which the \"Lamb of God\" is honoured within the Catholic Mass and other Christian liturgies descending from the Latin liturgical tradition. It is the name given to a specific prayer that occurs in these liturgies, and is the name given to the music pieces that accompany the text of this prayer.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 212235, 5684685, 1434196, 4125341 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 47 ], [ 72, 85 ], [ 96, 115 ], [ 136, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The use of the title \"Lamb of God\" in liturgy is based on , in which St. John the Baptist, upon seeing Jesus, proclaims \"Behold, the Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world!\"", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 16125, 1095706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 89 ], [ 103, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Syrian custom of a chant addressed to the Lamb of God was introduced into the Roman Rite Mass by Pope Sergius I (687–701) in the context of his rejection of the Council of Trullo of 692 (which was well received in the Byzantine East), whose canons had forbidden the iconographic depiction of Christ as a lamb instead of a man.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Liturgical usage", "target_page_ids": [ 1282415, 2493448, 56371, 24341, 923004, 16972981, 42207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ], [ 82, 92 ], [ 93, 97 ], [ 101, 115 ], [ 165, 182 ], [ 222, 231 ], [ 232, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The verse used in the first and second invocations may be repeated as many times as necessary whilst the celebrant prepares the host and wine for communion.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Liturgical usage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In a Tridentine Requiem Mass, the words \"\" are replaced by \"\" (grant them rest), while \"\" is replaced by \"\" (grant them eternal rest).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Liturgical usage", "target_page_ids": [ 147842, 184798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 15 ], [ 16, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The priest uses the phrase \"Lamb of God\" again, later in the Mass. While displaying the Eucharistic species to the people before giving them Holy Communion, he says: \"\" (\"Behold the Lamb of God, behold Him who takes away the sins of the world. Blessed are those called to the supper of the Lamb.\")", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Liturgical usage", "target_page_ids": [ 9767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following instances are found in the Church of England's Book of Common Prayer:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Liturgical usage", "target_page_ids": [ 5955, 4953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 58 ], [ 61, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From \"The Litany\":", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Liturgical usage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From \"Holy Communion\":", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Liturgical usage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The following versions are found in Common Worship, the alternative Anglican liturgical resources, and also in the Episcopal Church's liturgical resources:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Liturgical usage", "target_page_ids": [ 1230640, 19280748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 50 ], [ 115, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The version found in the Lutheran Service Book of the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod is:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Liturgical usage", "target_page_ids": [ 6009338, 158300 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 46 ], [ 54, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Virtually every Mass setting (of which there are thousands) includes an . Here are some examples:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical settings", "target_page_ids": [ 184908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Machaut's ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical settings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bach's Mass in B minor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical settings", "target_page_ids": [ 251764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Beethoven's ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical settings", "target_page_ids": [ 17914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Karl Jenkins' The Armed Man - a mass for peace", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical settings", "target_page_ids": [ 762230, 1525189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Schubert's Mass No. 2", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical settings", "target_page_ids": [ 1489716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bob Chilcott's Little Jazz Mass", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical settings", "target_page_ids": [ 4784513 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ralph Vaughan Williams's Mass in G minor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical settings", "target_page_ids": [ 79448, 5868195 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 26, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With a slightly changed text, the is also part of musical settings composed for the Requiem Mass for the Dead. Such settings include:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical settings", "target_page_ids": [ 184798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mozart's Requiem", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical settings", "target_page_ids": [ 623857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Verdi's Requiem", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical settings", "target_page_ids": [ 254038 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fauré's Requiem", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical settings", "target_page_ids": [ 1441721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rutter's Requiem", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical settings", "target_page_ids": [ 7742027 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Penderecki’s Polish Requiem", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical settings", "target_page_ids": [ 6255365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Britten's War Requiem, in which the text is interleaved with Wilfred Owen's poem \"At a Calvary near the Ancre\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical settings", "target_page_ids": [ 82244, 46525, 25550023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 22 ], [ 62, 74 ], [ 83, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some composers set the text as an independent movement, such as Samuel Barber, who wrote a version combining the text with the music of his Adagio for Strings, sung a cappella.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical settings", "target_page_ids": [ 5080688, 643728, 2411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 98 ], [ 140, 158 ], [ 165, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Outside of religious use, the text has been used by composers such as:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical settings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Elliot Goldenthal for Alien 3", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical settings", "target_page_ids": [ 2501150, 10520715 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 23, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Keiki Kobayashi for Shattered Skies", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical settings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Elitsa Alexandrova for Assassin's Creed Rogue", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical settings", "target_page_ids": [ 43482368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Enya for the song Trains and Winter Rains", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical settings", "target_page_ids": [ 9482, 19522535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 19, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Halsey for the song Castle", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical settings", "target_page_ids": [ 46252498, 50096972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 21, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kuroshitsuji (Black Butler) soundtrack for episodes 17 and 18", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical settings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jon Bellion for Ooh''", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical settings", "target_page_ids": [ 43801842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " New Age Worldbeat group Enigma (German band) for the song Agnus Dei", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical settings", "target_page_ids": [ 527553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rufus Wainright for the song Agnus Dei from the album Want Two", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical settings", "target_page_ids": [ 652663, 1033555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 55, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mylène Farmer \"Agnus Dei\" (1991)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical settings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Christian_liturgical_music", "Latin_religious_words_and_phrases", "Order_of_Mass" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Magnavox (Latin for \"great voice\", stylized as MAGNAVOX or sometimes Magnavox) is an American electronics company founded in the United States. Since 1974, it has been a subsidiary of Dutch electronics corporation Philips.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 17730, 9663, 23550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 15 ], [ 94, 105 ], [ 214, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The predecessor to Magnavox was founded in 1911 by Edwin Pridham and Peter L. Jensen, co-inventors of the moving-coil loudspeaker at their lab in Napa, California, under United States Patent number 1,105,924 for telephone receivers. Six decades later, Magnavox produced the Odyssey, the world's first home video game console.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 40022662, 45871, 107794, 77262, 32629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 84 ], [ 118, 129 ], [ 146, 162 ], [ 274, 281 ], [ 306, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Magnavox is the brand name worn by a line of products now made by Funai under license from trademark owner Philips.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 22537939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, on 29 January 2013, it was announced that Philips had agreed to sell its audio and video operations to the Japan-based Funai Electric for €150 million, with the audio business planned to transfer to Funai in the latter half of 2013, and the video business in 2017. As part of the transaction, Funai was to pay a regular licensing fee to Philips for the use of the Philips brand. The purchase agreement was terminated by Philips in October because of breach of contract and the consumer electronics operations remain under Philips. Philips said it would seek damages for breach of contract in the US$200-million sale. In April 2016, the International Court of Arbitration ruled in favour of Philips, awarding compensation of €135 million in the process.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 22537939, 18717338, 7458048, 9472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 142 ], [ 605, 608 ], [ 645, 679 ], [ 733, 734 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jensen and Pridham founded the Commercial Wireless and Development Company in Napa, CA in 1911, moving to San Francisco, and then Oakland in 1916. In July 1917, a merger with The Sonora Phonograph Distributor Company was finalized and the Magnavox Company was born. Frank Morgan Steers was chosen as the company's first President. Jensen moved on to found the Jensen Radio Manufacturing Company in Chicago, in the late 1920s. Pridham stayed on with Magnavox, which moved manufacturing to Fort Wayne, Indiana by the 1930s. The term \"Commercial Wireless\" had a different meaning in the early days of radio and telephone. Magnavox manufactured radios, TVs, and phonographs. In the 1960s, Magnavox manufactured the first plasma displays for the military and for computer applications.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4371547, 11232, 24471, 175859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 360, 394 ], [ 488, 507 ], [ 658, 668 ], [ 717, 731 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1972 Magnavox introduced the Odyssey, the first video game console. In 1974, the Magnavox Company was acquired by Philips of the Netherlands to ensure nationwide distribution for their VLP (later renamed LaserVision) Videodisc technology, and all Philips consumer electronics in the US under the Norelco name began rebranding them under the Magnavox name; Philips acquired the similar-sounding company Philco in 1981, and Philips was able to freely use the Philips name, alternating with the Magnavox name for some electronics, with the personal care business continuing to use the Norelco name.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 77262, 32629, 23550, 21148, 2314661, 2326994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 39 ], [ 51, 69 ], [ 117, 124 ], [ 132, 143 ], [ 299, 306 ], [ 405, 411 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the late 1970s, Philips developed LaserDisc technology, producing an optically read, 12inch disc that would contain recorded video material. In the early 1980s, Philips worked with Sony to create a standard for optical audio discs (CDs), using the technology developed for the LaserDisc.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 255849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Teamed with Sony, Philips used the Magnavox brand name to introduce the CD-DA standard and equipment for consumer audio with the Magnavox player sold in department stores while the Sony CDP-101 went to high-end audio stores.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 26989, 41920, 25666591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 16 ], [ 72, 77 ], [ 181, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the late 1970s the company released the Odyssey², in Europe also known as Philips Videopac G7000.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 22560, 22560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 55 ], [ 81, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the early 1980s, Philips merged Sylvania, Philco and Magnavox into one division headquartered in Knoxville, Tennessee, with a manufacturing plant in Greeneville, Tennessee. The Sylvania plant in Batavia, New York, was closed and all operations moved to Greeneville. Philips also abandoned the Sylvania trademark which is owned by Osram.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 12814195, 135256, 135195, 47739945, 1307873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 43 ], [ 100, 120 ], [ 152, 174 ], [ 198, 215 ], [ 333, 338 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the late 1980s, Magnavox sold the Magnavox/Philips VideoWriter with some success. Released in 1985, the VideoWriter was a standalone fixed-application word processing machine (electronic typewriter).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 36004512, 57307464, 44365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 65 ], [ 154, 169 ], [ 179, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Philips Computers, primarily based in Canada, sold its products in North America under the Magnavox brand with minor rebadging in logo and color scheme of computers, monitors, peripherals and manuals. Philips exited the proprietary personal computer business in 1992. Philips sold the Greenville plant in 1997.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 56278271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1990s, several Magnavox branded CD-i players were marketed by Philips.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 24883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Starting in the early 1990s, some Philips electronics were marketed under the brand name \"Philips Magnavox\", in an attempt to increase brand awareness of the Philips name in the United States. While it did work to a degree, it also caused confusion to the consumer as to the difference between \"Philips Magnavox\" products and \"Philips\" products, resulting in Philips marketing the two brands separately again.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18950900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The defense electronics group, centered in Fort Wayne, Indiana, remained independent under the Magnavox Electronic Systems name, first under Philips and later in the Carlyle Group, until it was acquired by Hughes Electronics in 1995. The three areas of business of the MESC operation during the late 1980s and early 1990s were C-Cubed (Command, Control, and Communication), Electronic Warfare, and sonobuoys. When Hughes Electronics sold its aerospace and defense operations to Raytheon, the former Magnavox defense operations were transferred as well. Shortly thereafter, Raytheon spun off the sonobuoy operation to form Under Sea Systems Inc (USSI), in Columbia City, Indiana. In 1998, Raytheon sold USSI to a British defense consortium named Ultra Electronics. The company is now a wholly owned subsidiary of Ultra, manufacturing water and acoustic sensing and communications devices for military and civil defense.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 11232, 141831, 10520863, 7092305, 82272, 1173640, 63554945, 112708 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 62 ], [ 166, 179 ], [ 206, 224 ], [ 336, 371 ], [ 374, 392 ], [ 398, 406 ], [ 478, 486 ], [ 655, 677 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Among the defense products Magnavox manufactured were the AN/ARC-164 UHF radio, AN/SSQ-53 series sonobuoys, AN/ALQ-128 EW equipment, AN/SSQ-62 series sonobuoys, and the Advanced Field Artillery Tactical Data System (AFATDS).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 10842687, 36725176, 36725176 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 78 ], [ 169, 214 ], [ 216, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The brand also has worked with Funai with their televisions after the Philips Magnavox name was popular. Magnavox also has a brand licensing deal where several of their consumer electronics are manufactured by Craig Electronics and sold under the Magnavox brand.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 22537939, 5949300, 189768, 59395237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 36 ], [ 125, 140 ], [ 169, 189 ], [ 210, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Australia, the rights to the Magnavox brand are not owned by Philips but by Mistral Ltd, a Hong Kong trading company that uses it to sell audio/video equipment of a different make.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Europe, the brand Magnavox was briefly used in the 1990s by Philips on budget consumer electronics to replace traditional local brand names (such as Aristona, Erres, Hornyphon, Radiola, Siera). Since no one recognised the brand name, it was soon discontinued.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 33784380 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Official website", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1917_establishments_in_California", "American_companies_established_in_1917", "Electronics_companies_established_in_1917", "Companies_based_in_Knoxville,_Tennessee", "Consumer_electronics_brands", "Electronics_companies_of_the_United_States", "History_of_radio", "History_of_television", "Manufacturing_companies_based_in_Tennessee", "Philips", "Private_equity_portfolio_companies", "Video_game_companies_of_the_United_States", "1974_mergers_and_acquisitions", "Radio_manufacturers" ]

[ "Magnavox Electronics Company", "MAGNAVOX" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Mikhail Afanasyevich Bulgakov (; – 10 March 1940) was a Soviet writer, medical doctor, and playwright active in the first half of the 20th century. He is best known for his novel The Master and Margarita, published posthumously, which has been called one of the masterpieces of the 20th century.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 333987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 180, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He is also known for his novel The White Guard; his plays Ivan Vasilievich, Flight (also called The Run), and The Days of the Turbins; and other works of the 1920s and 1930s. He wrote mostly about the horrors of the Russian Civil War and about the fate of Russian intellectuals and officers of the Tsarist Army caught up in revolution and Civil War.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2493170, 61905203, 3289868, 52152216, 26295, 5104476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 46 ], [ 58, 74 ], [ 76, 82 ], [ 110, 133 ], [ 216, 233 ], [ 298, 310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some of his works (Flight, all his works between the years 1922 and 1926, and others) were banned by the Soviet government, and personally by Joseph Stalin, after it was decided by them that they \"glorified emigration and White generals\". On the other hand, Stalin loved The Days of the Turbins (also called The Turbin Brothers) very much and reportedly saw it at least 15 times.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 27475272, 15641, 57956764, 52152216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 122 ], [ 142, 155 ], [ 207, 217 ], [ 271, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mikhail Bulgakov was born on in Kyiv, Kyiv Governorate of the Russian Empire, into a Russian family. He was one of the seven children (the oldest of three brothers) of a state councilor, a professor at the Kyiv Theological Academy, as well as a prominent Russian Orthodox essayist, thinker and translator of religious texts. His mother was Varvara Mikhailovna Bulgakova (nee Pokrovskaya), a former teacher. Both of his grandfathers were clergymen in the Russian Orthodox Church.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and work", "target_page_ids": [ 585629, 17104279, 20611504, 560989, 1625631, 1834723, 40157 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 37 ], [ 39, 55 ], [ 63, 77 ], [ 172, 187 ], [ 208, 232 ], [ 265, 273 ], [ 456, 479 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Afanasiy Bulgakov was born in Bryansk Oblast, Russia, where his father was a priest, and he moved to Kyiv to study in the academy. Varvara Bulgakova was born in Karachev, Russia. According to Edythe C. Haber, in his \"autobiographical remarks\" Bulgakov stated that she was a descendant of Tartar hordes, which supposedly influenced some of his works. However, there is no mention of it in Bulgakov's collection of works, so the source of the claims is unclear. From childhood, Bulgakov was drawn to theater. At home, he wrote comedies, which his brothers and sisters acted out.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and work", "target_page_ids": [ 476473, 1982215, 229283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 44 ], [ 161, 169 ], [ 288, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1901, Bulgakov joined the First Kyiv Gymnasium, where he developed an interest in Russian and European literature (his favourite authors at the time being Gogol, Pushkin, Dostoyevsky, Saltykov-Shchedrin, and Dickens), theatre and opera. The teachers of the Gymnasium exerted a great influence on the formation of his literary taste. After the death of his father in 1907, Mikhail's mother, a well-educated and extraordinarily diligent person, assumed responsibility for his education. After graduation from the Gymnasium in 1909, Bulgakov entered the Medical Faculty of Kyiv University, which he finished with special commendation. He then took a position as a physician at the Kyiv Military Hospital.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and work", "target_page_ids": [ 106409, 2406845, 139177, 52790, 11625, 137264, 5884, 1583836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 92 ], [ 97, 116 ], [ 158, 163 ], [ 165, 172 ], [ 174, 185 ], [ 187, 205 ], [ 211, 218 ], [ 573, 588 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1913, Bulgakov married Tatiana Lappa. At the outbreak of the First World War, he volunteered with the Red Cross as a medical doctor and was sent directly to the front, where he was badly injured at least twice. Bulgakov's suffering from these wounds had deleterious long-term effects. To suppress chronic pain, especially in the abdomen, he injected himself with morphine. Over the next year his addiction grew stronger. In 1918, he abandoned morphine and never used it again. Morphine, a book released in 1926, is his account of that trying period.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and work", "target_page_ids": [ 4764461, 15487, 20613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 79 ], [ 105, 114 ], [ 366, 374 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1916, Bulgakov graduated from the Medical Department of Kyiv University and after serving as a surgeon at Chernovtsy hospital, was appointed provincial physician to Smolensk province. His life in those days is reflected in his A Country Doctor's Notebook. In September 1917, Bulgakov was moved to the hospital in Vyazma, near Smolensk. In February 1918, he returned to Kyiv, Ukraine, where he opened a private practice at his home at Andreyevsky Descent, 13. Here he lived through the Civil War and witnessed ten coups. Successive governments drafted the young doctor into their service while two of his brothers were serving in the White Army against the Bolsheviks.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and work", "target_page_ids": [ 1583836, 364881, 101616, 37880930, 1443034, 26295, 5104476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 74 ], [ 109, 119 ], [ 168, 176 ], [ 230, 257 ], [ 316, 322 ], [ 488, 497 ], [ 636, 646 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In February 1919, he was mobilised as an army physician by the Ukrainian People's Army and assigned to the Northern Caucasus. There, he became seriously ill with typhus and barely survived. In the Caucasus, he started working as a journalist, but when he and others were invited to return as doctors by the French and German governments, Bulgakov was refused permission to leave Russia because of the typhus. That was when he last saw his family; after the Civil War and the rise of the Soviets most of his relatives emigrated to Paris.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and work", "target_page_ids": [ 15508636, 20321147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 86 ], [ 162, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After his illness, Bulgakov abandoned his medical practice to pursue writing. In his autobiography, he recalled how he began: \"Once in 1919 when I was traveling at night by train I wrote a short story. In the town where the train stopped, I took the story to the publisher of the newspaper who published the story\". His first book was an almanac of feuilletons called Future Perspectives, written and published the same year. In December 1919, Bulgakov moved to Vladikavkaz. He wrote and saw his first two plays, Self Defence and The Turbin Brothers, being produced for the city theater stage with great success.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and work", "target_page_ids": [ 192230, 3227590, 229915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 338, 345 ], [ 349, 359 ], [ 462, 473 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After travelling through the Caucasus, Bulgakov headed for Moscow, intending \"to remain here forever\". It was difficult to find work in the capital, but he was appointed secretary to the literary section of Glavpolitprosvet (Central Committee of the Republic for Political Education). In September 1921, Bulgakov and his wife settled near Patriarch's Ponds, on Bolshaya Sadovaya street, 10 (now close to Mayakovskaya metro station). To make a living, he started working as a correspondent and feuilletons writer for the newspapers Gudok, Krasnaia Panorama and Nakanune, based in Berlin. For the almanac Nedra, he wrote Diaboliad, The Fatal Eggs (1924), and Heart of a Dog (1925), works that combined bitter satire and elements of science fiction and were concerned with the fate of a scientist and the misuse of his discovery. The most significant features of Bulgakov's satire, such as a skillful blending of fantastic and realistic elements, grotesque situations, and a concern with important ethical issues, had already taken shape; these features were developed further in his most famous novel.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and work", "target_page_ids": [ 2545621, 39975524, 2244121, 3227590, 9887728, 1651659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 339, 356 ], [ 361, 389 ], [ 404, 430 ], [ 493, 504 ], [ 631, 645 ], [ 658, 672 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between 1922 and 1926, Bulgakov wrote several plays (including Zoyka's Apartment), none of which were allowed production at the time. The Run, treating the horrors of a fratricidal war, was personally banned by Joseph Stalin after the Glavrepertkom (Department of Repertoire) decided that it \"glorified emigration and White generals\". In 1924, Bulgakov divorced his first wife and the next year married Lyubov Belozerskaya.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and work", "target_page_ids": [ 15641, 395296 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 211, 224 ], [ 318, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When one of Moscow's theatre directors severely criticised Bulgakov, Stalin personally protected him, saying that a writer of Bulgakov's quality was above \"party words\" like \"left\" and \"right\". Stalin found work for the playwright at a small Moscow theatre, and next the Moscow Art Theatre (MAT). Bulgakov's first major work was the novel The White Guard (Belaya gvardiya [Белая гвардия]), serialized in 1925 but never published in book form. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and work", "target_page_ids": [ 2781904, 2493170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 271, 289 ], [ 339, 354 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 5 October 1926, The Days of the Turbins, the play which continued the theme of The White Guard (the fate of Russian intellectuals and officers of the Tsarist Army caught up in revolution and Civil war) was premiered at the MAT. Stalin liked it very much and reportedly saw it at least 15 times.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and work", "target_page_ids": [ 52152216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His plays Ivan Vasilievich (Иван Васильевич), Don Quixote (Дон Кихот) and Last Days (Последние дни [Poslednie Dni], also called Pushkin) were banned. The premier of another, Moliėre (also known as The Cabal of Hypocrites), about the French dramatist in which Bulgakov plunged \"into fairy Paris of the XVII century\", received bad reviews in Pravda and the play was withdrawn from the theater repertoire. In 1928, Zoyka's Apartment and The Purple Island were staged in Moscow; both comedies were accepted by the public with great enthusiasm, but critics again gave them bad reviews. By March 1929, Bulgakov's career was ruined when Government censorship stopped the publication of any of his work and his plays.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and work", "target_page_ids": [ 61905203, 52638887, 51465, 38443676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ], [ 174, 221 ], [ 233, 249 ], [ 340, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In despair, Bulgakov first wrote a personal letter to Joseph Stalin (July 1929), then on 28 March 1930, a letter to the Soviet government. He requested permission to emigrate if the Soviet Union could not find use for him as a writer. In his autobiography, Bulgakov claimed to have written to Stalin out of desperation and mental anguish, never intending to post the letter. He received a phone call directly from the Soviet leader, who asked the writer whether he really desired to leave the Soviet Union. Bulgakov replied that a Russian writer cannot live outside of his homeland. Stalin gave him permission to continue working at the Art Theater; on 10 May 1930, he re-joined the theater, as stage director's assistant. Later he adapted Gogol's Dead Souls for stage.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and work", "target_page_ids": [ 139177, 623643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 740, 745 ], [ 748, 758 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1932, Bulgakov married for the third time, to Yelena Shilovskaya, who would prove to be inspiration for the character Margarita in his most famous novel, which he started working on in 1928. During the last decade of his life, Bulgakov continued to work on The Master and Margarita, wrote plays, critical works, stories, and made several translations and dramatisations of novels. Many of them were not published, others were \"torn to pieces\" by critics. Much of his work (ridiculing the Soviet system) stayed in his desk drawer for several decades. The refusal of the authorities to let him work in the theatre and his desire to see his family who were living abroad, whom he had not seen for many years, led him to seek drastic measures. Despite his new work, the projects he worked on at the theatre were often prohibited, and he was stressed and unhappy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and work", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the late 1930s, he joined the Bolshoi Theatre as a librettist and consultant. He left after perceiving that none of his works would be produced there. Stalin's favor protected Bulgakov from arrests and execution, but he could not get his writing published. His novels and dramas were subsequently banned and, for the second time, Bulgakov's career as playwright was ruined. When his last play Batum (1939), a complimentary portrayal of Stalin's early revolutionary days, was banned before rehearsals, Bulgakov requested permission to leave the country but was refused.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and work", "target_page_ids": [ 532264, 46950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 48 ], [ 54, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In poor health, Bulgakov devoted his last years to what he called his \"sunset\" novel. The years 1937 to 1939 were stressful for Bulgakov, veering from glimpses of optimism, believing the publication of his masterpiece could still be possible, to bouts of depression, when he felt as if there were no hope. On 15 June 1938, when the manuscript was nearly finished, Bulgakov wrote in a letter to his wife:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and work", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"In front of me 327 pages of the manuscript (about 22 chapters). The most important remains – editing, and it's going to be hard, I will have to pay close attention to details. Maybe even re-write some things... 'What's its future?' you ask? I don't know. Possibly, you will store the manuscript in one of the drawers, next to my 'killed' plays, and occasionally it will be in your thoughts. Then again, you don't know the future. My own judgement of the book is already made and I think it truly deserves being hidden away in the darkness of some chest...\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and work", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1939, Mikhail Bulgakov organized a private reading of The Master and Margarita to his close circle of friends. Yelena Bulgakova remembered 30 years later, \"When he finally finished reading that night, he said: 'Well, tomorrow I am taking the novel to the publisher!' and everyone was silent\", \"...Everyone sat paralyzed. Everything scared them. P. (P. A. Markov, in charge of the literature division of MAT) later at the door fearfully tried to explain to me that trying to publish the novel would cause terrible things\", she wrote in her diary (14 May 1939).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and work", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the last month of his life, friends and relatives were constantly on duty at his bedside. On 10 March 1940, Mikhail Afanasyevich Bulgakov died from nephrosclerosis (an inherited kidney disorder). His father had died of the same disease, and from his youth Bulgakov had guessed his future mortal diagnosis. On 11 March, a civil funeral was held in the building of the Union of Soviet Writers. Before the funeral, the Moscow sculptor Sergey Merkurov removed the death mask from his face. He was buried in the Novodevichy Cemetery in Moscow.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and work", "target_page_ids": [ 1626259, 11182, 7920192, 14896150, 1814699, 138326 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 166 ], [ 324, 337 ], [ 370, 393 ], [ 435, 450 ], [ 463, 473 ], [ 510, 530 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During his life, Bulgakov was best known for the plays he contributed to Konstantin Stanislavski's and Nemirovich-Danchenko's Moscow Art Theatre. Stalin was known to be fond of the play Days of the Turbins (Дни Турбиных, 1926), which was based on Bulgakov's novel The White Guard. His dramatization of Molière's life in The Cabal of Hypocrites (Кабала святош, 1936) is still performed by the Moscow Art Theatre. Even after his plays were banned from the theatres, Bulgakov wrote a comedy about Ivan the Terrible's visit into 1930s Moscow. His play Batum (Батум, 1939) about the early years of Stalin was prohibited by the premier himself. Bulgakov later reflected his experience of being a Soviet playwright in Theatrical Novel (Театральный роман, 1936, unfinished). ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 17318, 2880628, 52152216, 2493170, 51465, 52638887, 70718, 19004, 31481758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 96 ], [ 103, 123 ], [ 186, 205 ], [ 264, 279 ], [ 302, 309 ], [ 320, 343 ], [ 494, 511 ], [ 531, 537 ], [ 711, 727 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bulgakov began writing novels with The White Guard (Белая гвардия) (1923, partly published in 1925, first full edition 1927–1929, Paris) – a novel about a life of a White Army officer's family in civil war Kiev. In the mid-1920s, he came to admire the works of H. G. Wells and wrote several stories and novellas with elements of science fiction, notably The Fatal Eggs (Роковые яйца) (1924) and Heart of a Dog (Собачье сердце) (1925). He intended to compile his stories of the mid-twenties (published mostly in medical journals) that were based on his work as a country doctor in 1916–1918 into a collection titled Notes of a Young Doctor (Записки юного врача), but the book came out only in 1963.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 2493170, 5104476, 14015912, 585629, 13459, 26787, 9887728, 1651659, 37880930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 50 ], [ 165, 175 ], [ 196, 205 ], [ 206, 210 ], [ 261, 272 ], [ 329, 344 ], [ 354, 368 ], [ 395, 409 ], [ 615, 638 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Fatal Eggs tells of the events of a Professor Persikov, who, in experimentation with eggs, discovers a red ray that accelerates growth in living organisms. At the time, an illness passes through the chickens of Moscow, killing most of them, and to remedy the situation, the Soviet government puts the ray into use at a farm. Due to a mix-up in egg shipments, the Professor ends up with chicken eggs, while the government-run farm receives the shipment of ostrich, snake and crocodile eggs ordered by the Professor. The mistake is not discovered until the eggs produce giant monstrosities that wreak havoc in the suburbs of Moscow and kill most of the workers on the farm. The propaganda machine turns on Persikov, distorting his nature in the same way his \"innocent\" tampering created the monsters. This tale of a bungling government earned Bulgakov his label of counter-revolutionary.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 9887728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Heart of a Dog features a professor who implants human testicles and a pituitary gland into a dog named Sharik (means \"Little Balloon\" or \"Little Ball\" – a popular Russian nickname for a male dog). The dog becomes more and more human as time passes, resulting in all manner of chaos. The tale can be read as a critical satire of liberal nihilism and the communist mentality. It contains a few bold hints to the communist leadership; e.g. the name of the drunkard donor of the human organ implants is Chugunkin (\"chugun\" is cast iron) which can be seen as a parody on the name of Stalin (\"stal'\" is steel). It was adapted as a comic opera called The Murder of Comrade Sharik by William Bergsma in 1973. In 1988, an award-winning film version Sobachye Serdtse was produced by Lenfilm, starring Yevgeniy Yevstigneyev, Roman Kartsev and Vladimir Tolokonnikov.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 1651659, 57925, 22348, 1937307, 14301855, 574389, 10245568, 48899347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 71, 86 ], [ 632, 637 ], [ 677, 692 ], [ 741, 757 ], [ 774, 781 ], [ 792, 813 ], [ 833, 854 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The novel The Master and Margarita is a critique of Soviet society and its literary establishment. The work is appreciated for its philosophical undertones and for its high artistic level, thanks to its picturesque descriptions (especially of old Jerusalem), lyrical fragments and style. It is a frame narrative involving two characteristically related time periods, or plot lines: a retelling in Bulgakov's interpretation of the New Testament and a description of contemporary Moscow.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "The Master and Margarita", "target_page_ids": [ 333987, 659824, 21433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 34 ], [ 296, 311 ], [ 430, 443 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The novel begins with Satan visiting Moscow in the 1930s, joining a conversation between a critic and a poet debating the most effective method of denying the existence of Jesus Christ. It develops into an all-embracing indictment of the corruption of communism and Soviet Russia. A story within the story portrays the interrogation of Jesus Christ by Pontius Pilate and the Crucifixion.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "The Master and Margarita", "target_page_ids": [ 27694, 1095706, 113070, 38115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 27 ], [ 172, 184 ], [ 352, 366 ], [ 375, 386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It became the best known novel by Bulgakov. He began writing it in 1928, but the novel was finally published by his widow only in 1966, twenty-six years after his death. The book contributed a number of sayings to the Russian language, for example, \"Manuscripts don't burn\" and \"second-grade freshness\". A destroyed manuscript of the Master is an important element of the plot. Bulgakov had to rewrite the novel from memory after he burned the draft manuscript in 1930, as he could not see a future as a writer in the Soviet Union at a time of widespread political repression.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "The Master and Margarita", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Several displays at the One Street Museum are dedicated to Bulgakov's family. Among the items presented in the museum are original photos of Mikhail Bulgakov, books and his personal belongings, and a window frame from the house where he lived. The museum also keeps scientific works of Prof. Afanasiy Bulgakov, Mikhail's father.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 31773035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Mikhail Bulgakov Museum (Bulgakov House) in Kyiv has been converted to a literary museum with some rooms devoted to the writer, as well as some to his works. This was his family home, the model for the house of the Turbin family in his play", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 9464813, 585629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 27 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Moscow, two museums honour the memory of Mikhail Bulgakov and The Master and Margarita. Both are situated in Bulgakov's old apartment building on Bolshaya Sadovaya street nr. 10, in which parts of The Master and Margarita are set. Since the 1980s, the building has become a gathering spot for Bulgakov's fans, as well as Moscow-based Satanist groups, and had various kinds of graffiti scrawled on the walls. The numerous paintings, quips, and drawings were completely whitewashed in 2003. Previously the best drawings were kept as the walls were repainted, so that several layers of different colored paints could be seen around the best drawings.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 27706, 11985 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 337, 345 ], [ 379, 387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is a rivalry between the two museums, mainly maintained by the later established official Museum M.A. Bulgakov, which invariably presents itself as \"the first and only Memorial Museum of Mikhail Bulgakov in Moscow\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Bulgakov House (Russian: Музей – театр \"Булгаковский Дом\") is situated at the ground floor. This museum has been established as a private initiative on 15 May 2004.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 39975524, 25431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 20, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Bulgakov House contains personal belongings, photos, and several exhibitions related to Bulgakov's life and his different works. Various poetic and literary events are often held, and excursions to Bulgakov's Moscow are organised, some of which are animated with living characters of The Master and Margarita. The Bulgakov House also runs the Theatre M.A. Bulgakov with 126 seats, and the Café 302-bis.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the same building, in apartment number 50 on the fourth floor, is a second museum that keeps alive the memory of Bulgakov, the Museum M.A. Bulgakov (Russian: Музей М. А. Булгаков). This second museum is a government initiative, and was founded on 26 March 2007.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 21449434, 25431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 150 ], [ 152, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Museum M.A. Bulgakov contains personal belongings, photos, and several exhibitions related to Bulgakov's life and his different works. Various poetic and literary events are often held.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A minor planet, 3469 Bulgakov, discovered by the Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Georgievna Karachkina in 1982, is named after him.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 17001425, 621396, 624431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 14 ], [ 16, 29 ], [ 67, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Salman Rushdie said that The Master and Margarita was an inspiration for his novel The Satanic Verses (1988).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 28722, 479949 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 83, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Hodge's play Collaborators (2011) is a fictionalized account of the relationship between Bulgakov and Joseph Stalin, inspired by The Days of the Turbins and The White Guard.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 923295, 32985504, 15641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 18, 31 ], [ 107, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Mick Jagger, Master and Margarita was the inspiration for The Rolling Stones' \"Sympathy for the Devil\" (1968). ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 57187, 31056, 836015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 24 ], [ 71, 89 ], [ 92, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The lyrics of Pearl Jam's song \"Pilate\", featured on their album Yield (1998), were inspired by Master and Margarita. The lyrics were written by the band's bassist Jeff Ament.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 5068852, 262597, 580209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 23 ], [ 65, 70 ], [ 164, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alex Kapranos from Franz Ferdinand based \"Love and Destroy\" on the same book.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1033659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Flight (1970) — a two-part historical drama based on Bulgakov's Flight, The White Guard and Black Sea. It was the first Soviet adaptation of Bulgakov's writings directed by Aleksandr Alov and Vladimir Naumov, with Bulgakov's third wife Elena Bulgakova credited as a \"literary consultant\". The film was officially selected for the 1971 Cannes Film Festival.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 22380174, 3289868, 2493170, 21374519, 12732934, 18934624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 68, 74 ], [ 76, 91 ], [ 177, 191 ], [ 196, 211 ], [ 334, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Master and Margaret (1972) — a joint Yugoslav-Italian drama directed by Aleksandar Petrović, the first adaptation of the novel of the same name, along with Pilate and Others. It was selected as the Yugoslav entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 45th Academy Awards, but was not accepted as a nominee.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 27432752, 8215543, 61760, 4368563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ], [ 76, 95 ], [ 225, 251 ], [ 259, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pilate and Others (1972) — a German TV drama directed by Andrzej Wajda, it was also a loose adaptation of The Master and Margarita novel. The film focused on the biblical part of the story, and the action was moved to the modern-day Frankfurt.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 32375661, 44392, 333987, 10992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 57, 70 ], [ 106, 130 ], [ 233, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Back to the Future (1973) — an adaptation of Bulgakov's science fiction/comedy play Ivan Vasilievich about an unexpected visit of Ivan the Terrible to the modern-day Moscow. It was directed by one of the leading Soviet comedy directors Leonid Gaidai. With 60.7 million viewers on the year of release it became the 17th most popular film ever produced in the USSR.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 61905203, 70718, 3066036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 101 ], [ 131, 148 ], [ 237, 250 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dog's Heart (1976) — a joint Italian-German science fiction/comedy film directed by Alberto Lattuada. It was the first adaptation of the Heart of a Dog satirical novel about an old scientist who tries to grow a man out of a dog.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 17912395, 2162178, 1651659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 84, 100 ], [ 137, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Days of the Turbins (1976) — a three-part Soviet TV drama directed by Vladimir Basov. It was an adaptation of the play of the same name which, at the same time, was Bulgakov's stage adaptation of The White Guard novel.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 55891598, 23438257, 52152216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ], [ 74, 88 ], [ 118, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Heart of a Dog (1988) — a Soviet black-and-white TV film directed by Vladimir Bortko, the second adaptation of the novel of the same name. Unlike the previous version, this film follows the original text closely, while also introducing characters, themes and dialogues featured in other Bulgakov's writings.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 14301855, 23873505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 69, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Master and Margarita (1989) — a Polish TV drama in four parts directed by Maciej Wojtyszko. It was noted by critics as a very faithful adaptation of the original novel.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 31182934, 31283118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ], [ 78, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the Revolution (1990) – a feature-length film created by András Szirtes, a Hungarian filmmaker, using a simple video camera, from 1987 to 1989. It is a very loose adaptation, but for all that, it is explicitly based on Bulgakov's novel, in a thoroughly experimental way. What you see in this film is documentary-like scenes shot in Moscow and Budapest, and New York, and these scenes are linked to the novel by some explicit links, and by these, the film goes beyond the level of being but a visual documentary which would only have reminded the viewer of The Master and Margarita.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Incident in Judaea, a 1991 film by Paul Bryers for Channel 4, focussing on the biblical parts of The Master and Margarita.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 40032926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Master and Margarita (1994) — Russian film directed by Yuri Kara in 1994 and released to public only in 2011. Known for a long, troubled post-production due to the director's resistance to cut about 80 minutes of the film on the producers' request, as well as copyright claims from the descendants of Elena Bulgakova (Shilovskaya).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 31183531, 31200213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ], [ 59, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Master and Margarita (2005) — Russian TV mini-series directed by Vladimir Bortko and his second adaptation of Bulgakov's writings. Screened for Russia-1, it was seen by 40 million viewers on its initial release, becoming the most popular Russian TV series.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 5115051, 9384268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ], [ 148, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Morphine (2008) — Russian film directed by Aleksei Balabanov loosely based on Bulgakov's autobiographical short stories Morphine and A Country Doctor's Notebook. The screenplay was written by Balabanov's friend and regular collaborator Sergei Bodrov, Jr. before his tragic death in 2002.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 21492573, 8336841, 37880930, 91001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 43, 60 ], [ 133, 160 ], [ 236, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The White Guard (2012) — Russian TV mini-series produced by Russia-1. The film was shot in Saint Petersburg and Kyiv and released to mostly negative reviews. In 2014 the Ukrainian Ministry of Culture banned the distribution of the film, claiming that it shows \"contempt for the Ukrainian language, people and state\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 34958057, 9384268, 24320051, 585629, 33494851 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 60, 68 ], [ 91, 107 ], [ 112, 116 ], [ 170, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A Young Doctor's Notebook (2012—2013) — British mini-series produced by BBC, with Jon Hamm and Daniel Radcliffe playing main parts. Unlike the Morphine film by Aleksei Balabanov that mixed drama and thriller, this version of A Country Doctor's Notebook was made as a black comedy.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 41016319, 19344654, 3634471, 153295, 118365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ], [ 72, 75 ], [ 82, 90 ], [ 95, 111 ], [ 267, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After graduating from the Medical School in 1909, he spent the early days of his career as a venereologist, rather than pursuing his goal of being a pediatrician, as syphilis was highly prevalent during those times. It was during those early years that he described the symptoms and characteristics of syphilis affecting the bones. He described the abnormal and concomitant change of the outline of the crests of the shin-bones with a pathological worm-eaten like appearance and creation of abnormal osteophytes in the bones of those suffering from later stages of syphilis. This became known as \"Bulgakov's Sign\" and is commonly used in the former Soviet states, but is known as the \"Bandy Legs Sign\" in the west.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Medical eponym", "target_page_ids": [ 28852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The White Guard (1925/1975)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 2493170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Master and Margarita (1940/1967)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 333987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Theatrical Novel (1936/1967, aka Black Snow)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 31481758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Notes on the Cuffs (1923)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Diaboliad (1924)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Fatal Eggs (1925)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 9887728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A Young Doctor's Notebook (1926/1963)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 37880930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Heart of a Dog (1925/1968) ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 1651659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Morphine\" (1927)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Murderer\" (1928)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Great Soviet Short Stories (1962)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Terrible News: Russian Stories from the Years Following the Revolution (1990)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Diaboliad and Other Stories (1990) ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Notes on the Cuff & Other Stories (1991)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Fatal Eggs and Other Soviet Satire, 1918–1963 (1993)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Days of the Turbins (1926)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 52152216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flight (1927)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 3289868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Cabal of Hypocrites (1929)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 52638887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ivan Vasilievich (1936)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 61905203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Life of M. de Molière, 1962", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Voronina, Olga G., Depicting the Divine: Mikhail Bulgakov and Thomas Mann, Studies In Comparative Literature, 47 (Cambridge: Legenda, 2019).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Townsend, Dorian Aleksandra, From Upyr' to Vampire: The Slavic Vampire Myth in Russian Literature, Ph.D. Dissertation, School of German and Russian Studies, Faculty of Arts & Social Sciences, University of New South Wales, May 2011.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Michalopoulos, Dimitris, 2014, Russia under Communism: Bulgakov, his Life and his Book, Saarbruecken: Lambert Academic Publishing. ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Drawitz, Andrzey 2001. The Master and the Devil. transl. Kevin Windle, New York: Edwin Mellen.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Haber, Edythe C. 1998. Mikhail Bulgakov, the early years. Harvard University Press.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Milne, Leslie 1990. Mikhail Bulgakov: a critical biography. Cambridge University *Press.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Proffer, Ellendea 1984. Bulgakov: life and work. Ann Arbor: Ardis.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Proffer, Ellendea 1984. A pictorial biography of Mikhail Bulgakov. Ann Arbor: Ardis.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Wright, Colin 1978. Mikhail Bulgakov: life and interpretation. University of Toronto Press.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Belozerskaya-Bulgakova, Lyubov 1983. My life with Mikhail Bulgakov. transl. Margareta Thompson, Ann Arbor: Ardis.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Curtis J.A.E. 1991. Manuscripts don't burn: Mikhail Bulgakov: a life in letters and diaries. London: Bloomsbury.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Vozvdvizhensky, Vyacheslav (ed) 1990. Mikhail Bulgakov and his times: memoirs, letters. transl. Liv Tudge, Moscow: Progress.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Vanhellemont, Jan, 2020, The Master and Margarita - Annotations per chapter, Vanhellemont, Leuven, Belgium, 257 pp., , .", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Full English text of The Master and Margarita", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Full English text of The Heart of a Dog", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Full English text of The Fatal Eggs", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Full English translation of \"Future Prospects\" and \"In the Café\"", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Master and Margarita profile and resources", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Chris Hedges, Welcome to Satan's Ball, Truthdig, 10 March 2014. A comparison of the Soviet society described in Master and Margarita and modern society in the United States and Russia", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 1959465, 4741352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 39, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mikhail Bulgakov in the Western World: A Bibliography, Library of Congress, European Reading Room", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 18944081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Remembering Gudok\" by M.Bulgakov. {from SovLit.net}", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Mikhail_Bulgakov", "1891_births", "1940_deaths", "Writers_from_Kyiv", "Physicians_from_Kyiv", "Theatre_people_from_Kyiv", "People_from_Kiev_Governorate", "Russian_male_novelists", "Russian_satirists", "Russian_male_dramatists_and_playwrights", "Magic_realism_writers", "Russian_surgeons", "Russian_medical_writers", "People_of_the_Russian_Civil_War", "Russian_male_short_story_writers", "Russian_military_doctors", "Russian_science_fiction_writers", "Soviet_novelists", "Soviet_male_writers", "20th-century_Russian_male_writers", "Soviet_short_story_writers", "20th-century_Russian_short_story_writers", "Soviet_dramatists_and_playwrights", "Moscow_Art_Theater", "Modernist_writers", "Russian_monarchists", "Russian_fantasy_writers", "Taras_Shevchenko_National_University_of_Kyiv_alumni", "Deaths_from_nephritis", "Burials_at_Novodevichy_Cemetery", "20th-century_Russian_dramatists_and_playwrights", "20th-century_Russian_novelists" ]

[ "Mikhael Bulgakov", "Mikhail Afanasyevich Bulgakov" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Microware was a US corporation based in Clive, Iowa that produced the OS-9 real-time operating system.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3434750, 112948, 39093, 25767, 22194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 18 ], [ 40, 51 ], [ 70, 74 ], [ 75, 84 ], [ 85, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Microware Systems Corporation existed as a separate entity from 1977 until September 2001, when it was bought by RadiSys Corp., and became a division of that company. The rights to Microware OS-9 and related software were purchased by a group of distributors on 1 March 2013. The new owner was Microware LP. Microware initially produced a version of BASIC and a real-time kernel for the Motorola 6800 processor, and was asked by Motorola to develop what turned into BASIC09 for the then-new Motorola 6809 processor. Having written BASIC09, they decided it needed an operating system underlying it, and they created the first version of OS-9.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2622542, 4015, 20301, 5218, 39564, 20326 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 126 ], [ 350, 355 ], [ 387, 400 ], [ 401, 410 ], [ 466, 473 ], [ 491, 504 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "OS-9 was ported to the 68000 family of processors and, after being rewritten mostly in C, to the Intel 80x86, PowerPC, ARM, MIPS, and some of the Hitachi SuperH (SH) series processors. Initially, in the days of the SS-50 bus and SS-50C bus systems such as SWTPC, Gimix, and Smoke Signal Broadcasting, OS-9 was used more as a general purpose microcomputer operating system and had a large, active hobbyist-user population. OS-9 was also popular with industrial and embedded-system users. This was especially true when OS-9 was available for popular 6809-based computers such as the FM-7, FM-77, and the Tandy TRS-80 Color Computer and its near-clone, the Dragon. Over time, Microware concentrated on industrial customers and neglected the hobbyist base that was porting a great many Unix packages and utilities to OS-9.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 64826, 6021, 14617, 34198, 24281, 60558, 20170, 188676, 102225, 4121874, 6631, 194445, 68733330, 48144, 6583981, 31575, 31562, 8650, 21347364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 28 ], [ 87, 88 ], [ 97, 102 ], [ 103, 108 ], [ 110, 117 ], [ 119, 122 ], [ 124, 128 ], [ 146, 153 ], [ 154, 160 ], [ 215, 224 ], [ 236, 239 ], [ 256, 261 ], [ 274, 299 ], [ 341, 354 ], [ 581, 585 ], [ 602, 607 ], [ 608, 629 ], [ 654, 660 ], [ 782, 786 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " RT68 – the original product for the 6800", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Microware products", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " OS-9 and OS-9000 – real-time operating systems for a wide range of embedded CPU architectures.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Microware products", "target_page_ids": [ 39093, 39093, 26123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 10, 17 ], [ 20, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " CD-RTOS – the operating system used in the Philips CD-i players, which was a special version of OS-9/68K v2.4.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Microware products", "target_page_ids": [ 24883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " DAVID – the Digital Audio Video Interactive Decoder platform for digital TV.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Microware products", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ariel – a micro OS based on an OS Microware acquired (MTOS-UX by IPI).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Microware products", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Color Computer 3 BASIC ROM extensions to support 80-column text and new graphics modes not in the CoCo 1 and 2's Extended Color BASIC ROM", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Microware products", "target_page_ids": [ 31562, 149766 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 114, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Official site", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Real-time_operating_systems", "Embedded_operating_systems", "TRS-80_Color_Computer", "Unix_variants", "ARM_operating_systems", "X86_operating_systems" ]

[ "Microware Systems Corporation" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger (14 November 177920 January 1850) was a Danish poet and playwright. He introduced romanticism into Danish literature. He wrote the lyrics to the song Der er et yndigt land, which is one of the national anthems of Denmark.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26094, 4491083, 93845, 234540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 122 ], [ 128, 145 ], [ 179, 200 ], [ 222, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was born in Vesterbro, then a suburb of Copenhagen. His father, Joachim Conrad Oehlenschläger (1748–1827) was at that time organist of Frederiksberg Church and later, keeper of the royal palace of Frederiksberg. The poet's mother Martha Marie Hansen (1745–1800) suffered from depression, which afterwards deepened into melancholy madness.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 2785656, 5166, 30861635, 33109084, 20528378, 840273, 20875 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 24 ], [ 43, 53 ], [ 126, 134 ], [ 138, 158 ], [ 200, 213 ], [ 280, 290 ], [ 323, 333 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Oehlenschläger and his sister Sophie Ørsted (1782–1818) were taught only to read and write, until their twelfth year. At the age of nine, Oehlenschläger began to write fluent verses. Three years later, he attracted the notice of the poet Edvard Storm (1749–1794) and as a result Öhlenschläger received an introduction into Scandinavian mythology.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 64414700, 22926, 2517552, 23417070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 43 ], [ 175, 181 ], [ 238, 250 ], [ 324, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Oehlenschläger was confirmed in 1795, and was to have been apprenticed to a tradesman in Copenhagen. He also entered the stage where he was offered a small position. In 1797 he made his appearance on the boards in several successive parts, but soon discovered that he possessed no real histrionic talent. Jurist Anders Sandøe Ørsted (1778–1860) who would later marry his sister Sophie, persuaded him to quit the theatre, and in 1800 he entered the University of Copenhagen. He was disturbed in his studies by the death of his mother, by his inveterate occupation with poetry, and finally by the First Battle of Copenhagen in April 1801, which, however, inspired a dramatic sketch (April the Second 1801), the first work of the kind by his pen that we possess.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 217733, 757869, 176767, 150915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 28 ], [ 314, 334 ], [ 451, 475 ], [ 598, 624 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the summer of 1802, when Oehlenschläger had an old Scandinavian romance, as well as a volume of lyrics in the press, the young Norse philosopher, Henrik Steffens (1773–1845), returned to Copenhagen after a long visit to Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling (1775–1854) in Germany. He was full of new romantic ideas. His lectures at the university, in which Goethe and Schiller were revealed to the Danish public for the first time, created a great sensation. Steffens and Oehlenschläger met one day resulting in a conversation of sixteen hours. After Oehlenschläger returned home, he wrote at a sitting his poem Guldhornene, in a manner totally new to Danish literature. The result of his new enthusiasm speedily showed itself in a somewhat hasty volume of poems, published in 1803, now chiefly remembered as containing the piece called Sanct Hansaften-Spil.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 42323983, 82172, 23711165, 413483, 177557, 19242322, 63742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 74 ], [ 99, 105 ], [ 130, 135 ], [ 149, 164 ], [ 223, 257 ], [ 358, 364 ], [ 369, 377 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The next two years saw the production of several exquisite works, in particular the epic of Thors Reise til Jotunheim, the poem in hexameters called Langelandsreisen, and the bewitching fantasy Aladdin (1805). At the age of twenty-six, Oehlenschläger was universally recognised, even by the opponents of the romantic revival, as the leading poet of Denmark. He now collected his Poetical Writings in two volumes. He found no difficulty in obtaining a grant for foreign travel from the government, and he left Denmark for the first time, joining Steffens at the University of Halle in August 1805. Here he wrote the first of his great historical tragedies, Hakon Jarl, which he sent off to Copenhagen, and then proceeded for the winter months to Berlin, where he associated with Wilhelm von Humboldt, Johann Gottlieb Fichte and met Goethe for the first time.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 14160, 76972, 33565249, 3354, 33110, 12007 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 140 ], [ 349, 356 ], [ 561, 580 ], [ 745, 751 ], [ 778, 798 ], [ 800, 822 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the spring of 1806 he went on to Weimar, where he spent several months in daily intercourse with Goethe. Autumn of that year was passed with Tieck in Dresden, and he proceeded in December to Paris. Here he resided eighteen months and wrote his three famous masterpieces, Baldur hin Gode (1808), Palnatoke (1809), and Axel og Valborg (1810). Oehlenschläger had also made his own translation of Aladdin into German, adding some new material which does not appear in the 1805 edition; this revised version was published in Amsterdam in 1808. Ferruccio Busoni later used the text of this translation for the last (choral) movement of his Piano Concerto Op. 39. Later editions of Oehlenschläger's play do not contain this text.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 47198, 8514734, 37410, 22989, 35007963, 202343, 8432780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 42 ], [ 144, 149 ], [ 153, 160 ], [ 194, 199 ], [ 320, 335 ], [ 542, 558 ], [ 637, 658 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 1808 he left Paris and spent the autumn and winter in Switzerland as the guest of Madame de Staël at Coppet, in the midst of her salon. In the spring of 1809, Oehlenschläger went to Rome to visit Bertel Thorvaldsen, and in his house wrote the tragedy of Correggio. He hurriedly returned to Denmark in the spring of 1810, partly to take the chair of aesthetics at the University of Copenhagen, partly to marry the sister-in-law of Knud Lyne Rahbek, to whom he had been long betrothed. His first course of lectures dealt with his Danish predecessor Johannes Ewald, the second with Schiller. From this time forward his literary activity became very great; in 1811 he published the Oriental tale of Ali og Gulhyndi, and in 1812 the last of his great tragedies, Stærkodder.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 26748, 210684, 2648093, 65124, 2130, 176767, 19052055, 780631 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 73 ], [ 90, 105 ], [ 109, 115 ], [ 204, 222 ], [ 357, 367 ], [ 375, 399 ], [ 438, 454 ], [ 555, 569 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1814 to 1819 his admirers were engaged in a long and angry controversy with Baggesen, who represented the old didactic school. This contest seems to have disturbed the peace of Oehlenschläger's mind and to have undermined his genius. His talent may be said to have culminated in the cycle of verse-romances called Helge, published in 1814. The tragedy of Hagbarth og Signe, (1815), showed a distinct diminution of his powers. In 1817 he returned to Paris, and published Hroars Saga and the tragedy of Fostbrødrene. In 1818 he was again in Copenhagen, and wrote the idyll of Den lille Hyrdedreng and the Eddaic cycle called Nordens Guder. His next productions were the tragedies of Erik og Abel (1820) and Væringerne i Miklagaard (1826), and the epic of Hrolf Krake (1829). His last volumes were Tordenskjold (1833), Dronning Margrethe (1833), Sokrates (1835), Olaf den Hellige (1836), Knud den Store (1838), Dina (1842), Erik Glipping (1843), and Kiartan og Gudrun (1847). After his death his Recollections (1850) were published in two volumes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 142993, 659273, 969817, 9993, 57993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 89 ], [ 115, 123 ], [ 570, 575 ], [ 608, 612 ], [ 673, 682 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adam Oehlenschläger married Christiane Georgine Elisabeth Heger (1782-1841) in 1810. She was the sister of Kamma Rahbek (1775–1829), the wife of Knud Lyne Rahbek (1760–1830).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 28463440, 19052055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 119 ], [ 145, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Oehlenschläger died 20 January 1850 and was buried in the cemetery of Frederiksberg Church. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 33109084 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adam Oehlenschläger was one of the principal pioneers of the romantic movement in Europe.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 26094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the exception of Ludvig Holberg (1684–1754), no Danish writer before 1870 has exercised so wide an influence. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 149639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His work awoke among his countrymen an enthusiasm for the poetry and religion of their ancestors. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He supplied his countrymen with romantic tragedies at a time when all eyes were turned to the stage. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "His plays fulfilled the stage requirements of the day, and were popular beyond all expectation. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He performed to an extent that his name remains to this day synonymous with Scandinavian romance.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest are the best: Oehlenschlager's dramatic masterpiece being his first tragedy, Hakon Jarl. Although his inspiration came from Germany, he is not much like a German poet, except when he is consciously following Goethe; his analogy is rather to be found among English poets than his contemporaries. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1829 he was publicly laurel-crowned in Lund Cathedral as the \"king of Nordic Poetry\" and the \"Scandinavian King of Song\" by Esaias Tegnér, Bishop of the Diocese of Växjö (1782–1846). ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Honours", "target_page_ids": [ 1355860, 1379592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 140 ], [ 159, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On his seventieth birthday (14 November 1849) a public festival was arranged in his honor. He was decorated by the king of Denmark as a Knight Grand Cross in the Order of the Dannebrog. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Honours", "target_page_ids": [ 881072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 162, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Andersen, Vilhelm (1899). Adam Oehlenschläger, et livs poesi (København, Nordiske forlag).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Footnotes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Oehlenschläger, author presentation in Project Runeberg", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 24519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aladdin, or, The wonderful lamp, by Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger, William Blackwood & Sons, 1863", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Adam_Oehlenschläger", "1779_births", "1850_deaths", "18th-century_Danish_poets", "Danish_male_poets", "18th-century_Danish_dramatists_and_playwrights", "National_anthem_writers", "University_of_Copenhagen_alumni", "19th-century_Danish_dramatists_and_playwrights", "People_from_Copenhagen", "Opera_librettists", "Danish_people_of_German_descent", "Rectors_of_the_University_of_Copenhagen", "Danish_male_dramatists_and_playwrights", "19th-century_Danish_poets", "19th-century_male_writers", "Coppet_group", "Grand_Crosses_of_the_Order_of_the_Dannebrog", "18th-century_male_writers" ]

[ "Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Nottingham ( , ) is a city and unitary authority area in Nottinghamshire, East Midlands, England. It is located north-west of London, south-east of Sheffield and north-east of Birmingham. Nottingham has links to the legend of Robin Hood and to the lace-making, bicycle and tobacco industries. The city is also the county town of Nottinghamshire and the settlement was granted its city charter in 1897, as part of Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee celebrations. Nottingham is a tourist destination; in 2018, the city received the second-highest number of overnight visitors in the Midlands and the highest number in the East Midlands.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 70841, 6683206, 68049, 53107, 17867, 88885, 13882056, 26171, 89303, 52631, 370398, 47923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 27 ], [ 32, 54 ], [ 58, 73 ], [ 75, 88 ], [ 128, 134 ], [ 151, 160 ], [ 180, 190 ], [ 230, 240 ], [ 252, 256 ], [ 277, 284 ], [ 384, 396 ], [ 417, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2020, Nottingham had an estimated population of 330,000. The wider conurbation, which includes many of the city's suburbs, has a population of 768,638. It is the largest urban area in the East Midlands and the second-largest in the Midlands. Its Functional Urban Area, the largest in the East Midlands, has a population of 919,484. The population of the Nottingham/Derby metropolitan area is estimated to be 1,610,000. The metropolitan economy of Nottingham is the seventh-largest in the United Kingdom with a GDP of $50.9billion (2014). Aside from Birmingham, it is the only city in the Midlands to be ranked as a sufficiency-level world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18727355, 32306149, 41449138, 784781, 29141681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 368, 373 ], [ 426, 446 ], [ 468, 505 ], [ 618, 646 ], [ 654, 701 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham is a major sporting centre and, in October 2015, was named 'Home of English Sport'. The National Ice Centre, Holme Pierrepont National Watersports Centre and Trent Bridge international cricket ground are all based in or around the city, which is also the home of two professional football teams: Notts County, formerly the world's oldest professional league club, and Nottingham Forest, famously two-time winners of the UEFA European Cup under Brian Clough and Peter Taylor in 1979 and 1980. The city has professional rugby, ice hockey and cricket teams; it also hosts the Aegon Nottingham Open, an international tennis tournament on the ATP and WTA tours. This accolade came just over a year after Nottingham was named as the UK's first City of Football.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1586296, 1216702, 849500, 448599, 157294, 44220, 157296, 3370625, 10276480, 10253782, 15087032 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 118 ], [ 120, 164 ], [ 169, 181 ], [ 307, 319 ], [ 379, 396 ], [ 431, 448 ], [ 455, 467 ], [ 472, 484 ], [ 488, 492 ], [ 497, 501 ], [ 590, 605 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city is served by Nottingham railway station and the Nottingham Express Transit tram system; its bus company, Nottingham City Transport, is the largest publicly owned bus network in England. In December 2015, Nottingham was named a 'City of Literature' by UNESCO, joining a list of 20 Cities of Literature. The title reflects Nottingham's literary heritage, with Lord Byron, D. H. Lawrence and Alan Sillitoe having links to the city, as well as a contemporary literary community, a publishing industry and a poetry scene. The city is served by three universities: the University of Nottingham, Nottingham Trent University and the Nottingham campus of the University of Law; it hosts the highest concentration of higher education providers in the East Midlands.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1345374, 519555, 4401095, 21755570, 21786641, 17566665, 44191, 167617, 25086027, 476466, 2730419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 48 ], [ 57, 83 ], [ 114, 139 ], [ 237, 255 ], [ 260, 266 ], [ 367, 377 ], [ 379, 393 ], [ 398, 411 ], [ 572, 596 ], [ 598, 625 ], [ 659, 676 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The name of Nottingham is Anglo-Saxon in origin. A Saxon chieftain named Snot ruled an area known as in Old English; the homestead of Snot's people ( = 'the people of'; = 'homestead'). Some authors derive Nottingham from (caves) and (homestead) but \"this has nothing to do with the English form\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Toponym", "target_page_ids": [ 37780, 22667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 37 ], [ 105, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A settlement existed before the arrival of the Anglo Saxons in the early 7th century CE because it is known in the Brythonic as , meaning Place of Caves (known also as \"City of Caves\"). In modern Welsh, Nottingham is known poetically as and in Irish as , 'The Cavey Dwelling'.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Toponym", "target_page_ids": [ 29039811, 6145932, 33545, 19872429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 124 ], [ 138, 152 ], [ 196, 201 ], [ 245, 250 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham Castle was constructed in 1068 on a sandstone outcrop by the River Leen. The Anglo-Saxon settlement was originally confined to the area today known as the Lace Market and was surrounded by a substantial defensive ditch and rampart, which fell out of use following the Norman Conquest and was filled by the time of the Domesday Survey (1086). Following the Norman Conquest the Saxon settlement developed into the English Borough of Nottingham and housed a Town Hall and Law Courts. A settlement also developed around the castle on the hill opposite and was the French borough supporting the Normans in the castle. Eventually, the space between was built on as the town grew and the Old Market Square became the focus of Nottingham several centuries later. Defences consisted initially of a ditch and bank in the early 12th century. The ditch was later widened, in the mid-13th century, and a stone wall built around much of the perimeter of the town. A short length of the wall survives, and is visible at the northern end of Maid Marian Way, and is protected as a Scheduled Monument.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 310830, 27772, 1215513, 4856, 1614701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 47, 56 ], [ 72, 82 ], [ 431, 438 ], [ 692, 709 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the return of Richard the Lionheart from the Crusades in 1194, the castle was occupied by supporters of Prince John, including the Sheriff of Nottingham. It was besieged by Richard and, after a sharp conflict, was captured. In the legends of Robin Hood, Nottingham Castle is the scene of the final showdown between the Sheriff and the hero outlaw.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 26368, 106131, 16550, 365608, 26171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 38 ], [ 48, 56 ], [ 107, 118 ], [ 134, 155 ], [ 245, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the 15th century Nottingham had established itself as a centre of a thriving export trade in religious sculpture made from Nottingham alabaster. The town became a county corporate in 1449 giving it effective self-government, in the words of the charter, \"for eternity\". The Castle and Shire Hall were expressly excluded and remained as detached Parishes of Nottinghamshire.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 16697153, 2142986, 68049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 146 ], [ 166, 182 ], [ 360, 375 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of those highly impressed by Nottingham in the late 18th century was the German traveller C. P. Moritz, who wrote in 1782, \"Of all the towns I have seen outside London, Nottingham is the loveliest and neatest. Everything had a modern look, and a large space in the centre was hardly less handsome than a London square. A charming footpath leads over the fields to the highway, where a bridge spans the Trent. … Nottingham … with its high houses, red roofs and church steeples, looks excellent from a distance.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 840689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Industrial Revolution, much of Nottingham's prosperity was founded on the textile industry; in particular, the city became an internationally important centre of lace manufacture. In 1831 citizens rioted in protest against the Duke of Newcastle's opposition to the Reform Act 1832, setting fire to his residence on the site of Nottingham Castle.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 14914, 993518, 89303, 127282, 45777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 32 ], [ 85, 101 ], [ 173, 177 ], [ 238, 255 ], [ 276, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In common with the UK textile industry, Nottingham's textile sector fell into decline in the decades following World War II. Little textile manufacture now takes place in Nottingham; however, many of the former industrial buildings in the Lace Market district have been restored and put to new uses.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham was one of the boroughs reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835, and at that time consisted of the parishes of St Mary, St Nicholas and St Peter. It was expanded in 1877 by adding the parishes of Basford, Brewhouse Yard, Bulwell, Radford, Sneinton, Standard Hill, and parts of the parishes of West Bridgford, Carlton, Wilford (North Wilford). In 1889 Nottingham became a county borough under the Local Government Act 1888. City status was awarded as part of the Diamond Jubilee celebrations of Queen Victoria, being signified in a letter from the prime minister, the Marquess of Salisbury to the mayor, dated 18 June 1897. Nottingham was extended in 1933 by adding Bilborough and Wollaton, parts of the parishes of Bestwood Park and Colwick, and a recently developed part of the Beeston Urban District. A further boundary extension was granted in 1951 when Clifton and Wilford (south of the River Trent) were incorporated into the city.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2683393, 3538706, 3082687, 1754986, 2098540, 771806, 641137, 7306528, 368451, 3331358, 232328, 15181774, 2118487, 2794685, 14837445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 82 ], [ 215, 222 ], [ 240, 247 ], [ 249, 256 ], [ 258, 266 ], [ 312, 326 ], [ 328, 335 ], [ 337, 344 ], [ 390, 404 ], [ 415, 440 ], [ 586, 607 ], [ 684, 694 ], [ 699, 707 ], [ 752, 759 ], [ 798, 820 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Electric trams were introduced to the city in 1901; they served the city for 35 years until 1936. Trams were reintroduced after 68 years when a new network opened in 2004.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 519555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the sporting world, Nottingham is home to the world's oldest professional football club, Notts County, which was formed in 1862. The town's other football club, Nottingham Forest, had a period of success between 1977 and 1993 under manager Brian Clough, winning the First Division, four League Cups, a UEFA Super Cup and two European Cups. During this time Forest signed Trevor Francis, Britain's first £1million footballer, who joined the club in February 1979 from Birmingham City.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 448599, 157294, 157296, 28789929, 144982, 337009, 44220, 171723, 185196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 104 ], [ 164, 181 ], [ 243, 255 ], [ 269, 283 ], [ 290, 301 ], [ 305, 319 ], [ 328, 340 ], [ 374, 388 ], [ 470, 485 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city was the site of race riots in 1958, centred on the St Ann's neighbourhood.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 65962326, 2853825 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 43 ], [ 60, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the second half of the 20th century Nottingham saw urban growth with the development of new public and private housing estates and new urban centres, which have engulfed former rural villages such as Bilborough, Wollaton, Gedling and Bramcote. South of the river there has also been expansion with new areas such as Edwalton and West Bridgford, adding to Nottingham's urban sprawl. Although this growth slowed towards the end of the century, the modern pressures for more affordable and council housing is back on the political agenda and there is now pressure on the green belt which surrounds the city.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 655311, 232435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 375, 387 ], [ 575, 585 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham City Council is a unitary authority who are based at Loxley House, Nottingham on Station Street. It consists of 55 councillors, representing 20 wards, who are elected every four years; the last elections being held on 2 May 2019. The council is independent of Nottinghamshire County Council but work with them for local developments and other matters. Nottingham, though, remains the county town of Nottinghamshire even though the county hall is in the neighbouring town of West Bridgford where the county council is based.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 3103348, 53123, 31734363, 286413, 3283310, 60106079, 14184847, 60729089, 771806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ], [ 29, 46 ], [ 64, 88 ], [ 126, 137 ], [ 155, 160 ], [ 229, 239 ], [ 271, 301 ], [ 438, 453 ], [ 485, 499 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city also has a Lord Mayor who is selected by city councillors from among themselves. The position is largely ceremonial but the Lord Mayor also acts as Chair of Full Council meetings.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 3907322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The City of Nottingham's boundaries are tightly drawn and exclude several suburbs and towns that are usually considered part of Greater Nottingham. Unlike the city, these areas are governed by a two tier system of local government. Nottinghamshire County Council is based at the county hall. It provides the upper tier of local government whilst the lower tier is split into several district or borough councils. The County Council are responsible for Health, Social Care, Education, Highways, Transport, Libraries and Trading Standards, whilst the lower tier councils are responsible for local planning, neighbourhood services, housing, licensing, environmental health and leisure facilities. The towns of Beeston, Stapleford and Eastwood are administered by Broxtowe Borough Council. Further west still, the Nottingham urban district extends into Derbyshire where Ilkeston and Long Eaton are administered by Erewash Borough Council, and Ripley by Amber Valley. To the north, Hucknall is governed by Ashfield District Council, while in the east Arnold and Carlton form part of the Borough of Gedling. South of the river, the town of West Bridgford lies in Rushcliffe, as do the outlying villages of Ruddington and Tollerton and the town of Bingham.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 1193776, 154248, 2460497, 373405, 440827, 71070, 385711, 412761, 440803, 227521, 227523, 625179, 440821, 625187, 641137, 449163, 771806, 449162, 1766188, 1108957, 735167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 146 ], [ 707, 714 ], [ 716, 726 ], [ 731, 739 ], [ 760, 784 ], [ 849, 859 ], [ 866, 874 ], [ 879, 889 ], [ 910, 933 ], [ 939, 945 ], [ 949, 961 ], [ 977, 985 ], [ 1001, 1026 ], [ 1046, 1052 ], [ 1057, 1064 ], [ 1082, 1100 ], [ 1134, 1148 ], [ 1157, 1167 ], [ 1200, 1210 ], [ 1215, 1224 ], [ 1241, 1248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham has three UK parliamentary constituency seats within its boundaries. Nottingham North has been represented since 2017 by Labour Member of Parliament (MP) Alex Norris, Nottingham East since 2019 by Labour MP Nadia Whittome and Nottingham South since 2010 by Labour MP Lilian Greenwood. Each of the outer districts (Broxtowe, Ashfield, Gedling and Rushcliffe) are also parliamentary constituencies in their own right although the parliamentary constituency boundaries do not align with the boundaries of the council districts of which they share their name.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 667057, 1822089, 19279158, 3776360, 54256722, 1822091, 62571202, 1822087, 27273581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 50 ], [ 80, 96 ], [ 132, 138 ], [ 139, 159 ], [ 165, 176 ], [ 178, 193 ], [ 218, 232 ], [ 237, 253 ], [ 278, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham is situated on an area of low hills along the lower valley of the River Trent, and is surrounded by the Sherwood Forest in the north, the Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire and Yorkshire Coalfield in the west, and the Trent and Belvoir Vales in the east and south.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 223529, 28739, 12184607, 1955039 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 88 ], [ 115, 130 ], [ 149, 200 ], [ 222, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alexandra Park", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and ecology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Arboretum", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 3873621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aspley", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 3783262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bakersfield", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 3629040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Basford", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 3538706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Beechdale", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 56223263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bestwood", "section_idx": 4, 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"anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hucknall", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 625179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ilkeston (Derbyshire)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 385711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Keyworth", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 2515819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Killisick", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 24572359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kimberley", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 435585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lady Bay", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 3166152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Langley Mill (Derbyshire)", 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"target_page_ids": [ 2794987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Redhill", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 1517363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ruddington", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 1766188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sandiacre (Derbyshire)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 766371 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sawley (Derbyshire)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 11681531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stapleford", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 2460497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Strelley Village", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 3615348 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Toton", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 1398774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Trowell", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 3358597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Warren Hill", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 56200381 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " West Bridgford", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 771806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Woodthorpe", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 10234175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Within the city, native wildlife includes red fox, peregrine falcon and common kingfisher. Notable nature reserves around the city include Attenborough Nature Reserve SSSI, Sherwood Forest National Nature Reserve, Holme Pit SSSI, Fairham Brook Local Wildlife Site and Wollaton Park. Due to its position as a central city with strong transport links, Nottingham has become home to invasive animal and plant species including rose-ringed parakeet, Japanese knotweed and Himalayan balsam.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 20647108, 157626, 195181, 32979986, 28739, 42481731, 2196292, 329946, 37774, 1266098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 49 ], [ 51, 67 ], [ 72, 89 ], [ 139, 166 ], [ 173, 188 ], [ 230, 243 ], [ 268, 281 ], [ 424, 444 ], [ 446, 463 ], [ 468, 484 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Like most of the United Kingdom, Nottingham has a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb) and experiences warm mild summers and mild to cool winters with abundant precipitation throughout the year. There are two weather-reporting stations close to Nottingham: the former \"Nottingham Weather Centre\", at Watnall, about northwest of the city centre; and the University of Nottingham's agricultural campus at Sutton Bonington, about southwest of the city centre. The highest temperature recorded in Nottingham (Watnall) stands at , whilst Sutton Bonington recorded a temperature of , both recorded on 19 July 2022, and the record-high minimum temperature is recorded in August 2004. On average, a temperature of or above is recorded on 11 days per year, whilst a temperature of is recorded at least 1 day per year at Watnall for the period of 1991–2020, and the warmest day of the year reaches an average of .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 560047, 484254, 16875578, 25086027, 480170, 71310707 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 75 ], [ 77, 83 ], [ 303, 310 ], [ 357, 381 ], [ 407, 423 ], [ 600, 612 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For the period 1991–2020 Nottingham (Watnall) recorded on average 36.9 days of air frost per year, and Sutton Bonington 42.2. The lowest recorded temperature in Nottingham (Watnall) is recorded in 23 January 1963 and 13 January 1987, whilst a temperature of was recorded in Sutton Bonington on 24 February 1947. The record-low maximum temperature is recorded in January 1963. For the period of 1991–2020, the coldest temperature of the year reaches an average of ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 8438818, 26733591, 12829891, 8438818 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 213 ], [ 218, 233 ], [ 296, 312 ], [ 365, 377 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " in Nottingham (Watnall).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and ecology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2017 it was reported that Nottingham is one of a number of UK cities that break WHO air pollution guidelines for the maximum concentration of small particulate matter. Pollution in part being caused by harmful wood-burning stoves.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and ecology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham is bounded by a green belt area, provisionally drawn up from the 1950s. Completely encircling the city, it extends for several miles into the surrounding districts, as well as towards Derby.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and ecology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The geographical centre of Nottingham is usually defined as the Old Market Square. The square is dominated by the Council House, which replaced the Nottingham Exchange Building, built in 1726. The Council House was built in the 1920s to display civic pride, ostentatiously using baroque columns and placing stone statues of two lions at the front to stand watch over the square. The Exchange Arcade, on the ground floor, is an upmarket shopping centre containing boutiques.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 1614701, 4471903, 3957, 4471903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 81 ], [ 114, 127 ], [ 279, 286 ], [ 383, 398 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tall office buildings line Maid Marian Way. The Georgian area around Oxford and Regent Streets is dominated by small professional firms. The Albert Hall faces the Gothic revival St Barnabas' Roman Catholic Cathedral by Pugin. Nottingham Castle and its grounds are located further south in the western third of the city. The central third descends from the University district in the north, past Nottingham Trent University's Gothic revival Arkwright Building. The university also owns many other buildings in this area. The Theatre Royal on Theatre Square, with its pillared façade, was built in 1865. King and Queen Streets are home to striking Victorian buildings designed by such architects as Alfred Waterhouse and Watson Fothergill.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 17160239, 311821, 523052, 103268, 310830, 476466, 521613, 308502, 9894622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 152 ], [ 163, 177 ], [ 178, 215 ], [ 219, 224 ], [ 226, 243 ], [ 395, 422 ], [ 646, 655 ], [ 697, 714 ], [ 719, 736 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To the south, is Broadmarsh Shopping Centre. The Canal-side further south of this is adjacent to Nottingham railway station and home to numerous redeveloped 19th-century industrial buildings, reused as bars and restaurants.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 3511083, 1345374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 43 ], [ 97, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The eastern third of the city centre contains the Victoria Shopping Centre, built in the 1970s on the site of the demolished Victoria railway station. All that remains of the old station is the clock tower and the station hotel, now the Nottingham Hilton Hotel. The 250-foot-high Victoria Centre flats stand above the shopping centre and are the tallest buildings in the city. The eastern third contains Hockley Village. Hockley is where many of Nottingham's unique, independent shops are to be found. It is also home to two alternative cinemas.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 2856647, 61008117, 1607371 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 149 ], [ 342, 375 ], [ 404, 419 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Lace Market area just south of Hockley has streets with four- to seven-storey red brick warehouses, iron railings and red phone boxes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 1586484, 1607371, 40842642, 174873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 15 ], [ 35, 42 ], [ 104, 116 ], [ 122, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many of the buildings have been converted into apartments, bars and restaurants. The largest building in the Lace Market is the Adams Building, built by Thomas Chambers Hine for Thomas Adams (1807–1873), and currently used by Nottingham College. The Georgian-built Shire Hall, which was once Nottingham's main court and prison building, is now home to the National Justice Museum (formerly the \"Galleries of Justice\").", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 17581763, 17178627, 33108294, 4405138, 1766292, 19008450, 1995699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 142 ], [ 153, 173 ], [ 178, 190 ], [ 226, 244 ], [ 310, 315 ], [ 320, 326 ], [ 356, 379 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ye Olde Trip To Jerusalem (the Trip), partially built into the cave system beneath Nottingham Castle, is a contender for the title of England's Oldest Pub, as it is supposed to have been established in 1189. The Bell Inn in the Old Market Square, and Ye Olde Salutation Inn (the Salutation) in Maid Marian Way have both disputed this claim. The Trip's current timber building probably dates back to the 17th or 18th century, but the caves are certainly older and may have been used to store beer and water for the castle during medieval times. There are also caves beneath the Salutation that date back to the medieval period, although they are no longer used as beer cellars. The Bell Inn is probably the oldest of the three pub buildings still standing, according to dendrochronology, and has medieval cellars that are still used to store beer.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 2529722, 18729548, 19093396, 37800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ], [ 208, 220 ], [ 251, 273 ], [ 769, 785 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Almost 62,000 students attend the city's three universities, Nottingham Trent University, the University of Law and the University of Nottingham; in the 2016/17 academic year, Trent University was attended by 29,370 students and Nottingham University by 32,515. The University of Nottingham Medical School is part of the Queen's Medical Centre.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 476466, 2730419, 25086027, 9312169, 480294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 88 ], [ 94, 111 ], [ 120, 144 ], [ 266, 305 ], [ 321, 343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are three colleges of further education located in Nottingham: Bilborough College is solely a sixth form college; Nottingham College was formed in 2017, by the amalgamation of Central College Nottingham and New College Nottingham (which had both previously formed from the merger of smaller FE colleges); and the Confetti Institute of Creative Technologies, owned by Nottingham Trent University, is a further education college that specialises in media. The city has dozens of sixth form colleges and academies, providing education and training for adults aged over sixteen.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 234351, 5151350, 985758, 4405138, 56039594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 45 ], [ 69, 87 ], [ 100, 118 ], [ 182, 208 ], [ 319, 362 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham also has a number of independent schools. The city's oldest educational establishment is Nottingham High School, which was founded in 1513.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 474687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham is the East Midlands' largest economy.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2010, Nottingham City Council announced that the target sectors of their economic development strategy would include low-carbon technologies; digital media; life sciences; financial and business services; and retail and leisure.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 53723, 68140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 158 ], [ 160, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham is home to the headquarters of several companies. These include Alliance Boots (formerly Boots the Chemists); Chinook Sciences; GM (cricket bats); Pedigree Petfoods; VF Corporation (American clothing); Changan Automobile (Chinese-made automobiles); the credit reference agency Experian; energy company E.ON Energy UK; betting company Gala Bingo; amusement and gambling machine manufacturer Bell-Fruit-Games; engineering company Siemens; sportswear manufacturers Speedo; high-street opticians Vision Express and Specsavers; games and publishing company Games Workshop; PC software developer Serif Europe (publisher of PagePlus and other titles); web hosting provider Heart Internet; the American credit card company Capital One; the national law firm Browne Jacobson; and Earache Records, an independent music company founded by local resident Digby Pearson, based on Handel Street in Sneinton. Nottingham also has offices of Nottingham Building Society (established 1849); HM Revenue & Customs; the Driving Standards Agency; Ofsted; the Care Quality Commission and BBC East Midlands.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 2818107, 32185609, 544586, 2703574, 3184365, 545978, 5675296, 2861970, 168632, 241853, 1203591, 1203837, 147942, 18381960, 71406, 25021294, 1168152, 15465062, 1136098, 3032318, 2098540, 10411358, 651806, 1161313, 301482, 15131185, 7942202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 89 ], [ 100, 118 ], [ 158, 175 ], [ 177, 191 ], [ 213, 231 ], [ 288, 296 ], [ 313, 327 ], [ 345, 355 ], [ 439, 446 ], [ 473, 479 ], [ 503, 517 ], [ 522, 532 ], [ 563, 577 ], [ 601, 613 ], [ 628, 636 ], [ 677, 691 ], [ 726, 737 ], [ 761, 776 ], [ 782, 797 ], [ 854, 867 ], [ 895, 903 ], [ 936, 963 ], [ 984, 1004 ], [ 1010, 1034 ], [ 1036, 1042 ], [ 1048, 1071 ], [ 1076, 1093 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham was named one of the UK's six science cities in 2005 by the then Chancellor of the Exchequer Gordon Brown. Among the science-based industries within the city is BioCity. Founded as a joint venture between Nottingham Trent University and the University of Nottingham, it is the UK's biggest bioscience innovation and incubation centre, housing around 80 science-based companies.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 70075, 13076, 29526330 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 103 ], [ 104, 116 ], [ 172, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Until recently, bicycle manufacturing was a major industry: the city was the birthplace of Raleigh Bicycle Company in 1886, later joined by Sturmey-Archer, the developer of three-speed hub gears. However, Raleigh's factory on Triumph Road, famous as the location for the filming of Saturday Night and Sunday Morning, was demolished in 2003 to make way for the University of Nottingham's expansion of its Jubilee Campus. The schools and aerial photographers, H Tempest Ltd, were Nottingham-based for many years, until relocating to St Ives, Cornwall January 1959.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 10194891, 933764, 9318746, 12567944, 151314 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 114 ], [ 140, 154 ], [ 282, 315 ], [ 404, 418 ], [ 531, 548 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2015, Nottingham was ranked in the top 10 UK cities for job growth (from 2004 to 2013), in the public and private sectors. And in the same year, it was revealed that more new companies were started in Nottingham in 2014–15 than in any other UK city, with a 68% year-on-year increase.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2017, Nottingham came seventh in Harper Dennis Hobbes's Top 50 British Centres, behind the West End of London, Glasgow, Birmingham, Manchester, Leeds and Liverpool.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 69887, 68736, 13882056, 20206, 8262427, 18081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 112 ], [ 114, 121 ], [ 123, 133 ], [ 135, 145 ], [ 147, 152 ], [ 157, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham's Victoria Centre is the city's main retail shopping centre. It was the first to be built in the city and was developed on the site of the former Nottingham Victoria railway station. It provides parking for up to 2,400 cars on several levels, and contains a bus station.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 1312308, 2856647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 28 ], [ 157, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Its owners, Intu have plans to extend the centre's floor space but it is understood these will not be submitted until the Broadmarsh redevelopment is complete.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 1995746, 3511083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 16 ], [ 122, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Broadmarsh is undergoing a major redevelopment as part of the city's £2bn southside regeneration scheme, due to be completed in 2021.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 3511083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Work on redeveloping Broadmarsh, at a cost of £400million (creating 400 stores, 136,000m2 of shopping space), was originally approved in September 2007. Nottingham City Council, then owners of the Broadmarsh Centre, had been trying to redevelop it for \"almost two decades\". However, the economic downturn meant that redevelopment was delayed throughout from 2008 to 2010. In the light of the Victoria Centre's redevelopment plans, Westfield announced in 2011 that it was once again planning a £500million development of Broadmarsh, which would start in 2012. This, however, did not happen either.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Broadmarsh was eventually sold to Capital Shopping Centres, the owners of the Victoria Centre. The purchase prompted an investigation by the Office of Fair Trading and the Competition Commission, who were concerned that the company's monopoly over the city's shopping centres could have a negative impact on competition. CSC subsequently rebranded itself and the centres use the \"Intu\" name. Although the new owners wished to start the planned development of the Victoria Centre, Nottingham City Council insisted that Broadmarsh must have priority, with the Council offering £50million towards its redevelopment. The deputy leader of Nottingham City Council said the Council would withhold planning permission for the development of the Victoria Centre until they saw \"bulldozers going into the Broadmarsh Centre.\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 2914114, 941690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 163 ], [ 172, 194 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Smaller shopping centres in the city are The Exchange Arcade, the Flying Horse Walk, Hockley and newer developments in Trinity Square and The Pod. The Bridlesmith Gate area has numerous designer shops, and is the home of the original Paul Smith boutique. There are various side streets and alleys with some interesting and often overlooked buildings and shops—such as Poultry Walk, West End Arcade and Hurts Yard. These are home to many specialist shops, as is Derby Road, near the Roman Catholic Cathedral and once the antiques area.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 4471903, 7562737, 1607371, 4840778, 155254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 60 ], [ 66, 83 ], [ 85, 92 ], [ 151, 167 ], [ 234, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham has a number of department stores including the House of Fraser, John Lewis and Debenhams.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 249171, 2059625, 386085, 460666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 43 ], [ 59, 74 ], [ 76, 86 ], [ 91, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March 2011, the government announced the creation of Nottingham Enterprise Zone, an enterprise zone sited on part of the Boots Estate. In March 2012, Nottingham Science Park, Beeston Business Park and Nottingham Medipark were added to the zone. In December 2014, the government announced that the zone would be expanded again, to include Infinity Park Derby, a planned business park for aerospace, rail and automotive technology adjacent to the Rolls-Royce site in Sinfin, Derby.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 3908528, 32185609, 435509, 5536203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 102 ], [ 124, 136 ], [ 448, 459 ], [ 468, 474 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Creative Quarter is a project started by Nottingham City Council as part of the Nottingham City Deal. Centred on the east of the city (including the Lace Market, Hockley, Broadmarsh East, the Island site and BioCity), the project aims at creating growth and jobs. In July 2012, the government contributed £25million towards a £45million venture capital fund, mainly targeted at the Creative Quarter.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 257210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 341, 356 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham has two large-capacity theatres, the Nottingham Playhouse and the Theatre Royal, which together with the neighbouring Royal Concert Hall forms the Royal Centre. The city also contains smaller theatre venues such as the Nottingham Arts Theatre, the Lace Market Theatre, New Theatre and Nonsuch Studios.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1972897, 6069080, 6188322, 30811678, 15436251, 17007061 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 68 ], [ 77, 90 ], [ 129, 147 ], [ 230, 253 ], [ 259, 278 ], [ 280, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is a Cineworld and a Showcase in the city. Independent cinemas include the Arthouse Broadway Cinema in Hockley, and the four-screen Art Deco Savoy Cinema.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1404422, 3339311, 540784, 41579708, 1881, 38060911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ], [ 27, 35 ], [ 81, 89 ], [ 90, 105 ], [ 138, 146 ], [ 147, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city contains several notable museums and art galleries including:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " National Justice Museum – Museum of Law, Crime and Punishment through the ages, based at the Shire Hall in the Lace Market.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1995699, 1586484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 112, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " City of Caves – A visitor attraction consisting of a network of man-made caves, carved out of sandstone, beneath the Broadmarsh Shopping Centre.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 6145932, 3511083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 118, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Green's Windmill and Science Centre – A unique working windmill in the heart of the city that was home to the 19th-century mathematical physicist and miller, George Green.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 8941816, 243343 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 159, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nottingham Castle Museum – Home to the city's fine and decorative art collections, along with the Story of Nottingham galleries, and the Sherwood Foresters Regimental Museum.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 310830, 7614329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 138, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nottingham Contemporary – Contemporary art centre in the Lace Market, opened in 2009.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 19079174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " New Art Exchange – Contemporary art gallery, the largest in the UK dedicated to showing diverse artists, opened in 2008.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 50246488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nottingham Industrial Museum – Housed in Wollaton Park, collections relating to textiles, transport, communications, mining and steam.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 38272725, 2196292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ], [ 42, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nottingham Natural History Museum – Based at Wollaton Hall, contains zoology, geology, and botany collections.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 580192, 580192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ], [ 46, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2015, the National Videogame Arcade was opened in the Hockley area of the city; being \"the UK's first cultural centre for videogames\". It was announced in June 2018 that the arcade was soon to close and relocate to Sheffield city centre, where it reopened in November 2018 as the National Videogame Museum.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 20057033, 88885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 38 ], [ 218, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham has several large music and entertainment venues including the Royal Concert Hall, Rock City, Nottingham Royal Concert Hall (2,500-capacity) and the Nottingham Arena (Social centre). Nottingham's City Ground played host to rock band R.E.M with Idlewild and The Zutons supporting in 2005, the first time a concert had been staged at the football stadium.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 6188322, 1329450, 6188322, 31429144, 1943634 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 92 ], [ 94, 103 ], [ 105, 134 ], [ 160, 176 ], [ 207, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham also has a selection of smaller venues, including the Albert Hall (800-capacity), Ye Olde Salutation Inn, Malt Cross, Rescue Rooms, the Bodega, the Old Angel, the Central, the Chameleon and the Corner. 1960s blues-rock band Ten Years After formed in Nottingham, as did the 1970s pop act Paper Lace and the critically acclaimed Tindersticks, as well as influential folk singer Anne Briggs. Since the beginning of the 2010s, the city has produced a number of artists to gain media attention, including; Jake Bugg, London Grammar, Indiana, Sleaford Mods, Natalie Duncan, Ady Suleiman, Dog Is Dead, Saint Raymond, Childhood, Rue Royale, Spotlight Kid and Amber Run.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 17160239, 19093396, 19043872, 518466, 1362918, 612662, 3026744, 35533236, 39776465, 42547897, 43334144, 34286538, 27697561, 41491796, 41978481, 41641500, 8225045, 42546440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 76 ], [ 93, 115 ], [ 117, 127 ], [ 235, 250 ], [ 298, 308 ], [ 338, 350 ], [ 387, 398 ], [ 512, 521 ], [ 523, 537 ], [ 539, 546 ], [ 548, 561 ], [ 563, 577 ], [ 593, 604 ], [ 606, 619 ], [ 621, 630 ], [ 632, 642 ], [ 644, 657 ], [ 662, 671 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham is home to Earache Records, a large independent record label setup in Nottingham in 1986 and famously home to Napalm Death, Carcass, Entombed, Rival Sons and more.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1136098, 97165, 1002734, 209006, 31834066 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 37 ], [ 121, 133 ], [ 135, 142 ], [ 144, 152 ], [ 154, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city has an active classical music scene, with long-established ensembles such as the city's Symphony Orchestra, Philharmonic Orchestra, Nottingham Harmonic Society, Bach Choir, Early Music Group Musica Donum Dei and the Symphonic Wind Orchestra giving regular performances in the city. The Sumac Centre is a social centre in Forest Fields.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 6668778, 44595816, 10748290, 6860788, 2689823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 38 ], [ 90, 115 ], [ 141, 168 ], [ 295, 307 ], [ 313, 326 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wollaton Park in Nottingham hosts an annual family-friendly music event called Splendour. In 2009 it was headlined by Madness and the Pogues. The following year it was headlined by the Pet Shop Boys and featured, among others, Calvin Harris, Noisettes, Athlete and OK Go. In 2011, it featured headline acts Scissor Sisters, Blondie, Eliza Doolittle and Feeder. In 2012, performers included Dizzee Rascal, Razorlight, Katy B and Hard-Fi. In 2014, Wollaton Park hosted the first-ever No Tomorrow Festival, featuring the likes of Sam Smith, London Grammar and Clean Bandit.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2196292, 28164612, 40233, 30514, 51641, 9424472, 4687732, 490272, 324393, 730322, 174662, 23782546, 669074, 498836, 882568, 28047269, 2081251, 38954428, 39776465, 39177523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 79, 88 ], [ 118, 125 ], [ 130, 140 ], [ 181, 198 ], [ 227, 240 ], [ 242, 251 ], [ 253, 260 ], [ 265, 270 ], [ 307, 322 ], [ 324, 331 ], [ 333, 348 ], [ 353, 359 ], [ 390, 403 ], [ 405, 415 ], [ 417, 423 ], [ 428, 435 ], [ 527, 536 ], [ 538, 552 ], [ 557, 569 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham is known for its hip-hop scene. Rofl Audio Recording Studios opened in 2013, on the site of a former square known as \"Milk Square\" which was known to have hosted musicians, bands and orchestras in the 1800s. Since opening, the studios have hosted musicians and actors from various places including involvement in Hollywood films, and British rock band Spiritualized's album And Nothing Hurt. The studios are a base for rapper and producer Sway Dasafo's New Reign Productions and Jake Bugg's manager, Jason Hart. The rock band Church of the Cosmic Skull are from Nottingham.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 18945847, 450037, 58359492, 2891370, 62765737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 35 ], [ 363, 376 ], [ 385, 401 ], [ 450, 461 ], [ 537, 563 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham holds several multicultural events throughout the year. The city has hosted an annual Asian Mela every summer since about 1989, there is a parade on St Patrick's Day, fireworks for the Chinese New Year, Holi in the Park to celebrate the Hindu spring festival, a West Indian-style carnival, and several Sikh events.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2547717, 170023, 19682699, 489575, 5579773, 27964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 107 ], [ 160, 176 ], [ 196, 212 ], [ 248, 269 ], [ 273, 284 ], [ 313, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city is particularly famous for its annual Goose Fair, a large travelling funfair held at the Forest Recreation Ground at the beginning of October every year. Established over 700 years ago, the fair was originally a livestock market where thousands of geese were sold in the Old Market Square, but the modern-day Goose Fair is known for its fairground rides and attractions.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 321705, 525981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 57 ], [ 98, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the late 1990s, Nottinghamshire Pride has organised an annual pride parade, a day-long celebration that usually takes place in the city in July.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 22494026, 58168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 43 ], [ 68, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Hockley Arts Market runs alongside Sneinton Market.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2098540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are more than three hundred restaurants in Nottingham, with several AA rosette winners (). City-centre restaurant, Ibérico World Tapas, was awarded a Bib Gourmand in the 2013 Michelin Guide. There are also two Michelin-starred restaurants: Alchemilla in the city centre has one star; and Restaurant Sat Bains with Rooms, on the edge of the city near Clifton Bridge, has two Michelin stars. There were five other Nottingham restaurants recommended in the Michelin Guide in 2020.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 325225, 11341813, 2036409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 84 ], [ 294, 325 ], [ 460, 474 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2010, Nottingham was named as one of the \"Top 10 Cities to Visit in 2010\" by DK Travel. Nottingham was ranked number one for the 'Best Value City Break' in August 2017 by TripAdvisor. According to the Scarborough Tourism Economic Activity Monitor (STEAM) report, tourism in Nottingham city was valued at £628million in 2017, an increase of 4.1% over the 2016 figure of £604million.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1008932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Robin Hood Pageant takes place in Nottingham each year and has been rebranded Robin Hood Live for 2020. The city is home to the Nottingham Robin Hood Society, founded in 1972 by Jim Lees and Steve and Ewa Theresa West.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Each February Nottingham celebrates Light Night, with dozens of free creative events illuminating the city. The city has also hosted the Nottingham Cave Festival, Nottingham Puppet Festival, The Nottingham Festival of Science and Curiosity, plus a series of outdoor film and theatre performances at historical locations throughout the summer.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 12259317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In February 2008, a Ferris wheel was put up in the Old Market Square. The wheel returned to Nottingham in February 2009 to mark another night of lights, activities, illuminations and entertainment. Initially marketed as the Nottingham Eye, it was later redubbed as the Nottingham Wheel, to avoid any association with the London Eye. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 175541, 30372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 32 ], [ 321, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sherwood Forest County Park is a Natural Nature Reserve spanning 450 acres in the county of Nottinghamshire only 17 miles north of Nottingham. This grand forest has been a part of great history for centuries, showing evidence of use by prehistoric hunters and gatherers. It's even said that the legendary Robin Hood of the 1200s has set foot here and hid near the Major Oak, referred to as the 1000-year-old giant tree. Today, Sherwood Forest Visitor Centre & Nature Reserve is internationally recognised with annual visitors reaching around 350,000.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Many local businesses and organisations use the worldwide fame of Robin Hood to represent or promote their brands. Many residents converse in the East Midlands dialect. The friendly term of greeting \"Ay-up me duck\" is a humorous example of the local dialect.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 4813972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham has featured in a number of fictional works.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 41072162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham is home to two professional football clubs: Notts County and Nottingham Forest. Their two football grounds, facing each other on opposite sides of the River Trent, are noted for geographically being the closest in English league football. Notts County, formed in 1862, is the oldest professional football club in the world. They were also among the Football League's founder members in 1888. For most of their history they have played their home games at Meadow Lane, which currently holds some 20,000 spectators, all seated. They currently play in the Vanarama National League, at Level 5 in the English football league system (most recently played at Level 1 in May 1992). Nottingham Forest, who currently play in the Level 1 Premier League, were English Level 1 champions in 1978 and won the European Cup twice over the next two seasons under the management of Brian Clough, who was the club's manager from January 1975 to May 1993, leading them to four Football League Cup triumphs in that time. They have played at the City Ground, on the south bank of the River Trent, since 1898. Nottingham Forest joined the Football League in 1892, four years after its inception when it merged with the rival Football Alliance, and 100 years later, they were among the FA Premier League's founder members in 1992—though they had not played top division football from May 1999 until their promotion from the Level 2 EFL Championship in the 2021/2022 season, 23 years later. The City Ground played host to group stage games in the 1996 European Football Championships.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 448599, 157294, 14419588, 1901697, 306731, 564674, 11250, 44220, 157296, 144982, 1943634, 223529, 591869, 11250, 715008, 67469135, 1943634, 555876 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 67 ], [ 72, 89 ], [ 360, 375 ], [ 466, 477 ], [ 564, 588 ], [ 608, 638 ], [ 739, 753 ], [ 806, 818 ], [ 875, 887 ], [ 968, 987 ], [ 1035, 1046 ], [ 1073, 1084 ], [ 1213, 1230 ], [ 1273, 1290 ], [ 1419, 1435 ], [ 1443, 1459 ], [ 1481, 1492 ], [ 1533, 1569 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham won the title of 2015 City of Football after five months of campaigning, which resulted in £1.6m in funding for local football ventures and to encourage more people to play the sport. Nottingham was selected to be a host city for the England 2018 FIFA World Cup bid. It was proposed that if the bid were successful, the city would have received a new Nottingham Forest Stadium.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 22844966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 245, 276 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nottinghamshire County Cricket Club is based at Trent Bridge, a test cricket ground that was one of the venues for the 2009 ICC World Twenty20 tournament. Nottinghamshire won the 2010 County Championship.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 667341, 849500, 303280, 8258541, 27064222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 35 ], [ 48, 60 ], [ 64, 83 ], [ 119, 142 ], [ 179, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The rugby union team, Nottingham R.F.C., competes in the RFU Championship, playing their home games at the Nottinghamshire Sports Club in the Lady Bay area of the city. The Nottingham Outlaws are an amateur rugby league team that plays in the Yorkshire Men's League. The Nottingham Caesars are the city's American football club, playing their games at the Harvey Hadden Stadium in the Bilborough area of Nottingham.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 25405, 4367378, 22977424, 3797030, 25735, 32943997, 22462382, 18951490, 35014030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 15 ], [ 22, 39 ], [ 57, 73 ], [ 173, 191 ], [ 207, 219 ], [ 243, 265 ], [ 271, 289 ], [ 305, 322 ], [ 356, 377 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city was the birthplace and training location for Torvill and Dean, who won gold medals in ice dance at the 1984 Sarajevo Olympics. The National Ice Centre, which first opened in 2000, is the home base of the Nottingham Panthers ice hockey team, and hosts an array of winter sporting events including the UK Speed Skating Championships. The plaza at the front of the ice centre is named \"Bolero Square\" after Torvill and Dean's gold medal-winning performance.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 1546012, 39577, 113362, 1586296, 1132100, 28028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 70 ], [ 95, 104 ], [ 112, 134 ], [ 140, 159 ], [ 213, 232 ], [ 312, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other sporting events in the city include the annual Nottingham Trophy tennis tournament (staged at the Nottingham Tennis Centre), the \"Robin Hood\" Marathon, the Milk Race, the Great Nottinghamshire Bike Ride, and the Outlaw Triathlon. Nottingham has two roller derby leagues: Nottingham Roller Derby (consisting of two teams, the Nottingham Roller Girls and the Super Smash Brollers); and the Nottingham Hellfire Harlots.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 20733923, 6068669, 5565096, 1053132, 809210, 33972852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 70 ], [ 104, 128 ], [ 135, 156 ], [ 162, 171 ], [ 255, 267 ], [ 394, 421 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In October 2015, Nottingham was named as the official Home of Sport by VisitEngland, for its sporting contributions and in recognition of its development of football, cricket, ice hockey, boxing, tennis, athletics, gymnastics, and water sports.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 7332355 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham is served by East Midlands Airport (formerly known as Nottingham East Midlands Airport, until it reverted to its original name), near Castle Donington in north-west Leicestershire, just less than south-west of the city centre.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 349437, 1308228, 349432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 45 ], [ 145, 161 ], [ 165, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham was an important interchange for many railways and mineral lines which served the city, its suburbs and the collieries around the city. Nottingham railway station, formerly Nottingham Midland, provides access to rail services for the city; trains are operated by CrossCountry, East Midlands Railway and Northern. It is the only remaining station in the city centre and is the second busiest railway station in the Midlands for passenger entries and exits. ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 1345374, 7984484, 57782872, 62965218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 173 ], [ 274, 286 ], [ 288, 309 ], [ 314, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city once had five other railway stations; these are:", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Nottingham Carrington Street was the first station opened in Nottingham on the former Midland Counties Railway. It was opened in 1839, before closing in 1848 to passengers after the opening of Nottingham Midland station. The site is now under Nottingham Magistrates' Court. ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 18551205, 188933, 25792716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ], [ 87, 111 ], [ 244, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nottingham Victoria which was the second largest station in the city. Owned jointly by the Great Central Railway and Great Northern Railway. It closed in 1967, after declining usage and the station buildings were demolished. The site is now the Victoria Centre shopping centre. The clock tower is still in situ and the cutting is under the shopping centre at the lower level including the old Mansfield Road Railway Tunnel.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 2856647, 184004, 195346, 1312308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 92, 113 ], [ 118, 140 ], [ 246, 261 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nottingham Arkwright Street was originally the second station in Nottingham, near to Nottingham Midland. It was originally only to be opened temporarily but was kept open until 1963, when it was closed. It reopened briefly in 1967 as the terminus of a skeleton service from Nottingham to Leicester and Rugby, only to be closed in 1969. The site is now buried under a road alignment, tram tracks and industrial buildings.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 12133294, 2688225, 9211366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ], [ 289, 298 ], [ 303, 308 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nottingham London Road Low and High Level was located directly north-east of Nottingham Midland and the low level platforms were closed to passengers in 1944. The high level platforms were closed in 1967. Goods services continued to serve the station until 1972 when the rails were removed. The station is still in situ and is now used for retail. ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 18076763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nottingham Racecourse was located near Nottingham Racecourse and was a minor station on the line between Nottingham and Grantham. The station closed in 1959 and the line is still in use. Nothing remains of the station.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 18444380, 8838210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 40, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The reintroduction of trams in 2004 made Nottingham the newest of only nine English cities to have a light rail system. The trams run from the city centre to Hucknall in the north, with a spur to the Phoenix Park park and ride, close to junction 26 of the M1. Two new lines opened in 2015, extending the network to the southern suburbs of Wilford and Clifton and the western suburbs of Beeston and Chilwell.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 519555, 39474094, 625179, 669746, 7306528, 2114811, 154248, 1730085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 27 ], [ 76, 118 ], [ 158, 166 ], [ 213, 226 ], [ 339, 346 ], [ 351, 358 ], [ 386, 393 ], [ 398, 406 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In April 2012, Nottingham became the first city in the UK to introduce a workplace parking levy. The levy charges businesses £350 on each parking space made available to their employees, provided that the business has more than ten such parking spaces. The council have used the revenue of around £10 million a year to develop the city's tram system. There has been a 9% reduction in traffic and 15% increase in public transport use since the introduction of the levy.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham City Transport (NCT) is the biggest transport operator in Nottingham, with 330 buses. NCT has won five UK Bus Operator of the Year awards, most recently winning it in 2019.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 4401095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 2010, Nottingham was named England's least car-dependent city by the Campaign for Better Transport with London and Manchester in second and fourth place respectively.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 2056592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham's waterways, now primarily used for leisure, were used extensively for transportation in the past.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fire and rescue services are provided by Nottinghamshire Fire and Rescue Service, and emergency medical care by East Midlands Ambulance Service, both of which have their headquarters in Nottingham. Law enforcement is carried out by Nottinghamshire Police, whose headquarters are at Sherwood Lodge in Arnold. The city has a Crown Court and a Magistrates' Court.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Public services", "target_page_ids": [ 11383444, 21246492, 3509816, 625187, 18552575, 25792716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 80 ], [ 112, 143 ], [ 232, 254 ], [ 300, 306 ], [ 323, 334 ], [ 341, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Laurie Macdonald of Inside One magazine observes that Nottingham's former high crime rate earned it the nickname \"Shottingham\", but that by 2013 this image was outdated. The article was written in response to a uSwitch survey that had found south Nottinghamshire to be the fourth-best place to live in the UK in terms of living standards. Crime in the city of Nottingham had also fallen by three-quarters since 2007.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Public services", "target_page_ids": [ 11503686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 211, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are two major National Health Service hospitals in Nottingham, the Queen's Medical Centre (QMC) and Nottingham City Hospital, both managed by the Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust. The QMC is a teaching hospital with close connections to the Medical School at Nottingham University; until 2012, it was the largest hospital in the UK. Nottingham City Hospital includes maternity and neonatal facilities but has no A&E department. Students from the Medical School are attached to most of the departments at City Hospital as part of their clinical training.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Public services", "target_page_ids": [ 16462572, 480294, 9373692, 9373854, 66494203, 9312169, 177163 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 43 ], [ 73, 95 ], [ 106, 130 ], [ 152, 193 ], [ 208, 225 ], [ 256, 295 ], [ 427, 441 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Severn Trent Water is the company responsible for supplying fresh water to households and businesses in Nottingham, as well as the treatment of sewage. Severn Trent took over these services from the City of Nottingham Water Department in 1974.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Public services", "target_page_ids": [ 443076, 26137550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 199, 234 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham is host to the UK's first and only local authority-owned and not-for-profit energy company, Robin Hood Energy.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Public services", "target_page_ids": [ 51872207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city has one of the largest district heating schemes in the UK, operated by EnviroEnergy Limited, which is wholly owned by Nottingham City Council. The plant in the city centre supplies heat to 4,600 homes, and a wide variety of business premises, including the Concert Hall, the Nottingham Arena, the Victoria Baths, the Broadmarsh Shopping Centre, the Victoria Centre, and others.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Public services", "target_page_ids": [ 1669741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Veolia operates a cogeneration (CHP) plant in Nottingham for generating energy from biomass.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Public services", "target_page_ids": [ 3197961, 763555, 7906908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 18, 30 ], [ 84, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historically, the requirement for city status was the presence of an Anglican (Church of England) cathedral; however, Nottingham does not have one of these, having only been designated a city in 1897 in celebration of Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee. From around AD 1100, Nottingham was part of the Diocese of Lichfield, controlled as an archdeaconry from Lichfield Cathedral in Staffordshire. In 1837, Nottingham's archdeaconry was placed under the control of the Diocese of Lincoln and, in 1884, it was incorporated into the newly created Diocese of Southwell which it is still part of today. The bishop is based at Southwell Minster, northeast of the city.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 1351375, 14468547, 223524, 1445068, 3489741, 2591516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 300, 320 ], [ 339, 351 ], [ 357, 376 ], [ 466, 484 ], [ 542, 562 ], [ 619, 636 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although lacking an Anglican cathedral, Nottingham has three notable historic Anglican parish churches, all of which date back to the Middle Ages. The oldest and largest of these is St. Mary the Virgin, situated in the Lace Market. The church dates from the eighth or ninth centuries, but the present structure is at least the third building on the site, dating primarily from 1377 to 1485. A member of the Major Churches Network, St. Mary's is considered the mother church of the city and is used for holding civic services, including the annual welcome to the new Lord Mayor. In the heart of the city is St. Peter's, the oldest building in continuous use in Nottingham, with traces of building dating back to 1180. The third notable Anglican parish church is St. Nicholas', known locally as \"St. Nic's\", situated on the edge of the city centre in the direction of the castle.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 7436925, 18836, 25810244, 3921494, 816555, 14904330, 17177032 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 102 ], [ 134, 145 ], [ 182, 201 ], [ 407, 429 ], [ 460, 473 ], [ 606, 617 ], [ 761, 774 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are various chapels and meeting rooms in Nottingham. Many of the grand buildings have been demolished, including Halifax Place Wesleyan Chapel, but some have been re-used, notably High Pavement Chapel which is now a public house. The city has three Christadelphian meeting halls and is home to the national headquarters of the Congregational Federation.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 38056855, 17176761, 7586, 4543215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 148 ], [ 186, 206 ], [ 255, 270 ], [ 333, 358 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham is one of 18 British cities that do not have an Anglican cathedral. It is, however, home to the Roman Catholic Cathedral of St. Barnabas, which was designed by Augustus Pugin and consecrated in 1844. It is the cathedral church for the Roman Catholic Diocese of Nottingham.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 523052, 103268, 1185902, 6058553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 147 ], [ 171, 185 ], [ 190, 201 ], [ 261, 282 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Today, there are places of worship for all major religions, including Christianity and Islam with 32 mosques in Nottingham.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 6037917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham has 80,000 Christians, 30,000 Muslims, 15,000 Sikhs, 8,000 Hindus and 2,000 Jews.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The city of Nottingham has a population at 312,900 with the Greater Nottingham population at 729,977 and the Metro population at 1,543,000. The city of Nottingham has a density of 4,073/km2.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 1193776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "65.4% are White British, 13.1% Asian, 8.2% of West Indian origins, 6.1% are European/North American, 4.3% African, 1.6% Middle Eastern and 1.1% South/Central American. The city's population also has the largest proportion of any UK city identifying as mixed race, at 6.7% with 4% being mixed white and black Caribbean.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The BBC has its East Midlands headquarters in Nottingham on London Road. BBC East Midlands Today is broadcast from the city every weeknight at 6.30pm.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 19344654, 7942202, 680271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 7 ], [ 16, 29 ], [ 73, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1983 to 2005 Central Television (the ITV region for the east Midlands) had a studio complex on Lenton Lane, producing programmes for various networks and broadcasting regional news.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 222186, 58089 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 36 ], [ 42, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city was granted permission by Ofcom to establish its own local television station. After a tender process, Confetti College was awarded the licence. The station was declared open by Prince Harry in April 2013 and Notts TV began broadcasting in spring 2014.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 14457, 45473848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 187, 199 ], [ 218, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to the national commercial and BBC radio stations, the Nottingham area is served by licensed commercial radio stations (though all broadcast to a wider area than the city).", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Radio stations include:", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " BBC Radio Nottingham (103.8 FM & DAB)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 569578, 49257 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 34, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gold (AM & DAB) ", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 948066 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gem (106 FM & DAB)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 956129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Capital Midlands (96.2 FM & DAB)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 30242463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Smooth East Midlands (106.6 FM & DAB)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 10524121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kemet FM (97.5 FM)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 42138258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Radio Dawn (107.6 FM)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The city's two universities both broadcast their own student radio station. Fly FM is based at Nottingham Trent University's city campus and is broadcast online. The station originated in 1996 with its original name of Kick FM. University Radio Nottingham (URN) is broadcast around Nottingham University's main and Sutton Bonington campuses on medium wave (AM), as well as over the internet. URN was founded in 1979 after starting out with a slot on BBC Radio Nottingham in the late 1970s.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 524377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 228, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham's main local newspaper, the Nottingham Post, is owned by Local World and is published daily from Monday to Saturday each week.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 4888550, 11219998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 54 ], [ 68, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "LeftLion magazine (established 2003) is distributed for free across the city. Covering Nottingham culture including music, art, theatre, comedy, food and drink.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 6973675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Student tabloid The Tab also publishes online content and has teams at both universities.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 25546795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham has been used as a location in many locally, nationally, and internationally produced films. Movies that have been filmed (partly or entirely) in Nottingham include:", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Saturday Night and Sunday Morning (1960)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 504713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner (1962)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 17228730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Ragman's Daughter (1972)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 24159728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Robin Hood (1973)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 982180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Celebration (1975)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 18732149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Twenty Four Seven (1997)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 23904795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Once Upon a Time in the Midlands (2002)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 6395094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This Is England (2006)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 9199781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Magicians (2007)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 7287091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Control (2007)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 3909180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mum & Dad (2008)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 23058629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Easy Virtue (2008)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 16855103 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bronson (2009)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 20370386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Unloved (2009)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 22838836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Le Donk & Scor-zay-zee (2009)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 25418096 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Goal 3 (2009)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bunny and the Bull (2009)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 23632278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A Boy Called Dad (2009)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 26499171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Oranges and Sunshine (2010)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 28070112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Weekend (2011)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 33638304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Dark Knight Rises (2012)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 29075630 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nottingham is twinned with the following cities:", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 1155299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ljubljana, Slovenia (1963)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 42374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Minsk, Belarus (1966-2022)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 51593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Karlsruhe, Germany (1969)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 105036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Harare, Zimbabwe (1981)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 56680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ghent, Belgium (1985)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 12341 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ningbo, China (2005)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 250022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Timișoara, Romania (2008)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 60817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Krasnodar, Russia (2012-2022)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 474128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Września, Poland", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 386767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of public art in Nottingham", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 36531782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1185 East Midlands earthquake", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 45715924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Snotingas", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26838276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nottingham City Council", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Nottingham", "Cities_in_the_East_Midlands", "County_towns_in_England", "Local_government_districts_of_the_East_Midlands", "Local_government_in_Nottinghamshire", "Towns_in_Nottinghamshire", "Unitary_authority_districts_of_England", "Unparished_areas_in_Nottinghamshire", "Boroughs_in_England" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The history of what is now Alabama stems back thousands of years ago when it was inhabited by indigenous peoples. The Woodland period spanned from around 1000 BCE to 1000 CE, and was marked by the development of the Eastern Agricultural Complex. This was followed by the Mississippian culture of Native Americans, which lasted to around the 1600 CE. The first Europeans to make contact with Alabama were the Spanish, with the first permanent European settlement being Mobile, established by the French in 1702.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 303, 2402376, 2321316, 3992015, 1279493, 21217, 963152, 20952, 962731 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 34 ], [ 94, 112 ], [ 118, 133 ], [ 216, 244 ], [ 271, 292 ], [ 296, 312 ], [ 408, 415 ], [ 468, 474 ], [ 495, 501 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After being apart of the Mississippi Territory (1798–1817) and then the Alabama Territory (1817–1819), Alabama would became a U.S. state on December 14, 1819. After Indian Removal forcibly displaced most Southeast tribes to west of the Mississippi River to what was then called Indian Territory (now Oklahoma), European Americans arrived in large numbers, with some of them bringing or buying African Americans in the domestic slave trade.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 505982, 505888, 18618239, 15080, 19579, 57193, 605581, 2154, 6585135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 46 ], [ 72, 89 ], [ 126, 136 ], [ 165, 179 ], [ 236, 253 ], [ 278, 294 ], [ 311, 329 ], [ 393, 410 ], [ 427, 438 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the early to mid-19th century, the state's wealthy planter class considered slavery essential to their economy. As one of the largest slaveholding states, Alabama was among the first six states to secede from the Union. It declared its secession in January 1861, joining the Confederate States of America in February 1861. During the ensuing American Civil War (1861–1865) Alabama saw moderate levels of warfare and battles. Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation in 1863 freed all remaining enslaved people. The Southern capitulation in 1865 ended the Confederate state government, in which afterwards Alabama would transition into the Reconstruction era (1865–1877). During that time, its biracial government established the first public schools and welfare institutions in the state.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 28419612, 57736445, 17832214, 7023, 863, 6696388, 9515, 55040, 471603, 247817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 34 ], [ 56, 69 ], [ 241, 250 ], [ 280, 309 ], [ 347, 365 ], [ 378, 428 ], [ 440, 465 ], [ 639, 657 ], [ 735, 749 ], [ 754, 761 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For a half century following the Civil War, Alabama was mostly economically poor and heavily rural, with few industries within the state. Agriculture production, based primarily on cotton exports, would be the states main economic driver. Most farmers were tenant, sharecroppers or laborers who did not own land. Reconstruction ended when Democrats, calling themselves \"Redeemers\" regained control of the state legislature by both legal and extralegal means (including violence and harassment). In 1901, Southern Democrats in Alabama passed a state Constitution that effectively disfranchised most African Americans (who in 1900 comprised more than 45 percent of the state's population), as well as tens of thousands of poor whites in the state. By 1941, a total 600,000 poor whites and 520,000 African Americans had been disfranchised.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3088213, 1412346, 9704515, 36372771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 339, 348 ], [ 370, 379 ], [ 580, 616 ], [ 721, 732 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "African Americans living in Alabama in the early-to-mid 20th century experienced the inequities of disfranchisement, segregation, violence and underfunded schools. Tens of thousands of African Americans from Alabama joined the Great Migration out of the South from 1915 to 1930 and moved for better opportunities in industrial cities, mostly in the North and Midwest. The black exodus escalated steadily in the first three decades of the 20th century; 22,100 emigrated from 1900 to 1910; 70,800 between 1910 and 1920; and 80,700 between 1920 and 1930. As a result of African American disenfranchisement and rural white control of the legislature, state politics were dominated by Democrats, as part of the \"Solid South.\"", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 79906, 26316, 375540, 723054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 115 ], [ 117, 128 ], [ 227, 242 ], [ 707, 718 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Great Depression of the 1930s would hit Alabama's state economy hard. However, New Deal farm programs helped increase the price of cotton, bringing some economic relief. During and after World War II, Alabama started to see some economic prosperity, as the state developed a manufacturing and service base. In the mid-20th century cotton would fade in economic importance, with mechanization technologies, the reduced need for farm labor, as well as their now being new job opportunities in different industries. Following years of struggles, the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 abolished segregation, along with African Americans being able to again exercise their constitutional right to vote.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 19283335, 19283361, 32927, 34558, 173366, 188746, 55791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ], [ 83, 91 ], [ 191, 203 ], [ 322, 334 ], [ 382, 395 ], [ 566, 590 ], [ 595, 620 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the mid-to-late 20th century, the formation of NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, would help the states economic growth by developing an aerospace industry. In 1986, the election of Guy Hunt as governor marked a shift in Alabama toward becoming a Republican stronghold in Presidential elections; as its voters also leaned Republican in statewide elections. The Democratic Party still dominated many local and legislative offices, but total Democrat dominance had ended. In the early 21st century, Alabama's economy was fueled in part by aerospace, agriculture, auto production, and the service sector.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18426568, 113053, 104854, 154711, 814304, 32070, 18938115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 54 ], [ 57, 85 ], [ 89, 108 ], [ 165, 174 ], [ 210, 218 ], [ 275, 285 ], [ 511, 523 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At least 12,000 years ago, Native Americans or Paleo-Indians appeared in what is today referred to as \"The South\". Paleo-Indians in the Southeast were hunter-gatherers who pursued a wide range of animals, including the megafauna, which became extinct following the end of the Pleistocene age. Their diets were based primarily on plants, gathered and processed by women who learned about nuts, berries and other fruits, and the roots of many plants. The Woodland period from 1000 BCE to 1000 CE was marked by the development of pottery and the small-scale horticulture of the Eastern Agricultural Complex.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Indigenous peoples, early history", "target_page_ids": [ 1543485, 179553, 210098, 162780, 23310, 2321316, 3992015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 59 ], [ 103, 112 ], [ 151, 166 ], [ 219, 250 ], [ 276, 287 ], [ 453, 468 ], [ 575, 603 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Mississippian culture arose as the cultivation of Mesoamerican crops of corn and beans led to crop surpluses and population growth. Increased population density gave rise of urban centers and regional chiefdoms, of which the greatest was the city known as Cahokia, in present-day Illinois near the confluence of the Illinois and Mississippi rivers. The culture spread along the Ohio and Mississippi rivers and their tributaries. Its population of 20,000 to 30,000 at its peak exceeded that of any of the later European cities in North America until 1800. Stratified societies developed, with hereditary religious and political elites, and flourished in what is now the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States from 800 to 1500 C.E.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Indigenous peoples, early history", "target_page_ids": [ 1279493, 5301493, 1279334, 348454, 14849, 13457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 25 ], [ 54, 66 ], [ 205, 214 ], [ 260, 267 ], [ 284, 292 ], [ 596, 606 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Trade with the Northeast indigenous peoples via the Ohio River began during the Burial Mound Period (1000BC–AD700) and continued until European contact. The agrarian Mississippian culture covered most of the state from 1000 to 1600 AD, with one of its major centers being at the Moundville Archaeological Site in Moundville, Alabama, the second-largest complex of this period in the United States. Some 29 earthwork mounds survive at this site.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Indigenous peoples, early history", "target_page_ids": [ 22388, 52447, 1279493, 3099174, 104728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 62 ], [ 135, 151 ], [ 166, 187 ], [ 279, 309 ], [ 313, 332 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Analysis of artifacts recovered from archaeological excavations at Moundville were the basis of scholars' formulating the characteristics of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex (SECC). Contrary to popular belief, the SECC appears to have no direct links to Mesoamerican culture, but developed independently. The Ceremonial Complex represents a major component of the religion of the Mississippian peoples; it is one of the primary means by which their religion is understood.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Indigenous peoples, early history", "target_page_ids": [ 584894, 18951655, 2645499, 5301493, 25414 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 21 ], [ 37, 51 ], [ 145, 176 ], [ 257, 268 ], [ 367, 375 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The early historic Muscogee are considered likely descendants of the Mississippian culture along the Tennessee River in modern Tennessee, Georgia and Alabama. They may have been related to the Utinahica of southern Georgia. At the time the Spanish made their first forays inland from the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, many political centers of the Mississippians were already in decline, or abandoned.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Indigenous peoples, early history", "target_page_ids": [ 57190, 307186, 30395, 5273329, 26667, 21076367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 27 ], [ 101, 116 ], [ 127, 136 ], [ 193, 202 ], [ 240, 247 ], [ 302, 316 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Among the historical tribes of Native American people living in the area of present-day Alabama at the time of European contact were the Muskogean-speaking Alabama (Alibamu), Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, Koasati, and Mobile peoples. Also in the region were the Iroquoian-speaking Cherokee, from a different family and cultural group. They are believed to have migrated south at an earlier time from the Great Lakes area, based on their language's similarity to those of the Iroquois Confederacy and other Iroquoian-speaking tribes around the Great Lakes. The history of Alabama's Native American peoples is reflected in many of its place names.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Indigenous peoples, early history", "target_page_ids": [ 21217, 1255311, 1461870, 92809, 7222, 57190, 2591041, 21070, 676485, 50490, 31442931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 46 ], [ 137, 146 ], [ 156, 163 ], [ 175, 184 ], [ 186, 193 ], [ 195, 200 ], [ 202, 209 ], [ 215, 221 ], [ 259, 268 ], [ 278, 286 ], [ 626, 641 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Spanish were the first Europeans to enter Alabama, claiming land for their Crown. They named the region as La Florida, which extended to the southeast peninsular state now bearing the name.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "European colonization", "target_page_ids": [ 303, 2716954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 53 ], [ 111, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although a member of Pánfilo de Narváez's expedition of 1528 may have entered southern Alabama, the first fully documented visit was by explorer Hernando de Soto. In 1539 he made an arduous expedition along the Coosa, Alabama and Tombigbee rivers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "European colonization", "target_page_ids": [ 762556, 52739, 1217057, 1484, 697272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 39 ], [ 145, 161 ], [ 211, 216 ], [ 218, 225 ], [ 230, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Alabama region at the period of European contact is best described as a collection of moderately sized native chiefdoms (such as the Coosa chiefdom on the upper Coosa River and the Tuskaloosa chiefdom on the lower Coosa, Tallapoosa, and Alabama Rivers), interspersed with completely autonomous villages and tribal groups. Many of the settlements de Soto encountered had platform mounds and villages fortified with defensive palisades with bastions for archers. The South Appalachian Mississippian culture Big Eddy phase has been tentatively identified as the protohistoric Province of Tuskaloosa encountered by the de Soto expedition in 1540. The Big Eddy phase Taskigi Mound is a platform mound and fortified village site located at the confluence of the Coosa, Tallapoosa, and Alabama Rivers near Wetumpka, Alabama. It is preserved as part of the Fort Toulouse-Fort Jackson State Historic Site and is one of the locations included on the University of Alabama Museums \"Alabama Indigenous Mound Trail\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "European colonization", "target_page_ids": [ 1279334, 2785820, 1217057, 2273873, 1781892, 1484, 3422191, 153859, 286560, 1279493, 2416824, 64247460, 104681, 13846534, 327950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 122 ], [ 137, 151 ], [ 165, 176 ], [ 185, 204 ], [ 225, 235 ], [ 241, 254 ], [ 374, 388 ], [ 428, 436 ], [ 443, 450 ], [ 469, 508 ], [ 563, 576 ], [ 666, 679 ], [ 803, 820 ], [ 853, 899 ], [ 944, 973 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The English also laid claims to the region north of the Gulf of Mexico. Charles II of England included most of the territory of modern Alabama in the Province of Carolina, with land granted to certain of his favorites by the charters of 1663 and 1665. English traders from Carolina frequented the valley of the Alabama River as early as 1687 to trade for deerskins with the Native American peoples.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "European colonization", "target_page_ids": [ 21076367, 46688, 491064, 1484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 70 ], [ 72, 93 ], [ 150, 170 ], [ 311, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The French also colonized the region. In 1702 they founded a settlement on the Mobile River near its mouth, constructing Fort Louis. For the next nine years this was the French seat of government of New France, or La Louisiane (Louisiana). In 1711, they abandoned Fort Louis because of repeated flooding. Settlers rebuilt a fort on higher ground known as Fort Conde. This was the start of what developed as present-day Mobile, the first permanent European settlement in Alabama. Biloxi was another early French settlement on the Gulf Coast, to the west in what is now Mississippi.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "European colonization", "target_page_ids": [ 962731, 713643, 8249411, 18130, 8904193, 20952, 122281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ], [ 79, 91 ], [ 121, 131 ], [ 229, 238 ], [ 356, 366 ], [ 420, 426 ], [ 480, 486 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The French and the English contested the region, each attempting to forge strong alliances with Indian tribes. To strengthen their position, defend their Indian allies, and draw other tribes to them, the French established the military posts of Fort Toulouse, near the junction of the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers, and Fort Tombecbe on the Tombigbee River.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "European colonization", "target_page_ids": [ 13846534, 1781892, 11022219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 245, 258 ], [ 295, 305 ], [ 318, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The French and the English engaged in competition for Indian trade in what is now the state of Alabama between roughly the 1690s and the 1750s, at which point the French and Indian War broke out. It was the North American front of the Seven Years' War between these two nations in Europe. Though the French claimed the territory as their own and attempted to rule it from Fort Toulouse, so as to engage in trade with the Indians, English traders based out of the Carolinas infiltrated the region, also engaging in trade. The Chickasaw frequently favored the English in this contest. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "European colonization", "target_page_ids": [ 39062, 13846534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 184 ], [ 373, 386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Overall, during this time the English proved to be the better traders and colonizers. They operated independently, while the French government was more directly involved in its colonies. On this note Edmund Burke would later note that English colonists in America would owe their freedom more \"to [the Crown's] carelessness than to its design\". This was a policy referred to as \"salutary neglect\". The distance between the colonies and the home countries meant they could always operate with some freedom. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "European colonization", "target_page_ids": [ 10030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 200, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The English Crown's grant of Georgia to Oglethorpe and his associates in 1732 included a portion of what is now northern Alabama. In 1739, Oglethorpe visited the Creek Indians west of the Chattahoochee River and made a treaty with them.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "European colonization", "target_page_ids": [ 487081, 40772594, 57190, 273478, 30432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 36 ], [ 40, 50 ], [ 162, 175 ], [ 188, 207 ], [ 219, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1763 Treaty of Paris, which ended the Seven Years' War after France's defeat by Britain, resulted in France ceding its territories east of the Mississippi to Britain. Great Britain came into undisputed control of the region between the Chattahoochee and the Mississippi rivers, in terms of other European powers. Of course it had not consulted with any of the numerous indigenous peoples whom it nominally \"ruled.\" The portion of Alabama below the 31st parallel was considered a part of British West Florida. The British Crown defined the portion north of this line as part of the \"Illinois Country\"; the area west of the Appalachian Mountains was to be reserved for use by Native American tribes. European-American settlers were not supposed to encroach in that territory, but they soon did. In 1767, Britain expanded the province of West Florida northward to 32°28'N latitude.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "European colonization", "target_page_ids": [ 191924, 19039354, 158019, 273478, 19579, 18286939, 255272, 554924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 24 ], [ 42, 58 ], [ 171, 184 ], [ 240, 253 ], [ 262, 273 ], [ 452, 465 ], [ 499, 511 ], [ 586, 602 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "More than a decade later, during the American Revolutionary War, the British informally ceded this West Florida region to Spain. By the Treaty of Versailles, September 3, 1783, Great Britain formally ceded West Florida to Spain. By the Treaty of Paris (1783), signed the same day, Britain ceded to the newly established United States all of this province north of 31°N, thus laying the foundation for a long controversy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "European colonization", "target_page_ids": [ 771, 15032869, 191926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 63 ], [ 136, 156 ], [ 236, 258 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the Treaty of Madrid in 1795, Spain ceded to the United States the lands east of the Mississippi between 31°N and 32°28'N. Three years later, in 1798, Congress organized this district as the Mississippi Territory. A strip of land 12 or 14 miles wide near the present northern boundary of Alabama and Mississippi was claimed by South Carolina, as part of the eastern colonies' previous hopeful extensions to the west. In 1787, during constitutional negotiations, South Carolina ceded this claim to the federal government. Georgia likewise claimed all the lands between the 31st and 35th parallels from its present western boundary to the Mississippi River, and did not surrender its claim until 1802. Two years later, the boundaries of Mississippi Territory were extended so as to include all of the Georgia cession.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "European colonization", "target_page_ids": [ 271972, 505982, 27956, 8788959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 23 ], [ 194, 215 ], [ 330, 344 ], [ 584, 598 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1812, Congress added the Mobile District of West Florida to the Mississippi Territory, claiming that it was included in the Louisiana Purchase. The following year, General James Wilkinson occupied the Mobile District with a military force. The Spanish did not resist. Thus the whole area of the present state of Alabama was taken under the jurisdiction of the United States. Several powerful Native American tribes still occupied most of the land, with some formal ownership recognized by treaty with the United States. Five of the major tribes became known as the Five Civilized Tribes, as they had highly complex cultures and adopted some elements of European-American culture.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "European colonization", "target_page_ids": [ 2359413, 17628, 397987, 160925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 43 ], [ 127, 145 ], [ 175, 190 ], [ 568, 589 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1817, the Mississippi Territory was divided. The western portion, which had attracted population more quickly, became the state of Mississippi. The eastern portion became the Alabama Territory, with St. Stephens on the Tombigbee River as its temporary seat of government.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "European colonization", "target_page_ids": [ 16949861, 505888, 1758528, 697272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 145 ], [ 178, 195 ], [ 202, 214 ], [ 222, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Conflict between the various tribes in Alabama and American settlers increased rapidly in the early 19th century because the Americans kept encroaching on Native American territories. The great Shawnee chief Tecumseh visited the region in 1811, seeking to forge an Indian alliance among these tribes to join his resistance in the Great Lakes area. With the outbreak of the War of 1812, Britain encouraged Tecumseh's resistance movement, in the hope of expelling American settlers from west of the Appalachians. Several tribes were divided in opinion.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "European colonization", "target_page_ids": [ 586227, 200966, 34059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 194, 201 ], [ 208, 216 ], [ 373, 384 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Creek tribe fell to civil war (1813–1814). Violence between Creeks and Americans escalated, culminating in the Fort Mims massacre. Full-scale war between the United States and the \"Red Stick\" Creeks began; they were the more traditional members of their society who resisted US encroachment. The Chickasaw, Choctaw, Cherokee Nation and other Creek factions remained neutral to or allied with the United States during the war; they were highly decentralized in bands' alliances. Some warriors from among the bands served with American troops. Volunteer militias from Georgia, South Carolina and Tennessee marched into Alabama, fighting the Red Sticks.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "European colonization", "target_page_ids": [ 419167, 2336647, 28800640 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 33 ], [ 115, 133 ], [ 320, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later, federal troops became the main fighting force for the United States. General Andrew Jackson was the commander of the American forces during the Creek War and in the continuing effort against the British in the War of 1812. His leadership and military success during the wars made him a national hero. The Treaty of Fort Jackson (August 9, 1814) ended the Creek War. By the terms of the treaty, the Creek, Red Sticks and neutrals alike, ceded about one-half of the present state of Alabama to the United States. Due to later cessions by the Cherokee, Chickasaw and Choctaw in 1816, they retained only about one-quarter of their former territories in Alabama.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "European colonization", "target_page_ids": [ 1623, 1857347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 98 ], [ 312, 334 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1819, Alabama was admitted as the 22nd state to the Union. Its constitution provided for equal suffrage for white men, a standard it abandoned in its constitution of 1901, which reduced suffrage of poor whites and most blacks, disenfranchising tens of thousands of voters.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early statehood", "target_page_ids": [ 70322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the first problems of the new state was finance. Since the amount of money in circulation was not sufficient to meet the demands of the increasing population, a system of state banks was instituted. State bonds were issued and public lands were sold to secure capital, and the notes of the banks, loaned on security, became a medium of exchange. Prospects of an income from the banks led the legislature of 1836 to abolish all taxation for state purposes. The Panic of 1837 wiped out a large portion of the banks' assets, leaving the state poor. Next came revelations of grossly careless and corrupt management. In 1843 the banks were placed in liquidation. After disposing of all their available assets, the state assumed the remaining liabilities, for which it had pledged its faith and credit.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early statehood", "target_page_ids": [ 225600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 467, 480 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1830 Congress passed the Indian Removal Act under the leadership of President Andrew Jackson, authorizing federal removal of southeastern tribes to west of the Mississippi River, including the Five Civilized Tribes of Creek, Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Seminole (in Florida). In 1832, the national government provided for the removal of the Creek via the Treaty of Cusseta. Before the removal occurred between 1834 and 1837, the state legislature organized counties in the lands to be ceded, and European-American settlers flocked in before the Native Americans had left.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early statehood", "target_page_ids": [ 198876, 15080, 185004, 2797996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 46 ], [ 117, 124 ], [ 262, 270 ], [ 364, 381 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Until 1832, the Democratic-Republican Party was the only one in the state, descended from the time of Jefferson. Disagreements over whether a state could nullify a federal law caused a division within the Democratic party. About the same time the Whig party emerged as an opposition party. It drew support from planters and townsmen, while the Democrats were strongest among poor farmers and Catholic communities (descendants of French and Spanish colonists) in the Mobile area. For some time, the Whigs were almost as numerous as the Democrats, but they never secured control of the state government. The States' Rights faction were in a minority; nevertheless, under their persistent leader, William L. Yancey (1814–1863), they prevailed upon the Democrats in 1848 to adopt their most radical views.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early statehood", "target_page_ids": [ 13872629, 32078, 1209820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 154, 161 ], [ 247, 257 ], [ 694, 711 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the agitation over the Wilmot Proviso, which would bar slavery from territory acquired from Mexico as a result of the Mexican War (1848), Yancey induced the Democratic State Convention of 1848 to adopt what was known as the \"Alabama Platform\". It declared that neither Congress nor the government of a territory had the right to interfere with slavery in a territory, that those who held opposite views were not Democrats, and that the Democrats of Alabama would not support a candidate for the presidency if he did not agree with them. This platform was endorsed by conventions in Florida and Virginia and by the legislatures of Georgia and Alabama.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early statehood", "target_page_ids": [ 55576, 3966054, 21073732, 1209820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 44 ], [ 99, 105 ], [ 125, 136 ], [ 232, 248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In antebellum Alabama, wealthy planters created large cotton plantations based in the fertile central Black Belt of the upland region, which depended on the labor of enslaved Africans. Tens of thousands of slaves were transported to and sold in the state by slave traders who purchased them in the Upper South. In the mountains and foothills, poorer whites practiced subsistence farming. By 1860 blacks (nearly all slaves) comprised 45 percent of the state's 964,201 people.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early statehood", "target_page_ids": [ 31510137, 2013039, 6020545, 49005, 8152135, 323964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 72 ], [ 102, 112 ], [ 175, 183 ], [ 258, 271 ], [ 298, 309 ], [ 367, 386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tensions related to slavery divided many state delegations in Congress, as this body tried to determine the futures of territories beyond the Mississippi River. Following the Congressional passage of the Compromise of 1850, which assigned certain territories as slave or free, in Alabama people began to realign politically. The States' Rights faction, joined by many Democrats, founded the Southern Rights Party, which demanded the repeal of the Compromise, advocated resistance to future encroachments, and prepared for secession. The Whigs were joined by the remaining Democrats and called themselves the \"Unionists\". The party unwillingly accepted the Compromise and denied that the Constitution provided for secession.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early statehood", "target_page_ids": [ 45976, 52333881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 204, 222 ], [ 391, 412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the turn of the 19th century, development of large cotton plantations had taken place across the upland Black Belt after the invention of the cotton gin made short-staple cotton profitable. Cotton had added dramatically to the state's wealth. The owners' wealth depended on the labor of hundreds of thousands of enslaved African Americans, many initially transported in the domestic trade from the Upper South, which resulted in one million workers being relocated to the South. In other parts of the state, the soil supported only subsistence farming. Most of the yeoman farmers owned few or no slaves. By 1860 the investment and profits in cotton production resulted in planters holding 435,000 enslaved African Americans, who made up 45% of the state's population.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early statehood", "target_page_ids": [ 47710, 68442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 158 ], [ 571, 577 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the time of statehood, the early Alabama settlers adopted universal white suffrage. They were noted for a spirit of frontier democracy and egalitarianism, but this declined after the slave society developed. J. Mills Thornton argues that Whigs worked for positive state action to benefit society as a whole, while the Democrats feared any increase of power in government or in state-sponsored institutions as central banks. Fierce political battles raged in Alabama on issues ranging from banking to the removal of the Creek Indians. Thornton suggested the overarching issue in the state was how to protect liberty and equality for white people. Fears that Northern agitators threatened their value system and slavery as the basis of their wealthy economy made voters ready to secede when Abraham Lincoln was elected in 1860.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early statehood", "target_page_ids": [ 307 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 792, 807 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The \"Unionists\" were successful in the elections of 1851 and 1852. Passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill and uncertainty about agitation against slavery led the State Democratic convention of 1856 to revive the \"Alabama Platform\". When the Democratic National Convention at Charleston, South Carolina, failed to approve the \"Alabama Platform\" in 1860, the Alabama delegates, followed by those of the other \"cotton states\", withdrew. Upon the election of Abraham Lincoln, Governor Andrew B. Moore, as previously instructed by the legislature, called a state convention. Many prominent men had opposed secession. In North Alabama, there was an attempt to organize a neutral state to be called Nickajack. With President Lincoln's call to arms in April 1861, most opposition to secession ended.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Secession and Civil War (1861–1865)", "target_page_ids": [ 17042, 61024, 307, 841324, 2076134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 102 ], [ 272, 298 ], [ 452, 467 ], [ 478, 493 ], [ 689, 698 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On January 11, 1861, the State of Alabama adopted the ordinances of secession from the Union (by a vote of 61–39). Alabama joined the Confederate States of America, whose government was first organized at Montgomery on February 4, 1861. The CSA set up its temporary capital in Montgomery and selected Jefferson Davis as president. In May 1861, the Confederate government abandoned Montgomery before the sickly season began and relocated to Richmond, Virginia, the capital of that state. During the ensuing American Civil War Alabama had moderate levels of warfare.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Secession and Civil War (1861–1865)", "target_page_ids": [ 7023, 57690, 16134, 53274, 863, 6696388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 163 ], [ 205, 215 ], [ 301, 316 ], [ 440, 458 ], [ 506, 524 ], [ 525, 563 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Governor Moore energetically supported the Confederate war effort. Even before hostilities began, he seized Federal facilities, sent agents to buy rifles in the Northeast and scoured the state for weapons. Despite some resistance in the northern part of the state, Alabama joined the Confederate States of America (CSA). Congressman Williamson R. W. Cobb was a Unionist and pleaded for compromise. When he ran for the Confederate congress in 1861, he was defeated. (In 1863, with war-weariness growing in Alabama, he was elected on a wave of antiwar sentiment.)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Secession and Civil War (1861–1865)", "target_page_ids": [ 8294314, 42275041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 333, 354 ], [ 481, 494 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some idea of the current transportation patterns and severe internal logistic problems faced by the Confederacy can be seen by tracing Jefferson Davis' journey from his plantation in Mississippi to Montgomery. With few roads and railroads, he traveled by steamboat from his plantation on the Mississippi River down to Vicksburg, where he boarded a train to Jackson, Mississippi. He took another train north to Grand Junction, then a third train east to Chattanooga, Tennessee and a fourth train south to the main hub at Atlanta, Georgia. He took another train to the Alabama border and a last one to Montgomery in the center of the state.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Secession and Civil War (1861–1865)", "target_page_ids": [ 178690, 122459, 16167, 102797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 255, 264 ], [ 318, 327 ], [ 357, 377 ], [ 453, 475 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the war proceeded, the Federals seized ports along the Mississippi River, burned trestles and railroad bridges and tore up track. The frail Confederate railroad system faltered and virtually collapsed for want of repairs and replacement parts.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Secession and Civil War (1861–1865)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the early part of the Civil War, Alabama was not the scene of military operations. The state contributed about 120,000 men to the Confederate service, practically all the white male population capable of bearing arms. Most soldiers were recruited locally and served with men they knew, which built esprit and strengthened ties to home. Medical conditions were severe for all soldiers. About 15% of fatalities were from disease, more than the 10% from battle. Alabama had few well-equipped hospitals, but it had many women who volunteered to nurse the sick and wounded. Soldiers were poorly equipped, especially after 1863. Often they pillaged the dead for boots, belts, canteens, blankets, hats, shirts and pants.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Secession and Civil War (1861–1865)", "target_page_ids": [ 293722 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Uncounted thousands of slaves were impressed to work for Confederate troops; they took care of horses and equipment, cooked and did laundry, hauled supplies, and helped in field hospitals. Other slaves built defensive installations, especially those around Mobile. They graded roads, repaired railroads, drove supply wagons, and labored in iron mines, iron foundries and even in the munitions factories. The service of slaves was involuntary: their unpaid labor was impressed from their unpaid masters. About 10,000 slaves within the state escaped and joined the Union army.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Secession and Civil War (1861–1865)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Around 2,700 white men from Alabama who were adherent Southern Unionists served in the Union Army, many of whom served in the 1st Alabama Cavalry Regiment.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Secession and Civil War (1861–1865)", "target_page_ids": [ 12465444, 360126, 7599279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 72 ], [ 87, 97 ], [ 126, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thirty-nine Alabamians attained flag rank, most notably Lieutenant General James Longstreet and Admiral Raphael Semmes. Josiah Gorgas, who came to Alabama from Pennsylvania, was the chief of ordnance for the Confederacy. He located new munitions plants in Selma, which employed 10,000 workers until the Union soldiers burned the factories down in 1865. Selma Arsenal made most of the Confederacy's ammunition. The Selma Naval Ordnance Works made artillery, turning out a cannon every five days. The Confederate Naval Yard built ships and was noted for launching the CSS Tennessee in 1863 to defend Mobile Bay. Selma's Confederate Nitre Works procured niter for the Nitre and Mining Bureau for gunpowder, from limestone caves. When supplies were low, it advertised for housewives to save the contents of their chamber pots—as urine was a rich source of nitrogen.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Secession and Civil War (1861–1865)", "target_page_ids": [ 1591482, 49588, 296071, 4174267, 100580, 1160221, 45351255, 21175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 41 ], [ 75, 91 ], [ 104, 118 ], [ 120, 133 ], [ 256, 261 ], [ 566, 579 ], [ 665, 688 ], [ 852, 860 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1863, Union forces secured a foothold in northern Alabama in spite of the opposition of General Nathan B. Forrest. From 1861, the Union blockade shut Mobile, and, in 1864, the outer defenses of Mobile were taken by a Union fleet; the city itself held out until April 1865.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Secession and Civil War (1861–1865)", "target_page_ids": [ 49597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alabama soldiers fought in hundreds of battles; the state's losses at the Battle of Gettysburg were 1,750 dead plus more captured or wounded; the \"Alabama Brigade\" took 781 casualties. Governor Lewis E. Parsons in July 1865 made a preliminary estimate of losses. Nearly all the eligible white men served either through enlistment or conscription, numbering around 122,000, of whom 35,000 died during the war and another 30,000 being seriously disabled. The next year Governor Robert M. Patton estimated that 20,000 veterans had returned home with permanent disabilities. With cotton prices low, the value of farms shrank, from $176 million in 1860 to only $64 million in 1870. The livestock supply shrank too, as the number of horses fell from 127,000 to 80,000, and mules from 111,000 to 76,000. The overall population growth remained the same, the growth that might have been expected was neutralized by death and emigration out of the state.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Secession and Civil War (1861–1865)", "target_page_ids": [ 4849, 841301, 841297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 94 ], [ 194, 210 ], [ 476, 492 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the Presidential plan of reorganization, a provisional governor for Alabama was appointed in June 1865. A state convention met in September of the same year, and declared the ordinance of secession null and void and slavery abolished. A legislature and a governor were elected in November, and the legislature was at once recognized by President Andrew Johnson, but not by Congress, which refused to seat the delegation. Johnson ordered the army to allow the inauguration of the governor after the legislature ratified the Thirteenth Amendment in December, 1865. But the legislature's passage of Black Codes to control the freedmen who were flocking from the plantations to the towns, and its rejection of the Fourteenth Amendment to grant suffrage, intensified Congressional hostility to the Presidential plan.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reconstruction (1865–1875)", "target_page_ids": [ 1624, 31665, 1178134, 13149886, 31666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 359, 373 ], [ 536, 556 ], [ 609, 620 ], [ 636, 644 ], [ 723, 743 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1867, the congressional plan of Reconstruction was completed and Alabama was placed under military government. The freedmen were enrolled as voters. Only whites who could swear the Ironclad oath could be voters; that is they had to swear they had never voluntarily supported the Confederacy. This provision was insisted upon by the whites in the northern hill counties so they could control local government. As a result, Republicans controlled 96 of the 100 seats in the state constitutional convention. The new Republican party, made up of freedmen, southern white Union sympathizers (scalawags), and northerners who had settled in the South (carpetbaggers), took control two years after the war ended. The constitutional convention in November 1867 framed a constitution which conferred universal manhood suffrage and imposed the iron-clad oath, so that whites who had supported the Confederacy were temporarily prohibited from holding office. The Reconstruction Acts of Congress required every new constitution to be ratified by a majority of the legal voters of the state. Most whites boycotted the polls and the new constitution fell short. Congress enacted that a majority of the votes cast should be sufficient. Thus the constitution went into effect, the state was readmitted to the Union in June 1868, and a new governor and legislature were elected.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reconstruction (1865–1875)", "target_page_ids": [ 55040, 5690199, 2109618, 13149886, 12465444, 396957, 491908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 49 ], [ 184, 197 ], [ 349, 371 ], [ 545, 553 ], [ 570, 575 ], [ 590, 599 ], [ 648, 661 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many whites resisted postwar changes, complaining that the Republican governments were notable for legislative extravagance and corruption. But the Republican biracial coalition created the first system of public education in the state, which would benefit poor white children as well as freedmen. They also created charitable public institutions, such as hospitals and orphanages, to benefit all citizens. The planters had not made public investment but kept their wealth for themselves. As the state tried to improve institutions and infrastructure for the future, the state debt and state taxes rose. The state endorsed railway bonds at the rate of $12,000 and $16,000 a mile until the state debt had increased from eight million to seventeen million dollars. The native whites united, peeling many Alabama Scalawags away from the Republican coalition, and elected a governor and a majority of the lower house of the legislature in 1870, in an election characterized by widespread violence and fraud. As the new administration was overall a failure, in 1872, voters re-elected Republicans.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reconstruction (1865–1875)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By 1874, however, the power of the Republicans was broken, and Democrats regained power in all state offices. A commission appointed to examine the state debt found it to be $25,503,000; by compromise, it was reduced to $15,000,000. A new constitution was adopted in 1875, which omitted the guarantee of the previous constitution that no one should be denied suffrage on account of race, color or previous condition of servitude. Its provisions forbade the state to engage in internal improvements or to give its credit to any private enterprise, an anti-industrial stance that persisted and limited the state's progress for decades into the 20th century.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reconstruction (1865–1875)", "target_page_ids": [ 838942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 476, 497 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the South, the interpretation of the tumultuous 1860s has differed sharply by race. Americans often interpreted great events in religious terms. Historian Wilson Fallin contrasts the interpretation of Civil War and Reconstruction in white versus black using Baptist sermons in Alabama. White preachers expressed the view that:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reconstruction (1865–1875)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " God had chastised them and given them a special mission – to maintain orthodoxy, strict biblicism, personal piety and traditional race relations. Slavery, they insisted, had not been sinful. Rather, emancipation was a historical tragedy, and the end of Reconstruction was a clear sign of God's favor.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reconstruction (1865–1875)", "target_page_ids": [ 5575410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 200, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In sharp contrast, black preachers interpreted the Civil War, emancipation and Reconstruction as:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reconstruction (1865–1875)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " God's gift of freedom. They appreciated opportunities to exercise their independence, to worship in their own way, to affirm their worth and dignity and to proclaim the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man. Most of all, they could form their own churches, associations and conventions. These institutions offered self-help, racial uplift and provided places where the gospel of liberation could be proclaimed. As a result, black preachers continued to insist that God would protect and help them: God would be their rock in a stormy land.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reconstruction (1865–1875)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After 1874, the Democratic party had constant control of the state administration. The Republican Party by then was chiefly supported by African Americans. Republicans held no local or state offices, but the party did have some federal patronage. It failed to make nominations for office in 1878 and 1880 and endorsed the ticket of the Greenback party in 1882.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Democratic politics and disfranchisement", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The development of mining and manufacturing was accompanied by economic distress among the farming classes, which found expression in the Jeffersonian Democratic party, organized in 1892. The regular Democratic ticket was elected and the new party was merged into the Populist party. In 1894, the Republicans united with the Populists, elected three congressional representatives, and secured control of many of the counties. They did not succeed in carrying the state. They Populist coalition had less success in the next campaigns. Partisanship became intense, and Democratic charges of corruption of the black electorate were matched by Republican and Populist accusations of fraud and violence by Democrats.<ref>William Warren Rogers, \"The Farmers Alliance in Alabama,\" Alabama Review' 15 (1962): 5–18.</ref>", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Democratic politics and disfranchisement", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Despite opposition by Republicans and Populists, Democrats completed their dominance with passage of a new constitution in 1901 that restricted suffrage and effectively disenfranchised most African Americans and many poor whites, through requirements for voter registration, such as poll taxes, literacy tests and restrictive residency requirements. From 1900 to 1903, the number of white registered voters fell by more than 40,000, from 232,821 to 191,492, despite a growth in population. By 1941 a total of more whites than blacks had been disenfranchised: 600,000 whites to 520,000 blacks. This was due mostly to effects of the cumulative poll tax.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Democratic politics and disfranchisement", "target_page_ids": [ 26726864, 667884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 283, 293 ], [ 295, 309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The damage to the African-American community was severe and pervasive, as nearly all its eligible citizens lost the ability to vote. In 1900 45% of Alabama's population were African American: 827,545 citizens. In 1900 fourteen Black Belt counties (which were primarily African American) had more than 79,000 voters on the rolls. By June 1, 1903, the number of registered voters had dropped to 1,081. While Dallas and Lowndes counties were each 75% black, between them only 103 African-American voters managed to register. In 1900 Alabama had more than 181,000 African Americans eligible to vote. By 1903 only 2,980 had managed to \"qualify\" to register, although at least 74,000 black voters were literate. The shut out was long-lasting. The effects of segregation suffered by African Americans were severe. At the end of WWII, for instance, in the black Collegeville community of Birmingham, only eleven voters in a population of 8,000 African Americans were deemed \"eligible\" to register to vote. Disfranchisement also meant that blacks and poor whites could not serve on juries, so were subject to a justice system in which they had no part.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Democratic politics and disfranchisement", "target_page_ids": [ 77381, 80782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 406, 412 ], [ 417, 424 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Progressive Movement in Alabama, while not as colorful or successful as in some other states, drew upon the energies of a rapidly growing middle class, and flourished from 1900 to the late 1920s. B. B. Comer (1848–1927) was the state's most prominent progressive leader, especially during his term as governor (1907–1911). Middle-class reformers placed high on their agenda the regulation of railroads, and a better school system, with compulsory education and the prohibition of child labor. Comer sought 20 different railroad laws, to strengthen the railroad commission, reduce free passes handed out to grasping politicians, lobbying, and secret rebates to favored shippers. The Legislature approved his package, except for a provision that tried to forbid freight trains operating on Sundays. The result was a reduction in both freight and passenger rates. Railroads fought back vigorously in court, and in the arena of public opinion. The issue was fiercely debated for years, making Alabama laggard among the southern states in terms of controlling railroad rates. Finally in 1914 a compromise was reached, in which the railroads accepted the reduced passenger rates, but were free to seek higher freight rates through the court system.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Progressive era (1900–1930)", "target_page_ids": [ 26636309, 841216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 24 ], [ 201, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Progressive reforms cost money, especially for the improved school system. Eliminating the inefficiencies of the tax collection system helped a bit. Reformers wanted to end the convict lease system, but it was producing a profit to the government of several hundred thousand dollars a year. That was too lucrative to abolish; however the progressives did move control over convict lease from the counties to a statewide system. Finally the legislature increased statewide funding for the schools, and established the policy of at least one high school in every county; by 1911 half the counties operated public high schools for whites. Compulsory education was opposed by working-class families who wanted their children to earn money, and who distrusted the schooling the middle class was so insistent upon. But it finally passed in 1915; it was enforced for whites only and did not apply to farms. By 1910 Alabama still lagged with 62 percent of its children in school, compared to a national average of 71 percent.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Progressive era (1900–1930)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The progressives worked hard to upgrade the hospital and public health system, with provisions to require the registration of births and deaths to provide the information needed. When the Rockefeller Foundation identified the hookworm as a critical element in draining energy out of Southern workers, Alabama discovered hookworm cases in every county, with rates as high as 60 percent. The progressive genius for organization and devotion to the public good was least controversial in the public health area and probably most successful there. Prohibition was a favorite reform for Protestant churches across this entire country, and from the 1870s to the 1920s, Alabama passed a series of more restrictive laws that were demanded by the Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) and other reform elements.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Progressive era (1900–1930)", "target_page_ids": [ 101759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 739, 773 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Middle-class business and professional activists in the cities were frustrated with the old-fashioned politicized city governments and demanded a commission formed in which municipal affairs would be very largely run by experts rather than politicians. Emmet O'Neal, elected governor in 1910, made the commission system his favored reform, and secured its passage by the legislature in 1911. The cities of Birmingham, Montgomery and Mobile quickly adopted the commission form", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Progressive era (1900–1930)", "target_page_ids": [ 841214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 254, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Women energized by the prohibition wars turned their crusading energies to woman suffrage. They were unable to overcome male supremacy until the national movement passed the 19th amendment and they got the vote in 1920.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Progressive era (1900–1930)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Birmingham was founded on June 1, 1871 by real estate promoters who sold lots near the planned crossing of the Alabama & Chattanooga and South & North railroads. The site was notable for the nearby deposits of iron ore, coal and limestone—the three principal raw materials used in making steel. Its founders adopted the name of England's principal industrial city to advertise the new city as a center of iron and steel production. Despite outbreaks of cholera, the population of this 'Pittsburgh of the South' grew from 38,000 to 132,000 from 1900 to 1910, attracting rural white and black migrants from all over the region. Birmingham experienced such rapid growth that it was nicknamed \"The Magic City.\" By the 1920s, Birmingham was the 19th largest city in the U.S and held more than 30% of the population of the state. Heavy industry and mining were the basis of the economy. Chemical and structural constraints limited the quality of steel produced from Alabama's iron and coal. These materials did, however, combine to make ideal foundry iron. Because of low transportation and labor costs, Birmingham quickly became the largest and cheapest foundry iron-producing area. By 1915, twenty-five percent of the nation's foundry pig iron was produced in Birmingham.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Progressive era (1900–1930)", "target_page_ids": [ 85427, 19178484, 7591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 111, 132 ], [ 453, 460 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite Birmingham's powerful industrial growth and its contributions to the state economy, its citizens, and those of other newly developing areas, were underrepresented in the state legislature for years. The rural-dominated legislature refused to redistrict state House and Senate seats from 1901 to the 1960s. In addition, the state legislature had a senate based on one for each county. The state legislative delegations controlled counties. This led to a stranglehold on the state by a white rural minority. The contemporary interests of urbanizing, industrial cities and tens of thousands of citizens were not adequately represented in the government. One result was that Jefferson County, home of Birmingham's industrial and economic powerhouse, contributed more than one-third of all tax revenue to the state. It received back only 1/67th of the tax money, as the state legislature ensured taxes were distributed equally to each county regardless of population.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "New South era beginnings (1914–1945)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From 1910 to 1940, tens of thousands of African Americans migrated out of Alabama in the Great Migration to seek jobs, education for their children, and freedom from lynching in northern and midwestern cities, such as St. Louis, Chicago, Detroit, and Cleveland. These cities had many industrial jobs, but the migrants also had to compete with new waves of European immigrants. The rate of population growth in Alabama dropped from 20.8% in 1900 and 16.9% in 1910, to 9.8% in 1920, reflecting the impact of the outmigration. Formal disenfranchisement was ended only after the mid-1960s after African Americans led the Civil Rights Movement and gaining Federal legislation to protect their voting and civil rights. But the state devised new ways to reduce their political power. By that time, African Americans comprised a smaller minority than at the turn of the century, and a majority in certain rural counties.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "New South era beginnings (1914–1945)", "target_page_ids": [ 375540, 100416, 27687, 6886, 8687, 5951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 104 ], [ 166, 174 ], [ 218, 227 ], [ 229, 236 ], [ 238, 245 ], [ 251, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A rapid pace of change across the country, especially in growing cities, combined with new waves of immigration and migration of rural whites and blacks to cities, all contributed to a volatile social environment and the rise of a second Ku Klux Klan (KKK) in the South and Midwest after 1915. In many areas it represented itself as a fraternal group to give aid to a community. Feldman (1999) has shown that the second KKK was not a mere hate group; it showed a genuine desire for political and social reform on behalf of poor whites. For example, Alabama Klansmen such as Hugo Black were among the foremost advocates of better public schools, effective Prohibition enforcement, expanded road construction, and other \"progressive\" measures to benefit poor whites. By 1925, the Klan was a powerful political force in the state, as urban politicians such as J. Thomas Heflin, David Bibb Graves, and Hugo Black manipulated the KKK membership against the power of the \"Big Mule\" industrialists and especially the Black Belt planters who had long dominated the state.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "New South era beginnings (1914–1945)", "target_page_ids": [ 16779, 150063, 765928, 841200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 238, 250 ], [ 574, 584 ], [ 857, 873 ], [ 875, 892 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1926, Democrat Bibb Graves, a former chapter head, won the governor's office with KKK members' support. He led one of the most progressive administrations in the state's history, pushing for increased education funding, better public health, new highway construction, and pro-labor legislation. At the same time, KKK vigilantes—thinking they enjoyed governmental protection—launched a wave of physical terror across Alabama in 1927, targeting both blacks and whites. The Republicans responded: The major newspapers kept up a steady, loud attack on the Klan as violent and un-American. Sheriffs cracked down on Klan violence, and a national scandal among Klan leaders in the 1920s turned many members away. The state voted for Democrat Al Smith in 1928, although he was Roman Catholic (a target of the KKK). The Klan's official membership plunged to under six thousand by 1930.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "New South era beginnings (1914–1945)", "target_page_ids": [ 841200, 172040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 29 ], [ 738, 746 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During World War II, most of Alabama would contribute its vast agricultural resources for the war effort, with Birmingham contributing industrial resources. The iron and steel industries in Birmingham smoothly transitioned to wartime production, with furnaces that had closed during the Great Depression reopening to meet the demands of War Production Board contracts. Alabama's Ingalls Iron Works became a leader in the construction of Liberty ships, launching the first fully welded ship in October 1940, helping revolutionize the ship building industry.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "New South era beginnings (1914–1945)", "target_page_ids": [ 32927, 85427, 198201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ], [ 111, 121 ], [ 437, 450 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Economically, the major force in Alabama was the mechanization and consolidation of agriculture. Mechanical cotton pickers became available in the postwar era, reducing the need for many agricultural workers. They tended to move into the region's urban areas. Still, by 1963, only about a third of the state's cotton was picked by machine. Diversification from cotton into soybeans, poultry and dairy products also drove more poor people off the land. In the state's thirty-five Appalachian counties, twenty-one lost population between 1950 and 1960. What was once a rural state became more industrial and urban.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Civil Rights Movement and redistricting (1945–1975)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Following service in World War II, many African-American veterans became activists for civil rights, wanting their rights under the law as citizens. The Montgomery bus boycott from 1955 to 1956 was one of the most significant African-American protests against the policy of racial segregation in the state. Although constituting a majority of bus passengers, African Americans were discriminated against in seating policy. The protest nearly brought the city bus system to bankruptcy and changes were negotiated. The legal challenge was settled in Browder v. Gayle (1956), a case in which the United States District Court for the Middle District of Alabama found the segregation policy to be unconstitutional under Fourteenth Amendment provisions for equal treatment; it ordered that public transit in Alabama be desegregated.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Civil Rights Movement and redistricting (1945–1975)", "target_page_ids": [ 151226, 3026045, 882522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 175 ], [ 548, 564 ], [ 593, 656 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The rural white minority's hold on the legislature continued, however, suppressing attempts by more progressive elements to modernize the state. A study in 1960 concluded that because of rural domination, \"A minority of about 25 per cent of the total state population is in majority control of the Alabama legislature.\" Given the legislature's control of the county governments, the rural interests had even more power. Legislators and others filed suit in the 1960s to secure redistricting and reapportionment. It took years and Federal court intervention to achieve the redistricting necessary to establishing \"one man, one vote\" representation, as a result of Baker v. Carr (1962) and Reynolds v. Sims (1964). The court ruled that, in addition to the states having to redistrict to reflect decennial censuses in congressional districts, both houses of state governments had to be based on representation by population districts, rather than by geographic county as the state senate had been, as the senate's make-up prevented equal representation. These court decisions caused redistricting in many northern and western states as well as the South, where often rural interests had long dominated state legislatures and prevented reform.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Civil Rights Movement and redistricting (1945–1975)", "target_page_ids": [ 1895016, 246769, 855488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 613, 630 ], [ 663, 676 ], [ 688, 704 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1960 on the eve of important civil rights battles, 30% of Alabama's population was African American or 980,000.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Civil Rights Movement and redistricting (1945–1975)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As Birmingham was the center of industry and population in Alabama, in 1963 civil rights leaders chose to mount a campaign there for desegregation. Schools, restaurants and department stores were segregated; no African Americans were hired to work in the stores where they shopped or in the city government supported in part by their taxes. There were no African-American members of the police force. Despite segregation, African Americans had been advancing economically. But from 1947 to 1965, Birmingham suffered \"about 50 racially motivated bomb attacks.\" Independent groups affiliated with the KKK bombed transitional residential neighborhoods to discourage blacks' moving into them; in 19 cases, they bombed black churches with congregations active in civil rights, and the homes of their ministers.)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Civil Rights Movement and redistricting (1945–1975)", "target_page_ids": [ 16779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 599, 602 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To help with the campaign and secure national attention, the Rev. Fred Shuttlesworth invited members of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) to Birmingham to help change its leadership's policies, as non-violent action had produced good results in some other cities. The Reverends Martin Luther King Jr. and Wyatt Tee Walker, SCLC's president and executive director, respectively, joined other civil rights movement leaders who travelled to Birmingham to help.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Civil Rights Movement and redistricting (1945–1975)", "target_page_ids": [ 1401672, 430598, 20076, 1566357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 84 ], [ 108, 148 ], [ 296, 318 ], [ 323, 339 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the spring and summer of 1963, national attention became riveted on Birmingham. The media covered the series of peaceful marches that the Birmingham police, headed by Police Commissioner Bull Connor, attempted to divert and control. He invited high school students to join the marches, as King intended to fill the jails with nonviolent protesters to make a moral argument to the United States. Dramatic images of Birmingham police using police dogs and powerful streams of water against children protesters filled newspapers and television coverage, arousing national outrage. The 16th Street Baptist Church bombing during a Sunday service, which killed four African-American girls, caused a national outcry and gained support for the civil rights cause in the state. 16th Street Baptist Church had been a rallying point and staging area for civil rights activities in Birmingham prior to the bombing. Finally, Birmingham leaders King and Shuttlesworth agreed to end the marches when the businessmen's group committed to end segregation in stores and public facilities.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Civil Rights Movement and redistricting (1945–1975)", "target_page_ids": [ 663363, 341043, 4047130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 190, 201 ], [ 585, 619 ], [ 772, 798 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before his November, 1963 assassination, President John F. Kennedy had supported civil rights legislation. In 1964 President Lyndon Johnson helped secure its passage and signed the Civil Rights Act. The Selma to Montgomery marches in 1965 attracted national and international press and TV coverage. The nation was horrified to see peaceful protesters beaten as they entered the county. That year, Johnson helped achieve passage of the 1965 Voting Rights Act to gain federal oversight and enforcement to ensure the ability of all citizens to vote.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Civil Rights Movement and redistricting (1945–1975)", "target_page_ids": [ 5119376, 54533, 188746, 646612, 55791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 66 ], [ 125, 139 ], [ 181, 197 ], [ 203, 230 ], [ 440, 457 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Court challenges related to \"one man, one vote\" and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 finally provided the groundwork for federal court rulings. In 1972, the federal court required the legislature to create a statewide redistricting plan in order to correct the imbalances in representation in the legislature related to population patterns. Redistricting, together with federal oversight of voter registration and election practices, enabled hundreds of thousands of Alabama citizens, both white and black, to vote and participate for the first time in the political system.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Civil Rights Movement and redistricting (1945–1975)", "target_page_ids": [ 1895016 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2015, state budget reductions of $83 million resulted in the closing of five parks per Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources ($3 million). In addition, the state cut services at driver's license offices, closing most in several black-majority counties. This made voter registration more difficult, as the offices had offered both services. As of 2018, the state of Alabama offers online voter registration.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "21st century (2001–present)", "target_page_ids": [ 13545444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the early 21st century, the economy of Alabama has seen the automotive industry open large manufacturing plants, from Mercedes-Benz in Tuscaloosa County, to Hyundai Motors in Montgomery County. Aerospace giant, Airbus, has a large manufacturing facility in Mobile County.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "21st century (2001–present)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Huntsville, in north Alabama's Tennessee River Valley, is the fastest growing metropolitan region of Alabama, that is home to one of the per capita most educated regions in the United States. Huntsville is home to NASA's U.S. Space & Rocket Center and Space Camp. Huntsville also has a large defense industry presence.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "21st century (2001–present)", "target_page_ids": [ 988975, 2657868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 221, 247 ], [ 252, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thomas M. Owen – Historian and expert on early Alabama history", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 61387747 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of the oldest buildings in Alabama", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 40278017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Baptists in Alabama", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28450693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of the Southern United States", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1080344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Black Belt in the American South", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 63107662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Deep South", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 401342 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Women's suffrage in Alabama", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 65743399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of slavery in Alabama", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16752095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "City timelines", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Timeline of Birmingham, Alabama", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 43359541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Timeline of Huntsville, Alabama", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 53368777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Timeline of Mobile, Alabama", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39782332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Timeline of Montgomery, Alabama", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 43504335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Encyclopedia of Alabama (2008) Online coverage of history, culture, geography, and natural environment.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rogers, William Warren, Robert David Ward, Leah Rawls Atkins, And Wayne Flynt. Alabama: The History of a Deep South State (3rd ed. 2018; 1st ed. 1994), 816pp; the standard scholarly history online older edition; online 2018 edition", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alabama State Department of Education. History of Education in Alabama (Bulletin 1975, No. 7.O) Online free", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bridges, Edwin C. Alabama: The Making of an American State (2016) 264pp excerpt", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dodd, Donald B. Historical Atlas of Alabama (1974) online free", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fallin Jr, Wilson. The African American Church in Birmingham, Alabama, 1815–1963: A Shelter in the Storm (Routledge, 2017).", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Flynt, Wayne. Alabama in the Twentieth Century (2004)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Flynt, J. Wayne. \"Alabama.\" in Religion in the Southern States: A Historical Study, edited by Samuel S. Hill. 1983", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Flynt, J. Wayne. Poor But Proud: Alabama's Poor Whites 1989.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Flynt, J. Wayne. Alabama Baptists: Southern Baptists in the Heart of Dixie (1998)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hamilton, Virginia. Alabama, a bicentennial history (1977) online free; short popular history", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Holley, Howard L. A History of Medicine in Alabama. 1982.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Owen, Thomas M. History of Alabama and Dictionary of Alabama Biography 4 vols. 1921.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 61387747 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jackson, Harvey H. Inside Alabama: A Personal History of My State (2004)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Thomas, Mary Martha. Stepping out of the Shadows: Alabama Women, 1819–1990 (1995)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Thornton, J. Mills. Archipelagoes of My South: Episodes in the Shaping of a Region, 1830–1965 (2016) online; scholarly essays on political episodes", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Wiggins, Sarah Woolfolk, ed. From Civil War to Civil Rights—Alabama, 1860–1960: An Anthology from the Alabama Review (U of Alabama Press, 1987). 29 scholarly essays by experts.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Williams, Benjamin Buford. A Literary History of Alabama: The Nineteenth Century 1979.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "WPA. Guide to Alabama (1939)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Alabama\" in The American year-book and national register for 1869 (1869) online pp 275–280.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Abernethy, Thomas Perkins The Formative Period in Alabama, 1815–1828 (1922) online free", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Barney, William L. The Secessionist Impulse: Alabama and Mississippi in 1860. (1974).", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bethel, Elizabeth. \"The Freedmen's Bureau in Alabama,\" Journal of Southern History Vol. 14, No. 1, Feb., 1948 pp.49–92 online at JSTOR", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bond, Horace Mann. \"Social and Economic Forces in Alabama Reconstruction,\" Journal of Negro History 23 (1938):290–348 in JSTOR", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dupre, Daniel S.. Alabama's Frontiers and the Rise of the Old South (Indiana UP, 2017) online review", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dupre, Daniel. \"Ambivalent Capitalists on the Cotton Frontier: Settlement and Development in the Tennessee Valley of Alabama.\" Journal of Southern History 56 (May 1990): 215–40. Online at JSTOR", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fitzgerald, Michael W. Urban Emancipation: Popular Politics in Reconstruction Mobile, 1860–1890. (2002). 301 pp..", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fitzgerald, Michael W. \"Railroad Subsidies and Black Aspirations: The Politics of Economic Development in Reconstruction Mobile, 1865–1879.\" Civil War History 39#3 (1993): 240–256.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fitzgerald, Michael W. Reconstruction in Alabama: From Civil War to Redemption in the Cotton South (LSU Press, 2017) 464 pages; a standard scholarly history replacing Fleming 1905", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fitzgerald, Michael W. \"Reconstruction in Alabama\" Alabama Encyclopedia (2017) online", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fitzgerald, Michael W. \"\" To Give Our Votes to the Party\": Black Political Agitation and Agricultural Change in Alabama, 1865–1870.\" Journal of American History 76#2 (1989): 489–505.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fitzgerald, Michael W. \"Radical Republicanism and the White Yeomanry During Alabama Reconstruction, 1865–1868.\" Journal of Southern History 54 (1988): 565–96. JSTOR", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fitzgerald, Michael W. \"The Ku Klux Klan: property crime and the plantation system in Reconstruction Alabama.\" Agricultural history 71.2 (1997): 186–206.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fleming, Walter L. Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama (1905). a detailed study; Dunning School full text online from Project Gutenberg", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Going, Allen J. Bourbon Democracy in Alabama, 1874–1890. 1951.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hamilton, Peter Joseph. The Reconstruction Period (1906), full length history of era; Dunning School approach; 570 pp; ch 12 on Alabama", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 3281041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jordan, Weymouth T. Ante-Bellum Alabama: Town and Country. (1957).", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Kolchin, Peter. First Freedom: The Response of Alabama Blacks to Emancipation and Reconstruction (1972).", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " McIlwain, Christopher Lyle. Civil War Alabama (University of Alabama Press, 2016); 456 pp; a major scholarly survey. [Will excerpt]", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "McWhiney, Grady. \"Were the Whigs a Class Party in Alabama?\" Journal of Southern History 23 (1957): 510–22. Online at JSTOR", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Moore, A. B. \"Railroad Building in Alabama During the Reconstruction Period,\" Journal of Southern History (1935) 1#4 pp.421–441 in JSTOR", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Rogers, William Warren. The One-Gallused Rebellion; Agrarianism in Alabama, 1865–1896 (1970).", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Schweninger, Loren. \"James Rapier of Alabama and the Noble Cause of Reconstruction,\" in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era (1982) pp.79–100.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sellers, James B. Slavery in Alabama 1950. online edition", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sterkx, Henry Eugene. Partners in Rebellion: Alabama Women in the Civil War (1970).", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Thornton, J. Mills III. Politics and Power in a Slave Society: Alabama, 1800–1860 (1978). online edition", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bridges, Edwin C. \"A Tribute to Mills Thornton.\" Alabama Review 67.1 (2014): 4–9. online", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Wiener, Jonathan M. Social Origins of the New South; Alabama, 1860–1885. (1978).", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Wiggins, Sarah Woolfolk. The Scalawag in Alabama Politics, 1865–1881 (1991) online edition", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Wiggins, Sarah Woolfolk. \"Alabama: Democratic Bulldozing and Republican Folly.\" in Reconstruction and Redemption in the South, edited by Otto H. Olson. (1980).", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Barnard, William D. Dixiecrats and Democrats: Alabama Politics, 1942–1950 (1974)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bond, Horace Mann. Negro Education in Alabama: A Study in Cotton and Steel 1939.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Brownell, Blaine A. \"Birmingham, Alabama: New South City in the 1920s.\" Journal of Southern History 38 (1972): 21–48. in JSTOR", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 16385612 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Feldman, Glenn. Politics, Society, and the Klan in Alabama, 1915–1949 (1999) online edition", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Feldman, Glenn. \"Southern Disillusionment with the Democratic Party: Cultural Conformity and 'the Great Melding' of Racial and Economic Conservatism in Alabama during World War II,\" Journal of American Studies 43 (Aug. 2009), 199–230.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Feldman, Glenn. The Irony of the Solid South: Democrats, Republicans, and Race, 1865–1944 (University of Alabama Press; 2013) 480 pages; how the South became \"solid\" for the Democrats, then began to shift with World War II.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Frady, Marshall. Wallace: The Classic Portrait of Alabama Governor George Wallace (1996)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Grafton, Carl, and Anne Permaloff. Big Mules and Branchheads: James E. Folsom and Political Power in Alabama 1985.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hackney, Sheldon. Populism to Progressivism in Alabama 1969.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton, Virginia. Lister Hill: Statesman from the South 1987.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Harris, Carl V. Political Power in Birmingham, 1871–1921 1977.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Key, V. O., Jr. Southern Politics in State and Nation. 1949.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Lesher, Stephan. George Wallace: American Populist (1995)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Norrell, Robert J. \"Caste in Steel: Jim Crow Careers in Birmingham, Alabama.\" Journal of American History 73 (December 1986): 669–94. in JSTOR", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Norrell, Robert J. \"Labor at the Ballot Box: Alabama Politics from the New Deal to the Dixiecrat Movement.\" Journal of Southern History 57 (May 1991): 201–34. in JSTOR", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Oliff, Martin T., ed. The Great War in the Heart of Dixie: Alabama During World War I (2008)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sellers, James B. The Prohibition Movement in Alabama, 1702–1943 1943.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Thomas, Mary Martha. The New Women in Alabama: Social Reform and Suffrage, 1890–1920 (1992) online edition", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Thomas, Mary Martha. Riveting and Rationing in Dixie: Alabama Women and the Second World War (1987) online edition", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Brown, Lynda et al. edss. Alabama History: An Annotated Bibliography, (Greenwood, 1998).", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bridges, Edwin C. \"A Tribute to Mills Thornton\" Alabama Review (2014) 67#1 pp 4–9", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Pearson, Joseph W. \"A Conversation with J. Mills Thornton\" Southern Historian'' (2013), Vol. 34, pp 7–25.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "History_of_Alabama", "History_of_the_Southern_United_States_by_state", "History_of_the_United_States_by_state" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Andorra, officially the Principality of Andorra (), also called the Principality of the Valleys of Andorra<ref>Funk and Wagnalls Encyclopedia##, 1993</ref> (), is a sovereign landlocked microstate in Southwestern Europe, located in the eastern Pyrenees mountains and bordered by Spain and France.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 600, 297503, 151980, 14883, 24707, 26667, 5843419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 175, 185 ], [ 186, 196 ], [ 200, 219 ], [ 244, 252 ], [ 279, 284 ], [ 289, 295 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Andorra claims it is the last independent survivor of the Marca Hispanica, the buffer states created by Charlemagne to keep the Islamic Moors from advancing into Christian France. Tradition holds that Charlemagne granted a charter to the Andorran people in return for their fighting the Moors. In the 9th century, Charlemagne's grandson, Charles the Bald, named the Count of Urgell as overlord of Andorra. A descendant of the count later gave the lands to the Diocese of Urgell.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "9th to 19th centuries", "target_page_ids": [ 718661, 1030860, 5314, 6037917, 45127, 5211, 5843419, 47372, 513309, 395242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 73 ], [ 79, 91 ], [ 104, 115 ], [ 128, 133 ], [ 136, 141 ], [ 162, 171 ], [ 172, 178 ], [ 338, 354 ], [ 366, 381 ], [ 460, 477 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 11th century, fearing military action by neighboring lords, the Bishop of Urgell placed himself under the protection of the Lord of Caboet, a Catalan nobleman. Later, the Count of Foix became heir to the Lord of Caboet through marriage in 1208, and a dispute arose between the Occitan Count and the Catalan bishop over Andorra.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "9th to 19th centuries", "target_page_ids": [ 35604298, 6822, 28978421, 1377310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 145 ], [ 149, 156 ], [ 157, 165 ], [ 178, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1278, the conflict was resolved by the signing of a pareage (pariatges''), which provided that Andorra's sovereignty be shared between the Count of Foix and the Bishop of La Seu d'Urgell (Catalonia). The pareage, a feudal institution recognizing the principle of equality of rights shared by two rulers, gave the small state its territory and political form. Andorra's borders have remained unchanged since 1278.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "9th to 19th centuries", "target_page_ids": [ 30045423, 4092, 72328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 62 ], [ 164, 170 ], [ 174, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Andorra was briefly annexed to the Crown of Aragon twice, in 1396 and 1512.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "9th to 19th centuries", "target_page_ids": [ 824490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Andorra did not officially participate in World War I, although there were three Andorran volunteers who fought: Valentí Naudi, Josep Estany and René Huguet. North American newspapers in 1958 claimed that Andorra had declared war on Germany in 1914 but failed to sign a peace treaty until 1958, and this claim has appeared in later sources, but there appears to be no contemporary evidence of such declaration. In 2014, the news outlet Ràdio i Televisió d'Andorra investigated the 1958 claim and could find no documentation of any original declaration of war. Historian Pere Cavero could only find an exchange of letters between the German consul in Marseille and the Catalan Ombudsman, where the former asks if there is a state of war with Andorra and the latter responds they could find nothing in their archive to indicate this.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "20th and 21st centuries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1933, France occupied Andorra as a result of social unrest before elections. On 12 July 1934 an adventurer named Boris Skossyreff issued a proclamation in Urgel, declaring himself Boris I, sovereign prince of Andorra, simultaneously declaring war on the Bishop of Urgell. He was arrested by Spanish authorities on 20 July and ultimately expelled from Spain. From 1936 to 1940, a French detachment was garrisoned in Andorra to prevent encroachment as a result of the Spanish Civil War and Francoist Spain.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "20th and 21st centuries", "target_page_ids": [ 1471309, 18842471, 294034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 132 ], [ 469, 486 ], [ 491, 506 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During World War II, Andorra remained neutral and was an important smuggling route from Spain into France. The French Resistance used Andorra as part of their route to get downed airmen out of France.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "20th and 21st centuries", "target_page_ids": [ 32927, 83938 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ], [ 111, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1943, Andorra carried out its first execution since the 19th century: Antoni Arenis was executed for double fratricide by firing squad because a trained executioner was unavailable to operate the legal method, by garrote.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "20th and 21st centuries", "target_page_ids": [ 972078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 216, 223 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Long an impoverished land with little contact with any nations other than adjoining France and Spain, Andorra, after World War II, achieved considerable prosperity through a developing tourist industry. That development, abetted by improvements in transport and communications, has tended to break down Andorra's isolation and to bring Andorrans into the mainstream of European history. Public demands for democratic reforms led to the extension of the franchise to women in the 1970s and to the creation of new and more fully autonomous organs of government in the early 1980s.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "20th and 21st centuries", "target_page_ids": [ 3844880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 185, 201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Andorra formally became a parliamentary democracy in May 1993 following approval of a new constitution by a popular referendum in March 1993. The new constitution retained the French and Spanish co-princes although with reduced and narrowly defined powers. Civil rights were greatly expanded, including the legalisation of political parties and the provision for an independent judiciary. Andorra joined a customs union with the European Communities (now the European Union) in 1991 and was admitted to the United Nations on 28 July 1993. It became a member of the Council of Europe in 1994. The country has been seeking ways to improve its export potential and increase its economic ties with its European neighbours. The financial services sector of the economy is highly important because of Andorra's status as a tax haven and its banking secrecy laws.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "20th and 21st centuries", "target_page_ids": [ 2790461, 414741, 9317, 31769, 5865, 433425, 18618102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 102 ], [ 429, 449 ], [ 459, 473 ], [ 507, 521 ], [ 565, 582 ], [ 723, 741 ], [ 817, 826 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Co-Princes of Andorra", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 608378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Europe", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Catalonia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 64214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of France", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Spain", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Geography and History of the Principality of Andorra", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "History of Andorra: Primary Documents", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Background Note: Andorra", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Rulers of Andorra", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "History_of_Andorra", "1930s_in_France", "History_of_Catalonia" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The history of Austria covers the history of Austria and its predecessor states, from the Early Stone Age to the present state. The name Ostarrîchi (Austria) has been in use since 996 AD when it was a margravate of the Duchy of Bavaria and from 1156 an independent duchy (later archduchy) of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation (Heiliges Römisches Reich 962–1806).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26964606, 1158798, 196475, 1463463, 64604, 599359, 13277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 52 ], [ 90, 105 ], [ 201, 211 ], [ 219, 235 ], [ 265, 270 ], [ 278, 287 ], [ 296, 334 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austria was dominated by the House of Habsburg and House of Habsburg-Lorraine (Haus Österreich) from 1273 to 1918. In 1806, when Emperor Francis II of Austria dissolved the Holy Roman Empire, Austria became the Austrian Empire, and was also part of the German Confederation until the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. In 1867, Austria formed a dual monarchy with Hungary: the Austro-Hungarian Empire (1867–1918). When this empire collapsed after the end of World War I in 1918, Austria was reduced to the main, mostly German-speaking areas of the empire (its current frontiers), and adopted the name The Republic of German-Austria. However, union with Germany and the chosen country name were forbidden by the Allies at the Treaty of Versailles. This led to the creation of the First Austrian Republic (1919-1933).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 13824, 8261965, 11551, 266894, 142280, 142281, 2983, 6428150, 30030, 2507138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 46 ], [ 51, 77 ], [ 129, 147 ], [ 211, 226 ], [ 253, 273 ], [ 284, 303 ], [ 371, 394 ], [ 599, 625 ], [ 719, 739 ], [ 773, 796 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the First Republic, Austrofascism tried to keep Austria independent from the German Reich. Engelbert Dollfuss accepted that most Austrians were German and Austrian, but wanted Austria to remain independent from Germany. In 1938, Austrian-born Adolf Hitler annexed Austria to the German Reich with the Anschluss, which was supported by a large majority of the Austrian people. Ten years after the Second World War Austria again became an independent republic as the Second Austrian Republic in 1955.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11112649, 291222, 10150, 2731583, 21212, 18951602, 187221, 32927, 26964606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 43 ], [ 87, 99 ], [ 101, 119 ], [ 253, 265 ], [ 289, 301 ], [ 311, 320 ], [ 369, 384 ], [ 406, 422 ], [ 475, 499 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austria joined the European Union in 1995.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the territory understood by the term 'Austria' underwent drastic changes over time, dealing with a History of Austria raises a number of questions, e.g., whether it is confined to the current or former Republic of Austria, or extends also to all lands formerly ruled by the rulers of Austria. Furthermore, should Austrian history include the period 1938–1945, when it nominally did not exist? Of the lands now part of the second Republic of Austria, many were added over time – only two of the nine provinces or Bundesländer (Lower Austria and Upper Austria) are strictly 'Austria', while other parts of its former sovereign territory are now part of other countries e.g., Italy, Croatia, Slovenia and Czechia. Within Austria there are regionally and temporally varying affinities to adjacent countries.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Historiography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Human habitation of the current territory of Austria can be traced back to the first farming communities of the early Stone Age (Paleolithic era). In the late Iron Age it was occupied by people of the Hallstatt Celtic culture (c. 800 BC), one of the first Celtic cultures besides the La Tène culture in France. They first organized as a Celtic kingdom referred to by the Romans as Noricum, dating from c. 800 to 400 BC. At the end of the 1st century BC, the lands south of the Danube became part of the Roman Empire, and were incorporated as the Province of Noricum around 40 AD.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 29219, 22860, 427479, 6546, 18133, 6546, 64716, 21209639, 25507, 314732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 127 ], [ 129, 144 ], [ 201, 210 ], [ 211, 217 ], [ 284, 299 ], [ 337, 343 ], [ 381, 388 ], [ 477, 483 ], [ 503, 515 ], [ 546, 565 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most important Roman settlement was at Carnuntum, which can still be visited today as an excavation site. In the 6th century, the Bavarii, a Germanic people, occupied these lands until it fell to the Frankish Empire in the 9th century. Around 800 AD, Charlemagne established the outpost of the Avar March (Awarenmark) in what is now Lower Austria, to hold back advances from Slavs and Avars.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 113295, 4256, 303481, 11827669, 148988, 29440, 48525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 52 ], [ 134, 141 ], [ 204, 219 ], [ 298, 308 ], [ 337, 350 ], [ 379, 384 ], [ 389, 394 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 10th century an eastern (east of the River Enns) outpost of the Duchy of Bavaria, bordering Hungary, was established as the Marchia orientalis (March of the East) or 'Margraviate of Austria' in 976, ruled by the Margraves of Babenberg. This 'Eastern March' (borderland), in German was known as Ostarrîchi or 'Eastern Realm', hence 'Austria'. The first mention of Ostarrîchi occurs in a document of that name dated 996 CE. From 1156 the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa created an independent duchy (Privilegium Minus) under the House of Babenberg, until its extinction in 1246, corresponding to modern Lower Austria.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 1073452, 1463463, 13275, 11421146, 1240137, 196475, 40347, 1240137, 39699, 1112901, 40347, 148988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 54 ], [ 71, 87 ], [ 99, 106 ], [ 131, 149 ], [ 174, 196 ], [ 219, 228 ], [ 232, 241 ], [ 332, 346 ], [ 451, 471 ], [ 502, 519 ], [ 531, 549 ], [ 605, 618 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the Babenberg dynasty and a brief interregnum, Austria came under the rule of the German king Rudolf I of Habsburg (1276–1282), beginning a dynasty that would last through seven centuries becoming progressively distinct from neighbouring Bavaria, within the Holy Roman Empire. The 15th and early 16th century saw considerable expansion of the Habsburg territories through diplomacy and marriages to include Spain, the Netherlands and parts of Italy. This expansionism, together with French aspirations and the resultant Habsburg–French or Bourbon–Habsburg rivalry were important factors shaping European history for over 200 years (1516–1756).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 368411, 38382, 45321, 13824, 3764, 13277, 5083082 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 55 ], [ 92, 103 ], [ 104, 112 ], [ 150, 157 ], [ 248, 255 ], [ 268, 285 ], [ 530, 573 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the Edict of Worms (Wormser Vertrag) of 28 April 1521, the Emperor Charles V (Archduke of Austria 1519–1521) split the dynasty, bestowing the hereditary Austrian lands (Österreichische Länder) on his brother, Ferdinand I (1521–1564) and the first central administrative structures were established. By 1526 Ferdinand had also inherited the kingdoms of Bohemia, and Hungary after the Battle of Mohács which partitioned the latter. However the Ottoman Empire now lay directly adjacent to the Austrian lands. Even after the unsuccessful first Siege of Vienna by the Turks in 1529, the Ottoman threat persisted for another one and a half centuries. There was a battle where the Christian Polish king, John III Sobieski stopped the Muslim attack against Christians and the city Vienna in 1683.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 195290, 70716, 6490870, 1041515, 151069, 4345, 39076, 22278, 386667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 21 ], [ 70, 79 ], [ 81, 100 ], [ 156, 170 ], [ 212, 223 ], [ 355, 362 ], [ 386, 402 ], [ 445, 459 ], [ 543, 558 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 16th century also saw the spread of the Reformation. From around 1600 the Habsburg policy of recatholicization or Catholic Renewal (Rekatholisierung) eventually led to the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648). Originally a religious war, it was also a struggle for power in central Europe, particularly the French opposition to the Habsburg Holy Roman Empire. Eventually, the pressure of the anti-Habsburg coalition of France, Sweden, and most Protestant German states contained their authority to the Austrian and Czech lands in 1648.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 37857, 30583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 55 ], [ 176, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1683, the Ottoman forces were beaten back from Vienna a second time and eventually, in the Great Turkish War (1683–1699), pushed back beyond Belgrade. When the main (Spanish) line of the Habsburgs died out in 1700, it precipitated the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) between the Habsburgs and King Louis XIV of France. Subsequently, Austria gained control, through the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, of the Spanish Netherlands, Naples and Lombardy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 84274, 1311535, 55904, 33604, 18553, 180936, 1537897, 55880, 43807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 70 ], [ 94, 111 ], [ 144, 152 ], [ 238, 267 ], [ 311, 330 ], [ 387, 404 ], [ 413, 432 ], [ 434, 440 ], [ 445, 453 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These acquisitions together with conquests in the Balkans gave Austria its greatest territorial extent to date. 1713 also saw the Pragmatic Sanction, designed to prevent any further division of the territory. But when Charles VI (Archduke 1711–1740) died and was succeeded by his daughter, Maria Theresa (1740–1780) Austria was perceived as weak, leading to the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) and the Seven Years' War (1756–1763). Subsequently, Austria lost Silesia to Prussia. Austria also lost prior conquests from the Ottomans except Banat of Temeswar and Syrmia in the Austro-Russian–Turkish War despite being allied with Russia.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 4829, 353653, 151094, 52266, 19039354, 28399, 371248, 2152723, 458802, 933642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 57 ], [ 130, 148 ], [ 218, 228 ], [ 362, 392 ], [ 413, 429 ], [ 470, 477 ], [ 481, 488 ], [ 549, 566 ], [ 571, 577 ], [ 585, 611 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These Silesian Wars initiated a long-standing tension between Austria and Prussia. Maria Theresa effectively reigned as Empress through her husband, Francis Stephen of Lorraine (d. 1765) and they founded the new dynasty of Habsburg-Lorraine. During her reign, extensive reforms were initiated, and when Francis died in 1765, these were continued by her son, Joseph II (Emperor 1765–1790; Archduke 1780–1790). However, his successor, his brother, Leopold II (1790–1792), was much more conservative.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 390432, 148457, 148313, 148783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 19 ], [ 149, 176 ], [ 358, 367 ], [ 446, 456 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The next emperor, his son Francis II (1792–1835), found himself at war with France in the First (1792–1797) and Second (1798–1802) Coalition wars, the prelude to the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), in which Austria lost further territory. Following further Austrian losses in the Third Coalition War (1803–1806) the future of the Habsburg Empire looked increasingly uncertain. Napoleon had declared himself Emperor of France in May 1804 and was busy reorganising much of the lands of the Holy Roman Empire, and looked to be assuming the title of emperor too, as a second Charlemagne. Francis II responded by proclaiming the Empire of Austria in August, taking the new title of Emperor. In 1806, having held both titles in the interim, he resigned the imperial crown of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, which then ceased to exist.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 11551, 176739, 408741, 45420, 178661, 69880, 266894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 36 ], [ 90, 95 ], [ 112, 118 ], [ 166, 181 ], [ 277, 296 ], [ 374, 382 ], [ 621, 638 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the Congress of Vienna, Austria became part of the German Confederation till the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. In the 19th century nationalist movements within the empire became increasingly evident, and the German element became increasingly weakened, whilst most of Austria's Italian-speaking lands were gained by the new Kingdom of Italy. With Austria's expulsion from the German Confederation following its defeat by Prussia in the war in 1866 the Dual Monarchy with Hungary was created by the Austro-Hungarian Compromise in 1867. This succeeded in reducing but not removing nationalist tensions as it left mostly Slavic peoples and Romanians dissatisfied; dissatisfactions which were to boil over with the 1914 assassination of the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo, and the ensuing chain reaction resulting in the First World War. The losses of the war resulted in the collapse of the empire and dynasty in 1918.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 44628, 142280, 142281, 726006, 879716, 387987, 29440, 322831, 7955693, 26786 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 32 ], [ 61, 81 ], [ 91, 110 ], [ 461, 474 ], [ 480, 487 ], [ 507, 534 ], [ 627, 641 ], [ 646, 655 ], [ 785, 809 ], [ 813, 821 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The non-German ethnic groups broke away leaving Austria's current boundaries as German Austria, which was proclaimed an independent republic. The severe global economic crisis coupled with domestic political tensions led to civil strife in February 1934, with the May Constitution of 1934 resulting in an authoritarian corporate state. Just two months later the Austrian Nazis staged the July coup, wanting to annex the country to into Nazi Germany, resulting in the assassination of Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss. While the coup failed, Adolf Hitler succeeded in annexing Austria on 12 March 1938 as Ostmark, until 1945. Austria was divided into four occupation zones after the Second World War and then in 1955 became the independent sovereign state (Second Republic) that has existed to the present day. In 1995, Austria joined the European Union.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 6428150, 19283335, 27546002, 21212, 10150, 2731583, 18951602, 994149, 11137012, 26964606, 27371490, 9317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 94 ], [ 153, 175 ], [ 388, 397 ], [ 436, 448 ], [ 495, 513 ], [ 538, 550 ], [ 564, 572 ], [ 601, 608 ], [ 647, 668 ], [ 753, 768 ], [ 824, 830 ], [ 835, 849 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The modern state of Austria is considered to have three geographic zones. The biggest consists of the Alps, which covers 62.8% of the country's landmass. In the north, across the Danube, is the Austrian (southern) portion of the Bohemian Massif, called the \"Böhmerwald\" or Bohemian Forest, a relatively lower mountain range of granite that makes up another 10% of the Austrian land area. The remaining parts of the country are the Pannonian lowlands along the border with Hungary (11.3%) and the Vienna Basin (4.4%).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography and geology", "target_page_ids": [ 981, 21209639, 22845172, 917985, 13088, 1676371, 13275, 30862528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 106 ], [ 179, 185 ], [ 229, 244 ], [ 273, 288 ], [ 327, 334 ], [ 431, 449 ], [ 472, 479 ], [ 496, 508 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Bohemian Massif and its foothills were formed in the Variscan orogeny of the late Paleozoic era. Another important element of Austrian geology and geography is the late Mesozoic Alpine orogeny, and the subsequent formation of the Paratethys ocean and Molasse Basin in the Cretaceous era.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography and geology", "target_page_ids": [ 2411367, 23234, 67542, 19322, 667856, 12732553, 5468897, 5615 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 73 ], [ 86, 95 ], [ 151, 160 ], [ 173, 181 ], [ 182, 196 ], [ 234, 244 ], [ 255, 268 ], [ 276, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The extensive alpine regions are sparsely populated, and form a barrier to the passage of peoples apart from strategic passes providing access to Italy. Austria is positioned between the eastern European countries and central-western Europe, a position that has dictated much of its history. The Danube Valley has always been an important corridor from the West to the Balkans and the Orient.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography and geology", "target_page_ids": [ 14532, 4829, 241261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 151 ], [ 369, 376 ], [ 385, 391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Alps were inaccessible during the Ice Age, so human habitation dates no earlier than the Middle Paleolithic era, during the time of the Neanderthals. The oldest traces of human habitation in Austria, more than 250,000 years ago, were found in the Repolust Cave at Badl, near Peggau in the Graz-Umgebung district of Styria. These include stone tools, bone tools, and pottery fragments together with mammalian remains. Some 70,000-year-old evidence was found in the Gudenus Cave in northwestern Lower Austria.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prehistory and early history", "target_page_ids": [ 557672, 1158720, 27298083, 14736949, 5680856, 224474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 45 ], [ 93, 111 ], [ 140, 152 ], [ 279, 285 ], [ 293, 306 ], [ 319, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Upper Paleolithic remains are more numerous in Lower Austria. The best known are in the Wachau region, including the sites of the two oldest pieces of art in Austria. These are figurative representations of women, the Venus of Galgenberg found near Stratzing and thought to be 32,000 years old, and the nearby Venus of Willendorf (26,000 years old) found at Willendorf, near Krems an der Donau. In 2005 in the same area, a double infant burial site was discovered at Krems-Wachtberg, dating from Gravettian culture (27,000 years old), the oldest burial ground found in Austria to date.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prehistory and early history", "target_page_ids": [ 1158651, 29903602, 22808891, 10989586, 481398, 55089628, 497505, 661358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 88, 94 ], [ 218, 237 ], [ 249, 258 ], [ 310, 329 ], [ 358, 368 ], [ 375, 393 ], [ 496, 506 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mesolithic remains include rock shelters (abris) from Lake Constance and the Alpine Rhine Valley, a funeral site at Elsbethen and a few other sites with microlithic artifacts which demonstrate the transition from living as hunter-gatherers and sedentary farmers and ranchers.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prehistory and early history", "target_page_ids": [ 20568, 78489, 76273, 303459, 13774792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 27, 40 ], [ 54, 68 ], [ 77, 96 ], [ 116, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Neolithic era, most of those areas of Austria that were amenable to agriculture and were sources of raw materials were settled. Remains include those of the Linear pottery culture, one of the first agrarian cultures in Europe. The first recorded rural settlement from this time was at Brunn am Gebirge in Mödling. Austria's first industrial monument, the chert mine at Mauer-Antonshöhe in the Mauer neighborhood of the southern Vienna district of Liesing dates from this period. In the Lengyel culture, which followed Linear Pottery in Lower Austria, circular ditches were constructed.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prehistory and early history", "target_page_ids": [ 21189, 627, 30865121, 11038235, 1128777, 138585, 5853982, 2153254, 1636102, 2029703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ], [ 79, 90 ], [ 168, 190 ], [ 296, 312 ], [ 316, 323 ], [ 366, 371 ], [ 404, 409 ], [ 458, 465 ], [ 497, 512 ], [ 562, 578 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Traces of the Copper Age (Chalcolithic era) in Austria were identified in the Carpathian Basin hoard at Stollhof, Hohe Wand, Lower Austria. Hilltop settlements from this era are common in eastern Austria. During this time the inhabitants sought out and developed raw materials in the central Alpine areas. The most important find is considered to be the Iceman Ötzi a well-preserved mummy of a man frozen in the Alps dating from approximately 3,300 BC, although these finds are now in Italy on the Austrian border. Another culture is the Mondsee group, represented by stilt houses in the Alpine lakes.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prehistory and early history", "target_page_ids": [ 7446, 1676371, 654343, 40981491, 14664381, 22742, 32585385, 1879233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 24 ], [ 78, 94 ], [ 95, 100 ], [ 104, 112 ], [ 114, 123 ], [ 361, 365 ], [ 538, 551 ], [ 568, 580 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the beginning of the Bronze Age fortifications were appearing, protecting the commercial centers of the mining, processing, and trading of copper and tin. This flourishing culture is reflected in the grave artifacts, such as at Pitten, in Nußdorf ob der Traisen, Lower Austria. In the late Bronze Age appeared the Urnfield culture, in which salt mining commenced in the northern salt mines at Hallstatt.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prehistory and early history", "target_page_ids": [ 4620, 204118, 125293, 30042, 14647069, 278159, 582151, 426410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 34 ], [ 35, 49 ], [ 142, 148 ], [ 153, 156 ], [ 242, 264 ], [ 317, 333 ], [ 344, 355 ], [ 396, 405 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Iron Age in Austria is represented by the Hallstatt culture, which succeeded the Urnfield culture, under influences from the Mediterranean civilizations and Steppe peoples. This gradually transitioned into the Celtic La Tène culture.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prehistory and early history", "target_page_ids": [ 14711, 427479, 54048, 6546, 18133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ], [ 46, 63 ], [ 161, 167 ], [ 214, 220 ], [ 221, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This early Iron Age culture is named after Hallstatt the type site in Upper Austria. The culture is often described in two zones, Western and Eastern, through which flowed the rivers Enns, Ybbs and Inn. The West Hallstatt area was in contact with the Greek colonies on the Ligurian coast. In the Alps, contacts with the Etruscans and under Greek influence regions in Italy were maintained. The East had close links with the Steppe Peoples who had passed over the Carpathian Basin from the southern Russian steppes.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prehistory and early history", "target_page_ids": [ 1257677, 146894, 1073452, 3884843, 192640, 1226281, 37353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 66 ], [ 70, 83 ], [ 183, 187 ], [ 189, 193 ], [ 198, 201 ], [ 273, 281 ], [ 320, 329 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The population of Hallstatt drew its wealth from the salt industry. Imports of luxury goods stretching from the North and Baltic seas to Africa have been discovered in the cemetery at Hallstatt. The oldest evidence of an Austrian wine industry was discovered in Zagersdorf, Burgenland in a grave mound. The Cult Wagon of Strettweg, Styria is evidence of contemporary religious life.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prehistory and early history", "target_page_ids": [ 10710552, 98935, 24649801, 224474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 262, 272 ], [ 274, 284 ], [ 307, 330 ], [ 332, 338 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the later Iron Age, the Celtic La Tène culture spread to Austria. This culture gave rise to the first-recorded local tribal (Taurisci, Ambidravi, Ambisontes) and place names. Out of this arose Noricum (2nd century to c. 15 ) – a confederation of Alpine Celtic tribes (traditionally twelve) under the leadership of the Norici. It was confined to present-day southern and eastern Austria and part of Slovenia. The West was settled by the Raeti.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prehistory and early history", "target_page_ids": [ 14711, 6546, 18133, 19663042, 68607327, 68580053, 64716, 19663042, 27338, 23092791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 21 ], [ 27, 33 ], [ 34, 49 ], [ 128, 136 ], [ 138, 147 ], [ 149, 159 ], [ 196, 203 ], [ 321, 327 ], [ 401, 409 ], [ 439, 444 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dürrnberg and Hallein (Salzburg) were Celtic salt settlements. In eastern Styria and the Burgenland (e.g., Oberpullendorf) high-quality iron ore was mined and processed, then exported to the Romans as ferrum noricum (Noric iron). This led to the creation of a Roman trading outpost on the Magdalensberg in the early 1st century , later replaced by the Roman town Virunum. Fortified hilltop settlements (oppida), e.g. Kulm (east Styria), Idunum (mod. Villach), Burg (Schwarzenbach), and Braunsberg (Hainburg), were centers of public life. Some cities such as Linz (Lentos) date back to this period also.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prehistory and early history", "target_page_ids": [ 34959473, 1458515, 224474, 98935, 539689, 7781573, 10797671, 652429, 14751755, 224474, 165676, 14647158, 1257556, 55856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 14, 21 ], [ 74, 80 ], [ 89, 99 ], [ 107, 121 ], [ 217, 227 ], [ 289, 302 ], [ 403, 409 ], [ 417, 421 ], [ 428, 434 ], [ 450, 457 ], [ 466, 479 ], [ 498, 506 ], [ 558, 562 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Noricum and Rome had been active trading partners and had formed military alliances, around 15 BC the majority of what we now know as Austria was annexed to the Roman Empire, beginning 500 years of so-called \"Austria Romana\" (as it became known in the 19th century). Noricum became a province of the Roman Empire.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prehistory and early history", "target_page_ids": [ 64716, 314732, 25507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 276, 283 ], [ 293, 301 ], [ 309, 321 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the reign of the Emperor Claudius (41–54 AD), the Roman province of Noricum had as its boundaries to the north the Danube, to the north-east the Vienna Woods, and in the east approximately the current eastern border of Styria, while in the south-east and south it was bounded by the Eisack and Drava rivers. Later, under Diocletian (284–305), the province was divided along the main Alpine ridge into a northern (Noricum ripense) and a southern (Noricum Mediterraneum). Across the Ziller in the west, corresponding to the present provinces of Vorarlberg and Tyrol, lay the province of Raetia, incorporating the earlier territory of Vindelicia. In the east lay Pannonia, including what is today the Burgenland. To the south was Region 10, Venetia et Histria. The Danube river formed the Danubian limes (limes Danubii), a defensive line separating Upper and Lower Austria from the Germanic tribes of the Marcomanni and Quadi.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prehistory and early history", "target_page_ids": [ 6140, 21209639, 1078120, 224474, 13413584, 149344, 8580, 17438098, 161788, 148994, 180305, 42968654, 47277, 98935, 1873263, 50787154, 3600456, 20144, 77343 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 40 ], [ 122, 128 ], [ 152, 164 ], [ 226, 232 ], [ 290, 296 ], [ 301, 306 ], [ 328, 338 ], [ 488, 494 ], [ 550, 560 ], [ 565, 570 ], [ 592, 598 ], [ 639, 649 ], [ 667, 675 ], [ 705, 715 ], [ 745, 763 ], [ 793, 807 ], [ 886, 901 ], [ 909, 919 ], [ 924, 929 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Romans built many cities that survive today. They include Vindobona (Vienna), Juvavum (Salzburg), Valdidena (Innsbruck), and Brigantium (Bregenz). Other important towns were Virunum (north of the modern Klagenfurt), Teurnia (near Spittal), and Lauriacum (Enns). Significant archaeological sites from the Roman period include Kleinklein (Styria) and Zollfeld (Magdalensberg).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prehistory and early history", "target_page_ids": [ 55866, 40335, 55857, 149404, 22754824, 80873, 22765277, 1420533, 32743987, 1073582, 14745587, 18091640, 10797671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 79 ], [ 91, 99 ], [ 113, 122 ], [ 141, 148 ], [ 178, 185 ], [ 207, 217 ], [ 220, 227 ], [ 234, 241 ], [ 248, 257 ], [ 259, 263 ], [ 329, 339 ], [ 353, 361 ], [ 363, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Christianity appeared in Austria in the 2nd century AD, prompting Church organization that can be traced back to the 4th century AD. After the arrival of the Bavarii, Austria became the object of missionary efforts, such as Rupert and Virgil of the Hiberno-Scottish mission.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prehistory and early history", "target_page_ids": [ 5211, 4256, 3753513 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 158, 165 ], [ 249, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Great Migration (Völkerwanderung) sealed the decline of Roman power in Austria. In the First Phase (300–500 AD) the Roman Empire was increasingly harassed by Germanic tribes from the 5th Century, including Goths and Vandals. As the fabric of the Roman Empire crumbled, the ability of Raetia, Noricum, and Pannonia to defend themselves became increasingly problematic. Radagaisus overran part of the country in 405. (Géza Alföldy pp.213–4). After several raids on Italy, the Visigoths arrived in 408, under Alaric I.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prehistory and early history", "target_page_ids": [ 103155, 12446, 12641, 46516, 2576450, 32530, 1570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 162, 177 ], [ 210, 215 ], [ 220, 227 ], [ 372, 382 ], [ 478, 487 ], [ 510, 518 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As described by Zosimus, Alaric set out from Emona (modern Ljubljana) which lay between Pannonia Superior and Noricum over the Carnic Alps arriving at Virunum in Noricum, as had been agreed to by the Roman general Stilicho, following several skirmishes between the two. Alaric was voted a large amount of money to maintain peace, by the Roman Senate, at Stilicho's instigation. From there he directed his operations against Italy, demanding Noricum among another territory, finally sacking Rome in 410 but dying on the route home that year.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prehistory and early history", "target_page_ids": [ 34454, 620487, 42374, 5292082, 64716, 1214071, 80475, 80475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 23 ], [ 45, 50 ], [ 59, 68 ], [ 88, 105 ], [ 110, 117 ], [ 127, 138 ], [ 214, 222 ], [ 354, 362 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Visigoths eventually moved on, allowing a short period of stability apart from domestic disturbances in 431. (Alföldy p.214). 451 saw the Huns pour through the land, and in 433, Pannonia had had to be evacuated under the Hun attacks. The death of Attila in 453 allowed the Ostrogoths to scatter his Hunnish empire. Many tribes, formerly under the Huns now started to settle along the Danube basin and assert their independence. Among these were the Rugii, who formed their own lands (Rugiland) across the Danube and started to impose their will on Noricum.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prehistory and early history", "target_page_ids": [ 841, 22428, 77348 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 251, 257 ], [ 277, 287 ], [ 453, 458 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 472 Ostrogoths and Alamanni invaded the area but did not subdue it. Even after Odoacer had overthrown the last Western Roman Emperor in 476, there remained remnants of the Roman administration in the provinces before the final collapse of Late Antiquity in this area (see Severinus of Noricum and Flaccitheus). Noricum was eventually abandoned in 488, while Raetia was abandoned by the Romans to the Alamanni.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prehistory and early history", "target_page_ids": [ 22428, 1486, 37045, 1294756, 1486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 19 ], [ 24, 32 ], [ 84, 91 ], [ 277, 297 ], [ 405, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Abandoned and devastated towns and buildings slowly fell into disarray during the 4th and 5th centuries. By 493 the area was part of the lands of the Ostrogoth king Theodoric and there were no remaining Roman influences. The collapse of the Ostrogothic empire began with his death in 526.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prehistory and early history", "target_page_ids": [ 31222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 165, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the second phase of the Migration Period (500–700 AD) the Langobardii (Lombards) made a brief appearance in the northern and eastern regions around 500 AD, but had been driven south into northern Italy by the Avars by 567. The Avars and their vassal Slavs had established themselves from the Baltic Sea to the Balkans. After the Avars suffered setbacks in the east in 626, the Slavs rebelled, establishing their own territories. The Alpine Slavs (Carantanii) elected a Bavarian, Odilo, as their count and successfully resisted further Avar subjugation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prehistory and early history", "target_page_ids": [ 103155, 18011, 48525, 3335, 4829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 47 ], [ 78, 86 ], [ 216, 221 ], [ 299, 309 ], [ 317, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Slavic tribe of the Carantanians migrated westward along the Drava into the Eastern Alps in the wake of the expansion of their Avar overlords during the 7th century, mixed with the Celto-Romanic population, and established the realm of Carantania (later Carinthia), which covered much of eastern and central Austrian territory and was the first independent Slavic state in Europe, centred at Zollfeld. Together with the indigenous population they were able to resist further encroachment of the neighboring Franks and Avars in the southeastern Alps.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prehistory and early history", "target_page_ids": [ 29440, 606160, 15735135, 48525, 74818, 224463, 18091640, 2462183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ], [ 24, 36 ], [ 37, 92 ], [ 131, 135 ], [ 240, 250 ], [ 258, 267 ], [ 396, 404 ], [ 511, 517 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the meantime, the Germanic tribe of the Bavarii (Bavarians), vassals of the Franks, had developed in the 5th and 6th century in the west of the country and in what is now known as Bavaria, while what is today Vorarlberg had been settled by the Alemans. In the northern alps the Bavarians had become established as a stem dukedom around 550 AD, under the rule of the Agilolfings until 788 as an eastern outpost of the Frankish Empire. At that time the lands occupied by the Bavarians extended south to current South Tyrol, and east to the river Enns. The administrative center was at Regensburg. Those groups mixed with the Rhaeto-Romanic population and pushed it up into the mountains along the Puster Valley.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prehistory and early history", "target_page_ids": [ 12446, 4256, 2462183, 3764, 161788, 1486, 2004141, 303481, 169611, 1073452, 49117, 17484714, 4655630 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 35 ], [ 43, 50 ], [ 79, 85 ], [ 183, 190 ], [ 212, 222 ], [ 247, 254 ], [ 369, 380 ], [ 420, 435 ], [ 512, 523 ], [ 547, 551 ], [ 586, 596 ], [ 626, 640 ], [ 698, 711 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the south of present-day Austria, the Slavic tribes had settled in the valleys of the Drava, Mura and Save by 600 AD. The westward Slavic migration stopped further Bavarian migration eastwards by 610. Their most westward expansion was reached in 650 at the Puster Valley (Pustertal), but gradually fell back to the Enns River by 780. The settlement boundary between Slavs and Bavarians roughly corresponds to a line from Freistadt through Linz, Salzburg (Lungau), to East Tyrol (Lesachtal), with Avars and Slavs occupying eastern Austria and modern-day Bohemia.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prehistory and early history", "target_page_ids": [ 440358, 587845, 4655630, 1073452, 4175741, 55856, 40335, 2196277, 1215347, 10796600, 4345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 100 ], [ 105, 109 ], [ 275, 284 ], [ 318, 328 ], [ 424, 433 ], [ 442, 446 ], [ 448, 456 ], [ 458, 464 ], [ 470, 480 ], [ 482, 491 ], [ 556, 563 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carantania, under pressure of the Avars, became a vassal state to Bavaria in 745 and was later incorporated into the Carolingian empire, first as a tribal margravate under Slavic dukes, and after the failed rebellion of Ljudevit Posavski in the early 9th century, under Frankish-appointed noblemen. During the following centuries, Bavarian settlers went down the Danube and up the Alps, a process through which Austria was to become the mostly German-speaking country it is today. Only in southern Carinthia, the Slavic population maintained its language and identity until the early 20th century, when a process of assimilation reduced their number to a small minority.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prehistory and early history", "target_page_ids": [ 3764, 62229, 196475, 2892020, 10413964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 73 ], [ 117, 135 ], [ 155, 165 ], [ 220, 237 ], [ 509, 530 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bavarian relationship with the Franks varied, achieving temporary independence by 717 AD, only to be subjugated by Charles Martel. Finally Charlemagne (Emperor 800–814) deposed the last Agilolfing duke, Tassilo III, assuming direct Carolingian control in 788 AD, with non-hereditary Bavarian kings. Charlemagne subsequently led the Franks and Bavarians against the eastern Avars in 791, so that by 803 they had fallen back to the east of the Fischa and Leitha rivers. These conquests enabled the establishment of a system of defensive marches (military borderlands) from the Danube to the Adriatic. By around 800 AD, Österreich, the \"Kingdom of the East,\" had been joined to the Holy Roman Empire.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 5314, 2280721, 87655, 48525, 16748447, 922538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 150 ], [ 203, 214 ], [ 232, 243 ], [ 373, 378 ], [ 442, 448 ], [ 453, 459 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Among these was an eastern march, the Avar March (Awarenmark), corresponding roughly to present day Lower Austria, bordered by the rivers Enns, Raab and Drava, while to the south lay the March of Carinthia. Both marches were collectively referred to as the Marcha orientalis (Eastern March), a prefecture of the Duchy of Bavaria. In 805, the Avars, with Charlemagne's permission, led by the Avar Khagan, settled south-eastward from Vienna.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 11827669, 148988, 1073452, 42361347, 149344, 11360063, 11421146, 55866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 48 ], [ 100, 113 ], [ 138, 142 ], [ 144, 148 ], [ 153, 158 ], [ 187, 205 ], [ 257, 274 ], [ 432, 438 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A new threat appeared in 862, the Hungarians, following the pattern of displacement from more eastern territories by superior forces. By 896 the Hungarians were present in large numbers on the Hungarian Plain from which they raided the Frankish domains. They defeated the Moravians and in 907 defeated the Bavarians at the Battle of Pressburg and by 909 had overrun the marches forcing the Franks and Bavarians back to the Enns River.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 17106358, 32845470, 2221997, 11461949, 9128505, 1722738, 1073452 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 44 ], [ 156, 192 ], [ 193, 208 ], [ 272, 281 ], [ 323, 342 ], [ 390, 410 ], [ 423, 433 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bavaria became a Margraviate under Engeldeo (890–895) and was re-established as a Duchy under Arnulf the Bad (907–937) who united it with the Duchy of Carinthia, occupying most of the eastern alps. This proved short lived. His son Eberhard (937–938) found himself in conflict with the German King, Otto I (Otto the Great) who deposed him. The next Duke was Henry I (947–955), who was Otto's brother. In 955 Otto successfully forced back the Hungarians at the Battle of Lechfeld, beginning a slow reconquest of the eastern lands, including Istria and Carniola.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 196475, 25041615, 1136271, 74817, 4842873, 25605367, 2335662, 37086, 52036, 53894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 28 ], [ 35, 43 ], [ 94, 108 ], [ 142, 160 ], [ 231, 239 ], [ 298, 304 ], [ 357, 364 ], [ 459, 477 ], [ 539, 545 ], [ 550, 558 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the reign of Henry's son, Henry II (the Quarrelsome) (955–976) Otto became the first Holy Roman Emperor (962) and Bavaria became a duchy of the Holy Roman Empire. Otto I re-established the eastern march, and was succeeded by Otto II in 967, and found himself in conflict with Henry who he deposed, allowing him to re-organise the duchies of his empire.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 227817, 50853, 64604, 13277, 40599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 59 ], [ 92, 110 ], [ 138, 143 ], [ 151, 168 ], [ 232, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Otto considerably reduced Bavaria, re-establishing Carinthia to the south. To the east, he established a new Bavarian Eastern March, subsequently known as Austria, under Leopold (Luitpold), count of Babenberg in 976. Leopold I, also known as Leopold the Illustrious (Luitpold der Erlauchte) ruled Austria from 976 to 994.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 11421146, 1100652, 40347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 131 ], [ 170, 177 ], [ 199, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The marches were overseen by a comes or dux as appointed by the emperor. These titles are usually translated as count or duke, but these terms conveyed very different meanings in the Early Middle Ages, so the Latin versions are to be preferred . In Lombardic speaking countries, the title was eventually regularized to margrave (German: markgraf) i.e. \"count of the mark\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 317549, 532476, 17730, 26296211, 196475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 11 ], [ 183, 200 ], [ 209, 214 ], [ 249, 258 ], [ 319, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first recorded instance of the name 'Austria' appeared in 996, in a document of King Otto III written as Ostarrîchi, referring to the territory of the Babenberg March. In addition, for a long time the form Osterlant (Ostland or 'Eastland') was in use, the inhabitants being referred to as Ostermann or Osterfrau. The Latinized name Austria applied to this area appears in the 12th Century writings in the time of Leopold III (1095–1136). (compare Austrasia as the name for the north-eastern part of the Frankish Empire). The term Ostmark is not historically certain and appears to be a translation of marchia orientalis that came up only much later.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 38935, 1240137, 14763066, 1100736, 62778, 11421146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 97 ], [ 109, 119 ], [ 321, 330 ], [ 417, 428 ], [ 451, 460 ], [ 534, 541 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Babenbergs pursued a policy of settling the country, clearing forests and founding towns and monasteries. They ruled the March from Pöchlarn initially, and later from Melk, continually expanding the territory eastward along the Danube valley, so that by 1002 it reached Vienna. The eastward expansion was finally halted by the newly Christianized Hungarians in 1030, when King Stephen (1001–1038) of Hungary defeated the Emperor, Conrad II (1024–1039) at Vienna.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 11023800, 164124, 21209639, 55866, 879716, 29594, 44399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 144 ], [ 171, 175 ], [ 232, 238 ], [ 274, 280 ], [ 351, 361 ], [ 376, 388 ], [ 434, 443 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A 'core' territory had finally been established. The land contained the remnant of many prior civilisations, but the Bavarians predominated, except in the Lake Constance area to the west occupied by the Alemanni (Vorarlberg). Pockets of the Celto-Romanic population (Walchen or Welsche) persisted, such as around Salzburg, and Roman place names persisted, such as Juvavum (Salzburg). In addition this population was distinguished by Christianity and by their language, a Latin dialect (Romansch). Salzburg was already a bishopric (739), and by 798 an archbishopric.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 76273, 1486, 161788, 40335, 40335, 25529 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 169 ], [ 203, 211 ], [ 213, 223 ], [ 313, 321 ], [ 364, 371 ], [ 486, 494 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although the Germanic Bavarians steadily replaced Romansch as the main language, they adopted many Roman customs and became increasingly Christianized. Similarly in the east, German replaced the Slavic language. The March of Austria's neighbours were the Duchy of Bavaria to the west, the Kingdoms of Bohemia and Poland to the North, the Kingdom of Hungary to the east and the Duchy of Carinthia to the south. In this setting, Austria, still subject to Bavaria was a relatively small player.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 11360063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 386, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Babenberg Margraves controlled very little of modern Austria. Salzburg, historically part of Bavaria became an ecclesiastical territory, while Styria was part of the Carinthian Duchy. The Babenbergs had relatively small holdings, with not only Salzburg but the lands of the Diocese of Passau lying in the hands of the church, and the nobility controlling much of the rest. However they embarked on a programme of consolidating their power base. One such method was to employ indentures servants such as the Kuenringern family as Ministeriales and given considerable military and administrative duties. They survived as a dynasty through good fortune and skill at power politics, in that era dominated by the continual struggle between emperor and papacy.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 224474, 3526011, 327356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 153 ], [ 533, 546 ], [ 722, 757 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The path was not always smooth. The fifth Margrave, Leopold II 'The Fair' (Luitpold der Schöne) (1075–1095) was temporarily deposed by the Emperor Henry IV (1084–1105) after finding himself on the wrong side of the Investiture Dispute. However Leopold's son, Leopold III 'The Good' (Luitpold der Heilige) (1095–1136) backed Henry's rebellious son, Henry V (1111–1125), contributed to his victory and was rewarded with the hand of Henry's sister Agnes von Waiblingen in 1106, thus allying himself with the Imperial family. Leopold then concentrated on pacifying the nobility. His monastic foundations, particularly Klosterneuburg and Heiligenkreuz, led to his posthumous canonisation in 1458, and he became Austria's patron saint.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 1178616, 27485413, 235106, 1100736, 27485376, 1304244, 19626, 5867273, 427803, 6097, 68055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 62 ], [ 147, 155 ], [ 215, 234 ], [ 259, 270 ], [ 348, 355 ], [ 445, 465 ], [ 579, 587 ], [ 614, 628 ], [ 633, 646 ], [ 670, 682 ], [ 716, 728 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leopold III was succeeded by his son, Leopold IV 'The Generous' (Luitpold der Freigiebige) (1137–1141). Leopold further enhanced the status of Austria by also becoming Duke of Bavaria in 1139, as Leopold I. Bavaria itself had been in the hands of the Welf (Guelph) dynasty, who were pitted against the Hohenstaufen. The latter came to the imperial throne in 1138 in the person of Conrad III (1138–1152); the Duke of Bavaria, Henry the Proud, was himself a candidate for the imperial crown and disputed the election of Conrad, and was subsequently deprived of the Duchy, which was given to Leopold IV. When Leopold died, his lands were inherited by his brother Henry II (Heinrich Jasomirgott) (1141–1177).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 1117949, 222076, 330634, 13805, 40440, 162625, 1116423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 48 ], [ 168, 183 ], [ 251, 255 ], [ 302, 314 ], [ 380, 390 ], [ 425, 440 ], [ 660, 668 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the meantime, Conrad had been succeeded as emperor by his nephew Frederick I Barbarossa (1155–1190), who was descended from both the Welfs and Hohenstauffens and sought to end the conflicts within Germany. To this end he returned Bavaria to the Welfs in 1156, but as compensation elevated Austria to a duchy through an instrument known as the Privilegium Minus. Henry II thus became Duke of Austria in exchange for losing the title of Duke of Bavaria.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 39699, 1112901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 90 ], [ 346, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austria was now an independent dominion within the Holy Roman Empire, and Henry moved his official residence to Vienna that year.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1186 the Georgenberg Pact bequeathed Austria's southern neighbour, the Duchy of Styria to Austria upon the death of the childless Duke of Styria, Ottokar IV, which occurred in 1192. Styria had been carved out of the northern marches of Carinthia, and only raised to the status of Duchy in 1180. However the territory of the Duchy of Styria extended far beyond the current state of Styria, including parts of present-day Slovenia (Lower Styria), and also parts of Upper Austria (the Traungau, the area around Wels and Steyr) and Lower Austria (the county of Pitten, today's districts of Wiener Neustadt and Neunkirchen).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 1118032, 11734356, 1349540, 74817, 224474, 27338, 1118310, 146894, 239441, 923444, 148988, 11058488, 1030100, 6028651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 28 ], [ 70, 89 ], [ 149, 159 ], [ 239, 248 ], [ 384, 390 ], [ 423, 431 ], [ 433, 445 ], [ 466, 479 ], [ 511, 515 ], [ 520, 525 ], [ 531, 544 ], [ 560, 566 ], [ 589, 604 ], [ 609, 620 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The second Duke of Austria, Henry II's son Leopold V the Virtuous (Luitpold der Tugendhafte) (1177–1194) became Duke of these combined territories. Leopold is perhaps best known for his imprisonment of the British king, Richard I following the Third Crusade (1189–1192), in 1192 at Dürnstein. The ransom money he received helped finance many of his projects.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 1100939, 26368, 106131, 1194620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 65 ], [ 220, 229 ], [ 244, 257 ], [ 282, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At that time, the Babenberg Dukes came to be one of the most influential ruling families in the region, peaking in the reign of Henry's grandson Leopold VI the Glorious (Luitpold der Glorreiche) (1198–1230), the fourth Duke. under whom the culture of the High Middle Ages flourished, including the introduction of Gothic Art.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 1117998, 503345, 894938 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 155 ], [ 255, 271 ], [ 314, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On Leopold's death, he was succeeded by his son Frederick II the Quarrelsome (Friedrich der Streitbare) (1230–1246). In 1238 he divided the land into two areas divided by the River Enns. That part above the Enns became Ob(erhalb) der Enns (Above the Enns) or 'Upper Austria' (Oberösterreich), although other names such as supra anasum (from an old Latin name for the river), and Austria superior were also in use. Those lands below the Enns or unter der Enns became known as Lower Austria (Niederösterreich). The Traungau and Steyr were made part of Upper Austria rather than Styria. Another of Frederick's achievements was a Patent of Protection for Jews in 1244.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 1073853, 1073452, 25955086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 60 ], [ 175, 185 ], [ 651, 655 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However Frederick was killed in the Battle of the Leitha River against the Hungarians, and had no surviving children. Thus the Babenburg dynasty became extinct in 1246.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 25366063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "What followed was an interregnum, a period of several decades during which the status of the country was disputed, and during which Frederick II's duchy fell victim to a prolonged power play between rival forces. During this time there were multiple claimants to the title, including Vladislaus, Margrave of Moravia son of King Wenceslaus I of Bohemia. King Wenceslaus aimed at acquiring the Duchy of Austria by arranging the marriage of Vladislaus to the last Duke's niece Gertrud, herself a potential heir and claimant.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 368411, 10049840, 285753, 1119197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 32 ], [ 284, 315 ], [ 328, 351 ], [ 474, 481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the Privilegium Minus issued by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1156, the Austrian lands could be bequeathed through the female line. Vladislaus received the homage of the Austrian nobility, but died shortly afterwards, on 3 January 1247, before he could take possession of the duchy. Next came Herman of Baden in 1248. He also made claim by seeking Gertrud's hand but did not have the support of the nobility. Herman died in 1250, and his claim was taken up by his son Frederick, but his claim was thwarted by the Bohemian invasion of Austria.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 1112901, 1119178, 148218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 34 ], [ 308, 323 ], [ 483, 492 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In an attempt to end the turmoil a group of Austrian nobles invited the king of Bohemia, Ottokar II Přemysl, Vladislaus' brother, to become Austria's ruler in 1251. His father had attempted to invade Austria in 1250. Ottokar then proceeded to ally himself to the Babenbergs by marrying Margaret, daughter of Leopold VI and thereby a potential claimant of the throne, in 1252. He subdued the quarrelsome nobles and made himself ruler of most of the area, including Austria, Styria, and Carinthia.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 4345, 246445, 1073924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 87 ], [ 89, 99 ], [ 286, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ottokar was a lawmaker and builder. Among his achievements was the founding of the Hofburg Palace in Vienna. Ottokar was in a position to establish a new empire, given the weakness of the Holy Roman Empire on the death of Frederick II (1220–1250) particularly after the Hohenstauffen dynasty was ended in 1254 with the death of Conrad IV and the ensuing Imperial interregnum (1254–1273). Thus Ottokar put himself forward as a candidate for the imperial throne, but was unsuccessful.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 1651794, 13277, 13805, 182758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 97 ], [ 188, 205 ], [ 270, 283 ], [ 328, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the interregnum, Austria was the scene of intense persecution of heretics by the Inquisition. The first instances appear in 1260 in over forty parishes in the southern Danube region between the Salzkammergut and the Vienna Woods, and were mainly directed against the Waldensians.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 20611083, 15191, 605517, 1078120, 149317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 80 ], [ 88, 99 ], [ 201, 214 ], [ 223, 235 ], [ 274, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ottokar again contested the Imperial Throne in 1273, being almost alone in this position in the electoral college. This time he refused to accept the authority of the successful candidate, Rudolf of Habsburg (Emperor 1273–1291). In November 1274 the Imperial Diet at Nuremberg ruled that all crown estates seized since the death of the Emperor Frederick II (1250) must be restored, and that King Ottokar II must answer to the Diet for not recognising the new emperor, Rudolf. Ottokar refused either to appear or to restore the duchies of Austria, Styria and Carinthia with the March of Carniola, which he had claimed through his first wife, a Babenberg heiress, and which he had seized while disputing them with another Babenberg heir, Margrave Hermann VI of Baden.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 45321, 30599237, 21287, 6490884, 11734356, 74817, 9058942, 40347, 1119178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 189, 207 ], [ 250, 263 ], [ 267, 276 ], [ 538, 545 ], [ 547, 553 ], [ 558, 567 ], [ 577, 594 ], [ 643, 652 ], [ 745, 764 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rudolph refuted Ottokar's succession to the Babenberg patrimony, declaring that the provinces must revert to the Imperial crown due to the lack of male-line heirs (a position that however conflicted with the provisions of the Austrian Privilegium Minus). King Ottokar was placed under the imperial ban; and in June 1276 war was declared against him, Rudolf laying siege to Vienna. Having persuaded Ottokar's former ally Duke Henry XIII of Lower Bavaria to switch sides, Rudolph compelled the Bohemian king to cede the four provinces to the control of the imperial administration in November 1276.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 1112901, 1962927, 55866, 4153477 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 235, 252 ], [ 289, 301 ], [ 373, 379 ], [ 420, 452 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ottokar having relinquished his territories outside of the Czech lands, Rudolph re-invested him with the Kingdom of Bohemia, betrothed his youngest daughter, Judith of Habsburg, (to Ottokar's son Wenceslaus II), and made a triumphal entry into Vienna. Ottokar, however, raised questions about the execution of the treaty, made an alliance with some Piast chiefs of Poland, and procured the support of several German princes, again including Henry XIII of Lower Bavaria. To meet this coalition, Rudolph formed an alliance with King Ladislaus IV of Hungary and gave additional privileges to the Vienna citizens.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 1625048, 19389872, 251548, 60738, 27041853, 161738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 123 ], [ 158, 176 ], [ 196, 209 ], [ 349, 354 ], [ 365, 371 ], [ 531, 554 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 26 August 1278, the rival armies met at the Battle on the Marchfeld, northeast of Vienna, where Ottokar was defeated and killed. The Margraviate of Moravia was subdued and its government entrusted to Rudolph's representatives, leaving Ottokar's widow Kunigunda of Slavonia, in control of only the province surrounding Prague, while the young Wenceslaus II was again betrothed to Judith.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 1188976, 38130219, 5293252, 19389872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 70 ], [ 136, 158 ], [ 254, 275 ], [ 382, 388 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rudolf was thus able to assume sole control over Austria, as Duke of Austria and Styria (1278–1282) which remained under Habsburg rule for over six centuries, until 1918.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 13824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thus Austria and the Empire came under a single Habsburg crown, and after a few centuries (1438) would remain so almost continuously (see below) till 1806, when the empire was dissolved, obviating the frequent conflicts that had occurred previously.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Rudolf I spent several years establishing his authority in Austria, finding some difficulty in establishing his family as successors to the rule of the province. At length the hostility of the princes was overcome and he was able to bequeath Austria to his two sons. In December 1282, at the Diet of Augsburg, Rudolph invested the duchies of Austria and Styria on his sons, Albert I (1282–1308) and Rudolph II the Debonair (1282–1283) as co-rulers \"jointly and severally\", and so laid the foundation of the House of Habsburg. Rudolf continued his campaigns subduing and subjugating and adding to his domains, dying in 1291, but leaving dynastic instability in Austria, where frequently the Duchy of Austria was shared between family members. However Rudolf was unsuccessful in ensuring the succession to the imperial throne for the Dukes of Austria and Styria.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 45321, 37787, 38446, 1213203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 300, 308 ], [ 374, 382 ], [ 399, 422 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The conjoint dukedom lasted only a year until the Treaty of Rheinfelden (Rheinfelder Hausordnung) in 1283 established the Habsburg order of succession. Establishing primogeniture, then eleven-year-old Duke Rudolph II had to waive all his rights to the thrones of Austria and Styria to the benefit of his elder brother Albert I. While Rudolph was supposed to be compensated, this did not happen, dying in 1290, and his son John subsequently murdered his uncle Albert I in 1308. For a brief period, Albert I also shared the duchies with Rudolph III the Good (1298–1307), and finally achieved the imperial throne in 1298.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 1213253, 6970425, 1213233, 442907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 71 ], [ 131, 150 ], [ 422, 426 ], [ 535, 546 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On Albert I's death, the duchy but not the empire passed to his son, Frederick the Fair (1308–1330), at least not until 1314 when he became co-ruler of the empire with Louis IV. Frederick also had to share the duchy with his brother Leopold I the Glorious (1308–1326). Yet another brother, Albert II the Lame (1330–1358) succeeded Frederick.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 1147252, 38802, 1220065, 1151624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 87 ], [ 168, 176 ], [ 233, 242 ], [ 290, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The pattern of corule persisted, since Albert had to share the role with another younger brother Otto I the Merry (1330–1339), although he did attempt to unsuccessfully lay down the rules of succession in the \"Albertinian House Rule\" (Albertinische Hausordnung). When Otto died in 1339, his two sons, Frederick II and Leopold II replaced him, making three simultaneous Dukes of Austria from 1339 to 1344 when both of them died in their teens without issue. Single rule in the Duchy of Austria finally returned when his son, Rudolph IV succeeded him in 1358.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 1159679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 14th century the Habsburgs began to accumulate other provinces in the vicinity of the Duchy of Austria, which had remained a small territory along the Danube, and Styria, which they had acquired with Austria from Ottokar. In 1335 Albert II inherited the Duchy of Carinthia and the March of Carniola from the then rulers, the House of Gorizia.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 74817, 9058942, 7222522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 261, 279 ], [ 288, 305 ], [ 332, 348 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rudolf IV the Founder (1358–1365) was the first to claim the title of Archduke of Austria, through the Privilegium Maius of 1359, which was actually a forgery and not recognized outside of Austria till 1453. However it would have placed him on a level footing with the other Prince-electors of the Holy Roman Empire. Rudolph was one of the most active rulers of his time, initiating many measures and elevating the importance of the City of Vienna.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 743182, 1112952, 62312, 14056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 103, 120 ], [ 151, 158 ], [ 275, 290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At that time Vienna was ecclesiastically subordinate to the Diocese of Passau, which Rudolph subverted by founding St Stephen's Cathedral and appointing the provost as the Archchancellor of Austria. he also founded the University of Vienna (Alma Mater Rudolphina). He improved the economy and established a stable currency, the Vienna Penny (Wiener Pfennig). When he died in 1365 he was without issue and the succession passed to his brothers jointly under the Rudolfinian House Rules (Rudolfinische Hausordnung).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 1150129, 214393, 2870977, 1485118, 53049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 77 ], [ 115, 137 ], [ 157, 164 ], [ 172, 186 ], [ 219, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1363, the County of Tyrol was acquired by Rudolph IV from Margaret of Tyrol. Thus Austria was now a complex country in the Eastern Alps, and these lands are often referred to as the Habsburg Hereditary Lands, as well as simply Austria, since the Habsburgs also began to accumulate lands far from their Hereditary Lands.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 6493681, 1007951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 28 ], [ 61, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Almost the entire 15th Century was a confusion of estate and family disputes, which considerably weakened the political and economic importance of the Habsburg lands. It was not until 1453 in the reign of Frederick V the Peaceful (1457–1493) that the country (at least the core territories) would be finally united again. Rudolph IV's brothers Albert III the Pigtail and Leopold III the Just quarreled ceaselessly and eventually agreed to split the realm in the Treaty of Neuberg in 1379, which was to result in further schisms later. Altogether this resulted in three separate jurisdictions.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 11472, 1163286, 1220156, 1220201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 205, 216 ], [ 344, 354 ], [ 371, 382 ], [ 462, 479 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lower Austrian Territories or Niederösterreich (Upper and Lower Austria)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 146894, 148988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 54 ], [ 59, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Albertinian Line– extinct 1457, passed to Leopoldians", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Inner Austrian Territories or Innerösterreich (Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, and the Austrian Littoral of Istria and Trieste)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 1223689, 11734356, 74817, 1816312, 2892559, 11286515, 30544042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ], [ 48, 54 ], [ 56, 65 ], [ 67, 75 ], [ 85, 102 ], [ 106, 112 ], [ 117, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Leopoldian Line then Elder Ernestine Line 1406–1457, continuing as Archduchy of Austria.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 6490870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Further Austrian Territories or Vorderösterreich (Tyrol, Vorarlberg and the Swabian and Alsatian territories)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 1105172, 6493681, 161788, 663122, 48129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ], [ 51, 56 ], [ 58, 68 ], [ 77, 84 ], [ 89, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Leopoldian Line then Junior Tyrolean Line 1406–1490, passed back to Leopoldians", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1379 Albert III retained Austria proper, ruling till 1395. He was succeeded by his son Albert IV (1395–1404) and grandson Albert V (1404–1439) who regained the imperial throne for the Habsburgs and through his territorial acquisitions was set to become one of the most powerful rulers in Europe had he not died when he did, leaving only a posthumous heir, born four months later (Ladislaus the Posthumous 1440–1457). Instead it was Ladislaus' guardian and successor, the Leopoldian Frederick V the Peaceful (1457–1493) who benefited. The Albertinian line having become extinct, the title now passed back to the Leopoldians. Frederick was so aware of the potential of being the young Ladislaus' guardian that he refused to let him rule independently upon reaching majority (12 in Austria at the time) and had to be forced to release him by the Austrian Estates (League of Mailberg 1452).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 1163334, 38447, 161735, 11472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 99 ], [ 125, 133 ], [ 383, 407 ], [ 485, 496 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leopold III took the remaining territories, ruling till 1386. He was succeeded by two of his sons jointly, William the Courteous (1386–1406) and Leopold IV the Fat (1386–1411). In 1402 yet another split in the Duchy occurred, since Leopold III had had four sons and neither Leopold IV or William had heirs. The remaining brothers then divided the territory.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 1168530, 1168621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 128 ], [ 145, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ernest the Iron (1402–1424) took Inner Austria, while Frederick IV of the Empty Pockets (1402–1439) took Further Austria. Once William died in 1406, this took formal effect with two separate ducal lines, the Elder Ernestine Line and Junior Tyrolean Line respectively.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 1167367, 1085742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 54, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ernestine line (Inner Austria 1406–1457)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Ernestine line consisted of Ernest and a joint rule by two of his sons upon his death in 1424, Albert VI the Prodigal (1457–1463) and Frederick V the Peaceful (1457–1493). They too quarreled and in turn divided what had now become both Lower and Inner Austria upon the death of Ladislaus in 1457 and extinction of the Albertinians. Albert seized Upper Austria in 1458, ruling from Linz, but in 1462 proceeded to besiege his elder brother in the Hofburg Palace in Vienna, seizing lower Austria too. However, since he died childless the following year (1463) his possessions automatically reverted to his brother, and Frederick now controlled all of the Albertinian and Ernestine possessions.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 1220240, 11472, 55856, 1651794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 108 ], [ 138, 149 ], [ 385, 389 ], [ 449, 463 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frederick's political career had advanced in a major way, since he inherited the Duchy of Inner Austria in 1424. From being a Duke, he became German King as Frederick IV in 1440 and Holy Roman Emperor as Frederick III (1452–1493).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 302609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tyrolean line (Further Austria) 1406–1490", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Tyrolean line consisted of Frederick IV and his son, Sigismund the Rich (1439–1490). Frederick moved his court to Innsbruck but lost some of his possessions to Switzerland. Sigismund who succeeded him sold some of his lands to Charles the Bold in 1469 and was elevated to Archduke by Emperor Frederick III in 1477. He died childless, but in 1490, he abdicated in the face of unpopularity and Further Austria reverted to the then Archduke, Maximilian I the Last Knight (1490–1493), Frederick V's son who now effectively controlled all the Habsburg territory for the first time since 1365.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 38715, 55857, 151328, 39070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 75 ], [ 118, 127 ], [ 231, 247 ], [ 443, 455 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The inquisition was also active under the Habsburgs, particularly between 1311 and 1315 when inquisitions were held in Steyr, Krems, St. Pölten and Vienna. The Inquisitor, Petrus Zwicker, conducted severe persecutions in Steyr, Enns, Hartberg, Sopron and Vienna between 1391 and 1402. In 1397 there were some 80–100 Waldensians burnt in Steyr alone, now remembered in a 1997 monument.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 923444, 497505, 164123, 37894229, 1073582, 9578704, 102378, 149317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 124 ], [ 126, 131 ], [ 133, 143 ], [ 172, 186 ], [ 228, 232 ], [ 234, 242 ], [ 244, 250 ], [ 316, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Habsburg Duchy, there were 13 consecutive Dukes, of whom four were also crowned King of Germany, Rudolf I, Albert I, Frederick the Fair, and Albert V (Albert II as King of Germany), although none were recognised as Holy Roman Emperors by the Pope.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 302609, 45321, 38446, 1147252, 38447, 50853, 23056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 106 ], [ 108, 116 ], [ 118, 126 ], [ 128, 146 ], [ 152, 160 ], [ 226, 245 ], [ 253, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Duke Albert V (1404–1439) was elected as emperor in 1438 (as Albert II), as the successor to his father-in-law, Sigismund von Luxemburg (1433–1437) the imperial crown returned once more to the Habsburgs. Although Albert himself only reigned for a year (1438–1439), from then on, every emperor was a Habsburg (with only one exception: Charles VII 1742–1745), and Austria's rulers were also the Holy Roman Emperors until its dissolution in 1806.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 38889, 51109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 140 ], [ 339, 350 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frederick V (Duke 1424 Archduke 1453, died 1493) the Peaceful (Emperor Frederick III 1452-–1493) confirmed the Privilegium Maius of Rudolph IV in 1453, and so Austria became an official archduchy of the Holy Roman Empire, the next step in its ascendancy within Europe, and Ladislaus the Posthumous (1440–1457) the first official archduke for a brief period, dying shortly after. The document was a forgery, purportedly written by the Emperor Frederick I and \"rediscovered\". Frederick had a clear motive for this. He was a Habsburg, he was Duke of Inner Austria in addition to being Emperor, and, up till the previous year, had been guardian of the young Duke of Lower Austria, Ladislaus. He also stood to inherit Ladislaus's title, and did so when Ladislaus died four years later, becoming the second Archduke.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 11472, 599359, 161735, 39699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 84 ], [ 186, 195 ], [ 273, 297 ], [ 442, 453 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Austrian Archdukes were now of equal status to the other Prince Electors that selected the emperors. Austrian governance was now to be based on primogeniture and indivisibility. Later Austria was to become officially known as \"Erzherzogtum Österreich ob und unter der Enns\" (The Archduchy of Austria above and below the Enns). In 1861 it was again divided into Upper and Lower Austria.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 14056, 146894, 148988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 76 ], [ 365, 370 ], [ 375, 388 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The relative power of the emperor in the monarchy was not great, as many other aristocratic dynasties pursued their own political power inside and outside the monarchy. However Frederick, although lackluster, pursued a tough and effective rule. He pursued power through dynastic alliances. In 1477 Maximilian (Archduke and Emperor 1493–1519), Frederick's only son, married Mary, Duchess of Burgundy, thus acquiring most of the Low Countries for the family. The strategic importance of this alliance was that Burgundy, which lay on the western border of the empire, was demonstrating expansionist tendencies, and was at that time one of the richest and most powerful of the Western European nation states, with territories stretching from the south of France to the North Sea.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 39070, 11472, 151337, 441671, 51402, 21179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 298, 308 ], [ 343, 354 ], [ 373, 377 ], [ 379, 398 ], [ 427, 440 ], [ 765, 774 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The alliance was achieved at no small cost, since France, which also claimed Burgundy, contested this acquisition, and Maximilian had to defend his new wife's territories from Louis XI, finally doing so upon Mary's death in 1482 at the Peace of Arras. Relationships with France remained difficult, Louis XI being defeated at the Battle of Guinegate in 1479. Matters with France were only concluded in 1493 at the Treaty of Senlis after Maximilian had become emperor.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 70506, 1828203, 9312159, 11308276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 184 ], [ 236, 250 ], [ 329, 348 ], [ 413, 429 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This and Maximilian's later dynastic alliances gave rise to the saying:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bella gerant alii, tu felix Austria nube,", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Nam quae Mars aliis, dat tibi regna Venus", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "which became a motto of the dynasty. Frederick's reign was pivotal in Austrian history. He united the core lands by simply outliving the rest of his family. From 1439, when Albert V died and the responsibilities for both of the core territories lay with Frederick, he systematically consolidated his power base. The next year (1440) he marched on Rome as King of the Romans with his ward, Ladislaus the last Albertinian duke, and when he was crowned in Rome in 1452 he was not only the first Habsburg but also the last German king to be crowned in Rome by the Pope.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 302609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 355, 373 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The dynasty was now en route to become a world power. The concept of pietas austriacae (the divine duty to rule had originated with Rudolph I, but was reformulated by Frederick as AEIOU, Alles Erdreich ist Österreich untertan or Austriae est imperare orbi universo (Austria's destiny is to rule the world), which came to symbolise Austrian power. However, not all events proceeded smoothly for Frederick. The Austrian-Hungarian War (1477–1488) resulted in the Hungarian king, Matthias Corvinus setting himself up in Vienna in 1485 till his death in 1490. Hungary occupied the entire Eastern Austria. Frederick therefore found himself with an itinerant court, predominantly in the Upper Austrian capital of Linz.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 1086956, 36253902, 272105, 32276476, 55856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 180, 185 ], [ 409, 443 ], [ 476, 493 ], [ 516, 530 ], [ 706, 710 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maximilian I shared rule with his father during the latter year of Frederick's reign, being elected King of the Romans in 1486. By acquiring the lands of the Tyrolean line of the Habsburgs in 1490 he finally reunited all the Austrian lands, divided since 1379. He also needed to deal with the Hungarian problem when Mathias I died in 1490. Maximilian reconquered the lost parts of Austria and established peace with Mathias's successor Vladislaus II at the Peace of Pressburg in 1491. However the dynastic pattern of division and unification would be one that kept repeating itself over time. With unsettled borders Maximilian found Innsbruck in the Tyrol a safer place for a capital, between his Burgundian and Austrian lands, although he was rarely in any place for very long, being acutely aware of how his father had been repeatedly besieged in Vienna.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 272105, 21756351, 36165707, 55857, 6493681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 316, 325 ], [ 436, 449 ], [ 457, 475 ], [ 633, 642 ], [ 650, 655 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maximilian raised the art of dynastic alliance to a new height and set about systematically creating a dynastic tradition, albeit through considerable revisionism. His wife Mary, was to die in 1482, only five years after they were married. He then married Anne, Duchess of Brittany (by proxy) in 1490, a move that would have brought Brittany, at that time independent, into the Habsburg fold, which was considered provocative to the French monarchy. Charles VIII of France had other ideas and annexed Brittany and married Anne, a situation complicated further by the fact that he was already betrothed to Maximilian's daughter Margaret, Duchess of Savoy. Maximilian's son, Philip the Fair (1478–1506) married Joanna, heiress of Castile and Aragon in 1496, and thus acquired Spain and its Italian (Naples, Kingdom of Sicily and Sardinia), African, and New World appendages for the Habsburgs.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 642214, 38748, 77606, 959186, 69842, 151288, 151276, 4711133, 824490, 258779, 27619, 21486771, 303062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 256, 281 ], [ 333, 341 ], [ 450, 472 ], [ 627, 635 ], [ 648, 653 ], [ 673, 688 ], [ 709, 715 ], [ 728, 735 ], [ 740, 746 ], [ 797, 803 ], [ 805, 822 ], [ 827, 835 ], [ 861, 871 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However Tu felix Austria nube was perhaps more romantic than strictly realistic, since Maximilian was not slow to wage war when it suited his purpose. Having settled matters with France in 1493, he was soon involved in the long Italian Wars against France (1494–1559). In addition to the wars against the French, there were the wars for Swiss independence. The Swabian War of 1499 marked the last phase of this struggle against the Habsburgs. Following defeat at the Battle of Dornach in 1499, Austria was forced to recognise Swiss independence at the Treaty of Basel in 1499, a process that was finally formalised by the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. This was significant as the Habsburgs had originated in Switzerland, their ancestral home being Habsburg Castle.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 239500, 6754871, 1881278, 2398731, 6754871, 2398726, 23850, 26748, 3144957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 228, 240 ], [ 337, 342 ], [ 361, 372 ], [ 467, 484 ], [ 526, 531 ], [ 552, 567 ], [ 622, 641 ], [ 707, 718 ], [ 747, 762 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In domestic policy, Maximilian launched a series of reforms at the 1495 Diet of Worms, at which the Imperial Chamber Court (Reichskammergericht) was launched as the highest court. Another new institution of 1495 was the Reichsregiment or Imperial government, meeting at Nuremberg. This preliminary exercise in democracy failed and was dissolved in 1502. Attempts at creating a unified state were not very successful, but rather re-emerged the idea of the three divisions of Austria that existed prior to the unification of Frederick and Maximilian.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 37793940, 575833, 31871552, 21287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 85 ], [ 124, 143 ], [ 220, 234 ], [ 270, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Short of funds for his various schemes he relied heavily on banking families such as the Fugger's, and it was these bankers that bribed the prince electors to choose Maximilian's grandson Charles as his successor. One tradition he did away with was the centuries-old custom that the Holy Roman Emperor had to be crowned by the Pope in Rome. Unable to reach Rome, due to Venetian hostility, in 1508, Maximilian, with the assent of Pope Julius II, took the title Erwählter Römischer Kaiser (\"Elected Roman Emperor\"). Thus his father Frederick was the last emperor to be crowned by the Pope in Rome.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 149300, 24755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 95 ], [ 430, 444 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since Philip the Fair (1478–1506) died before his father, Maximilian, the succession passed to Philip's son, Charles I (1519–1521) who became the Emperor Charles V, on Maximilian's death in 1519. He reigned as emperor from 1519 to 1556, when in poor health he abdicated, dying in 1558. Although crowned by Pope Clement VII in Bologna in 1530 (Charles had sacked Rome in 1527) he was the last emperor ever to be crowned by a Pope. Although he eventually fell short of his vision of universal monarchy, Charles I is still considered the most powerful of all the Habsburgs. His Chancellor, Mercurino Gattinara remarked in 1519 that he was \"on the path to universal monarchy... unite all Christendom under one sceptre\" bringing him closer to Frederick V's vision of AEIOU, and Charles' motto Plus ultra (still further) suggested this was his ambition.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 70716, 24119, 21069333, 676377, 1386450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 118 ], [ 306, 322 ], [ 326, 333 ], [ 355, 366 ], [ 587, 606 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Having inherited his father's possessions in 1506, he was already a powerful ruler with extensive domains. On Maximilian's death these domains became vast. He was now ruler of three of Europe's leading dynasties—the House of Habsburg of the Habsburg monarchy; the House of Valois-Burgundy of the Burgundian Netherlands; and the House of Trastámara of the Crowns of Castile and Aragon. This made him ruler over extensive lands in Central, Western, and Southern Europe; and the Spanish colonies in the Americas and Asia. As the first king to rule Castile, León, and Aragon simultaneously in his own right, he became the first King of Spain. His empire spanned nearly four million square kilometers across Europe, the Far East, and the Americas.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 13824, 1041515, 10777731, 1516642, 3602853, 4711133, 824490, 53091, 336544, 180762 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 216, 233 ], [ 241, 258 ], [ 264, 288 ], [ 296, 318 ], [ 328, 347 ], [ 365, 372 ], [ 377, 383 ], [ 476, 492 ], [ 554, 558 ], [ 624, 637 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A number of challenges stood in Charles's way, and were to shape Austria's history for a long time to come. These were France, the appearance of the Ottoman Empire to its East, and Martin Luther (see below).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 22278, 7567080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 149, 163 ], [ 181, 194 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the dynastic tradition the Habsburgs' hereditary territories were separated from this enormous empire at the Diet of Worms in 1521, when Charles I left them to the regency of his younger brother, Ferdinand I (1521–1564), although he then continued to add to the Habsburg territories. Since Charles left his Spanish Empire to his son Philip II of Spain, the Spanish territories became permanently alienated from the northern Habsburg domains, although remained allies for several centuries.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 195290, 151069, 54386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 132 ], [ 206, 217 ], [ 343, 361 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the time Ferdinand also inherited the title of Holy Roman Emperor from his brother in 1558 the Habsburgs had effectively turned an elective title into a de facto hereditary one. Ferdinand continued the tradition of dynastic marriages by marrying Anne of Bohemia and Hungary in 1521, effectively adding those two kingdoms to the Habsburg domains, together with the adjacent territories of Moravia, Silesia and Lusatia. This took effect when Anne's brother Louis II, King of Hungary and Bohemia (and hence the Jagiellon dynasty) died without heir at the Battle of Mohács in 1526 against Suleiman the Magnificent and the Ottomans. However, by 1538 the Kingdom of Hungary was divided into three parts:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 5496501, 20216, 28399, 159283, 46209, 34960337, 39076, 26992, 1598647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 249, 276 ], [ 391, 398 ], [ 400, 407 ], [ 412, 419 ], [ 458, 495 ], [ 511, 528 ], [ 555, 571 ], [ 588, 612 ], [ 652, 670 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Kingdom of Hungary (Royal Hungary) (today Burgenland, parts of Croatia, mostly Slovakia and parts of present-day Hungary) recognised the Habsburgs as Kings.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ottoman Hungary (the center of the country).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 7965564 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eastern Hungarian Kingdom, later the Principality of Transylvania under counter kings to the Habsburgs, but also under Ottoman protection.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 11161726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ferdinand's election to emperor in 1558 once again reunited the Austrian lands. He had had to cope with revolts in his own lands, religious turmoil, Ottoman incursions and even contest for the Hungarian throne from John Sigismund Zápolya. His lands were by no means the most wealthy of the Habsburg lands, but he succeeded in restoring internal order and keeping the Turks at bay, while enlarging his frontiers and creating a central administration.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 1061993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 215, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Ferdinand died in 1564, the lands were once more divided up between his three sons, a provision he had made in 1554.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When Martin Luther posted his ninety-five theses to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg in 1517, he challenged the very basis of the Holy Roman Empire, Catholic Christianity, and hence Habsburg hegemony. After the Emperor Charles V interrogated and condemned Luther at the 1521 Diet of Worms, Lutheranism and the Protestant Reformation spread rapidly in the Habsburg territories. Temporarily freed from war with France by the 1529 Treaty of Cambrai and the denouncement of the ban on Luther by the Protestant princes at Speyer that year, the Emperor revisited the issue next at the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, by which time it was well-established.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 7567080, 188050, 15034869, 48827, 70716, 195290, 37857, 2147525, 4130315, 636645 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 18 ], [ 30, 48 ], [ 68, 81 ], [ 85, 95 ], [ 222, 239 ], [ 286, 299 ], [ 332, 343 ], [ 439, 456 ], [ 506, 534 ], [ 590, 606 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the Ottoman threat growing (see below), he needed to ensure that he was not facing a major schism within Christianity. He refuted the Lutheran position (Augsburg Confession) (Confessio Augustana) with the Confutatio Augustana, and had Ferdinand elected King of the Romans on 5 January 1531, ensuring his succession as a Catholic monarch. In response, the Protestant princes and estates formed the Schmalkaldic League in February 1531 with French backing. Further Turkish advances in 1532 (which required him to seek Protestant aid) and other wars kept the emperor from taking further action on this front until 1547 when imperial troops defeated the League at the Battle of Mühlberg, allowing him to once more impose Catholicism.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 23883384, 38293576, 302609, 247556, 420616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 177 ], [ 210, 230 ], [ 258, 276 ], [ 402, 421 ], [ 669, 687 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1541 Ferdinand's appeal to the estates general for aid against the Turks was met by demand for religious tolerance. The triumph of 1547 turned out to be short lived with French and Protestant forces again challenging the emperor in 1552 culminating in the Peace of Augsburg in 1555. Exhausted, Charles started to withdraw from politics and hand over the reins. Protestantism had proved too firmly entrenched to enable it to be uprooted.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 320616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 259, 276 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austria and the other Habsburg hereditary provinces (and Hungary and Bohemia, as well) were much affected by the Reformation, but with the exception of Tyrol the Austrian lands shut out Protestantism. Although the Habsburg rulers themselves remained Catholic, the non-Austrian provinces largely converted to Lutheranism, which Ferdinand I largely tolerated.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 148994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Catholic response to the Protestant Reformation was a conservative one, but one that did address the issues raised by Luther. In 1545 the long running Council of Trent began its work of reform and a Counter-Reformation on the borders of the Habsburg domains. The Council continued intermittently until 1563. Ferdinand and the Austrian Habsburgs were far more tolerant than their Spanish brethren, and the process initiated at Trent. However his attempts at reconciliation at the Council in 1562 was rejected, and although a Catholic counteroffensive existed in the Habsburg lands from the 1550s it was based on persuasion, a process in which the Jesuits and Peter Canisius took the lead. Ferdinand deeply regretted the failure to reconcile religious differences before his death (1564).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 6354, 236236, 45882, 1801702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 171 ], [ 203, 222 ], [ 430, 435 ], [ 662, 676 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Ferdinand I married into the Hungarian dynasty in 1521 Austria first encountered the westward Ottoman expansion which had first come into conflict with Hungary in the 1370s. Matters came to a close when his wife Anne's brother the young king Louis was killed fighting the Turks under Suleiman the Magnificent at the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the title passing to Ferdinand. Louis' widow Mary fled to seek protection from Ferdinand.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 151069, 22278, 5496501, 46209, 26992, 39076, 879852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 16 ], [ 99, 106 ], [ 217, 221 ], [ 247, 252 ], [ 289, 313 ], [ 321, 337 ], [ 392, 396 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Turks initially withdrew following this victory, reappearing in 1528 advancing on Vienna and laying siege to it the following year. They withdrew that winter till 1532 when their advance was stopped by Charles V, although they controlled much of Hungary. Ferdinand was then forced to recognize John Zápolya Ferdinand and the Turks continued to wage war between 1537 and a temporary truce in 1547 when Hungary was partitioned. However hostilities continued almost immediately till the Treaty of Constantinople of 1562 which confirmed the 1547 borders. The Ottoman threat was to continue for 200 years.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 55866, 386667, 70716, 558193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 92 ], [ 104, 115 ], [ 206, 215 ], [ 298, 310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ferdinand I had three sons who survived to adulthood, and he followed the potentially disastrous Habsburg tradition of dividing up his lands between them on his death in 1564. This considerably weakened Austria, particularly in the face of the Ottoman expansion. It was not until the reign of Ferdinand III (Archduke 1590–1637) that they were reunited again in 1620—albeit briefly until 1623. It was not to be until 1665, under Leopold I that the Austrian lands were definitively united.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Redivision of the Habsburg lands (1564–1620)", "target_page_ids": [ 151069, 151083, 148788 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 293, 306 ], [ 428, 437 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the next 60 years the Habsburg monarchy was divided into three jurisdictions:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Redivision of the Habsburg lands (1564–1620)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Lower Austria\" – The Austrian Duchies, Bohemia passed to Charles II's line 1619.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Redivision of the Habsburg lands (1564–1620)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Maximilian II (1564–1576); Rudolf V (1576–1608); Mathias (1608–1619)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Redivision of the Habsburg lands (1564–1620)", "target_page_ids": [ 39380, 26054, 151080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 28, 36 ], [ 50, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Upper Austria\" – Tyrol and Further Austria, passed to Maximilian II's line 1595 (under administration of Maximilian III, 1595–1618).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Redivision of the Habsburg lands (1564–1620)", "target_page_ids": [ 1105172, 1228671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 44 ], [ 107, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ferdinand II (1564–1595)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Redivision of the Habsburg lands (1564–1620)", "target_page_ids": [ 1196405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Inner Austria\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Redivision of the Habsburg lands (1564–1620)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Charles II (1564–1590); Ferdinand III (1590–1637)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Redivision of the Habsburg lands (1564–1620)", "target_page_ids": [ 9913432, 151083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 25, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the eldest son, Maximilian II and his sons were granted the \"core\" territories of Lower and Upper Austria. Ferdinand II dying without living issue, his territories reverted to the core territories on his death in 1595, then under Rudolf V (1576–1608), Maximilian II's son.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Redivision of the Habsburg lands (1564–1620)", "target_page_ids": [ 26054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 233, 241 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maximilian II was succeeded by three of his sons none of whom left living heirs, so the line became extinct in 1619 upon the abdication of Albert VII (1619–1619). Thus Charles II's son Ferdinand III inherited all of the Habsburg lands. However he promptly lost Bohemia which rebelled in 1619 and was briefly (1619–1620) under the rule of Frederick I. Thus all the lands again came under one ruler again in 1620 when Ferdinand III invaded Bohemia, defeating Frederick I.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Redivision of the Habsburg lands (1564–1620)", "target_page_ids": [ 296241, 4345, 164700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 149 ], [ 261, 268 ], [ 338, 349 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although technically an elected position, the title of Holy Roman Emperor was passed down through Maximilian II and the two sons (Rudolf V and Mathias) that succeeded him. Albert VII was Archduke for only a few months before abdicating in favour of Ferdinand III, who also became emperor.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Redivision of the Habsburg lands (1564–1620)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Rudolf V (Archduke, Emperor Rudolf II 1576–1612), Maximilian's eldest son, moved his capital from Vienna to the safer venue of Prague, in view of the Ottoman threat. He was noted as a great patron of the arts and sciences but a poor governor. Among his legacies is the Imperial Crown of the Habsburgs. He preferred to parcel out his responsibilities among his many brothers (of whom six lived to adulthood), leading to a great heterogeneity of policies across the lands. Among these delegations was making his younger brother Mathias, Governor of Austria in 1593.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Redivision of the Habsburg lands (1564–1620)", "target_page_ids": [ 1991275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 269, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In acquiring \"Upper Austria\" in 1595, his powers were considerably increased, since the remaining Inner Austria territories were in the hands of Ferdinand III who was only 17 at the time. However he handed over the administration to Maximilian III, another younger brother. In 1593 he instigated a new conflict with the Ottomans, who had resumed raids in 1568, in the so-called Long or Fifteen-Year War of 1593 to 1606. Unwilling to compromise, and envisioning a new crusade the results were disastrous, the exhausted Hungarians revolting in 1604. The Hungarian problem was further exacerbated by attempts to impose a counterreformation there. As a result, he handed over Hungary to Mathias who concluded the Peace of Vienna with the Hungarians, and Peace of Zsitvatorok with the Turks in 1606. As a result, Transylvania became both independent and Protestant.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Redivision of the Habsburg lands (1564–1620)", "target_page_ids": [ 1228671, 3871399, 4412145, 7764873, 3457808, 6258616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 233, 247 ], [ 378, 402 ], [ 467, 474 ], [ 709, 724 ], [ 750, 770 ], [ 808, 820 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These events led to conflict (Bruderzwist) between the brothers. Melchior Klesl engineered a conspiracy of the archdukes to ensure Mathias' ascendancy. By 1608 Rudolf had ceded much of his territory to the latter. Further conflict led to Mathias imprisoning his brother in 1611, who now gave up all power except the empty title of emperor, dying the following year and being succeeded by Mathias.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Redivision of the Habsburg lands (1564–1620)", "target_page_ids": [ 1270850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thus Mathias succeeded to the Archduchy in 1608, and became emperor in 1612, until his death in 1619. His reign was marked by conflict with his younger brother Maximilian III who was a more intransigent Catholic and backed the equally fervent Ferdinand II of \"Inner Austria\" as successor, having served as his regent between 1593 and 1595, before taking over \"Upper Austria\". The conflicts weakened the Habsburgs relative to both the estates and the Protestant interests. Mathias moved the capital back to Vienna from Prague and bought further peace from Turkey, by a treaty in 1615. Meanwhile, religious fervor in the empire was mounting, and even Klesl by now Bishop of Vienna (1614) and Cardinal (1615) was considered too moderate by extremist Catholics, including Ferdinand II. War was in the air, and the assault on two roral officials in Prague on 23 May 1618 (The Defenestration of Prague) was to spark all out war. Mathias, like his brother Rudolf, became increasingly isolated by Ferdinand who had imprisoned Klesl.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Redivision of the Habsburg lands (1564–1620)", "target_page_ids": [ 1228671, 44397 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 174 ], [ 867, 895 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The next brother in line for succession in 1619 was Albert VII, but he was persuaded to step down in favour of Ferdinand II within a few months.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Redivision of the Habsburg lands (1564–1620)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Religion played a large part in the politics of this period, and even tolerance had its limits faced with the incompatible demands of both camps. As the Archduke closest to the Turkish threat, Maximilian II was to continue his father's policy of tolerance and reconciliation, granting Assekuration (legalisation of Protestantism for the nobles) in 1571, as did Charles II with Religionspazifikation in 1572, while in distant Tyrol, Ferdinand II could afford to be more aggressive. Maximilian II's policies were continued by his sons, Rudolf V and Mathias. The strength of the Reformation in Upper Austria was blunted by internal schisms, while in Lower Austria Melchior Khlesl led a vigorous Catholic response, expelling Protestant preachers and promoting reconvertion. A further concession by Charles II in 1578, the Brucker Pazifikation, met with more resistance.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Redivision of the Habsburg lands (1564–1620)", "target_page_ids": [ 1270850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 661, 676 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Catholic Revival started in earnest in 1595 when Ferdinand II, who was Jesuit-educated came of age. He had succeeded his father, Charles II in Inner Austria in 1590 and was energetic in suppressing heresy in the provinces which he ruled. Reformation Commissions initiated a process of forced recatholicisation and by 1600 was being imposed on Graz and Klagenfurt. Unlike previous Austrian rulers, Ferdinand II was unconcerned about the effect of religious conflict on the ability to withstand the Ottomans. The Counter-Reformation was to continue to the end of the Thirty Year War in 1648.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Redivision of the Habsburg lands (1564–1620)", "target_page_ids": [ 151083, 16083, 48946, 80873, 30583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 65 ], [ 75, 90 ], [ 347, 351 ], [ 356, 366 ], [ 569, 584 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When the ultra-pious and intransigent Ferdinand II (1619–1637) was elected Emperor (as Ferdinand II) in 1619 to succeed his cousin Mathias, he embarked on an energetic attempt to re-Catholicize not only the Hereditary Provinces, but Bohemia and Habsburg Hungary as well as most of Protestant Europe within the Holy Roman Empire.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Austria and the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648)", "target_page_ids": [ 151083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Outside his lands, Ferdinand II's reputation for strong headed uncompromising intolerance had triggered the religious Thirty Years' War in May 1618 in the polarizing first phase, known as the Revolt in Bohemia. Once the Bohemian Revolt had been put down in 1620, he embarked on a concerted effort to eliminate Protestantism in Bohemia and Austria, which was largely successful as was his efforts to reduce the power of the Diet. The religious suppression of the counter-reformation reached its height in 1627 with the Provincial Ordinance (Verneuerte Landesordnung).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Austria and the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648)", "target_page_ids": [ 30583, 236236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 135 ], [ 462, 481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After several initial reverses, Ferdinand II had become more accommodating but as the Catholics turned things around and began to enjoy a long string of successes at arms he set forth the Edict of Restitution in 1629 in an attempt to restore the status quo of 1555 (Peace of Augsburg), vastly complicating the politics of settlement negotiations and prolonging the rest of the war. Encouraged by the mid-war successes, Ferdinand II became even more forceful, leading to infamies by his armies such as the Frankenburg Lottery (Frankenburger Würfelspiel) (1625), suppression of the consequent Peasants' Revolt of 1626, and the Sack of Magdeburg (1631). Despite concluding the Peace of Prague (1635) with Saxony, and hence the internal, or civil, war with the Protestants, the war would drag on due to the intervention of many foreign states.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Austria and the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648)", "target_page_ids": [ 1166569, 320616, 14719526, 40233783, 1299166, 1699228, 6488945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 188, 208 ], [ 266, 283 ], [ 505, 524 ], [ 591, 607 ], [ 625, 642 ], [ 674, 696 ], [ 702, 708 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the time of Ferdinand II's death in 1637, the war was progressing disastrously for the Habsburgs, and his son Ferdinand III (1637–1657) who had been one of his military commanders was faced with the task of salvaging the consequences of his father's extremism. Ferdinand III was far more pragmatic and had been considered the leader of the peace party at court and had helped negotiate the Peace of Prague in 1635. However, with continuing losses in the war he was forced to make peace in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia, concluding the war. One of his acts during the latter part of the war was to give further independence to the German states (ius belli ac pacis—rights in time of war and peace) which would gradually change the balance of power between emperor and states in favour of the latter.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Austria and the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648)", "target_page_ids": [ 151087, 23850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 126 ], [ 506, 525 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While its ultimate causes prove to be elusive, the war was to prove a roller-coaster as Habsburg over-reach led to it spreading from a domestic dispute to involve most of Europe, and which while at times appearing to aid the Habsburg goal of political hegemony and religious conformity, ultimately eluded them except in their own central territories.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Austria and the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The forced conversions or evictions carried out in the midst of the Thirty Years' War, together with the later general success of the Protestants, had greatly negative consequences for Habsburg control of the Holy Roman Empire itself. Although territorial losses were relatively small for the Habsburgs, the Empire was greatly diminished, the power of the ruler reduced and the balance of power in Europe changed with new centres emerging on the empire's borders. The estates were now to function more like nation states.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Austria and the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648)", "target_page_ids": [ 30583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While deprived of the goal of universal monarchy, the campaigns within the Habsburg hereditary lands were relatively successful in religiously purification, although Hungary was never successfully re-Catholicized. Only in Lower Austria, and only among the nobility, was Protestantism tolerated. Large numbers of people either emigrated or converted, while others compromised as crypto-Protestants, ensuing relative conformity. The crushing of the Bohemian Revolt also extinguished Czech culture and established German as the tool of Habsburg absolutism. The Austrian monarchs thereafter had much greater control within the hereditary power base, the dynastic absolutism grip was tightened and the power of the estates diminished. On the other hand, Austria was much reduced in population and economic might and less vigorous and weakened as a nation-state.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Austria and the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648)", "target_page_ids": [ 21627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 843, 855 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Baroque Austrian Monarchy was established. Despite the dichotomy between outward reality and inner conviction, the rest of the world saw Austria as the epitome of forcible conformity, and conflation of church and state.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Austria and the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In terms of human costs, the Thirty Years' wars many economic, social, and population dislocations caused by the hardline methods adopted by Ferdinand II's strict counter-reformation measures and almost continual employment of mercenary field armies contributed significantly to the loss of life and tragic depopulation of all the German states, during a war which some estimates put the civilian loss of life as high as 50% overall. Studies mostly cite the causes of death due to starvation or as caused (ultimately by the lack-of-food induced) weakening of resistance to endemic diseases which repeatedly reached epidemic proportions among the general Central European population—the German states were the battle ground and staging areas for the largest mercenary armies theretofore, and the armies foraged among the many provinces stealing the food of those people forced onto the roads as refugees, or still on the lands, regardless of their faith and allegiances. Both townsmen and farmers were repeatedly ravaged and victimized by the armies on both sides leaving little for the populations already stressed by the refugees from the war or fleeing the Catholic counter-reformation repressions under Ferdinand's governance.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Austria and the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648)", "target_page_ids": [ 30583, 256842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 46 ], [ 327, 344 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Austrian lands finally came under one archduchy in 1620, but Ferdinand II quickly redivided them in 1623 in the Habsburg tradition by parcelling out \"Upper Austria\" (Further Austria and Tirol) to his younger brother Leopold V (1623–1632) who was already governor there. Upper Austria would remain under Leopold's successors till 1665 when it reverted to the senior line under Leopold I.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Austria and the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648)", "target_page_ids": [ 1213349, 148788 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 220, 229 ], [ 380, 389 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leopold V's son Ferdinand Charles succeeded him in Upper Austria in 1632. However he was only four at the time, leaving his mother Claudia de' Medici as regent till 1646.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Austria and the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648)", "target_page_ids": [ 1213406, 2242494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 33 ], [ 131, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite the setbacks of the Thirty Years' War, Austria was able to recover economically and demographically and consolidate the new hegemony often referred to as Austrian Baroque. By 1714 Austria had become a great power again. Yet the roots of Habsburg legitimacy, with its reliance on religious and political conformity, was to make it increasingly anachronistic in the Age of Enlightenment. Nevertheless, in the arts and architecture the baroque flourished in Austria. In peacetime Ferdinand III (1637–1657) proved to be a great patron of the arts and a musician.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Establishing the monarchy: Austria's rise to power (1648–1740)", "target_page_ids": [ 60731, 30758, 3957, 151087 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 351, 364 ], [ 372, 392 ], [ 441, 448 ], [ 485, 498 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Upon Ferdinand's death in 1657 he was succeeded by his son Leopold I (1657–1705), whose reign was relatively long. Meanwhile, in \"Upper Austria\" Ferdinand Charles (1632–1662) although also an arts patron ruled in an absolutist and extravagant style. His brother Sigismund Francis (1662–1665) succeeded him briefly in 1662, but dying without heir in 1665 his lands reverted to Leopold I. Thus from 1665 Austria was finally reunited under one archduchy.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Establishing the monarchy: Austria's rise to power (1648–1740)", "target_page_ids": [ 148788, 1213406, 1213433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 68 ], [ 145, 162 ], [ 262, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leopold I's reign was marked by a return to a succession of wars. Even before he succeeded his father in 1657, he was involved in the Second Northern War (1655–1660) a carry over from Sweden's involvement in the Thirty Years' War, in which Austria sided with Poland, defeating Transylvania, a Swedish ally and Ottoman protectorate.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Establishing the monarchy: Austria's rise to power (1648–1740)", "target_page_ids": [ 373210, 6258616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 153 ], [ 277, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the end of that war the Ottomans overran Nagyvárad in Transylvania in 1660, which would mark the beginning of the decline of that principality and increasing Habsburg influence. In vain the Transylvanians appealed to Vienna for help, unaware of secret Ottoman-Habsburg agreements.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Establishing the monarchy: Austria's rise to power (1648–1740)", "target_page_ids": [ 284235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fortunately for Austria, Turkey was preoccupied elsewhere during the Thirty Years' War when she would have been vulnerable to attack on her eastern flanks. It was not until 1663 that the Turks developed serious intentions with regard to Austria, which let to a disastrous event for the Ottoman army, being defeated at the Battle of Saint Gotthard the following year.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Establishing the monarchy: Austria's rise to power (1648–1740)", "target_page_ids": [ 30583, 2482222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 86 ], [ 322, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The terms, dictated by the need to deal with the French in the west, were so disadvantageous that they infuriated the Hungarians who revolted. To make matters worse, after executing the leaders, Leopold attempted to impose a counter-reformation, starting a religious civil war, although he made some concessions in 1681. Thus by the early 1680s Leopold was facing Hungarian revolt, backed by the Ottomans and encouraged by the French on the opposite flank.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Establishing the monarchy: Austria's rise to power (1648–1740)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Meanwhile, Austria became involved elsewhere with the Franco-Dutch War (1672–1678) which was concluded with the Treaties of Nijmegen giving the French considerable opportunities (reunions), indeed the activities of the French, now also a major power, distracted Leopold from following up his advantage with the Turks, and Austro-Ottoman relationships were governed by the Peace of Vasvár which would grant some twenty years relief. However the reunions bought a badly needed French neutrality while Austria kept watch to the east.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Establishing the monarchy: Austria's rise to power (1648–1740)", "target_page_ids": [ 323886, 2003416, 2482315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 70 ], [ 112, 132 ], [ 372, 387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Ottomans next moved against Austria in 1682 in retaliation against Habsburg raids, reaching Vienna in 1683, which proved well fortified, and set about besieging it. The allied forces eventually proved superior and the lifting of the siege was followed by a series of victories in 1687, 1687 and 1697, resulting in the Treaty of Karlowitz (1699), Belgrade having fallen in 1688 (but recaptured in 1690). This provided Austrian hegemony over Austria and introduced a large number of Serbs into the Empire, who were to have a major impact on policies over the ensuing centuries.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Establishing the monarchy: Austria's rise to power (1648–1740)", "target_page_ids": [ 324288, 55904, 59512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 322, 341 ], [ 350, 358 ], [ 485, 490 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the eastern frontier now finally secured, Vienna could flourish (Vienna gloriosa) and expand beyond its traditional limits. In the east Leopold was learning that there was little to be gained by harsh measures, which policy bought his acceptance and he granted the Hungarian diet rights through the Diploma Leopoldianum of 1691. However, on the military front, this merely freed up Austria to engage in further western European wars. Austria was becoming more involved in competition with France in Western Europe, fighting the French in the War of the League of Augsburg (1688–1697).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Establishing the monarchy: Austria's rise to power (1648–1740)", "target_page_ids": [ 224589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 547, 576 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the domestic front, Leopold's reign was marked by the expulsion of the Jews from Vienna in 1670, the area being renamed Leopoldstadt. While in 1680 Leopold adopted the so-called Pragmatica, which re-regulated the relationship between landlord and peasant.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Establishing the monarchy: Austria's rise to power (1648–1740)", "target_page_ids": [ 217471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most complex of all was the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), in which the French and Austrians (along with their British, Dutch and Catalan allies) fought over the inheritance of the vast territories of the Spanish Habsburgs. The ostensible cause was the future Charles III of Austria (1711–1740) claiming the vacant Spanish throne in 1701. Leopold engaged in the war but did not live to see its outcome, being succeeded by his Joseph I in 1705. Joseph's reign was short and the war finally came to an end in 1714 by which time his brother Charles III had succeeded him.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Establishing the monarchy: Austria's rise to power (1648–1740)", "target_page_ids": [ 33604, 148318, 151094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 57 ], [ 438, 446 ], [ 550, 561 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although the French secured control of Spain and its colonies for a grandson of Louis XIV, the Austrians also ended up making significant gains in Western Europe, including the former Spanish Netherlands (now called the Austrian Netherlands, including most of modern Belgium), the Duchy of Milan in Northern Italy, and Naples and Sardinia in Southern Italy. (The latter was traded for Sicily in 1720). By the conclusion of the war in 1714 Austria had achieved a pivotal position in European power politics.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Establishing the monarchy: Austria's rise to power (1648–1740)", "target_page_ids": [ 18553, 1537897, 679080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 89 ], [ 184, 203 ], [ 281, 295 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The end of the war saw Austria's allies desert her in terms of concluding treaties with the French, Charles finally signing off in the Treaty of Rastatt in 1714. While the Habsburgs may not have gained all they wanted, they still made significant gains through both Rastatt and Karlowitz, and established their power. The remainder of his reign saw Austria relinquish many of these fairly impressive gains, largely due to Charles's apprehensions at the imminent extinction of the House of Habsburg.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Establishing the monarchy: Austria's rise to power (1648–1740)", "target_page_ids": [ 2957555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 152 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For Charles now had succession problems of his own, having only two surviving daughters. His solution was to abolish sole male inheritance by means of the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713. In 1703 his father Leopold VI had made a pact with his sons that allowed for female inheritance but was vague on details, and left room for uncertainty. The Pragmatic Sanction strengthened this and in addition made provision for the inseparability (indivisibiliter ac inseparabiliter) of the Habsburg lands.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Establishing the monarchy: Austria's rise to power (1648–1740)", "target_page_ids": [ 353653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This was to form the legal basis for the union with Hungary and to legitimise the Habsburg monarchy. It would be confirmed by the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and would last to 1918. He then needed to strengthen the arrangement by negotiating with surrounding states. Internal negotiation proved to be relatively simple and it became law by 1723.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Establishing the monarchy: Austria's rise to power (1648–1740)", "target_page_ids": [ 387987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles was now willing to offer concrete advantages in territory and authority in exchange for other powers' worthless recognitions of the Pragmatic Sanction that made his daughter Maria Theresa his heir. Equally challenging was the question of the heir apparent's marital prospects and how they might influence the European balance of power. The eventual choice of Francis Stephen of Lorraine in 1736 proved unpopular with the other powers, particularly France.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Establishing the monarchy: Austria's rise to power (1648–1740)", "target_page_ids": [ 353654, 48449, 148457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 158 ], [ 182, 195 ], [ 367, 394 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "War continued to be part of European life in the early 18th century. Austria was involved in the War of the Quadruple Alliance and the resulting 1720 Treaty of The Hague was to see the Habsburg lands reach their greatest territorial expansion. War with France had broken out again in 1733 with the War of the Polish Succession whose settlement at the Treaty of Vienna in 1738 saw Austria cede Naples and Sicily to the Spanish Infante Don Carlos in exchange for the tiny Duchy of Parma and Spain and France's adherence to the Pragmatic Sanction. The later years of Charles's reign also saw further wars against the Turks, beginning with a successful skirmish in 1716–1718, culminating in the Treaty of Passarowitz. Less successful was the war of 1737–1739 which resulted in the Austrian loss of Belgrade and other border territories at the Treaty of Belgrade.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Establishing the monarchy: Austria's rise to power (1648–1740)", "target_page_ids": [ 744764, 7987385, 33514, 4288762, 149441, 24231, 55120, 55129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 126 ], [ 150, 169 ], [ 298, 326 ], [ 351, 367 ], [ 434, 444 ], [ 479, 484 ], [ 692, 713 ], [ 840, 858 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the domestic front military and political gains were accompanied by economic expansion and repopulation (Schwabenzug), as Austria entered the period of High Baroque with a profusion of new buildings, including the Belvedere (1712–1783) and Karlskirche (1716–1737), exemplified by the great architects of the period, such as Fischer, Hildebrandt and Prandtauer. However the Habsburgs' finances were fragile. They had relied on Jewish bankers such as Samuel Oppenheimer to finance their wars, and subsequently bankrupted him. However the financial system in Austria remained antiquated and inadequate. By the time of Charles' death in 1740 the treasury was almost depleted.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Establishing the monarchy: Austria's rise to power (1648–1740)", "target_page_ids": [ 747154, 1246704, 1000768, 2387892, 1549038, 1160864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 217, 226 ], [ 243, 254 ], [ 327, 334 ], [ 336, 347 ], [ 352, 362 ], [ 452, 470 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Habsburg religious intolerance, once unquestioned in the core lands became the subject of more intense scrutiny by 1731 when 22,000 suspected crypto-Protestants were expelled from Salzburg and the Salzkammergut. Similar intolerance was displayed to the Jewish population in Bohemia and surrounding areas under the Familianten (Familiantengesetze) in 1726 and 1727. Worse would have followed had there not also been a realisation that there were economic consequences and that some accommodation was required to the more rationalist ideas of western Europe. Among these was cameralism which encouraged economic self-sufficiency in the nation state. Thus domestic industries such as the Linzer Wollzeugfabrik were founded and encouraged, but often such ideas were subjugated by vested interests such as aristocracy and church. Rationalist emphasis on the natural and popular were the antithesis of Habsburg elitism and divine authority. Eventually external powers forced rationalism on Austria.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Establishing the monarchy: Austria's rise to power (1648–1740)", "target_page_ids": [ 40335, 605517, 3007003, 63753, 4957025 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 180, 188 ], [ 197, 210 ], [ 314, 325 ], [ 520, 531 ], [ 573, 583 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the time of his death in 1740, Charles III had secured the acceptance of the Pragmatic Sanction by most of the European powers. The remaining question was whether it was realistic in the complicated power games of European dynasties.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Establishing the monarchy: Austria's rise to power (1648–1740)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Charles III died on 20 October 1740, and was succeeded by his daughter Maria Theresa. However she did not become Empress immediately, that title passing to Charles VII (1742–1745) the only moment in which the imperial crown passed outside of the Habsburg line from 1440 to 1806, Charles VII being one of many who repudiated the 1713 Pragmatic Sanction. As many had anticipated all those assurances from the other powers proved of little worth to Maria Theresa.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Maria Theresa and reform (1740–1780)", "target_page_ids": [ 51109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 16 December 1740 Prussian troops invaded Silesia under King Frederick the Great. This was the first of three Silesian Wars fought between Austria and Prussia in this period (1740–1742, 1744–1745 and 1756–1763). Soon other powers began to exploit Austria's weakness. Charles VII claimed the inheritance to the hereditary lands and Bohemia, and was supported by the King of France, who desired the Austrian Netherlands. The Spanish and Sardinians hoped to gain territory in Italy, and the Saxons hoped to gain territory to connect Saxony with the Elector's Polish Kingdom. France even went so far as to prepare for a partition of Austria.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Maria Theresa and reform (1740–1780)", "target_page_ids": [ 371248, 28399, 99613, 390432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 27 ], [ 44, 51 ], [ 63, 82 ], [ 112, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austria's allies, Britain, the Dutch Republic, and Russia, were all wary of getting involved in the conflict; ultimately, only Britain provided significant support. Thus began the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748), one of the more confusing and less eventful wars of European history, which ultimately saw Austria holding its own, despite the permanent loss of most of Silesia to the Prussians. That represented the loss of one of its richest and most industrialised provinces. For Austria the War of Succession was more a series of wars, the first concluding in 1742 with the Treaty of Breslau, the second (1744–1745) with the Treaty of Dresden. The overall war however continued until the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Maria Theresa and reform (1740–1780)", "target_page_ids": [ 52266, 9755422, 6072868, 1525391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 181, 211 ], [ 587, 604 ], [ 638, 655 ], [ 701, 733 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1745, following the reign of the Bavarian Elector as Emperor Charles VII, Maria Theresa's husband Francis of Lorraine, Grand Duke of Tuscany, was elected Emperor, restoring control of that position to the Habsburgs (or, rather, to the new composite house of Habsburg-Lorraine), Francis holding the titular crown until his death in 1765, but his empress consort Maria Theresa carrying out the executive functions. The Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 applied to the hereditary possessions of the Habsburgs and Archduchy of Austria but not the position of Holy Roman Emperor, which could not be held by women, thus Maria Theresa was Empress Consort not Empress Regnant.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Maria Theresa and reform (1740–1780)", "target_page_ids": [ 3764, 14056, 51109, 148457, 235474, 8261965, 170435, 887147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 43 ], [ 45, 52 ], [ 56, 75 ], [ 101, 120 ], [ 122, 143 ], [ 261, 278 ], [ 628, 643 ], [ 648, 663 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For the eight years following the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle that ended the War of the Austrian Succession, Maria Theresa plotted revenge on the Prussians. The British and Dutch allies who had proved so reluctant to help her in her time of need were dropped in favour of the French in the so-called Reversal of Alliances (bouleversement) of 1756, under the advice of Kaunitz, Austrian Chancellor (1753–1793). This resulted in the Treaty of Versailles of 1756. That same year, war once again erupted on the continent as Frederick, fearing encirclement, launched a pre-emptive invasion of Saxony and the defensive treaty became offensive. The ensuing Third Silesian War (1754–1763, part of the larger Seven Years' War) was indecisive, and its end saw Prussia holding onto Silesia, despite Russia, France, and Austria all combining against him, and with only Hanover as a significant ally on land.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Maria Theresa and reform (1740–1780)", "target_page_ids": [ 3155556, 30941835, 23916368, 21782733, 19039354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 298, 319 ], [ 366, 373 ], [ 429, 457 ], [ 648, 666 ], [ 698, 714 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The end of the war saw Austria, poorly prepared at its start, exhausted. Austria continued the alliance with France (cemented in 1770 with the marriage of Maria Theresa's daughter Archduchess Maria Antonia to the Dauphin), but also facing a dangerous situation in Central Europe, faced with the alliance of Frederick the Great of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia. The Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774 caused a serious crisis in east-central Europe, with Prussia and Austria demanding compensation for Russia's gains in the Balkans, ultimately leading to the First Partition of Poland in 1772, in which Maria Theresa took Galicia from Austria's traditional ally.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Maria Theresa and reform (1740–1780)", "target_page_ids": [ 45109, 51271, 99613, 371248, 44240, 402734, 14666070, 612266 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 180, 205 ], [ 213, 220 ], [ 307, 326 ], [ 330, 337 ], [ 342, 361 ], [ 377, 394 ], [ 565, 590 ], [ 628, 635 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Over the next several years, Austro-Russian relations began to improve. When the War of Bavarian Succession (1778–1779) erupted between Austria and Prussia following the extinction of the Bavarian line of the Wittelsbach dynasty, Russia refused to support Austria, its ally from the Seven Years' War, but offered to mediate and the war was ended, after almost no bloodshed, on 13 May 1779, when Russian and French mediators at the Congress of Teschen negotiated an end to the war. In the agreement Austria received the Innviertel from Bavaria, but for Austria it was a case of status quo ante bellum. This war was unusual for this era in that casualties from disease and starvation exceeded wounds, and is considered the last of the Cabinet Wars (Kabinettskriege) in which diplomats played as large a part as troops, and as the roots of German Dualism (Austria–Prussia rivalry).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Maria Theresa and reform (1740–1780)", "target_page_ids": [ 503189, 38848, 4415883, 1939748, 441961, 12378580 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 107 ], [ 209, 220 ], [ 431, 450 ], [ 519, 529 ], [ 577, 599 ], [ 837, 851 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Maria Theresa and her consort were Baroque absolutist conservatives, this was tempered by a pragmatic sense and they implemented a number of overdue reforms. Thus these reforms were pragmatic responses to the challenges faced by archduchy and empire, not ideologically framed in the Age of Enlightenment as seen by her successor. Indeed, Christian Wolff, the architect of German Enlightenment, though born a Habsburg subject, had to leave due to active discouragement of such ideals.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Maria Theresa and reform (1740–1780)", "target_page_ids": [ 30758, 204122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 292, 312 ], [ 347, 362 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The collision with other theories of nation states and modernity obliged Austria to perform a delicate balancing act between accepting changing economic and social circumstances while rejecting their accompanying political change. The relative failure to deal with modernity produced major changes in Habsburg power and Austrian culture and society. One of the first challenges that Maria Theresa and her advisers faced was to restore the legitimacy and authority of the dynasty, although was slowly replaced by a need to establish the needs of State.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Maria Theresa and reform (1740–1780)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Maria Theresa promulgated financial and educational reforms, with the assistance of her advisers, notably Count Friedrich Wilhelm von Haugwitz and Gerard van Swieten. Many reforms were in the interests of efficiency. Her financial reforms considerably improved the state finances, and notably introduced taxation of the nobility for the first time, and achieved a balanced budget by 1775. At an administrative level, under Haugwitz she centralised administration, previously left to the nobility and church, along Prussian models with a permanent civil service. Haugwitz was appointed head of the new Directorium in publicis und cameralibus in 1749. By 1760 it was clear this was not solving Austria's problems and further reform was required. Kaunitz' proposal for a consultative body was accepted by Maria Theresa. This Council of State (Staatsrat) was to be based on the French Conseil d'État which believed that an absolutist monarch could still be guided by Enlightenment advisors. The council was inaugurated in January 1761, composed of Kaunitz the state chancellor (Staatskanzler), three members of the high nobility (Staatsminister), including von Haugwitz as chair (Erster Staatsminister), and three knights (Staatsrat), which served as a committee of experienced people who advised her. The council of state lacked executive or legislative authority. This marked Kaunitz' ascendency over von Haugwitz. The Directory was abolished and its functions absorbed into the new united Austrian and Bohemian chancelleries (Böhmisch-Österreichische Hofkanzlei) in 1761.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Maria Theresa and reform (1740–1780)", "target_page_ids": [ 208645, 7719777, 1424660, 30941835, 152752, 317674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 25 ], [ 106, 142 ], [ 147, 165 ], [ 744, 751 ], [ 822, 838 ], [ 881, 895 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While Von Haugwitz modernised the army and government, van Swieten reformed health care and education. Educational reform included that of Vienna University by Swieten from 1749, the founding of the Theresianum (1746) as a civil service academy as well as military and foreign service academies. An Education Commission (Studienhofkommission) was established in 1760 with a specific interest in replacing Jesuitical control, but it was the papal dissolution of the order in 1773 that accomplished this. The confiscation of their property enabled the next step. Aware of the inadequacy of bureaucracy in Austria and, in order to improve it, Maria Theresa and what was now referred to as the Party of Enlightenment radically overhauled the schools system. In the new system, based on the Prussian one, all children of both genders from the ages of 6 to 12 had to attend school, while teacher training schools were established. Education reform was met with hostility from many villages and the nobility to whom children represented labour. Maria Theresa crushed the dissent by ordering the arrest of all those opposed. Although the idea had merit, the reforms were not as successful as they were expected to be; in some parts of Austria, half of the population was illiterate well into the 19th century. However widespread access to education, education in the vernacular language, replacement of rote learning and blind obedience with reasoning was to have a profound effect on the relationship between people and state.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Maria Theresa and reform (1740–1780)", "target_page_ids": [ 53049, 18452693, 2287044 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 156 ], [ 199, 210 ], [ 854, 874 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other reforms were in civil rights which were defied under the Codex Theresianus, begun in 1752 and finished in 1766. Specific measures included abolition of torture, and witch burning. Also in industrial and agrarian policy along cameralist lines, the theory was to maximise the resources of the land to protect the integrity of the state. Widespread problems arising from war, famine unrest and abuse made implementation of landlord-peasant reforms both reasonable and reasonable. Maria Theresa and her regime had sought a new more direct link with the populace, now that administration was no longer to be farmed out, and this maternalism combined with cameralist thinking required taking a closer interest in the welfare of the peasantry and their protection, which transpired in the 1750s. However these had been more noted than observed. In the 1770s more meaningful control of rents became practical, further eroding privilege.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Maria Theresa and reform (1740–1780)", "target_page_ids": [ 47702, 58929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 165 ], [ 171, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While reforms assisted Austria in dealing with the almost constant wars, the wars themselves hindered the implementation of those reforms.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Maria Theresa and reform (1740–1780)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A pious Catholic, her reforms which affected the relation between state and church in favour of the former, did not extend to any relaxation of religious intolerance, but she preempted Pope Clement XIV's suppression of the Jesuits in 1773 by issuing a decree which removed them from all the institutions of the monarchy. There was both a suspicion of their excesses and of their tendency to political interference which brought them into conflict with the progressive secularisation of culture. Thus they were removed from control of censorship in 1751, and the educational reforms threatened their control over education. She was hostile to Jews and Protestants but eventually abandoned efforts for conversion, but continued her father's campaign to exile crypto-Protestants (mainly to Transylvania as in 1750). In 1744 she even ordered the expulsion of Jews, but relented under pressure by 1748. In her later years though she took some measures to protect the Jewish population.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Maria Theresa and reform (1740–1780)", "target_page_ids": [ 24149, 16083, 30853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 185, 201 ], [ 223, 230 ], [ 787, 799 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maria Theresa had a large family, sixteen in all, of whom six were daughters that lived to adulthood. They were only too aware that their fate was to be used as political pawns. The best known of these was the tragic figure of Maria Antonia (1755–1793).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Maria Theresa and reform (1740–1780)", "target_page_ids": [ 148457, 45109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 48 ], [ 227, 240 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Maria Theresa's consort Francis died in 1765, he was succeeded by his son Joseph II as emperor (1765–1790) because of male primogeniture. Joseph was also made co-ruler or co-regent with his mother. Joseph, 24 at the time, was more ideologically attuned to modernity and frequently disagreed with his mother on policy, and was often excluded from policy making. Maria Theresa always acted with a cautious respect for the conservatism of the political and social elites and the strength of local traditions. Her cautious approach repelled Joseph, who always sought the decisive, dramatic intervention to impose the one best solution, regardless of traditions or political opposition. Joseph and his mother's quarrels were usually mediated by Chancellor Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz who served for nearly 40 years as the principal minister to both Maria Theresa and Joseph.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Maria Theresa and reform (1740–1780)", "target_page_ids": [ 148313, 30941835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 88 ], [ 756, 780 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Joseph frequently used his position as leverage, by threatening resignation. The one area he was allowed more say on was in foreign policy. Paradoxically his intellectual model and arch-enemy was Frederick II of Prussia (1740–1786). In this area he was successful in siding with Kaunitz in Realpolitik, undertaking the first partition of Poland in 1772 over his mother's principled objections. However his enthusiasm for interfering in Bavarian politics by invoking his ties to his former brother in law, Maximilian III, ended Austria in the War of Bavarian Succession in 1778. Although largely shut out of domestic policy, he used his time to acquire knowledge of his lands and people, encouraged policies he was in accord with and made magnanimous gestures such as opening the Royal Parks of Prater and Augarten to the public in 1766 and 1775 (Alles für das Volk, nichts durch das Volk—Everything for the people, nothing by the people).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Maria Theresa and reform (1740–1780)", "target_page_ids": [ 99613, 66178, 14666070, 1466832, 3482391, 16802423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 196, 219 ], [ 290, 301 ], [ 319, 344 ], [ 505, 519 ], [ 794, 800 ], [ 805, 813 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On her husband's death Maria Theresa was therefore no longer empress, the title of which fell to her daughter-in-law Maria Josepha of Bavaria until her death in 1767 when the title fell vacant. When Maria Theresa died in 1780 she was succeeded in all her titles by Joseph II.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Maria Theresa and reform (1740–1780)", "target_page_ids": [ 9479220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the first of the Habsburg-Lorraine (Habsburg-Lothringen) Dynasty Joseph II was the archetypical embodiment of The Enlightenment spirit of the 18th century reforming monarchs known as the \"enlightened despots\". When his mother Maria Theresa died in 1780, Joseph became the absolute ruler over the most extensive realm of Central Europe. There was no parliament to deal with. Joseph was always positive that the rule of reason, as propounded in the Enlightenment, would produce the best possible results in the shortest time. He issued edicts—6,000 in all, plus 11,000 new laws designed to regulate and reorder every aspect of the empire. The spirit was benevolent and paternal. He intended to make his people happy, but strictly in accordance with his own criteria.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "The Habsburg-Lorraine Dynasty: Joseph II and Leopold VII (1780–1792)", "target_page_ids": [ 148313, 30758, 256749, 48449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 77 ], [ 113, 130 ], [ 190, 211 ], [ 229, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Josephinism (or Josephism) as his policies were called, is notable for the very wide range of reforms designed to modernize the creaky empire in an era when France and Prussia were rapidly upgrading. Josephinism elicited grudging compliance at best, and more often vehement opposition from all sectors in every part of his empire. Failure characterized most of his projects. Joseph set about building a rational, centralized, and uniform government for his diverse lands, a pyramid with himself as supreme autocrat. He expected government servants to all be dedicated agents of Josephinism and selected them without favor for class or ethnic origins; promotion was solely by merit. To impose uniformity, he made German the compulsory language of official business throughout the Empire. The Hungarian assembly was stripped of its prerogatives, and not even called together.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "The Habsburg-Lorraine Dynasty: Joseph II and Leopold VII (1780–1792)", "target_page_ids": [ 3837382 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As President of the Court Audit Office (Hofrechenkammer), Count Karl von Zinzendorf (1781–1792) introduced Appalt, a uniform system of accounting for state revenues, expenditures, and debts of the territories of the Austrian crown. Austria was more successful than France in meeting regular expenditures and in gaining credit. However, the events of Joseph II's last years also suggest that the government was financially vulnerable to the European wars that ensued after 1792. Joseph reformed the traditional legal system, abolished brutal punishments and the death penalty in most instances, and imposed the principle of complete equality of treatment for all offenders. He ended censorship of the press and theatre.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "The Habsburg-Lorraine Dynasty: Joseph II and Leopold VII (1780–1792)", "target_page_ids": [ 28341664, 49389905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 83 ], [ 107, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To equalize the incidence of taxation, Joseph ordered a fresh appraisal of the value of all properties in the empire; his goal was to impose a single and egalitarian tax on land. The goal was to modernize the relationship of dependence between the landowners and peasantry, relieve some of the tax burden on the peasantry, and increase state revenues. Joseph looked on the tax and land reforms as being interconnected and strove to implement them at the same time. The various commissions he established to formulate and carry out the reforms met resistance among the nobility, the peasantry, and some officials. Most of the reforms were abrogated shortly before or after Joseph's death in 1790; they were doomed to failure from the start because they tried to change too much in too short a time, and tried to radically alter the traditional customs and relationships that the villagers had long depended upon.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "The Habsburg-Lorraine Dynasty: Joseph II and Leopold VII (1780–1792)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the cities the new economic principles of the Enlightenment called for the destruction of the autonomous guilds, already weakened during the age of mercantilism. Joseph II's tax reforms and the institution of Katastralgemeinde (tax districts for the large estates) served this purpose, and new factory privileges ended guild rights while customs laws aimed at economic unity. The intellectual influence of the Physiocrats led to the inclusion of agriculture in these reforms.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "The Habsburg-Lorraine Dynasty: Joseph II and Leopold VII (1780–1792)", "target_page_ids": [ 45440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 413, 424 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1781–82 he extended full legal freedom to serfs. Rentals paid by peasants were to be regulated by imperial (not local) officials and taxes were levied upon all income derived from land. The landlords saw a grave threat to their status and incomes, and eventually reversed the policy. In Hungary and Transylvania, the resistance of the landed nobility was so great that Joseph compromised with halfway measures—one of the few times he backed down. After the great peasant revolt of Horea, 1784–85, however, the emperor imposed his will by fiat. His Imperial Patent of 1785 abolished serfdom but did not give the peasants ownership of the land or freedom from dues owed to the landowning nobles. It did give them personal freedom. Emancipation of the Hungarian peasantry promoted the growth of a new class of taxable landholders, but it did not abolish the deep-seated ills of feudalism and the exploitation of the landless squatters.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "The Habsburg-Lorraine Dynasty: Joseph II and Leopold VII (1780–1792)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Capital punishment was abolished in 1787, although restored in 1795. Legal reforms gained comprehensive \"Austrian\" form in the civil code ( Allgemeine Bürgerliche Gesetzbuch) of 1811 and have been seen as providing a foundation for subsequent reforms extending into the 20th century. The first part of the ABGB appeared in 1786, and the criminal code in 1787. These reforms incorporated the criminological writings of Cesare Beccaria, but also first time made all people equal in the eyes of the law.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "The Habsburg-Lorraine Dynasty: Joseph II and Leopold VII (1780–1792)", "target_page_ids": [ 13675813, 993282, 196198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 139, 173 ], [ 418, 433 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To produce a literate citizenry, elementary education was made compulsory for all boys and girls, and higher education on practical lines was offered for a select few. He created scholarships for talented poor students, and allowed the establishment of schools for Jews and other religious minorities. In 1784 he ordered that the country change its language of instruction from Latin to German, a highly controversial step in a multilingual empire.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "The Habsburg-Lorraine Dynasty: Joseph II and Leopold VII (1780–1792)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By the 18th century, centralization was the trend in medicine because more and better educated doctors requesting improved facilities; cities lacked the budgets to fund local hospitals; and the monarchies wanted to end costly epidemics and quarantines. Joseph attempted to centralize medical care in Vienna through the construction of a single, large hospital, the famous Allgemeines Krankenhaus, which opened in 1784. Centralization worsened sanitation problems causing epidemics a 20% death rate in the new hospital, which undercut Joseph's plan, but the city became preeminent in the medical field in the next century.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "The Habsburg-Lorraine Dynasty: Joseph II and Leopold VII (1780–1792)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Joseph's Catholicism was that of Catholic Reform and his goals were to weaken the power of the Catholic Church and introduce a policy of religious toleration that was the most advanced of any state in Europe. In 1789 he issued a charter of religious toleration for the Jews of Galicia, a region with a large, Yiddish-speaking, traditional Jewish population. The charter abolished communal autonomy whereby the Jews controlled their internal affairs; it promoted \"Germanization\" and the wearing of non-Jewish clothing.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "The Habsburg-Lorraine Dynasty: Joseph II and Leopold VII (1780–1792)", "target_page_ids": [ 402344, 34272, 512728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 278, 285 ], [ 310, 317 ], [ 464, 477 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Probably the most unpopular of all his reforms was his attempted modernization of the highly traditional Roman Catholic Church. Calling himself the guardian of Catholicism, Joseph II struck vigorously at papal power. He tried to make the Catholic Church in his empire the tool of the state, independent of Rome. Clergymen were deprived of the tithe and ordered to study in seminaries under government supervision, while bishops had to take a formal oath of loyalty to the crown. He financed the large increase in bishoprics, parishes, and secular clergy by extensive sales of monastic lands. As a man of the Enlightenment he ridiculed the contemplative monastic orders, which he considered unproductive, as opposed to the service orders. Accordingly, he suppressed a `` of the monasteries (over 700 were closed) and reduced the number of monks and nuns from 65,000 to 27,000. Church courts were abolished and marriage was defined as a civil contract outside the jurisdiction of the Church. Joseph sharply cut the number of holy days and reduced ornamentation in churches. He greatly simplified the manner of celebration. Critics alleged that these reforms caused a crisis of faith, reduced piety and a decline in morality, had Protestant tendencies, promoted Enlightenment rationalism and a class of liberal bourgeois officials, and led to the emergence and persistence of anti-clericalism. Many traditional Catholics were energized in opposition to the emperor.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "The Habsburg-Lorraine Dynasty: Joseph II and Leopold VII (1780–1792)", "target_page_ids": [ 3349430, 30758, 221223, 49895, 179339, 25814008, 63753, 58031, 571440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 204, 215 ], [ 608, 621 ], [ 876, 888 ], [ 1190, 1195 ], [ 1202, 1221 ], [ 1227, 1237 ], [ 1273, 1284 ], [ 1308, 1317 ], [ 1373, 1389 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Habsburg Empire developed a policy of war and trade as well as intellectual influence across the borders. While opposing Prussia and Turkey, Austria was friendly to Russia, though tried to remove Romania from Russian influence.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "The Habsburg-Lorraine Dynasty: Joseph II and Leopold VII (1780–1792)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In foreign policy, there was no Enlightenment, only hunger for more territory and a willingness to undertake unpopular wars to get the land. Joseph was a belligerent, expansionist leader, who dreamed of making his Empire the greatest of the European powers. Joseph's plan was to acquire Bavaria, if necessary in exchange for Belgium (the Austrian Netherlands). Thwarted by King Frederick II of Prussia in 1778 in the War of Bavarian Succession, he renewed his efforts again in 1785 but Prussian diplomacy proved more powerful. This failure caused Joseph to seek territorial expansion in the Balkans, where he became involved in an expensive and futile war with the Turks (1787–1791), which was the price to be paid for friendship with Russia.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "The Habsburg-Lorraine Dynasty: Joseph II and Leopold VII (1780–1792)", "target_page_ids": [ 99613, 503189, 12831416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 378, 401 ], [ 417, 443 ], [ 652, 670 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Balkan policy of both Maria Theresa and Joseph II reflected the Cameralism promoted by Prince Kaunitz, stressing consolidation of the border lands by reorganization and expansion of the military frontier. Transylvania had been incorporated into the frontier in 1761 and the frontier regiments became the backbone of the military order, with the regimental commander exercising military and civilian power. Populationistik was the prevailing theory of colonization, which measured prosperity in terms of labor. Joseph II also stressed economic development. Habsburg influence was an essential factor in Balkan development in the last half of the 18th century, especially for the Serbs and Croats.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "The Habsburg-Lorraine Dynasty: Joseph II and Leopold VII (1780–1792)", "target_page_ids": [ 4957025, 30853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 78 ], [ 209, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The nobility throughout his empire disliked Joseph's taxes, egalitarianism, despotism and puritanism. In Belgium and Hungary, his attempts to subordinate everything to his own personal rule in Vienna were not well received. Even commoners were affected by Joseph's reforms, such as a ban on baking gingerbread because Joseph thought it bad for the stomach, or a ban on corsets. Only a few weeks before Joseph's death, the director of the Imperial Police reported to him: \"All classes, and even those who have the greatest respect for the sovereign, are discontented and indignant.\"", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "The Habsburg-Lorraine Dynasty: Joseph II and Leopold VII (1780–1792)", "target_page_ids": [ 729782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 298, 309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Lombardy (in northern Italy) the cautious reforms of Maria Theresa in Lombardy had enjoyed support from local reformers. Joseph II, however, by creating a powerful imperial officialdom directed from Vienna, undercut the dominant position of the Milanese principate and the traditions of jurisdiction and administration. In the place of provincial autonomy he established an unlimited centralism, which reduced Lombardy politically and economically to a fringe area of the Empire. As a reaction to these radical changes the middle class reformers shifted away from cooperation to strong resistance. From this basis appeared the beginnings of the later Lombard liberalism.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "The Habsburg-Lorraine Dynasty: Joseph II and Leopold VII (1780–1792)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By 1788 Joseph's health but not his determination was failing. By 1789 rebellion had broken out in protest against his reforms in Belgium (Brabant Revolution) and Hungary, and his other dominions were restive under the burdens of his war with Turkey. His empire was threatened with dissolution, and he was forced to sacrifice some of his reform projects. The emperor died on 20 February 1790 at 48, mostly unsuccessful in his attempts to curtail feudal liberties.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "The Habsburg-Lorraine Dynasty: Joseph II and Leopold VII (1780–1792)", "target_page_ids": [ 9836163 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Behind his numerous reforms lay a comprehensive program influenced by the doctrines of enlightened absolutism, natural law, mercantilism, and physiocracy. With a goal of establishing a uniform legal framework to replace heterogeneous traditional structures, the reforms were guided at least implicitly by the principles of freedom and equality and were based on a conception of the state's central legislative authority. Joseph's accession marks a major break since the preceding reforms under Maria Theresa had not challenged these structures, but there was no similar break at the end of the Josephinian era. The reforms initiated by Joseph II had merit despite the way they were introduced. They were continued to varying degrees under his successors. They have been seen as providing a foundation for subsequent reforms extending into the 20th century.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "The Habsburg-Lorraine Dynasty: Joseph II and Leopold VII (1780–1792)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Upon his death in 1790, Joseph was briefly succeeded by his younger brother Leopold VII.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "The Habsburg-Lorraine Dynasty: Joseph II and Leopold VII (1780–1792)", "target_page_ids": [ 148783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Joseph's death proved a boon for Austria, as he was succeeded by his younger brother, Leopold II, previously the more cautiously reforming Grand Duke of Tuscany. Leopold knew when to cut his losses, and soon cut deals with the revolting Netherlanders and Hungarians. He also managed to secure a peace with Turkey in 1791, and negotiated an alliance with Prussia, which had been allying with Poland to press for war on behalf of the Ottomans against Austria and Russia. While restoring relative calm to what had been a crisis situation on his accession in 1790, Austria was surrounded by potential threats. While many reforms were by necessity rescinded, other reforms were initiated including more freedom of the press and restriction on the powers of the police. He replaced his brother's police minister, Johann Anton von Pergen, with Joseph Sonnenfels an advocate of social welfare rather than control.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "The Habsburg-Lorraine Dynasty: Joseph II and Leopold VII (1780–1792)", "target_page_ids": [ 148783, 235474, 38482652, 5260155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 96 ], [ 139, 160 ], [ 808, 831 ], [ 838, 855 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leopold's reign also saw the acceleration of the French Revolution. Although Leopold was sympathetic to the revolutionaries, he was also the brother of the French queen. Furthermore, disputes involving the status of the rights of various imperial princes in Alsace, where the revolutionary French government was attempting to remove rights guaranteed by various peace treaties, involved Leopold as Emperor in conflicts with the French. The Declaration of Pillnitz, made in late 1791 jointly with the Prussian King Frederick William II and the Elector of Saxony, in which it was declared that the other princes of Europe took an interest in what was going on in France, was intended to be a statement in support of Louis XVI that would prevent the need from taking any kind of action. However, it instead inflamed the sentiments of the revolutionaries against the Emperor. Although Leopold did his best to avoid war with the French, he died in March 1792. The French declared war on his inexperienced eldest son Francis II a month later.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "The Habsburg-Lorraine Dynasty: Joseph II and Leopold VII (1780–1792)", "target_page_ids": [ 11188, 48129, 460674, 213668, 48464, 11551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 66 ], [ 258, 264 ], [ 440, 463 ], [ 514, 534 ], [ 543, 560 ], [ 1011, 1021 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vienna and Austria dominated European music during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, typified by the First Viennese School (Wiener Klassik). This was the era of Haydn, and Mozart's Vienna period extended from 1781 to 1791 during which he was court composer. Opera, particularly German opera was flourishing. Mozart wrote many German operas including the Magic Flute. Initially the pillars of the establishment—the monarchy, such as Joseph II and to a lesser extent his mother, the aristocracy and the religious establishment were the major patrons of the arts, until rising middle class aspirations incorporated music into the lives of the bourgeoisie. Meanwhile, the Baroque was evolving into the less grandiose form, the Rococo.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "The Habsburg-Lorraine Dynasty: Joseph II and Leopold VII (1780–1792)", "target_page_ids": [ 852491, 16094, 33163, 58031, 36886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 128 ], [ 167, 172 ], [ 178, 184 ], [ 646, 657 ], [ 729, 735 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The virtual abolition of censorship under van Swieten also encouraged artistic expression and the themes of artistic work often reflected enlightenment thinking.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "The Habsburg-Lorraine Dynasty: Joseph II and Leopold VII (1780–1792)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Francis II (1792–1835) was only 24 when he succeeded his father Leopold VII in 1792, but was to reign for nearly half a century and a radical reorganisation of European politics. He inherited a vast bureaucracy created by his uncle whose legacy of reform and welfare was to last throughout the next two centuries. The image of the monarch had profoundly changed, as had the relationship between monarch and subject. His era was overshadowed by events in France, both in terms of the evolving Revolution and the onset of a new form of European warfare with mass citizen armies. Austria recoiled in horror at the execution of Francis' aunt Maria Antonia in 1793 (despite futile attempts at rescue and even negotiation for release), leading to a wave of repression to fend off such dangerous sentiments influencing Austrian politics. At the same time Europe was consumed by the French Revolutionary (1792–1802) and Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815). The French Revolution effectively ended Austria's experiment with modernity and reform from above, and marked a retreat to legitimacy.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Francis II: French Revolution and wars (1792–1815)", "target_page_ids": [ 11551, 45109, 233039, 45420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 638, 651 ], [ 875, 895 ], [ 912, 927 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Francis started out cautiously. The bureaucracy was still Josephist and the legal reforms under the guidance of Sonnenfels resulting in the Criminal Code of 1803 and the Civil Code of 1811. On the other hand, he restored Pergen to his position of Chief of Police. The discovery of a Jacobin plot in 1794 was a catalyst to the onset of repression. The leaders were executed or imprisoned, but there was little evidence of a tangible threat to the Habsburgs. Suppression of dissent with the Recensorship Commission of 1803 created a void in cultural and intellectual life, yet some of the world's greatest music comes from this time (see below). There were still elements of Josphemism abroad, and Stadion, the foreign minister with his propagandist Friedrich von Gentz was able to appeal to popular nationalism to defeat Napoleon.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Francis II: French Revolution and wars (1792–1815)", "target_page_ids": [ 5260155, 38482652, 702538, 2143613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 122 ], [ 221, 227 ], [ 696, 703 ], [ 748, 767 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "What exactly such nationalism actually represented is difficult to precisely identify—certainly it was directed to German culture within the Habsburg lands, but it is not clear to what degree it differentiated between 'Austrian' and 'German'. Certainly many of those such nationalism appealed to were German romantics such as Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel, such that patriotism rather than true nationalism appeared to be the goal. Cultural museums were established and citizens militia (Landwehr) established—but in the German-speaking lands.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Francis II: French Revolution and wars (1792–1815)", "target_page_ids": [ 190046, 1593916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 326, 357 ], [ 490, 498 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Josephism remained alive and well in the other members of Francis' generation. Archduke Johann (1782–1859) was a nationalism advocate who was behind the Landwehr movement, and with Joseph Hormayr incited revolt in Bavarian occupied Tyrol, while Archduke Charles carried out reform of the military. A statue to Joseph was even set up in Josephsplatz in 1807 to rally the populace. In this way the Archdukes' centralism contrasted with Stadion's decentralisation and attempt to give more say to the estates. Nevertheless, such nationalism was successful in rebuilding Austria throughout its various military and political setbacks of the French wars.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Francis II: French Revolution and wars (1792–1815)", "target_page_ids": [ 2444694, 1335494, 2875 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 94 ], [ 181, 195 ], [ 245, 261 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following Austria's resounding defeat in 1809, Francis blamed reform, and removed the Archdukes from their position. Stadion was replaced by Metternich, who, although a reformer, placed loyalty to the monarch above all. The Landwehr was abolished, and following the discovery of yet another planned Tyrolean uprising Hormayr and Archduke Johann were interned, and Johann exiled to Styria.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Francis II: French Revolution and wars (1792–1815)", "target_page_ids": [ 144439, 224474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 151 ], [ 381, 387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "France declared war on Austria on 20 April 1792. The increasing radicalization of the French Revolution (including the execution of the king on 21 January 1793), as well as the French occupation of the Low Countries, brought Britain, the Dutch Republic, and Spain into the war, which became known as the War of the First Coalition. This first war with France, which lasted until 1797, proved unsuccessful for Austria. After some brief successes against the utterly disorganized French armies in early 1792, the tide turned, and the French overran the Austrian Netherlands in the last months of 1792. By the Battle of Valmy in September it was evident to Austria and their Prussian allies that victory against France would elude them, and Austria suffered a further defeat in November at Jemappes, losing the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium). While the Austrians were so occupied, their erstwhile Prussian allies stabbed them in the back with the 1793 Second Partition of Poland, from which Austria was entirely excluded. This led to the dismissal of Francis's chief minister, Philipp von Cobenzl, and his replacement with Franz Maria Thugut in March 1793.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Francis II: French Revolution and wars (1792–1815)", "target_page_ids": [ 176739, 536843, 200249, 188943, 1059497, 3262376, 2841146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 304, 330 ], [ 552, 572 ], [ 608, 623 ], [ 788, 796 ], [ 950, 976 ], [ 1075, 1094 ], [ 1121, 1139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Once again, there were initial successes against the disorganized armies of the French Republic in 1793, and the Netherlands were recovered. But in 1794 the tide turned once more, and Austrian forces were driven out of the Netherlands again—this time for good. Meanwhile, the Polish Crisis again became critical, resulting in a Third Partition (1795), in which Austria managed to secure important gains. The war in the west continued to go badly, as most of the coalition made peace, leaving Austria with only Britain and Piedmont-Sardinia as allies. In 1796, the French Directory planned a two-pronged campaign in Germany to force the Austrians to make peace, with a secondary thrust planned into Italy. French forces entered Bavaria and the edge of the Tyrol, before encountering Austrian forces under Archduke Charles, the Emperor's brother, at Amberg (24 August 1796) who was successful in driving the French back in Germany. Meanwhile, the French Army of Italy, under the command of the young Corsican General Napoleon Bonaparte, was brilliantly successful, forcing Piedmont out of the war, driving the Austrians out of Lombardy and besieging Mantua. Following the capture of Mantua in early 1797, Bonaparte advanced north through the Alps against Vienna, while new French armies moved again into Germany. Austria sued for peace. By the terms of the Treaty of Campo Formio of 1797, Austria renounced its claims to the Netherlands and Lombardy, in exchange for which it was granted the territories of the Republic of Venice with the French. The Austrians also provisionally recognized the French annexation of the Left Bank of the Rhine, and agreed in principle that the German princes of the region should be compensated with ecclesiastical lands on the other side of the Rhine.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Francis II: French Revolution and wars (1792–1815)", "target_page_ids": [ 1270076, 21486771, 172180, 3764, 2875, 157349, 17095049, 69880, 43807, 50187, 180308, 613492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 328, 343 ], [ 522, 539 ], [ 564, 580 ], [ 727, 734 ], [ 804, 820 ], [ 848, 854 ], [ 945, 965 ], [ 1015, 1033 ], [ 1125, 1133 ], [ 1148, 1154 ], [ 1355, 1377 ], [ 1509, 1527 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The peace did not last for long. Soon, differences emerged between the Austrians and French over the reorganization of Germany, and Austria joined Russia, Britain, and Naples in the War of the Second Coalition in 1799. Although Austro-Russian forces were initially successful in driving the French from Italy, the tide soon turned—the Russians withdrew from the war after a defeat at Zürich (1799) which they blamed on Austrian recklessness, and the Austrians were defeated by Bonaparte who was now the First Consul, at Marengo, which forced them to withdraw from Italy, and then in Germany at Hohenlinden. These defeats forced Thugut's resignation, and Austria, now led by Ludwig Cobenzl, to make peace at Lunéville in early 1801. The terms were mild—the terms of Campo Formio were largely reinstated, but now the way was clear for a reorganization of the Empire on French lines. By the Imperial Deputation Report of 1803, the Holy Roman Empire was entirely reorganized, with nearly all of the ecclesiastical territories and free cities, traditionally the parts of the Empire most friendly to the House of Austria, eliminated.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Francis II: French Revolution and wars (1792–1815)", "target_page_ids": [ 408741, 662583, 216843, 157671, 157408, 2660963, 98119, 1807702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 182, 209 ], [ 384, 390 ], [ 503, 515 ], [ 520, 527 ], [ 594, 605 ], [ 674, 688 ], [ 707, 716 ], [ 888, 922 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With Bonaparte's assumption of the title of Emperor of the First French Empire on 18 May 1804, Francis II, seeing the writing on the wall for the old Empire, and arbitrarily took the new title of \"Emperor of Austria\" as Francis I, in addition to his title of Holy Roman Emperor. This earned him the title of Double Emperor (Doppelkaiser) (Francis II of the Holy Roman Empire, Francis I of Austria). The arrival of a new, French, emperor on the scene and the restructuring of the old presented a larger threat to the Habsburgs than their territorial losses to date, for there was no longer any certainty that they would continue to be elected. Francis had himself made emperor of the new Austrian Empire on 11 August not long after Napoleon. The new empire referred to not a new state but to the lands ruled by Austria, that is the Habsburgs, which was effectively many states.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Francis II: French Revolution and wars (1792–1815)", "target_page_ids": [ 21418258, 266894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 78 ], [ 197, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soon, Napoleon's continuing machinations in Italy, including the annexation of Genoa and Parma, led once again to war in 1805—the War of the Third Coalition, in which Austria, Britain, Russia, and Sweden took on Napoleon. The Austrian forces began the war by invading Bavaria, a key French ally in Germany, but were soon outmaneuvered and forced to surrender by Napoleon at Ulm, before the main Austro-Russian force was defeated at Austerlitz on 2 December. Napoleon entered Vienna itself, as much a celebrity as conqueror. By the Treaty of Pressburg, Austria was forced to give up large amounts of territory—Dalmatia to France, Venetia to Napoleon's Kingdom of Italy, the Tyrol to Bavaria, and Austria's various Swabian territories to Baden and Württemberg, although Salzburg, formerly held by Francis's younger brother, the previous Grand Duke of Tuscany, was annexed by Austria as compensation.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Francis II: French Revolution and wars (1792–1815)", "target_page_ids": [ 47332321, 24231, 178661, 3764, 864019, 118372, 36165710, 47286, 43780, 7946086, 42273705, 40981147, 55859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 84 ], [ 89, 94 ], [ 130, 156 ], [ 268, 275 ], [ 374, 377 ], [ 432, 442 ], [ 531, 550 ], [ 609, 617 ], [ 629, 636 ], [ 673, 678 ], [ 736, 741 ], [ 746, 757 ], [ 768, 776 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The defeat meant the end of the old Holy Roman Empire. Napoleon's satellite states in southern and Western Germany seceded from the Empire in the summer of 1806, forming the Confederation of the Rhine, and a few days later Francis proclaimed the Empire dissolved, and renounced the old imperial crown on 6 August 1806.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Francis II: French Revolution and wars (1792–1815)", "target_page_ids": [ 517886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 174, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Over the next three years Austria, whose foreign policy was now directed by Philipp Stadion, attempted to maintain peace with France, avoiding the War of the Fourth Coalition (1806–1807) but obliged to do France's bidding. The overthrow of the Spanish Bourbons in 1808 was deeply disturbing to the Habsburgs, who rather desperately went to war once again in 1809, the War of the Fifth Coalition this time with no continental allies, but the United Kingdom. Stadion's attempts to generate popular uprisings in Germany were unsuccessful, and the Russians honoured their alliance with France, so Austria was once again defeated at the Battle of Wagram, although at greater cost than Napoleon, who had suffered his first battlefield defeat in this war, at Aspern-Essling, had expected. However Napoleon had already re-occupied Vienna. The terms of the subsequent Treaty of Schönbrunn were quite harsh. Austria lost Salzburg to Bavaria, some of its Polish lands to Russia, and its remaining territory on the Adriatic (including much of Carinthia and Styria) to Napoleon's Illyrian Provinces. Austria became a virtual subject state of France.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Francis II: French Revolution and wars (1792–1815)", "target_page_ids": [ 702538, 866457, 866485, 157767, 779731, 866494, 537339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 91 ], [ 147, 174 ], [ 368, 394 ], [ 632, 648 ], [ 752, 766 ], [ 859, 879 ], [ 1067, 1085 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Klemens von Metternich, the new Austrian foreign minister, aimed to pursue a pro-French policy. Francis II's daughter Marie Louise, was married to Napoleon in 1810. Austria was effectively bankrupt by 1811 and the paper money (Bancozettel) lost considerable value, but contributed an army to Napoleon's invasion of Russia in March 1812. With Napoleon's disastrous defeat in Russia at the end of the year, and Prussia's defection to the Russian side in March 1813, Metternich began slowly to shift his policy. Initially he aimed to mediate a peace between France and its continental enemies, but when it became apparent that Napoleon was not interested in compromise, Austria joined the allies and declared war on France in August 1813 in the War of the Sixth Coalition (1812–1814). The Austrian intervention was decisive. Napoleon was defeated at Leipzig in October, and forced to withdraw into France itself. As 1814 began, the Allied forces invaded France. Initially, Metternich remained unsure as to whether he wanted Napoleon to remain on the throne, a Marie Louise regency for Napoleon's young son, or a Bourbon restoration, but he was eventually brought around by British Foreign Secretary Lord Castlereagh to the last position. Napoleon abdicated on 3 April 1814, and Louis XVIII was restored, soon negotiating a peace treaty with the victorious allies at Paris in June, while Napoleon was exiled to Elba.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Francis II: French Revolution and wars (1792–1815)", "target_page_ids": [ 144439, 62665, 4695, 358141, 147150, 152639, 62114, 191927, 10479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ], [ 118, 130 ], [ 189, 197 ], [ 742, 768 ], [ 847, 854 ], [ 1196, 1212 ], [ 1276, 1287 ], [ 1364, 1369 ], [ 1408, 1412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Napoleon escaped in February 1815, Louis fled and thus the final phase of the war, the War of the Seventh Coalition, ensued—the so-called Hundred Days of Napoleon's attempt at restoration. This culminated with the decisive Battle of Waterloo in June. The Napoleonic wars ended with the second Treaty of Paris that year, and Napoleon's final exile to St Helena.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Francis II: French Revolution and wars (1792–1815)", "target_page_ids": [ 215994, 215994, 4356, 191928, 26945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 115 ], [ 138, 150 ], [ 223, 241 ], [ 293, 308 ], [ 350, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the completion of the long running French wars a new order was required in Europe and the heads of the European states gathered in Vienna for the prolonged discussion of Europe's future, although the Congress was actually convened in September 1814 prior to Napoleon's attempted return, and completed before the Battle of Waterloo. It was as much a grand social event of the representatives of the great powers as a true Congress and was chaired by Metternich. The resulting order was referred to as the Concert of Europe. It established a balance of power and spheres of influence. In addition to redrawing the political map it created a new entity out of the ashes of the Holy Roman Empire, the German Confederation. Achieving the presidency of this new entity was Austria's greatest gain from the Congress. What the Congress could not do was to recover the old order on which Austrian and Habsburg authority had rested.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Francis II: French Revolution and wars (1792–1815)", "target_page_ids": [ 4356, 372836, 144439, 262626, 4880551, 240727, 13277, 142280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 317, 335 ], [ 403, 415 ], [ 454, 464 ], [ 509, 526 ], [ 545, 561 ], [ 566, 586 ], [ 679, 696 ], [ 702, 722 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Napoleonic Vienna was the Vienna of Beethoven, whose single opera Fidelio was premiered there in 1805, attended by the French military. It was also the era of the third (Eroica) (1805) with its ambivalent relation to Napoleon, and the fifth (Schicksals-) and the sixth (Pastorale) symphonies (1808).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Francis II: French Revolution and wars (1792–1815)", "target_page_ids": [ 17914, 38475, 242291, 33687194, 507914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 45 ], [ 66, 73 ], [ 163, 177 ], [ 235, 254 ], [ 263, 280 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under the control of Metternich, the Austrian Empire entered a period of censorship and a police state in the period between 1815 and 1848 (Biedermaier or Vormärz period). The latter term (Before March) referring to the period prior to the revolution of March 1848. In 1823, the Emperor of Austria made the five Rothschild brothers barons. Nathan Mayer Rothschild in London chose not to take up the title. The family became famous as bankers in the major countries of Europe. Metternich kept a firm hand on government resisting the constitutional freedoms demanded by the liberals. Government was by custom and by imperial decree (Hofkanzleidekrete). However, both liberalism and nationalism were on the rise, which resulted in the Revolutions of 1848. Metternich and the mentally handicapped Emperor Ferdinand I were forced to resign to be replaced by the emperor's young nephew Franz Joseph.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 144439, 17253537, 19334466, 1613162, 7803318, 179855, 398522, 19280734, 21748, 274047, 166126, 51695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 31 ], [ 73, 83 ], [ 90, 102 ], [ 140, 151 ], [ 155, 162 ], [ 312, 322 ], [ 340, 363 ], [ 665, 675 ], [ 680, 691 ], [ 732, 751 ], [ 801, 812 ], [ 880, 892 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Separatist tendencies (especially in Lombardy and Hungary) were suppressed by military force. A constitution was enacted in March 1848, but it had little practical impact, although elections were held in June. The 1850s saw a return to neoabsolutism and abrogation of constitutionalism. However, one of the concessions to revolutionaries with a lasting impact was the freeing of peasants in Austria. This facilitated industrialization, as many flocked to the newly industrializing cities of the Austrian domain (in the industrial centers of Bohemia, Lower Austria, Vienna, and Upper Styria). Social upheaval led to increased strife in ethnically mixed cities, leading to mass nationalist movements.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 43807, 33539103, 266894, 68282, 210545, 4345, 148988, 55866, 1118292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 45 ], [ 181, 190 ], [ 236, 249 ], [ 379, 386 ], [ 417, 434 ], [ 541, 548 ], [ 550, 563 ], [ 565, 571 ], [ 577, 589 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the foreign policy front, Austria with its non-German constituencies, was faced with a dilemma in 1848 when Germany's Constituent National Assembly (Deutsche Konstituierende Nationalversammlung), of which Austria was a member, stated that members could not have a state connection with non-German states, leaving Austria to decide between Germany or its Empire and Hungarian union. However these plans came to nothing for the time being, but the concept of a smaller Germany that excluded Austria (Kleindeutschland) was to re-emerge as the solution in 1866. Austria's neutrality during the Crimean War (1853–1856), while the emperor was preoccupied with his wedding, antagonized both sides and left Austria dangerously isolated, as subsequent events proved (Hamann 1986).", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 12390702, 46763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 501, 517 ], [ 593, 604 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While Austria and the Habsburgs held hegemony over northern Italy, the south was the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, with the Papal States intervening. Italy had been in a turmoil since the Congress of Vienna in 1815, with insurrections starting in 1820 (Carbonari). King Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies, an absolutist monarch, sought to strengthen his position by a further dynastic alliance with Austria. He already had a connection through his second wife, Maria Theresa, granddaughter of the emperor Leopold II This he achieved by marrying his son, Francis II, to Duchess Maria Sophie of Bavaria in February 1859. Marie was a younger sister of the Empress Elisabeth of Austria, making Francis brother in law to the Emperor. Ferdinand died a few months later in May, and Francis and Maria Sophie ascended the throne.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 14532, 21486505, 59534, 44628, 223865, 158773, 9389711, 148783, 371325, 3076872, 153029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 65 ], [ 85, 112 ], [ 123, 135 ], [ 187, 205 ], [ 252, 261 ], [ 264, 281 ], [ 458, 471 ], [ 502, 512 ], [ 551, 561 ], [ 574, 597 ], [ 658, 678 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the meantime Austria had fallen into a trap set by the Italian risorgimento. Piedmont, jointly ruled with Sardinia had been the site of earlier insurrections. This time they formed a secret alliance with France (Patto di Plombières), whose emperor, Napoleon III was a previous Carbonari. Piedmont then proceeded to provoke Vienna with a series of military manoeuvres, successfully triggering an ultimatum to Turin on 23 April. Its rejection was followed by an Austrian invasion, and precipitated war with France (Second Italian War of Independence 1859). Austria mistakenly expected support and received none, and the country was ill-prepared for war, which went badly. The Habsburg rulers in Tuscany and Modena were forced to flee to Vienna.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 21486771, 62581, 19450529, 21967242, 62418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 88 ], [ 252, 264 ], [ 411, 416 ], [ 696, 703 ], [ 708, 714 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In May 1859 Austria suffered a military defeat at the Battle of Varese and in June at Magenta against the combined forces of France and Sardinia. The emperor refused to acknowledge the seriousness of the situation which was causing great hardship at home, and took over direct command of the army, though not a professional soldier. Later that month a further defeat at Solférino sealed Austria's fate, and the emperor found himself having to accept Napoleon's terms at Villafranca. Austria agreed to cede Lombardy, and the rulers of the central Italian states were to be restored. However the latter never happened, and the following year in plebiscites, all joined the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont. By April 1860 Garibaldi had invaded and quickly subdued Sicily, and by February 1861 the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies ceased to exist, Francis and Maria fled to Austria.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 2994821, 157656, 157738, 3174791, 21486576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 70 ], [ 86, 93 ], [ 370, 379 ], [ 470, 481 ], [ 715, 724 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These events severely weakened the emperor's position. The government's absolutist policies were unpopular and these setbacks led to domestic unrest, Hungarian secessionism, criticism of Austria's governance and allegations of corruption. The first casualties were the emperor's ministers. The Finance Minister, Karl Ludwig von Bruck killed himself. Other casualties were Count Karl Ferdinand von Buol (Foreign Minister), Interior Minister Baron Alexander von Bach, Police Minister Johann Freiherr von Kempen von Fichtenstamm, Adjutant General Karl Ludwig von Grünne, together with army generals.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 31943947, 2681450, 588235, 2247772, 56756351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 312, 333 ], [ 372, 401 ], [ 403, 419 ], [ 440, 464 ], [ 544, 566 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The result was a reluctant undertaking by the emperor and his chief advisor Goluchowski to return to constitutional government, culminating in the October Diploma (October 1860) establishing constitutional monarchy through a legislative assembly and provincial autonomy. This was never completely implemented due to Hungarian resistance, demanding the full autonomy lost in 1849. Consequently, the October Diploma (Oktoberdiplom) was replaced by the February Patent (Februarpatent), in 1861 establishing a bicameral legislative body, the Reichsrat. The upper house (Herrenhaus) consisted of appointed and hereditary positions, while the lower house, the House of Deputies (Abgeordnetenhaus) was appointed by the provincial diets. The Reichsrat would meet with or without the Hungarians, depending on the issues being considered. This was a first step towards the establishment of a separate Cisleithanian legislature, on the other hand the more limited role of the diets in the February Patent, compared to the October Diploma, angered the champions of regionalism. The Reichsrat was dominated by liberals, who were to be the dominant political force for the next two decades.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 2413839, 1633471, 1707409, 204299, 803657, 639925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 87 ], [ 147, 162 ], [ 450, 465 ], [ 506, 515 ], [ 538, 547 ], [ 723, 728 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prussia and Denmark had already fought one war in 1848–51 over the territories that lined their common border, Schleswig-Holstein which resulted in Denmark retaining them. By 1864 Austria was at war again, this time allying itself with Prussia against Denmark in the Second Schleswig War, which although successful this time, turned out to be Austria's last military victory. The war concluded with the Treaty of Vienna by which Denmark ceded the territories. The following year the Gastein Convention resolved the control of the new territories, Holstein being allocated to Austria, after initial conflicts between the allies. However this did little to ease the Austria–Prussia rivalry over the German question. The ongoing efforts by Otto von Bismarck, the Prussian Minister President, to revoke the agreement and wrest control of the territories would soon lead to all out conflict between the two powers and achieve the desired weakening of Austria's position in central Europe.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 554232, 758491, 554236, 7066859, 2285190, 179403, 12378580, 22416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 46 ], [ 111, 129 ], [ 267, 287 ], [ 403, 419 ], [ 483, 501 ], [ 547, 555 ], [ 664, 687 ], [ 737, 754 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the 1848 revolution, in which much of the Hungarian aristocracy had participated, Hungary remained restless, restoration of the constitution and de-throne the House of Habsburg, opposing the centralist trials of Vienna and refusing to pay taxes (Hamann 144). Hungary had little support in the court at Vienna which was strongly Bohemian and considered the Hungarians as revolutionaries. From the loss of the Italian territories in 1859, the Hungarian question became more prominent. Hungary was negotiating with foreign powers to support it, and most significantly with Prussia. Therefore, Hungary represented a threat to Austria in any opposition to Prussia within the German Confederation over the German Question. Therefore, cautious discussions over concessions, referred to as Conciliation by the Hungarians (Hamann 146), started to take place. Emperor Franz Joseph traveled to Budapest in June 1865 and made a few concessions, such as abolishing the military jurisdiction, and granting an amnesty to the press. However these fell far short of the demands of the Hungarian liberals whose minimal demands were restoration of the constitution and the emperor's separate coronation as King of Hungary. Chief among these were Gyula Andrássy and Ferenc Deák, who endeavoured to improve their influence at the court in Vienna. In January 1866 a delegation of the Hungarian parliament traveled to Vienna to invite the imperial family to make an official visit to Hungary, which they did, at some length from January to March.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 1598647, 371248, 142280, 24878360, 36787, 16001, 394495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 94 ], [ 575, 582 ], [ 675, 695 ], [ 705, 720 ], [ 888, 896 ], [ 1232, 1246 ], [ 1251, 1262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While Andrássy was making frequent visits to Vienna from Budapest during early 1866, relations with Prussia were deteriorating. There was talk of war. Prussia had signed a secret treaty with the relatively new Kingdom of Italy on 8 April, while Austria concluded one with France on 12 June, in exchange for Venetia.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 371248, 9804204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 107 ], [ 210, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While the motives for the war, Prussian masterplan or opportunism, are disputed, the outcome was a radical re-alignment of power in Central Europe. Austria brought the continuing dispute over Holstein before the German diet and also decided to convene the Holstein diet. Prussia, declaring that the Gastein Convention had thereby been nullified, invaded Holstein. When the German diet responded by voting for a partial mobilization against Prussia, Bismarck declared that the German Confederation was ended. Thus this may be considered a Third Schleswig War.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 142280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 476, 496 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hostilities broke out on 14 June as the Austro-Prussian War (June–August 1866), in which Prussia and the north German states faced not only Austria but much of the rest of Germany, especially the southern states. Three days later Italy declared war on Austria in the Third Italian War of Independence, Italy now being Prussia's ally. Thus Austria had to fight on two fronts. Their first engagement resulted in a minor victory against the Italians at Custoza near Verona on 24 June. However, on the northern front Austria suffered a major military defeat at the Battle of Königgrätz in Bohemia on 3 July. Although Austria had a further victory against the Italians in a naval battle at Lissa on 20 July, it was clear by then that the war was over for Austria, Prussian armies threatening Vienna itself, forcing the evacuation of the court to Budapest. Napoleon III intervened resulting in an armistice at Nikolsburg on 21 July, and a peace treaty in Prague on 23 August. In the meantime the Italians who had had a series of successes throughout July, and signed an armistice at Cormons on 12 August rather than face the remaining Austrian army freed from its northern front.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 142281, 8406560, 1768816, 218694, 960710, 1554283, 5097607, 61111, 27605447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 59 ], [ 267, 300 ], [ 450, 457 ], [ 561, 581 ], [ 685, 690 ], [ 904, 914 ], [ 949, 955 ], [ 1064, 1073 ], [ 1077, 1084 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a result of these wars Austria had now lost all its Italian territory and was now excluded from further German affairs, that were now reorganised under Prussian dominance in the new North German Confederation. The Kleindeutschland concept had prevailed. For the Austrians in Italy, the war had been tragically pointless, since Venetia had already been ceded.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 371248, 260934, 12390702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 163 ], [ 185, 211 ], [ 217, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While Austria was reeling from the effects of war, the Hungarians increased the pressure for their demands. Andrássy was regularly in Vienna, as was Ferenc Deák and the Hungarian position was backed by constitutionalists and liberals. While anti-Hungarian sentiments ran high at the court, the Emperor's position was becoming increasingly untenable, with the Prussian army now at Pressburg (now Bratislava), and Vienna crammed with exiles, while hope for French intervention proved to be fruitless. The Hungarians recruited Empress Elisabeth who became a strong advocate for their cause. György Klapka had organised a legion fighting for the Prussians, which Bismarck had supported, that entered Hungary and agitated for Hungarian independence.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 394495, 18933194, 153029, 1516996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 149, 160 ], [ 380, 389 ], [ 524, 541 ], [ 588, 601 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However the needs of the other provinces had to be considered before entering into any form of Hungarian dualism which would give Hungary special privileges, and started to fan the flames of Czech nationalism, since Slavic interests were likely to be submerged. People started to talk about the events of 1848 again. By February 1867 Count Belcredi resigned as Minister President over his concerns about Slavic interests, and was succeeded by foreign minister Ferdinand Beust, who promptly pursued the Hungarian option which had become a reality by the end of the month.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 17320233, 758357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 334, 348 ], [ 460, 475 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austria-Hungary was created through the mechanism of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 (Ausgleich). Thus the Hungarians finally achieved much of their aims. The western half of the realm known as (Cisleithania) and the eastern Hungarian (Transleithania), that is the realms lying on each side of the Leitha tributary of the Danube river, now became two realms with different interior policy - there was no common citizenship and dual-citizenship was banned either -, but with a common ruler and a common foreign and military policy. The empire now had two capitals, two cabinets and two parliaments. Only three cabinet positions served both halves of the monarchy, war, foreign affairs and finance (when both sectors were involved). Costs were assigned 70:30 to Cisleithania, however the Hungarians represented a single nationality while Cisleithania included all the other kingdoms and provinces. Andrássy was appointed as the first Minister President of the new Hungary on 17 February. Feelings ran high in the provinces, and the Diets in Moravia and Bohemia were shut down in March.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 2983, 387987, 401449, 3828424, 922538, 72465, 21209639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 57, 92 ], [ 203, 215 ], [ 244, 258 ], [ 306, 312 ], [ 313, 322 ], [ 330, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Emperor Franz Joseph made a speech from the throne in May to the Reichsrat (Imperial Council) asking for retroactive ratification and promising further constitutional reforms and increased autonomy to the provinces. This was a major retreat from absolutism. On 8 June, the Emperor and Empress were crowned King and Queen of Hungary in a ceremony whose pomp and splendour seemed out of keeping with Austria's recent military and political humiliation and the extent of financial reparations. As part of the celebrations the emperor announced further concessions that aggravated relationships between Hungary and the rest of the monarchy. An amnesty was declared for all political offences since 1848 (including Klapka and Kossuth) and reversal of the confiscation of estates. In addition the coronation Gift was directed to the families and veterans of the revolutionary Honvéds, which was revived as the Royal Hungarian Honvéd.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 803657, 324235, 1516996, 383576, 39947461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 74 ], [ 306, 331 ], [ 710, 716 ], [ 721, 728 ], [ 904, 926 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In return for the Liberals support of the Ausgleich, concessions were made to parliamentary prerogatives in the new constitutional law. The law of 21 December 1867, although frequently amended, was the foundation of Austrian governance for the remaining 50 years of the empire, and was largely based on the February Patent, the Imperial Council and included a bill of rights. Ultimately the political balance of the dual monarchy represented a compromise between authoritarianism (Obrigkeitsstaat) and parliamentarianism (Rechtsstaat) (Hacohen 2002). Like most compromises it was rejected by extremists on both sides, including Kossuth.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 2517216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 522, 533 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1873 marked the Silver Jubilee of Franz Joseph, and provided not only an occasion for celebration but also one of reflection on the progress of the monarchy since 1848. Vienna had grown from a population of 500,000 to over a million, the walls and fortifications had been demolished and the Ringstrasse constructed with many magnificent new buildings along it. The Danube was being regulated to reduce the risk of flooding, a new aqueduct constructed to bring fresh water into the city, and many new bridges, schools, hospitals, churches and a new university built.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 149582, 55866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 30 ], [ 169, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Foreign policy", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "What was supposed to be a temporary emergency measure was to last for half a century. Austria succeeded in staying neutral during the Franco Prussian War of 1870–1 despite those who saw an opportunity for revenge on Prussia for the events of 1866. However Austria's allies among the South German States were now allied with Prussia, and it was unlikely that Austria's military capacity had significantly improved in the meantime. Any residual doubts were rapidly dispelled by the speed of the Prussian advance and the subsequent overthrow of the Second Empire.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 44035, 216066 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 153 ], [ 546, 559 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In November 1871 Austria made a radical change in foreign policy. Ferdinand Beust, the First Prime Minister (to 1867), Chancellor and Foreign Minister (1866–1871) of the Dual Monarchy, was dismissed. Beust was an advocate of revanche against Prussia, but was succeeded by the Hungarian Prime Minister, the liberal Gyula Andrássy as Foreign Minister (1871–1879), although both opposed the federalist policies of Prime Minister Karl Hohenwart (1871) while Prince Adolf of Auersperg became the new Prime Minister (1871–1879). Andrássy 's appointment caused concern among the conservative Court Party (Kamarilla), but he worked hard to restore relationships between Berlin and Vienna, culminating in the Dual Alliance (Zweibund) of 1879.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 758357, 16001, 588235, 7799943, 15376743, 1973405, 9011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 81 ], [ 314, 328 ], [ 332, 348 ], [ 426, 440 ], [ 454, 479 ], [ 598, 607 ], [ 700, 713 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1878, Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina, which had been cut off from the rest of the Ottoman Empire by the creation of new states in the Balkans following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78 and the resulting Congress of Berlin (June–July 1878). The territory was ceded to Austria-Hungary, and Andrássy prepared to occupy it. This led to a further deterioration of relations with Russia and was to lead to tragic consequences in the next century. Austrian troops encountered stiff resistance and suffered significant casualties. The occupation created controversy both within and without the empire and led to Andrássy's resignation in 1879. This territory was finally annexed in 1908 and put under joint rule by the governments of both Austria and Hungary.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 42345739, 22278, 4829, 275092, 438617, 25391, 1575920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 56 ], [ 102, 116 ], [ 154, 161 ], [ 176, 204 ], [ 223, 241 ], [ 394, 400 ], [ 683, 698 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The departure of the Liberal Government and of Andrássy from the Foreign Office (k. u. k. Ministerium des Äußern) marked a sharp shift in Austria-Hungary's foreign policy, particularly in relation to Russia, Count Gustav Kálnoky (1881–1895) Andrássy's Conservative replacement pursuing a new rapprochement.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 1883502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 208, 228 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Economy", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The second half of the 19th century saw a lot of construction, expansion of cities and railway lines, and development of industry. During the earlier part of this period, known as Gründerzeit, Austria became an industrialized country, even though the Alpine regions remained characterized by agriculture. Austria was able to celebrate its newfound grandeur in the Vienna World Exhibition (Weltausstellung) of 1873, attended by all the crowned heads of Europe, and beyond. This period of relative prosperity was followed by the 1873 Stock market crash.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 698982, 951514, 184959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 180, 191 ], [ 364, 413 ], [ 527, 550 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Political parties became legitimate entities in Austria from 1848, apart from a brief lapse in the 1850s. However the structure of the legislative body created by the 1861 February Patent provided little scope for party organisation. Initial political organisation resembled the cleavages in Austrian culture. Since the time of the Counter-Reformation the Catholic Church had assumed a major role in the political life of the empire, in conjunction with the aristocracy and conservative rural elements. Allied against these forces were a more secular urban middle class, reflecting the Enlightenment and the French Revolution with its anti-clericism (Kulturkampf). Other elements on the left were German nationalism, defending Greater German interests against the Slavs, and found support among urban intelligentsia. However party structure was far from cohesive and both groupings contained factions which either supported or opposed the government of the day. These parties reflected the traditional right/left split of political vision. The left, or Liberal (Deutschliberale Partei) factions were known as the Constitutional Party (Verfassungspartei), but both left and right were fragmented into factions (Klubs). Without direct elections there was no place for constituency organisation, and affinities were intellectual not organisational. Nor, without ministerial responsibility, was there a need for such organisation. The affinities were driven by respective visions of the representative institutions. The left derived its name from its support in principle of the 1861–7 constitution and were the driving elements of the 1848 revolution, the right supported historic rights. The left drew its support from the propertied bourgeoisie (Besitzbürgertum), affluent professionals and the civil service. These were longstanding ideological differences (Pulzer 1969). The 1867 elections saw the Liberals take control of the lower house under Karl Auersperg (1867–1868) and were instrumental in the adoption of the 1867 constitution and in abrogating the 1855 Concordat (1870).", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 236236, 606848, 30758, 11188, 262871, 24878360, 29440, 875142, 48723842, 15377490, 411434 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 332, 351 ], [ 356, 371 ], [ 586, 599 ], [ 608, 625 ], [ 651, 662 ], [ 727, 741 ], [ 764, 769 ], [ 1053, 1060 ], [ 1113, 1133 ], [ 1946, 1960 ], [ 2063, 2072 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Suffrage progressively improved during the period 1860–1882. The selection of deputies to the Reichsrat by provincial legislatures proved unworkable particularly once the Bohemian diet effectively boycotted the Reichsrat in an attempt to acquire equal status with the Hungarians in a tripartite monarchy. As a result, suffrage was changed to direct election to the Reichsrat in 1873.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 4345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 171, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Even then by 1873 only six percent of the adult male population were franchised (Hacohen 2002). The initial divisions into Catholic, liberal, national, radical and agrarian parties differed across ethnic grounds further fragmenting the political culture. However, there was now emerging the presence of extra-parliamentary parties whereas previously parties were purely intra-parliamentary. This provided an opportunity for the disenfranchised to find a voice. These changes were taking place against a rapidly changing backdrop of an Austrian economy that was modernising and industrialising and economic crises such as that of 1873 and its resultant depression (1873–1879), and the traditional parties were slow to respond to the demands of the populace. By the election of 1901, the last election under the defined classes of franchisement (Curia) extraparliamentary parties won 76 of the 118 seats.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 6677, 21748, 2224857, 1193, 184959, 596473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 140 ], [ 142, 150 ], [ 152, 159 ], [ 164, 172 ], [ 621, 633 ], [ 652, 662 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This era saw anti-liberal sentiments and declining fortunes of the Liberal party which had held power since 1867 apart from a brief spell of conservative government in 1870–1. In 1870 Liberal support for Prussia in the 1870 Franco-Prussian War displeased the Emperor and he turned to the Conservatives to form a government under Count Karl Sigmund von Hohenwart (1871). Hohenwart was the conservative leader in parliament, and the Emperor believed his more sympathetic views to Slavic aspirations and federalism would weaken the Austro-German Liberals. Hohenwart appointed Albert Schäffle as his commerce minister and drew up a policy known as the Fundamental Articles of 1871 (Fundamentalartikel). The policy failed, the Emperor withdrew his support and the Liberals regained power.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 44035, 7799943, 573651, 7808169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 224, 243 ], [ 329, 361 ], [ 573, 588 ], [ 648, 676 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Liberal party became progressively unliberal and more nationalistic, and against whose social conservatism the progressive intellectuals would rebel (Hacohen 2002). During their 1870–1 opposition they blocked attempts to extend the dual monarchy to a tripartite monarchy including the Czechs, and promoted the concept of Deutschtum (the granting of all rights of citizenship to those who displayed the characteristics of the solid German Bürger). They also opposed the extension of suffrage because restricted suffrage favoured their electoral base (Hacohen 2002). In 1873 the party fragmented, with a radical faction of the Constitutional Party forming the Progressive Club (Fortschrittsklub), while a right-wing faction formed the conservative Constitutionalist Landlordism (Verfassungstreue Grossgrundbesitz) leaving a rump of 'Old Liberals' (Altliberale). The result was a proliferation of German Liberal (Deutschfreiheitlichkeit) and German National (Deutschnationalismus) groups.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 32958341 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 943, 958 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While Liberal achievements had included economic modernisation, expanding secular education and rebuilding the fabric and culture of Vienna, while collaborating with the Administration (Verwaltung), after 1873 a progressive series of schisms and mergers continued to weaken the party which effectively disappeared by 1911.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Liberal cabinet of Adolf Auersperg (1871–1879) was dismissed in 1879 over its opposition to Foreign Minister Gyula Andrássy's (1871–1879) Balkan policy and the occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina, which added more Slavs and further diluted German nationalism and identity (Staatsnation). In the ensuing elections the Liberals lost control of parliament and went into opposition, the incoming government under Count Edward Taaffe (1879–1893) basically consisting of a group of factions (farmers, clergy and Czechs), the \"Iron Ring\" (Der eiserne Ring), united in a determination to keep the Liberals out of power.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 15376743, 26849954, 16001, 875142, 1295275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 38 ], [ 96, 112 ], [ 113, 127 ], [ 318, 326 ], [ 410, 429 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Andrássy, who had nothing in common with Taaffe, tended his resignation on the grounds of poor health and to his surprise it was accepted. His name was raised again when the new Foreign minister, Haymerle died in office in 1881, but Taaffe and his coalition had no time for a Liberal foreign minister (let alone a Hungarian and Freemason), and he was passed over in favour of Count Gustav Kálnoky (1881–1895).", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 6694585, 11227, 1883502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 196, 204 ], [ 328, 337 ], [ 376, 396 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However the Liberal opposition filibustered leading the government to seek electoral reform as a strategy to weaken their position, which was enacted in 1882. Despite this, the coalition, nominally conservative and committed to anti-socialism passed a series of social reforms over the decade 1880–1890, following the examples of Germany and Switzerland. These were reforms which the Liberals had been unable to get past a government strongly tied to the concept of individual's rights to self-determination free from government interference (Grandner 1997). Such measures had the support of both the Liberals, now the United Left (Vereinigte Linke 1881) and the German National Party (Deutsche Nationalpartei 1891), an offshoot of the German National Movement (Deutschnationale Bewegung). The electoral reforms of 1882 were the most influential in that it enfranchised proportionally more Germans.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 157861, 32958341 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 43 ], [ 736, 760 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Social reform now moved to become a platform of conservative Catholics like Prince Aloys de Paula Maria of Liechtenstein, Baron Karl von Vogelsang, and Count Egbert Belcredi (Boyer 1995). The era of electoral reform saw the emergence of Georg von Schonerer's Pan-German League (Alldeutsche Vereinigung) (1882), appealing to an anti-clerical middle class, and Catholic social reformers such as L. Psenner and A. Latschka created the Christian Social Association (Christlich-Sozialer Verein) (1887). Around the same time F. Piffl, F. Stauracz, Ae. Schoepfer, A. Opitz, Karl Lueger and Prince Aloys Liechtenstein formed the United Christians (Vereinigten Christen) to advocate Christian social reform. These two organisations merged in 1891 under Karl Lueger to form the Christian Social Party (Christlichsoziale Partei, CS).", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 36843617, 4999454, 772944, 7816571, 220238, 1713528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 120 ], [ 122, 146 ], [ 237, 256 ], [ 259, 276 ], [ 567, 578 ], [ 768, 790 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However the Taaffe government's policy of ethnic inclusiveness fuelled nationalism among the German-speaking population. The Liberals had maintained the strong centralism of the absolutist era (with the exception of Galicia in 1867) while the Conservatives attempted a more federalist state that ultimately led to the fall of the Taaffe government in 1893, including a second attempt at Bohemian Ausgleich (Tripartite monarchy) in 1890 (Grandner 1997).", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 402344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 216, 223 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the left the spread of anarchical ideas and oppressive government saw the emergence of a Marxist Social Democratic Party (Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei Österreichs, SDAPÖ) in 1889 which succeeded in winning seats in the 1897 elections which followed further extension of suffrage in 1896 to include peasants and the working classes, establishing universal male suffrage, though not equal.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 38667888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The universal male suffrage introduced in 1907 by Minister-President Freiherr von Beck changed the balance of power, formally tilted towards German Austrians, and revealed that they were now a minority in a predominantly Slavic empire. In the 1900 census, Germans were 36% of the Cisleithanian population but the largest single group, but never acted as a cohesive group (nor did any other national group), although they were the dominant group in the political life of the monarchy. Germans were followed by Czechs and Slovaks (23%), Poles (17), Ruthenians (13), Slovenes (5), Serbo-Croats (3), Italians (3) and Romanians 1%. However these national groups, especially the Germans were often scattered geographically. The Germans also dominated economically, and in level of education.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 33529021, 17320757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 46 ], [ 69, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The post reform 1907 parliament (Reichsrat) was elected along national lines, with only the Christian-Social and Social Democrat parties predominantly German. However Austria was governed by the Emperor who appointed the Imperial Council of Ministers (Ministerrat), who in turn answered to him, parliament being left free to criticise government policy. Technically it had the power to legislate from 1907, but in practice the Imperial government generated its own legislation, and the Emperor could veto his own minister's bills. The major parties were divided geographically and socially, with the social democrats base being the towns, predominantly Vienna, and having a very different perspective to the devout but illiterate peasantry in the countryside. The latter were joined by the aristocracy and bourgeoisie in supporting the status quo of the monarchy.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 803657 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1911 elections elected a parliament that would carry Austria through the war and the end of the empire in 1918.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 33529765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, the effectiveness of parliamentarism was hampered by conflicts between parties representing different ethnic groups, and meetings of the parliament ceased altogether during World War I.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 4764461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 182, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The initial years of the 19th century following the Congress of Vienna, up until the revolution of 1848 was characterised by the Biedermeier period of design and architecture, partly fueled by the repressive domestic scene that diverted attention to domesticity and the arts.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 44628, 274047, 1613162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 70 ], [ 85, 103 ], [ 129, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the reign of Franz Joseph (1848–1916) came a new era of grandeur, typified by the Belle Époque style, with extensive building and the construction of the Ringstrasse in Vienna with its monumental buildings (officially opened 1 May 1865, after seven years). Architects of the period included Heinrich Ferstel (Votivkirche, Museum für angewandte Kunst Wien), Friedrich von Schmidt (Rathaus), Theophil Hansen (Parliament), Gottfried Semper (Kunsthistorisches Museum, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Burgtheater), Eduard van der Nüll (Opera) and August Sicardsburg (Opera).", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 51695, 230322, 1400674, 15109008, 2207059, 25453257, 15150174, 5474869, 2221558, 3227097, 76252, 1010262, 1010262, 1397745, 21756129, 379066, 34436572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 30 ], [ 87, 99 ], [ 159, 170 ], [ 296, 312 ], [ 314, 325 ], [ 327, 359 ], [ 362, 383 ], [ 385, 392 ], [ 395, 410 ], [ 412, 422 ], [ 425, 441 ], [ 443, 467 ], [ 469, 493 ], [ 495, 506 ], [ 509, 528 ], [ 530, 535 ], [ 541, 559 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1897 saw the resignation of a group of artists from the Association of Austrian Artists (Gesellschaft bildender Künstler Österreichs), headed by Gustav Klimt who became the first president of this group which became known as the Vienna Secession or Wiener Secession (Vereinigung Bildender Künstler Österreichs). The movement was a protest against the historicism and conservatism of the former organisation, following similar movements in Berlin and Munich. Partly this was a revolt against the perceived excesses of the earlier Ringstrasse era, and a yearning to return to the relative simplicity of Biedermaier. From this group Josef Hoffman and Koloman Moser formed the Vienna Arts and Crafts Workshop (Wiener Werkstätte) in 1903 to promote the development of applied arts. The Secession became associated with a specific building, the Secession Building (Wiener Secessionsgebäude) built in 1897 and which housed their exhibitions, starting in 1898. The Secession as originally conceived splintered in 1905 when Klimt and others left over irreconcilable differences. The group however lasted until 1939 and the outbreak of the Second World War.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 13767481, 12425, 1398982, 14317754, 6534498, 42450301, 1400674, 10899874, 2809986, 1275160, 1333905, 17378348, 32927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 132 ], [ 145, 157 ], [ 229, 245 ], [ 351, 362 ], [ 439, 445 ], [ 450, 456 ], [ 529, 540 ], [ 630, 643 ], [ 648, 661 ], [ 706, 723 ], [ 763, 775 ], [ 839, 857 ], [ 1130, 1146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Architecturally this was the era of Jugendstil (Art Nouveau) and the contrasting work of men like Otto Wagner (Kirche am Steinhof) known for embellishment and Adolf Loos, who represented restraint. Art Nouveau and the modern style came relatively late to Austria, around 1900, and was distinguishable from the earlier movement in other European capitals.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 59559, 484143, 2019774, 53604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 46 ], [ 98, 109 ], [ 111, 129 ], [ 159, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the prominent literary figures was Karl Kraus, the essayist and satirist, known for his newspaper \"The Torch\" (Die Fackel), founded in 1899.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 407073 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the musical scene, Johan Strauss and his family dominated the Viennese scene over the entire period, which also produced Franz Schubert, Ludwig van Beethoven, Anton Bruckner, Johannes Brahms, Arnold Schoenberg, Franz Lehár and Gustav Mahler among others.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 133410, 44888, 17914, 44012, 16339, 67025, 253328, 65174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 35 ], [ 124, 138 ], [ 140, 160 ], [ 162, 176 ], [ 178, 193 ], [ 195, 212 ], [ 214, 225 ], [ 230, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the opening years of the 20th century (Fin de siècle) the avant garde were beginning to challenge traditional values, often shocking Viennese society, such as Arthur Schnitzler's play Reigen, the paintings of Klimt, and the music of Schoenberg, Anton Webern and Alban Berg and the Second Viennese School (Zweite Wiener Schule).", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "The 19th century (1815–1914)", "target_page_ids": [ 173433, 76095, 63274, 3539450, 65676, 2406, 67457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 55 ], [ 61, 72 ], [ 162, 179 ], [ 187, 193 ], [ 248, 260 ], [ 265, 275 ], [ 284, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nationalist strife increased during the decades until 1914. The assassination in Sarajevo by a Serb nationalist group of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to Franz Joseph as Emperor, helped to trigger World War I. In November 1916 the Emperor died, leaving the relatively inexperienced Charles (Karl) in command. The defeat of the Central Powers in 1918 resulted in the disintegration of Austria-Hungary, and the Emperor went into exile.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Austria in the First World War 1914–1918", "target_page_ids": [ 26786, 59512, 7955693, 4764461, 153477, 6673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 89 ], [ 95, 99 ], [ 130, 145 ], [ 202, 213 ], [ 287, 301 ], [ 332, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The First World War effectively ended for Austria on 3 November 1918, when the defeated army signed the Armistice of Villa Giusti at Padua following the Battle of Vittorio Veneto. (Technically this applied to Austria-Hungary, but Hungary had withdrawn from the conflict on 31 October 1918. Austria was forced to cede all territory occupied since 1914, plus accept the formation of new nations across most of the Empire's pre-war territory, and the allies were given access to Austria. The empire was thus dissolved.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "German Austria and the First Republic (1918–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 5975312, 50240, 3011689, 13275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 129 ], [ 133, 138 ], [ 153, 178 ], [ 230, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Provisional National Assembly (Provisorische Nationalversammlung für Deutschösterreich) met in Vienna from 21 October 1918 to 19 February 1919, as the first parliament of the new Austria, in the Lower Austria parliamentary buildings (Niederösterreichische Landhaus). It consisted of those members of the Reichsrat (Imperial Council) elected in 1911 from German speaking territories with three presidents, Franz Dinghofer (German National Movement, GDVP), Jodok Fink (Christian Social Party, CS) and Karl Seitz (Social Democratic Workers' Party of Austria, SDAPÖ). The National Assembly continued its work till 16 February 1919 when elections were held. On 30 October it adopted a provisional constitution and on 12 November it adopted German Austria (Deutschösterreich) as the name of the new state. Since the Emperor, Charles I (Karl I) had stated on 11 November that he no longer had \"auf jeden Anteil an den Staatsgeschäften\" (any share in the affairs of state), although he always said that he never abdicated. Austria was now a republic.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "German Austria and the First Republic (1918–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 148988, 4350514, 803657, 32958341, 1713528, 619967, 38667888, 6428150, 153477 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 212 ], [ 238, 268 ], [ 308, 317 ], [ 426, 450 ], [ 471, 493 ], [ 503, 513 ], [ 515, 558 ], [ 739, 753 ], [ 823, 841 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However the provisional constitution stated that it was to be part of the new German Republic proclaimed three days earlier. Article 2 stated: Deutschösterreich ist ein Bestandteil der Deutschen Republik (German Austria is part of the German Republic).", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "German Austria and the First Republic (1918–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 33685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Karl Renner was proclaimed Chancellor of Austria, succeeding Heinrich Lammasch and led the first three cabinets (12 November 1918– 7 July 1920) as a grand coalition of the SDAPÖ, CS, and GDVP. The latter was composed of a large number of splinter groups of the German National and German Liberal movements, and were numerically the largest group in the assembly.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "German Austria and the First Republic (1918–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 165217, 60582, 3463022, 27790361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 27, 48 ], [ 61, 78 ], [ 103, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 22 November Austria laid claim to the German speaking territories of the former Habsburg Empire in Czechoslovakia (German Bohemia and parts of Moravia), Poland (Austrian Silesia) and the South Tyrol, annexed by Italy. However Austria was in no position to enforce these claims against either the victorious allies or the new nation states that emerged from the dissolution of the Empire and all the lands in question remained separated from the new Austria.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "German Austria and the First Republic (1918–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 5322, 7946349, 22936, 2225111, 169611, 14532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 116 ], [ 118, 153 ], [ 156, 162 ], [ 164, 180 ], [ 190, 201 ], [ 214, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the words of the then French premier Georges Clemenceau \"ce qui reste, c'est l'Autriche\" (\"Austria is what's left\"). An empire of over 50 million had been reduced to a state of 6.5 million.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "German Austria and the First Republic (1918–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 65738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 19 February elections were held for what was now called the Constituent National Assembly (Konstituierende Nationalversammlung). Although the Social Democrats won the most seats (41%) they did not have an absolute majority and formed a grand coalition with the second-largest party, the Christian Socialists. On 12 March the National Assembly declared \"German Austria\" to the part of the \"German Republic\".", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "German Austria and the First Republic (1918–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 33530034, 767892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 24 ], [ 239, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Large sections of the population and most representatives of political parties were of the opinion that this \"residual\" or \"rump state\"– without Hungary's agriculture sector and Bohemia's industry it would not be economically viable. The journalist Hellmut Andics (1922–1998) expressed this sentiment in his book entitled Der Staat, den keiner wollte (The state that nobody wanted) in 1962.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "German Austria and the First Republic (1918–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 7665904, 46423221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 134 ], [ 249, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austria's exact future remained uncertain until formal treaties were signed and ratified. This process began with the opening of the Peace Conference in Paris on 18 January 1919 and culminated in the signing of the Treaty of Saint Germain on 10 September that year, although the National Assembly initially rejected the draft treaty on 7 June.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "German Austria and the First Republic (1918–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 295105, 464190 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 158 ], [ 215, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The fledgling Republic of German-Austria was to prove short lived. The proposed merger with the German Empire (Weimar Republic) was vetoed by the Allied victors in the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (10 September 1919) under Article 88 which prohibited economic or political union. The allies were fearful of the long-held Mitteleuropa dream—a union of all German-speaking populations. The treaty was ratified by parliament on 21 October 1919. Austria was to remain independent, and was obliged to be so for at least 20 years.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "German Austria and the First Republic (1918–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 464190, 303727 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 191 ], [ 324, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The treaty also obliged the country to change its name from the \"Republic of German Austria\" to the \"Republic of Austria\" (Republik Österreich), i.e., the First Republic, a name that persists to this day. The German-speaking bordering areas of Bohemia and Moravia (later called the \"Sudetenland\") were allocated to the newly founded Czechoslovakia. Many Austrians and Germans regarded this as hypocrisy since U.S. president Woodrow Wilson had proclaimed in his famous \"Fourteen Points\" the \"right of self-determination\" for all nations. In Germany, the constitution of the Weimar Republic explicitly stated this in article 61: Deutschösterreich erhält nach seinem Anschluß an das Deutsche Reich das Recht der Teilnahme am Reichsrat mit der seiner Bevölkerung entsprechenden Stimmenzahl. Bis dahin haben die Vertreter Deutschösterreichs beratende Stimme.—\"German Austria has the right to participate in the German Reichsrat (the constitutional representation of the federal German states) with a consulting role according to its number of inhabitants until unification with Germany.\" In Austria itself, almost all political parties together with the majority of public opinion continued to cling to the concept of unification laid out in Article 2 of the 1918 constitution.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "German Austria and the First Republic (1918–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 2507138, 4345, 20216, 42858, 5322, 33523, 193786, 309792, 803636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 169 ], [ 244, 251 ], [ 256, 263 ], [ 283, 294 ], [ 333, 347 ], [ 424, 438 ], [ 469, 484 ], [ 573, 588 ], [ 906, 922 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Austria-Hungary had been one of the Central Powers, the allied victors were much more lenient with a defeated Austria than with either Germany or Hungary. Representatives of the new Republic of Austria convinced the allies that it was unfair to penalize Austria for the actions of a now dissolved Empire, especially as other areas of the Empire were now perceived to be on the \"victor\" side, simply because they had renounced the Empire at the end of the war. Austria never did have to pay reparations because allied commissions determined that the country could not afford to pay.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "German Austria and the First Republic (1918–1933)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "However, the Treaty of Saint Germain also confirmed Austria's loss of significant German-speaking territories, in particular the southern part of the County of Tyrol (now South Tyrol) to Italy and the German-speaking areas within Bohemia and Moravia to Czechoslovakia. In compensation (as it were) it was to be awarded most of the German-speaking part of Hungary in the Treaty of Trianon concluded between the Allies and that country; this was constituted the new federal state of Burgenland.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "German Austria and the First Republic (1918–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 6493681, 169611, 4345, 20216, 5322, 211393, 98935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 150, 165 ], [ 171, 182 ], [ 230, 237 ], [ 242, 249 ], [ 253, 267 ], [ 370, 387 ], [ 481, 491 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The grand coalition was dissolved on 10 June 1920, being replaced by a CS- SDAPÖ coalition under Michael Mayr as Chancellor (7 July 1920– 21 June 1921), necessitating new elections which were held on 17 October, for what now became the National Council (Nationalrat), under the new constitution of 1 October. This resulted in the Christian Social party now emerging as the strongest party, with 42% of the votes and subsequently forming Mayr's second government on 22 October as a CS minority government (with the support of the GDVP) without the Social Democrats. The CS were to continue in power until the end of the first republic, in various combinations of coalitions with the GDVP and Landbund (founded 1919).", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "German Austria and the First Republic (1918–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 9552224, 20964959, 218311, 1279974, 1713452 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 109 ], [ 167, 210 ], [ 236, 252 ], [ 282, 294 ], [ 691, 699 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The borders continued to be somewhat uncertain because of plebiscites in the tradition of Woodrow Wilson. Plebiscites in the regions of Tyrol and Salzburg between 1919 and 1921 (Tyrol 24 April 1921, Salzburg 29 May 1921) yielded majorities of 98% and 99% in favour of unification with Germany, fearing that \"rump\" Austria was not economically viable. However such mergers were not possible under the treaty.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "German Austria and the First Republic (1918–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 7946086, 40335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 141 ], [ 146, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 20 October 1920, a plebiscite in part of the Austrian state of Carinthia was held in which the population chose to remain a part of Austria, rejecting the territorial claims of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes to the state. Mostly German-speaking parts of western Hungary was awarded to Austria as the new state of Burgenland in 1921, with the exception of the city of Sopron and adjacent territories, whose population decided in a referendum (which is sometimes considered by Austrians to have been rigged) to remain with Hungary. The area had been discussed as the site of a Slavic corridor uniting Czechoslovakia to Yugoslavia. This made Austria the only defeated country to acquire additional territory as part of border adjustments.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "German Austria and the First Republic (1918–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 224463, 232269, 214486, 102378, 3583507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 75 ], [ 184, 221 ], [ 318, 323 ], [ 381, 387 ], [ 589, 604 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite the absence of reparations, Austria under the coalition suffered hyperinflation similar to that of Germany, destroying some of the financial assets of the middle and upper classes, and disrupting the economy. Adam Ferguson attributes hyperinflation to the existence of far too many people on the government payroll, failure to tax the working class, and numerous money losing government enterprises. The fascists blamed the left for the hyperinflation; Ferguson blames policies associated with the left. Massive riots ensued in Vienna in which the rioters demanded higher taxes on the rich and reduced subsidies to the poor. In response to the riots, the government increased taxes but failed to reduce subsidies.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "German Austria and the First Republic (1918–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 13681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The terms of the Treaty of Saint Germain were further underlined by the Geneva Protocols of the League of Nations (which Austria joined on 16 December 1920) on 4 October 1922 between Austria and the Allies. Austria was given a guarantee of sovereignty provided it did not unite with Germany over the following 20 years. Austria also received a loan of 650 million Goldkronen which was successful in halting hyperinflation, but required major restructuring of the Austrian economy. The Goldkrone was replaced by the more stable Schilling, but resulted in unemployment and new taxes, loss of social benefits and major attrition of the public service.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "German Austria and the First Republic (1918–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 17926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The First World Congress of Jewish Women was held in Vienna in May 1923.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "German Austria and the First Republic (1918–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 59105027 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Emerging from the war, Austria had two main political parties on the right and one on the left. The right was split between clericalism and nationalism. The Christian Social Party, (Christlichsoziale Partei, CS), had been founded in 1891 and achieved plurality from 1907–1911 before losing it to the socialists. Their influence had been waning in the capital, even before 1914, but became the dominant party of the First Republic, and the party of government from 1920 onwards. The CS had close ties to the Roman Catholic Church and was headed by a Catholic priest named Ignaz Seipel (1876–1932), who served twice as Chancellor (1922–1924 and 1926–1929). While in power, Seipel was working for an alliance between wealthy industrialists and the Roman Catholic Church. The CS drew its political support from conservative rural Catholics. In 1920 the Greater German People's Party (Großdeutsche Volkspartei, GDVP) was founded from the bulk of liberal and national groups and became the junior partner of the CS.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "German Austria and the First Republic (1918–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 1713528, 235892, 33529021, 33529765, 606848, 665611, 60582, 606848, 1800128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 179 ], [ 251, 260 ], [ 266, 270 ], [ 271, 275 ], [ 507, 528 ], [ 571, 583 ], [ 617, 627 ], [ 745, 766 ], [ 849, 878 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the left the Social Democratic Workers' Party of Austria (Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei Österreichs, SDAPÖ) founded in 1898, which pursued a fairly left-wing course known as Austromarxism at that time, could count on a secure majority in \"Red Vienna\" (as the capital was known from 1918 to 1934), while right-wing parties controlled all other states. The SDAPÖ were the strongest voting bloc from 1911 to 1918.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "German Austria and the First Republic (1918–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 38667888, 38667895, 12035723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 59 ], [ 182, 195 ], [ 247, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between 1918 and 1920, there was a grand coalition government including both left and right-wing parties, the CS and the Social Democratic Workers' Party (Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei Österreichs, SDAPÖ). This gave the Social Democrats their first opportunity to influence Austrian politics. The coalition enacted progressive socio-economic and labour legislation such as the vote for women on 27 November 1918, but collapsed on 22 October 1920. In 1920, the modern Constitution of Austria was enacted, but from 1920 onwards Austrian politics were characterized by intense and sometimes violent conflict between left and right. The bourgeois parties maintained their dominance but formed unstable governments while socialists remained the largest elected party numerically.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "German Austria and the First Republic (1918–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 767892, 38667888, 1279974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 50 ], [ 121, 153 ], [ 472, 495 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Both right-wing and left-wing paramilitary forces were created during the 20s. The Heimwehr (Home Resistance) first appeared on 12 May 1920 and became progressively organised over the next three years and the Republikanischer Schutzbund was formed in response to this on 19 February 1923. From 2 April 1923 to 30 September there were violent clashes between Socialists and Nazis in Vienna. That on 2 April, referred to as Schlacht auf dem Exelberg (Battle of Exelberg), involved 300 Nazis against 90 Socialists (Steininger 2008). Further episodes occurred on 4 May and 30 September 1923. A clash between those groups in Schattendorf, Burgenland, on 30 January 1927 led to the death of a man and a child. Right-wing veterans were indicted at a court in Vienna, but acquitted in a jury trial. This led to massive protests and a fire at the Justizpalast in Vienna. In the July Revolt of 1927, 89 protesters were killed by the Austrian police forces.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "German Austria and the First Republic (1918–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 146730, 665257, 14585113, 10727332, 98935, 327806, 16367, 31575532, 660799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 42 ], [ 83, 91 ], [ 209, 236 ], [ 620, 632 ], [ 634, 644 ], [ 715, 722 ], [ 779, 789 ], [ 838, 850 ], [ 869, 888 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Political conflict escalated until the early 1930s. The elections of 1930 which returned the Social Democrats as the largest bloc turned out to be the last till after World War II. On 20 May 1932, Engelbert Dollfuß, Christian Social Party Agriculture Minister became Chancellor, with a majority of one.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "German Austria and the First Republic (1918–1933)", "target_page_ids": [ 33538515, 10150, 60582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 73 ], [ 197, 214 ], [ 267, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dollfuss and the Christian Social Party, moved Austria rapidly towards centralized power in the Fascist model. He was concerned that German National Socialist leader Adolf Hitler had become Chancellor of Germany on 30 January 1933, after his party had become the largest group in the parliament and was quickly assuming absolute power. Similarly the Austrian National Socialists (DNSAP) could easily become a significant minority in future Austrian elections. Fascism scholar Stanley G. Payne, estimated that if elections had been held in 1933, the DNSAP could have secured about 25% of the votes. Time magazine suggested an even higher level of support of 50%, with a 75% approval rate in the Tyrol region bordering Nazi Germany. The events in Austria during March 1933 echoed those of Germany, where Hitler also effectively installed himself as dictator in the same month.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Dictatorship: Federal State of Austria (1933–1938)", "target_page_ids": [ 1713528, 11054, 21736, 2731583, 20890626, 30599602, 754739, 6661914, 31600, 148994, 11867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 39 ], [ 96, 103 ], [ 133, 158 ], [ 166, 178 ], [ 190, 211 ], [ 284, 294 ], [ 350, 378 ], [ 476, 492 ], [ 598, 611 ], [ 694, 699 ], [ 787, 794 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 4 March 1933, there occurred an irregularity in the parliamentary voting procedures. Karl Renner (Social Democratic Party of Austria, Sozialdemokratische Partei Österreichs SPÖ), president of the National Council (Nationalrat: lower house of parliament) resigned in order to be able to cast a vote on a controversial proposal to deal with the railroad strike that was likely to pass by a very small margin, which he was not able to do while holding that office. Consequently, the two vice-presidents representing the other parties, Rudolf Ramek (Christian Social Party) and Sepp Straffner (Greater German People's Party) also resigned for the same reason. In the absence of the President the session could not be concluded.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Dictatorship: Federal State of Austria (1933–1938)", "target_page_ids": [ 165217, 38667888, 218311, 3223244, 36620529, 1800128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 99 ], [ 101, 135 ], [ 199, 215 ], [ 535, 547 ], [ 577, 591 ], [ 593, 622 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although there were procedural rules which could have been followed in this unprecedented and unforeseen event, the Dollfuss cabinet seized the opportunity to declare the parliament unable to function. While Dollfuss described this event as \"self-elimination of Parliament\" (Selbstausschaltung des Parliaments) it was actually the beginning of a coup d'etat that would establish the \"Ständestaat\" (Austrofascism, Austrofaschismus) lasting to 1938.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Dictatorship: Federal State of Austria (1933–1938)", "target_page_ids": [ 10150, 53997506, 25914154, 27609536, 11112649 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 124 ], [ 242, 272 ], [ 346, 357 ], [ 384, 395 ], [ 398, 411 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Using an emergency provision enacted during the First World War, the Economic War Powers Act (Kriegswirtschaftliches Ermächtigungsgesetz, KWEG 24. Juli 1917 RGBl. Nr. 307) the executive assumed legislative power on 7 March and advised President Wilhelm Miklas to issue a decree adjourning it indefinitely. The First Republic and democratic government therefore effectively ended in Austria, leaving Dollfuss to govern as a dictator with absolute powers. Immediate measures included removing the right of public assembly and freedom of the press. The opposition accused him of violating the constitution.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Dictatorship: Federal State of Austria (1933–1938)", "target_page_ids": [ 4764461, 2507138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 63 ], [ 310, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An attempt by the Greater German People's Party and the Social Democrats to reconvene the council on 15 March was prevented by barring the entrance with police and advising President Wilhelm Miklas to adjourn it indefinitely. Dollfuss would have been aware that Nazi troops had seized power in neighbouring Bavaria on 9 March. Finally, on 31 March, the Republikanischer Schutzbund (paramilitary arm of the Social Democratic Party) was dissolved (but continued illegally).", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Dictatorship: Federal State of Austria (1933–1938)", "target_page_ids": [ 218464, 2240718, 31045316, 3764, 14585113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 173, 182 ], [ 183, 197 ], [ 262, 266 ], [ 307, 314 ], [ 353, 380 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dollfuss then met with Benito Mussolini for the first time in Rome on 13 April. On 23 April, the National Socialists (DNSAP) gained 40 per cent of the vote in the Innsbruck communal elections, becoming the largest voting bloc, so in May all state and communal elections were banned.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Dictatorship: Federal State of Austria (1933–1938)", "target_page_ids": [ 19283178, 25458, 55857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 39 ], [ 62, 66 ], [ 163, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 20 May 1933, Dollfuss replaced the \"Democratic Republic\" with a new entity, merging his Christian Social Party with elements of other nationalist and conservative groups, including the Heimwehr, which encompassed many workers who were unhappy with the radical leadership of the socialist party, to form the Patriotic Front (Vaterländische Front), though the Heimwehr continued to exist as an independent organization until 1936, when Dollfuss' successor Kurt von Schuschnigg forcibly merged it into the Front, instead creating the unabidingly loyal Frontmiliz as a paramilitary task force. The new entity was allegedly bipartisan and represented those who were \"loyal to the government\".", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Dictatorship: Federal State of Austria (1933–1938)", "target_page_ids": [ 665257, 11112649, 531714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 188, 196 ], [ 310, 325 ], [ 457, 477 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The DNSAP was banned in June 1933. Dollfuss was also aware of the Soviet Union's increasing influence in Europe throughout the 1920s and early 1930s, and also banned the communists, establishing a one-party Austrofascist dictatorship largely modeled after Italian fascism, tied to Catholic corporatism and anti-secularism. He dropped all pretence of Austrian reunification with Germany so long as the Nazi Party remained in power there.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Dictatorship: Federal State of Austria (1933–1938)", "target_page_ids": [ 606848, 27619138, 1841516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 281, 289 ], [ 290, 301 ], [ 306, 321 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although all Austrian parties, including the Social Democratic Labour Party (SDAPÖ) were banned, Social Democrats continued to exist as an independent organization, including its paramilitary Republikaner Schutzbund, which could muster tens of thousands against Dollfuss' government.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Dictatorship: Federal State of Austria (1933–1938)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In August 1933, Mussolini's government issued a guarantee of Austrian independence (\"if necessary, Italy would defend Austria's independence by force of arms\"). Dollfuss also exchanged 'Secret Letters' with Benito Mussolini about ways to guarantee Austrian independence. Mussolini was interested in Austria forming a buffer zone against Nazi Germany. Dollfuss always stressed the similarity of the regimes of Hitler in Germany and Joseph Stalin in the Soviet Union, and was convinced that Austrofascism and Italian fascism could counter totalitarian national socialism and communism in Europe.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Dictatorship: Federal State of Austria (1933–1938)", "target_page_ids": [ 15641, 30439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 431, 444 ], [ 537, 549 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dollfuss escaped an assassination attempt in October 1933 by Rudolf Dertill, a 22-year-old who had been ejected from the military for his national socialist views.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Dictatorship: Federal State of Austria (1933–1938)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Despite the putsch, the SPÖ continued to seek a peaceful resolution but the new Austrofascist regime ordered the headquarters of the party to be searched on 12 February 1934, provoking the Austrian Civil War, in which the weakened party and its supporters were quickly defeated and the party and its various ancillary organisations were banned.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Dictatorship: Federal State of Austria (1933–1938)", "target_page_ids": [ 25914154, 27609536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 18 ], [ 80, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 1 May 1934, the Dollfuss cabinet approved a new constitution that abolished freedom of the press, established one party system and created a total state monopoly on employer-employee relations. This system remained in force until Austria became part of Nazi Germany in 1938. The Patriotic Front government frustrated the ambitions of pro-Hitlerite sympathizers in Austria who wished both political influence and unification with Germany, leading to the assassination of Dollfuss on 25 July 1934.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Dictatorship: Federal State of Austria (1933–1938)", "target_page_ids": [ 21212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 256, 268 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His successor Kurt Schuschnigg maintained the ban on pro-Hitlerite activities in Austria, but was forced to resign on 11 March 1938 following a demand by Adolf Hitler for power-sharing with pro-German circles. Following Schuschnigg's resignation, German troops occupied Austria with no resistance.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Dictatorship: Federal State of Austria (1933–1938)", "target_page_ids": [ 531714, 2731583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 30 ], [ 154, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of St. Germain had explicitly forbidden the unification of Austria and Germany, the native Austrian Hitler was vastly striving to annex Austria during the late 1930s, which was fiercely resisted by the Austrian Schuschnigg dictatorship. When the conflict was escalating in early 1938, Chancellor Schuschnigg announced a plebiscite on the issue on 9 March, which was to take place on 13 March. On 12 March, German troops entered Austria, who met celebrating crowds, in order to install Nazi puppet Arthur Seyss-Inquart as Chancellor. With a Nazi administration already in place the country was now integrated into Nazi Germany renamed as \"Ostmark\" until 1942, when it was renamed again as \"Alpen-und Donau-Reichsgaue\" (\"Alpine and Danubian Gaue\"). A rigged referendum on 10 April was used to demonstrate the alleged approval of the annexation with a majority of 99.73% for the annexation.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Anschluss and unification with Germany (1938–1945)", "target_page_ids": [ 30030, 464190, 401449, 2731583, 531714, 18951602, 227357, 994149, 33538745 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 33 ], [ 42, 63 ], [ 140, 148 ], [ 149, 155 ], [ 260, 271 ], [ 455, 484 ], [ 546, 566 ], [ 687, 694 ], [ 805, 815 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a result, Austria ceased to exist as an independent country. This annexation was enforced by military invasion but large parts of the Austrian population were in favour of the Nazi regime, and many Austrians participated in its crimes. The Jews, Communists, Socialist and hostile politicians were sent to concentration camps, murdered or forced into exile.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Anschluss and unification with Germany (1938–1945)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Just before the end of the war, on 28 March 1945, American troops set foot on Austrian soil and the Soviet Union's Red Army crossed the eastern border two days later, taking Vienna on 13 April. American and British forces occupied the western and southern regions, preventing Soviet forces from completely overrunning and controlling the country.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Anschluss and unification with Germany (1938–1945)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to the plans by Winston Churchill, a south German state would be formed including Austria and Bavaria.", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "The Second Republic (since 1945)", "target_page_ids": [ 33265, 26964606, 3764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 43 ], [ 92, 99 ], [ 104, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, in April 1945 Karl Renner, an Austrian elder statesman, declared Austria separate from the other German-speaking lands and set up a government which included socialists, conservatives and communists. A significant number of these were returning from exile or Nazi detention, having thus played no role in the Nazi government. This contributed to the Allies' treating Austria more as a liberated, rather than defeated, country, and the government was recognized by the Allies later that year. The country was occupied by the Allies from 9 May 1945, and under the Allied Commission for Austria established by an agreement on 4 July 1945, it was divided into Zones occupied respectively by American, British, French and Soviet Army personnel, with Vienna being also divided similarly into four sectors, with an International Zone at its heart.", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "The Second Republic (since 1945)", "target_page_ids": [ 165217, 562162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 34 ], [ 571, 600 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Though under occupation, this Austrian government was officially permitted to conduct foreign relations with the approval of the Four Occupying Powers under the agreement of 28 June 1946. As part of this trend, Austria was one of the founding members of the Danube Commission, which was formed on 18 August 1948. Austria would benefit from the Marshall Plan, but economic recovery was slow.", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "The Second Republic (since 1945)", "target_page_ids": [ 5728927, 19766 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 258, 275 ], [ 344, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike the First Republic, which had been characterized by sometimes violent conflict between the different political groups, the Second Republic became a stable democracy. The two largest leading parties, the Christian-democratic Austrian People's Party (ÖVP) and the Social Democratic Party (SPÖ), remained in a coalition led by the ÖVP until 1966. The Communist Party of Austria (KPÖ), who had hardly any support in the Austrian electorate, remained in the coalition until 1950 and in parliament until the 1959 election. For much of the Second Republic, the only opposition party was the Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ), which included German nationalist and liberal political currents. It was founded in 1955 as a successor organisation to the short-lived Federation of Independents (VdU).", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "The Second Republic (since 1945)", "target_page_ids": [ 39477, 328969, 152417, 38667888, 357574, 52747409, 1827404, 23772078, 32958341, 875142, 1713474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 145 ], [ 210, 230 ], [ 231, 254 ], [ 269, 292 ], [ 355, 381 ], [ 393, 415 ], [ 509, 522 ], [ 591, 615 ], [ 638, 656 ], [ 661, 668 ], [ 759, 785 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The United States countered starvation in 1945–46 with emergency supplies of food delivered by the US Army, by the United Nations Relief and Recovery Administration, (UNRRA), and by the privately organized Cooperative for American Remittances to Europe (CARE). Starting in 1947, it funded the Austrian trade deficit. Large-scale Marshall Plan aid began in 1948 and operated in close cooperation with the Austrian government. However, tensions arose when Austria—which never joined NATO—was ineligible for the American shift toward rearmament in military spending. The US was also successful in helping Austrian popular culture adopt American models. In journalism, for example, it sent in hundreds of experts (and controlled the newsprint), closed down the old party-line newspapers, introduced advertising and wire services, and trained reporters and editors, as well as production workers. It founded the Wiener Kurier, which became popular, as well as many magazines such as Medical News from the United States, which informed doctors on new treatments and drugs. The Americans also thoroughly revamped the radio stations, in part with the goal of countering the Soviet-controlled stations. On an even larger scale the education system was modernized and democratized by American experts.", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "The Second Republic (since 1945)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The two major parties strove towards ending allied occupation and restoring a fully independent Austria. The Austrian State Treaty was signed on 15 May 1955. Upon the termination of allied occupation, Austria was proclaimed a neutral country, and everlasting neutrality was incorporated into the Constitution on 26 October 1955.", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "The Second Republic (since 1945)", "target_page_ids": [ 733522, 2998086, 284003, 1279974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 130 ], [ 213, 223 ], [ 226, 241 ], [ 296, 308 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The political system of the Second Republic came to be characterized by the system of Proporz, meaning that posts of some political importance were split evenly between members of the SPÖ and ÖVP. Interest group representations with mandatory membership (e.g., for workers, businesspeople, farmers etc.) grew to considerable importance and were usually consulted in the legislative process, so that hardly any legislation was passed that did not reflect widespread consensus. The Proporz and consensus systems largely held even during the years between 1966 and 1983, when there were non-coalition governments.", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "The Second Republic (since 1945)", "target_page_ids": [ 337980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ÖVP-SPÖ coalition ended in 1966, when the ÖVP gained a majority in parliament. However, it lost it in 1970, when SPÖ leader Bruno Kreisky formed a minority government tolerated by the FPÖ. In the elections of 1971, 1975 and 1979 he obtained an absolute majority. The 70s were then seen as a time of liberal reforms in social policy. Today, the economic policies of the Kreisky era are often criticized, as the accumulation of a large national debt began, and non-profitable nationalized industries were strongly subsidized.", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "The Second Republic (since 1945)", "target_page_ids": [ 1827334, 1825044, 341950, 271434, 1825005, 1824983, 1824975, 852274, 695460, 1062429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 35 ], [ 106, 110 ], [ 128, 141 ], [ 151, 170 ], [ 200, 217 ], [ 219, 223 ], [ 228, 232 ], [ 322, 335 ], [ 438, 451 ], [ 478, 501 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following severe losses in the 1983 elections, the SPÖ entered into a coalition with the FPÖ under the leadership of Fred Sinowatz. In Spring 1986, Kurt Waldheim was elected president amid considerable national and international protest because of his possible involvement with the Nazis and war crimes during World War II. Fred Sinowatz resigned, and Franz Vranitzky became chancellor.", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "The Second Republic (since 1945)", "target_page_ids": [ 1824938, 797532, 17103, 27372347, 218464, 31045316, 48626, 32927, 797532, 727753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 45 ], [ 117, 130 ], [ 148, 161 ], [ 166, 173 ], [ 174, 183 ], [ 282, 287 ], [ 292, 302 ], [ 310, 322 ], [ 324, 337 ], [ 352, 367 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 1986, in a confrontation between the German-national and liberal wings, Jörg Haider became leader of the FPÖ. Chancellor Vranitzky rescinded the coalition pact between FPÖ and SPÖ, and after new elections, entered into a coalition with the ÖVP, which was then led by Alois Mock. Jörg Haider's populism and criticism of the Proporz system allowed him to gradually expand his party's support in elections, rising from 4% in 1983 to 27% in 1999. The Green Party managed to establish itself in parliament from 1986 onwards.", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "The Second Republic (since 1945)", "target_page_ids": [ 23772028, 1824826, 987725, 337980, 1679953, 403401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 96 ], [ 204, 217 ], [ 280, 290 ], [ 336, 343 ], [ 450, 454 ], [ 460, 471 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The SPÖ–ÖVP coalition persisted until 1999. Austria joined the European Union in 1995 (Video of the signing in 1994), and Austria was set on the track towards joining the Eurozone, when it was established in 1999.", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "The Second Republic (since 1945)", "target_page_ids": [ 9317, 9472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 77 ], [ 171, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1993, the Liberal Forum was founded by dissidents from the FPÖ. It managed to remain in parliament until 1999.", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "The Second Republic (since 1945)", "target_page_ids": [ 404660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Viktor Klima succeeded Vranitzky as chancellor in 1997.", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "The Second Republic (since 1945)", "target_page_ids": [ 299392 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1999, the ÖVP fell back to third place behind the FPÖ in the elections. Even though ÖVP chairman and Vice Chancellor Wolfgang Schüssel had announced that his party would go into opposition in that case, he entered into a coalition with the FPÖ—with himself as chancellor—in early 2000 under considerable national and international outcry. Jörg Haider resigned as FPÖ chairman, but retained his post as governor of Carinthia and kept substantial influence within the FPÖ.", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "The Second Republic (since 1945)", "target_page_ids": [ 1679953, 1753733, 289453, 23772028, 2417013, 224463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 73 ], [ 104, 119 ], [ 120, 137 ], [ 342, 353 ], [ 405, 413 ], [ 417, 426 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2002, disputes within the FPÖ resulting from losses in state elections caused the resignation of several FPÖ government members and a collapse of the government. Wolfgang Schüssel's ÖVP emerged as the winner of the subsequent election, ending up in first place for the first time since 1966. The FPÖ lost more than half of its voters, but reentered the coalition with the ÖVP. Despite the new coalition, the voter support for the FPÖ continued to dwindle in all most all local and state elections. Disputes between \"nationalist\" and \"liberals\" wings of the party resulted in a split, with the founding of a new liberal party called the Alliance for the Future of Austria (BZÖ) and led by Jörg Haider. Since all FPÖ government members and most FPÖ members of parliament decided to join the new party, the Schüssel coalition remained in office (now in the constellation ÖVP–BZÖ, with the remaining FPÖ in opposition) until the next elections. On 1 October 2006 the SPÖ won a head on head elections and negotiated a grand coalition with the ÖVP. This coalition started its term on 11 January 2007 with Alfred Gusenbauer as Chancellor of Austria. For the first time, the Green Party of Austria became the third-largest party in a nationwide election, overtaking the FPÖ by a narrow margin of only a few hundred votes.", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "The Second Republic (since 1945)", "target_page_ids": [ 2513002, 1359948, 1692611, 5798835, 957128, 403401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 130 ], [ 218, 237 ], [ 639, 673 ], [ 976, 998 ], [ 1102, 1119 ], [ 1170, 1192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The grand coalition headed by Alfred Gusenbauer collapsed in the early summer of 2008 over disagreements about the country's EU policy. The early elections held on 28 September resulted in extensive losses for the two ruling parties and corresponding gains for Heinz-Christian Strache's FPÖ and Jörg Haider's BZÖ (the Green Party was relegated to the 5th position). Nevertheless, SPÖ and ÖVP renewed their coalition under the leadership of the new SPÖ party chairman Werner Faymann. In 2008 Jörg Haider died in a controversial car accident and was succeeded as BZÖ party chairman by Herbert Scheibner and as governor of Carinthia by Gerhard Dörfler.", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "The Second Republic (since 1945)", "target_page_ids": [ 18337810, 3026189, 23772028, 18689844, 23772028, 224463, 19733734 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 155 ], [ 261, 284 ], [ 295, 306 ], [ 467, 481 ], [ 491, 502 ], [ 621, 630 ], [ 634, 649 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the legislative elections of 2013, the Social Democratic Party received 27% of the vote and 52 seats; People's Party 24% and 47 seats, thus controlling together the majority of the seats. The Freedom Party received 40 seats and 21% of the votes, while the Greens received 12% and 24 seats. Two new parties, Stronach and the NEOS, received less than 10% of the vote, and 11 and nine seats respectively.", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "The Second Republic (since 1945)", "target_page_ids": [ 36023642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 17 May 2016, Christian Kern from Social Democrats (SPÖ) was sworn in as new chancellor. He continued governing in a \"grand coalition\" with the conservative People's Party (ÖVP). He took the office after former chancellor, also from SPÖ, Werner Faymann's resignation.", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "The Second Republic (since 1945)", "target_page_ids": [ 50509326, 18689844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 30 ], [ 240, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 26 January 2017, Alexander Van der Bellen was sworn into as the mostly ceremonial - but symbolically significant - role of Austrian president.", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "The Second Republic (since 1945)", "target_page_ids": [ 1691577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the Grand Coalition broke in Spring 2017 a snap election was proclaimed for October 2017. The Austrian People's Party (ÖVP) with its new young leader Sebastian Kurz emerged as the largest party in the National Council, winning 31.5% of votes and 62 of the 183 seats. The Social Democratic Party (SPÖ) finished second with 52 seats and 26.9% votes, slightly ahead of the Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ), which received 51 seats and 26%. NEOS finished fourth with 10 seats (5.3 percent of votes), and PILZ (which split from the Green Party at the start of the campaign) entered parliament for the first time and came in fifth place with 8 seats and 4.4% The Green Party failed with 3.8% to cross the 4% threshold and was ejected from parliament, losing all of its 24 seats. The ÖVP decided to form a coalition with the FPÖ. The new government between the centre-right wing and the right-wing populist party under the new chancellor Sebastian Kurz was sworn in on 18 December 2017, but the coalition government later collapsed in the wake of the “Ibiza” corruption scandal and new elections were called for 29 September 2019. The elections lead to another landslide victory (37.5%) of the Austrian People's Party (ÖVP) who formed a coalition-government with the reinvigorated (13.9%) Greens, which was sworn in with Kurz as chancellor on January 7, 2020.", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "The Second Republic (since 1945)", "target_page_ids": [ 45431047, 41350919, 60795640, 54059855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 94 ], [ 156, 170 ], [ 1048, 1074 ], [ 1079, 1092 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 11 October 2021, Chancellor Sebastian Kurz resigned, after pressure triggered by a corruption scandal. Foreign Minister Alexander Schallenberg of ÖVP succeeded him as chancellor. Following a corruption scandal involving the ruling People's Party, Austria got its third conservative chancellor in two months after Karl Nehammer was sworn into office on 6 December 2021. His predecessor Alexander Schallenberg had left the office after less than two months. ÖVP and the Greens continued to govern together.", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "The Second Republic (since 1945)", "target_page_ids": [ 60942083, 62782678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 146 ], [ 317, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Archduchy of Austria", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6490870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Austria-Hungary", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Austria under National Socialism", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10759009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Austrian Empire", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 266894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Duchy of Austria", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6490884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Elections in Austria", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1351132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Habsburg monarchy", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1041515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Vienna", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1403641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Name of Austria", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1240137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Politics of Austria", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 67635 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Timeline of Austrian history", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 58076448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Bavaria", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 148597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Croatia", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5574 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of the Czech Republic", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 53938 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Europe", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Germany", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Hungary", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27598309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Italy", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 62583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Serbia", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 184274 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Slovenia", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Slovakia", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Switzerland", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Holy Roman Empire", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Holy Roman Emperors", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 50853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kingdom of Germany", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3190225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " King of the Romans", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 302609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of famous Austrians", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 113274 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of German monarchs", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38382 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of rulers of Austria", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 808980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Austrian consorts", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22938925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Holy Roman emperors", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 50853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Holy Roman empresses", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24480892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of chancellors of Austria", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27790361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of presidents of Austria", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 495960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of ministers-president of Austria", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 588242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of foreign ministers of Austria-Hungary", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 588235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of political parties in Austria", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 396357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Online Resources", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "Footnotes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The CIA World Factbook", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "Footnotes", "target_page_ids": [ 5163 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " U.S. State Department website.", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "Footnotes", "target_page_ids": [ 31975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Judson, Pieter M. The Habsburg Empire: A New History (2016). Downplays the disruptive impact of ethnic nationalism.", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kann, Robert A. A History of the Habsburg Empire: 1526–1918 (U of California Press, 1974)", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Macartney, Carlile Aylmer The Habsburg Empire, 1790–1918, New York, Macmillan 1969.", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 6575296 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ricket, Richard. A Brief Survey of Austrian History. Prachner (12th edition), 1998", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Géza Alföldy. Noricum. Routledge & K. Paul, 1974", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ingrao, Charles. The Habsburg Monarchy, 1618–1815 (2000) excerpt and text search", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kahn, Robert A. A History of the Habsburg Empire: 1526–1918 (U of California Press, 1974)", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Oakes, Elizabeth and Eric Roman. Austria-Hungary and the Successor States: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present (2003)", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Robert John Weston Evans, The Making of the Habsburg Monarchy, 1550–1700: An Interpretation, Oxford University Press, 1979. .", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bassett, Richard, For God and Kaiser: The Imperial Austrian Army, 1619–1918 (2015)", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Beales, Derek. Joseph II vol 1: In the shadow of Maria Theresa, 1741–1780 (1987); Joseph II: Volume 2, Against the World, 1780–1790 (2009)", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Beales, Derek. The false Joseph II, Historical Journal, 18 (1975), 467–95. in JSTOR", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dickson, P. G. M. Monarchy and Bureaucracy in Late Eighteenth-century Austria. English Historical Review 1995 110(436): 323–367. in JSTOR", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Henderson, Nicholas. \"Joseph II\", History Today 1991 41 (March): 21–27.", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ingrao, Charles W. In Quest and Crisis: Emperor Joseph I and the Habsburg Monarchy (1979)", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Boyer, John W. Political Radicalism in Late Imperial Vienna: Origins of the Christian Social Movement, 1848–1897. University of Chicago Press, 1995. , 9780226069562", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Grandner, Margarete. \"Conservative Social Politics in Austria, 1880–1890\". University of Minnesota Center for Austrian Studies Working Paper 94-2 1994", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hamann, Brigitte: The Reluctant Empress: A Biography of Empress Elisabeth of Austria (Knopf: 1986) () (410pp.). (trans. by Ruth Hein, from Elizabeth: Kaiserin wider Willen, Amalthea Verlag 1982)", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 4218444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jenks, William Alexander. Austria under the Iron Ring, 1879–1893. University Press of Virginia, 1965", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kissinger, Henry. A World Restored: Metternich, Castlereagh and the Problems of Peace, 1812–22 (1957)", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Macartney, C.A. “The Austrian monarchy, 1793-1847” in C.W. Crawley, ed. ‘’The New Cambridge Modern History: IX. War and Peace in an age of upheaval 1793-1830’’ (Cambridge University Press, 1965) pp 395–411. online", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Macartney, Carlile Aylmer The Habsburg Empire, 1790–1918, New York, Macmillan 1969.", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 6575296 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Taylor, A. J. P. The Habsburg Monarchy, 1809–1918: A History of the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary (1941) excerpt and text search", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bischof, Günter, and Anton Pelinka, eds. The Kreisky Era in Austria (Transaction publishers, 1994).", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bischof, Günter, and Hans Petschar. The Marshall Plan: Saving Europe, Rebuilding Austria (U of New Orleans Publishing, 2017) 336 pp. Online review", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bukey, Evan. Hitler's Austria: Popular Sentiment in the Nazi Era, 1938–1945 (2002)", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kann, Robert A. et al., eds. The Habsburg Empire in World War I: Essays on the Intellectual, Military, Political, and Economic Aspects of the Habsburg War Effort (1979); 12 essays by experts", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Pulzer, Peter. \"The Legitimizing Role of Political Parties: the Second Austrian Republic\", Government and Opposition (1969) Volume 4, Issue 3 July, pp.324–344, ", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rathkolb, Oliver. The Paradoxical Republic: Austria, 1945–2005 (Berghahn Books; 2010) 301 pages). Translation of 2005 study of paradoxical aspects of Austria's political culture and society.", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Secher, H. Pierre. Bruno Kreisky, Chancellor of Austria: A political biography (Dorrance Publ., 1993).", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Steininger, Rolf, Günter Bischof, Michael Gehler (eds.) Austria In the Twentieth Century Transaction Publishers, 2008 excerpt and text search", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " University of Minnesota Center for Austrian Studies Working Papers", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Malachi Haim Hacohen. Karl Popper – The Formative Years, 1902–1945: Politics and Philosophy in Interwar Vienna. Cambridge University Press, 2002. , 9780521890557", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kirk, Timothy. Nazism and the Working Class in Austria: Industrial Unrest and Political Dissent in the 'National Community. Cambridge University Press, 2002. , 9780521522694", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mangham, Arthur Neal. The Social Bases of Austrian Politics: the German Electoral Districts of Cisleithania, 1900–1914. Ph.D. thesis 1974", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Stanley Z. Pech. \"Political Parties among Austrian Slavs: A Comparative Analysis of the 1911 Reichsrat Election Results\". Canadian Slavonic Papers, Vol. 31, No. 2, Essays in Honour of Peter Brock (June, 1989), pp. 170–193", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Demokratiezentrum Wien: Politische Entwicklung in Österreich 1918–1938\" (\"Political development in Austria 1918–1938\")", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Austria's political parties and their history. City of Vienna.", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Cambridge Modern History Cambridge Histories Online", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " XII: The Shifting Balance of World Forces 1898–1945", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bascom Barry Hayes. Bismarck and Mitteleuropa. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, 1994. , 9780838635124", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " L. Prakke, C. A. J. M. Kortmann (eds.) Constitutional Law of 15 EU Member States. Kluwer 2004. , 9789013012552", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Norman Stone. Europe Transformed 1878–1919. Fontana, 1983 , 9780006342625", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Evans, R. J. W. Austria, Hungary, and the Habsburgs: Essays on Central Europe, c. 1683–1867 (2006) online", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ingrao, Charles W. The Habsburg Monarchy, 1618–1815 (2nd ed. 2000)", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ingrao, Charles W., ed. State and Society in Early Modern Austria (1994) (Sixteenth-Eighteenth Century)", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kann, Robert A. A History of the Habsburg Empire, 1526–1918 (2nd ed. 1980)", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mamatey Victor S. Rise of the Habsburg Empire: 1526–1815 (1994)", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " History of Austria: Primary Documents", "section_idx": 21, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " HABSBURG, an e-mail discussion list dealing with the culture and history of the Habsburg monarchy and its successor states in central Europe since 1500, with discussions, syllabi, book reviews, queries, conferences; edited daily by scholars since 1994", "section_idx": 21, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gustav Spann: Fahne, Staatswappen und Bundeshymne der Republik Österreich (Flag, Coat of Arms and Federal Hymn of the Republic of Austria) (pdf; 4.7MB)", "section_idx": 21, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " www.akustische-chronik.at – Multimedia Chronicle of Austria 1900–2000 (Österreichische Mediathek)", "section_idx": 21, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " www.staatsvertrag.at – An acoustic web exhibition (Österreichische Mediathek)", "section_idx": 21, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Die Ostarrichi-Urkunde, ", "section_idx": 21, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ernst Hanisch: Österreich – Die Dominanz des Staates. Zeitgeschichte im Drehkreuz von Politik und Wissenschaft. Version: 1.0, in: Docupedia Zeitgeschichte, 22 March 2011", "section_idx": 21, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "অস্ট্রিয়া", "section_idx": 21, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "History_of_Austria" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Political identity came to the territory now occupied by the Principality of Liechtenstein in 814, with the formation of the subcountry of Lower Rhætia. Liechtenstein's borders have remained unchanged since 1434, when the Rhine established the border between the Holy Roman Empire and the Swiss cantons.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 77322, 17810, 180305, 25845, 13277, 26748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 73 ], [ 77, 90 ], [ 145, 151 ], [ 223, 228 ], [ 264, 281 ], [ 290, 295 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A Roman road crossed the region from south to north, traversing the Alps by the Splügen Pass and, following the right bank of the Rhine at the edge of the floodplain, was uninhabited for long lengths of time because of periodic flooding. Roman villas have been excavated in Schaanwald and Nendeln. The late Roman influx of the Alemanni from the north is memorialized by the remains of a Roman fort at Schaan.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Antiquity", "target_page_ids": [ 25507, 2231808, 25845, 25507, 16218830, 16218822, 1486, 1001154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 7 ], [ 80, 92 ], [ 130, 135 ], [ 239, 244 ], [ 276, 286 ], [ 291, 298 ], [ 329, 337 ], [ 403, 409 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The area, part of Raetia, was incorporated into the Carolingian empire, and divided into countships, which became subdivided over the generations. Because the Duchy of Swabia lost its duke in 1268 and was never restored, all vassals of the duchy became immediate vassals of the Imperial Throne (as has happened in much of Westphalia when the duchy of Saxons was divided and partially dissolved in aftermath of the defeat of Henry the Lion). Until about 1100, the predominant language of the area was Romansch, but thereafter German gained ground, and in 1300 an Alemannic population called the Walsers (originating in Valais) entered the region. In the 21st century, the mountain village of Triesenberg still preserves features of Walser dialect.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 180305, 62229, 3196657, 70712, 25529, 11884, 741719, 198789, 2307850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 24 ], [ 52, 70 ], [ 159, 174 ], [ 424, 438 ], [ 500, 508 ], [ 525, 531 ], [ 594, 600 ], [ 618, 624 ], [ 691, 702 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The medieval county of Vaduz was formed in 1342 as a small subdivision of the Werdenberg county of the dynasty of Montfort of Vorarlberg. The 15th century brought three wars and some devastation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 59036, 5290100 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 28 ], [ 114, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Principality takes its name from the Liechtenstein family, rather than vice versa, and the family in turn takes its name from Liechtenstein Castle in Lower Austria, which it owned from at least 1140 until the 13th century and from 1807 onwards. Over the centuries, the family acquired huge landed estates, mostly in Moravia, Lower Austria and Styria.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 1328617, 148988, 20216, 148988, 11734356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 150 ], [ 154, 167 ], [ 320, 327 ], [ 329, 342 ], [ 347, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All of these rich territories were held in fief under other more senior feudal lords, particularly under various lines of the Habsburg family, to which many Liechtensteins were close advisors. Thus, without holding any land directly under the Holy Roman Emperors, the Liechtenstein dynasty was unable to meet the primary requirement to qualify for a seat in the Imperial Diet, (German Reichstag), although its head was elevated to princely rank in the late 17th century.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Middle Ages", "target_page_ids": [ 13824, 50853, 30599237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 134 ], [ 243, 261 ], [ 362, 375 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The area that was to become Liechtenstein was invaded by both Austrian and Swedish troops during the Thirty Years' War of 1618–1648. During the 17th century the country was afflicted by a plague and also by the Liechtenstein witch trials, in which more than 100 persons were persecuted and executed.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early modern era", "target_page_ids": [ 266894, 5058739, 30583, 4746, 32326310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 70 ], [ 75, 82 ], [ 101, 118 ], [ 189, 195 ], [ 212, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prince Johann Adam Andreas of Liechtenstein bought the domain of Schellenberg in 1699 and the county of Vaduz in 1712. This Prince of Liechtenstein had wide landholdings in Austria, Bohemia and Moravia, but none of his lands were held directly from the Emperor. Thus, the prince was barred from entry to the Council of Princes and the prestige and influence that would entail.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early modern era", "target_page_ids": [ 30873285, 934580, 59036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 43 ], [ 65, 77 ], [ 104, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By acquiring the Lordships of Schellenberg and Vaduz, modest areas of mountain villages each of which was directly subordinate to the Emperor because there no longer being a Duke of Swabia, the Prince of Liechtenstein achieved his goal. The territory took the name of the family which now ruled it. On January 23, 1719, Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, decreed that the counties of Vaduz and Schellenberg be promoted to a principality with the name Liechtenstein for his servant Anton Florian of Liechtenstein whereby he and his successors became Princes of the Holy Roman Empire.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early modern era", "target_page_ids": [ 663122, 151094, 769928, 3755105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 174, 188 ], [ 320, 350 ], [ 478, 508 ], [ 546, 578 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After having narrowly escaped mediatization to Bavaria in 1806, Liechtenstein became a sovereign state later that year when it joined Napoleon's Confederation of the Rhine upon the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Nineteenth century", "target_page_ids": [ 1807702, 517886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 43 ], [ 145, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The French under Napoleon occupied the country for a few years, but Liechtenstein retained its independence in 1815. Soon afterward, Liechtenstein joined the German Confederation (20 June 1815 – 24 August 1866, which was presided over by the Emperor of Austria).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Nineteenth century", "target_page_ids": [ 69880, 142280, 495262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 25 ], [ 158, 178 ], [ 242, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Then, in 1818, Johann I granted a constitution, although it was limited in its nature. 1818 also saw the first visit of a member of the house of Liechtenstein, Prince Alois. However, the first visit by a sovereign prince did not occur until 1842.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Nineteenth century", "target_page_ids": [ 774105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1862, a new Constitution was promulgated, which provided for a Diet representative of the people.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Nineteenth century", "target_page_ids": [ 21642790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Prince Johann II placed his soldiers at the disposal of the Confederation but only to “defend the German territory of Tyrol”. The Prince refused to have his men fight against other Germans. The Liechtenstein contingent took up position on the Stilfse Joch in the south of Liechtenstein to defend the Liechtenstein/Austrian border against attacks by the Italians under Garibaldi. A reserve of 20 men remained in Liechtenstein. When the war ended on July 22, the army of Liechtenstein marched home to a ceremonial welcome in Vaduz. Popular legend claims that 80 men went to war but 81 came back. Apparently an Italian liaison officer joined up with the contingent on the way back.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Nineteenth century", "target_page_ids": [ 142281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1868, after the German Confederation dissolved, Liechtenstein disbanded its army of 80 men and declared its permanent neutrality, which was respected during both World Wars.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Nineteenth century", "target_page_ids": [ 284003 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since Bismarck considered Liechtenstein to be too small to list in the peace treaty, Liechtenstein is technically still at war with Germany, which would make it the longest war in recorded history (156 years).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Nineteenth century", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Liechtenstein did not participate in World War I, claiming neutrality. However, until the end of the war, Liechtenstein was closely tied to Austria. In response, the Allied Powers imposed an economic embargo on the principality. The economic devastation forced the country to conclude a customs and monetary union with Switzerland. In 1919 Liechtenstein and Switzerland signed a treaty under which Switzerland assumes the representation of Liechtenstein interests at the diplomatic and consular level in countries where it maintains a representation and Liechtenstein does not.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Liechtenstein during the World Wars", "target_page_ids": [ 4764461, 26964606, 26748, 26748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 48 ], [ 140, 147 ], [ 319, 330 ], [ 398, 409 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the spring of 1938, just after the annexation of Austria into Greater Germany, eighty-four-year-old Prince Franz I abdicated and was succeeded by his thirty-one-year-old grand nephew, Prince Franz Joseph II. While Prince Franz I claimed that old age was his reason for abdicating, it is believed that he had no desire to be on the throne if Germany were to invade and occupy its new neighbour, Liechtenstein. The Princess of Liechtenstein Elisabeth von Gutmann, whom he married in 1929, was a wealthy Jewish woman from Vienna, and local Liechtenstein Nazis had already singled her out as their anti-Semitic \"problem\". A Nazi sympathy movement had been simmering for years within its National Union party and there was a national socialist political party - the German National Movement in Liechtenstein.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Liechtenstein during the World Wars", "target_page_ids": [ 24878360, 1903530, 890120, 27884658, 55866, 1078, 2153957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 80 ], [ 103, 117 ], [ 187, 209 ], [ 442, 463 ], [ 522, 528 ], [ 597, 609 ], [ 764, 805 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prince Franz Josef II became the first Prince of Liechtenstein to take up permanent residence in Liechtenstein.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Liechtenstein during the World Wars", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During World War II, Liechtenstein remained neutral, while family treasures within the war zone were brought to Liechtenstein (and London) for safekeeping. At the close of the conflict, Czechoslovakia and Poland, acting to seize what they considered to be German possessions, expropriated the entirety of the Liechtenstein dynasty's hereditary lands and possessions in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia — the princes of Liechtenstein lived in Vienna until the Anschluss of 1938. The expropriations (subject to modern legal dispute at the International Court of Justice) included over of agricultural and forest land (most notably the UNESCO listed Lednice–Valtice Cultural Landscape), and several family castles and palaces. Citizens of Liechtenstein were also forbidden from entering Czechoslovakia during the Cold War.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Liechtenstein during the World Wars", "target_page_ids": [ 32927, 17867, 5322, 22936, 4345, 20216, 28399, 55866, 18951602, 14918, 12708519, 325329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ], [ 131, 137 ], [ 186, 200 ], [ 205, 211 ], [ 369, 376 ], [ 378, 385 ], [ 391, 398 ], [ 439, 445 ], [ 456, 465 ], [ 534, 564 ], [ 645, 679 ], [ 808, 816 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Liechtenstein gave asylum to approximately five-hundred soldiers of the First Russian National Army (a collaborationist Russian force within the German Wehrmacht) at the close of World War II. This is commemorated by a monument at the border town of Hinterschellenberg which is marked on the country's tourist map. The act of granting asylum was no small matter as the country was poor and had difficulty feeding and caring for such a large group of refugees. Eventually, Argentina agreed to permanently resettle the asylum seekers. In contrast, the British repatriated the Russians who fought on the side of Germany to the USSR, where they were summarily treated as traitors and most of them executed, including their families.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Liechtenstein during the World Wars", "target_page_ids": [ 15095946, 21376046, 7971268, 16218983, 29789, 235651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 99 ], [ 152, 161 ], [ 219, 227 ], [ 250, 268 ], [ 302, 309 ], [ 546, 628 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In dire financial straits following the war, the Liechtenstein dynasty often resorted to selling family artistic treasures, including for instance the portrait \"Ginevra de' Benci\" by Leonardo da Vinci, which was purchased by the National Gallery of Art of the United States in 1967. Liechtenstein prospered, however, during the decades following, as its economy modernized with the advantage of low corporate tax rates which drew many companies to the country. Liechtenstein became increasingly important as a financial center.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "The Post-War era", "target_page_ids": [ 808517, 18079, 357005, 3434750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 161, 178 ], [ 183, 200 ], [ 229, 252 ], [ 260, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1989, Prince Hans-Adam II succeeded his father to the throne, and in 1996, Russia returned the Liechtenstein family's archives, ending a long-running dispute between the two countries. In 1978, Liechtenstein became a member of the Council of Europe, and then joined the United Nations in 1990, the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) in 1991, and both the European Economic Area (EEA) and World Trade Organization in 1995.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "The Post-War era", "target_page_ids": [ 197967, 5865, 31769, 9580, 95363, 33873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 28 ], [ 234, 251 ], [ 273, 287 ], [ 301, 332 ], [ 362, 384 ], [ 395, 419 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a referendum on March 16, 2003, Prince Hans-Adam, who had threatened to leave the country if he lost, won a large majority (64.3%) in favour of overhauling the constitution to effectively give him more powers than any other European monarch. The new constitution gave the prince the right to dismiss governments and approve judicial nominees and allowed him to veto laws simply by refusing to sign them within a six-month period.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Liechtenstein during the 21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 30317548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On August 15, 2003, Hans-Adam announced he would step down in one year and hand over the reins to his son Alois. In August 2004, Prince Hans-Adam handed over the practical running of the principality to his son, Crown Prince Alois, although still remaining official head of state.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Liechtenstein during the 21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 30873557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On July 1, 2007, the first two consuls in the history of the Principality were appointed to represent Liechtenstein in the United States of America.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Liechtenstein during the 21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 3684583, 3434750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 38 ], [ 123, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 2012, the voters decided in the constitutional referendum that Crown Prince Alois should be allowed to retain his power of veto over decisions made in nationwide ballots.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Liechtenstein during the 21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 36247084 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of Princes of Liechtenstein", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 192255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Politics of Liechtenstein", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17814 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "General", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "History of Europe", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fullest history of Liechtenstein on the Web", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "History of Liechtenstein: Primary Documents", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "History_of_Liechtenstein" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Lillian Evelyn Gilbreth ( Moller; May 24, 1878 – January 2, 1972) was an American psychologist, industrial engineer, consultant, and educator who was an early pioneer in applying psychology to time-and-motion studies. She was described in the 1940s as \"a genius in the art of living.\" Gilbreth, one of the first female engineers to earn a Ph.D., is considered to be the first industrial/organizational psychologist. She and her husband, Frank Bunker Gilbreth, were efficiency experts who contributed to the study of industrial engineering, especially in the areas of motion study and human factors. Cheaper by the Dozen (1948) and Belles on Their Toes (1950), written by two of their children (Ernestine and Frank Jr.) tell the story of their family life and describe how time-and-motion studies were applied to the organization and daily activities of their large family. Both books were later made into feature films.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 72132, 23535218, 1682021, 38223, 21031297, 15450, 712775, 23535218, 1682021, 36479878, 26691084, 4506501, 4562761, 15181998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 94 ], [ 96, 115 ], [ 193, 216 ], [ 319, 327 ], [ 339, 344 ], [ 376, 414 ], [ 437, 458 ], [ 516, 538 ], [ 567, 579 ], [ 584, 597 ], [ 599, 619 ], [ 631, 651 ], [ 694, 703 ], [ 708, 717 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lillie Evelyn Moller was born in Oakland, California, on May 24, 1878, to Annie () and William Moller, a builder's supply merchant. She was their second child and the eldest of the family's nine surviving children. Their first child, Anna Adelaide, had died at age four months. Her parents, of German ancestry, were well to-do. Educated at home until the age of nine, Moller began formal schooling in the first grade at a public elementary school and was rapidly promoted through the grade levels. She was elected vice president of her senior class at Oakland High School and graduated with exemplary grades in May 1896.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 50548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Moller wanted to go to college, her father was opposed to such education for his daughters. Because of this, she did not take all the required college preparatory courses in high school. She did persuade her father to let her try college for a year and was admitted to the University of California on the condition that she took the missing Latin course from high school in her first semester at university. In August 1896, Moller was one of 300 entering students. The University of California at that time was housed in four buildings in the hills above the little town of Berkeley. It charged no tuition for California residents and was underfunded. Classes were large and many were held in tents. There were no dormitories; men lived in nearby boarding houses and women commuted from home.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 31921, 4860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 282, 306 ], [ 583, 591 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Moller did well enough during her first year, coming in near the top of her class, that her father agreed to allow her to continue her education. She commuted from home on the streetcar, and in the evenings helped her mother with the household and her siblings with their homework. She majored in English, also studying philosophy and psychology, and had enough education courses to earn a teaching certificate. She also won a prize for poetry and acted in student plays. In the spring of her senior year the new university president, Benjamin Ide Wheeler, asked her to be one of the student speakers at the commencement ceremonies. On May 16, 1900, she graduated from the university and became the first woman to speak at a University of California commencement. The title of her speech was \"Life: A Means or an End\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 4211119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 535, 555 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Moller had begun to think of a professional career rather than staying at home after graduation. She now wished to be called Lillian because she felt it was a more dignified name for a university graduate, and she left home to enroll in graduate school at Columbia University in New York City. Her literature professor Charles Gayley had suggested she study there with Brander Matthews. Graduate enrollment at Columbia was almost half women at the time, but Matthews would not allow them in his classes. Instead, she studied literature with George Edward Woodberry. A lasting influence was her study with the psychologist Edward Thorndike, newly appointed at Columbia. Though she became ill with pleurisy and was brought home by her father, she continued to refer to him in her later work. Back in California, she returned to the University of California in August 1901 to work toward a master's degree in literature. Under the supervision of Gayley, she wrote a thesis on Ben Jonson's play Bartholomew Fair, and received her master's degree in the spring of 1902.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 6310, 645042, 22321105, 3888092, 3377000, 84864, 322269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 256, 275 ], [ 279, 292 ], [ 319, 333 ], [ 369, 385 ], [ 541, 564 ], [ 622, 638 ], [ 696, 704 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Moller began studies for a Ph.D. at the University of California, but took time off to travel through Europe in the spring of 1903. Following her marriage to Frank Bunker Gilbreth in 1904 and relocation to New York, she completed a dissertation for a doctorate from the University of California, Berkeley, in 1911, but was not awarded the degree due to her noncompliance with residency requirements for doctoral candidates. The dissertation was published as The Function of the Mind in Determining, Teaching and Installing Methods of Least Waste in 1914.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 21031297, 9239, 712775, 645042, 188886, 8094264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 32 ], [ 102, 108 ], [ 158, 179 ], [ 206, 214 ], [ 251, 260 ], [ 458, 546 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the Gilbreths relocated their family to Providence, Rhode Island, Lillian enrolled at Brown University. She earned a Ph.D. in applied psychology in 1915, which made her the first of the pioneers of industrial management to have a doctorate. The topic of her dissertation was efficient teaching methods and titled Some Aspects of Eliminating Waste in Teaching.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 19356538, 4157, 21031297, 9017656 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 70 ], [ 92, 108 ], [ 123, 128 ], [ 204, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lillian Moller met Frank Bunker Gilbreth in June 1903 in Boston, Massachusetts, en route to Europe with her chaperone, who was Frank's cousin. He had apprenticed in several building trades in the East and established a contracting business with offices in Boston, New York, and London.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Marriage and family", "target_page_ids": [ 712775, 24437894, 1645518, 9239, 509486, 17867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 40 ], [ 57, 63 ], [ 65, 78 ], [ 92, 98 ], [ 197, 201 ], [ 279, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The couple married on October 19, 1904, in Oakland, California, and settled in New York. They later moved to Providence, Rhode Island, and eventually relocated their family to Montclair, New Jersey. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Marriage and family", "target_page_ids": [ 50548, 125176 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 62 ], [ 176, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As planned, the Gilbreths became the parents of a large family that included twelve children. One died young in 1912; one was still-born in 1915; and eleven of them lived to adulthood, including Ernestine Gilbreth, Frank Bunker Gilbreth Jr., and Robert Moller Gilbreth.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Marriage and family", "target_page_ids": [ 4562761, 15181998, 57126630 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 195, 213 ], [ 215, 240 ], [ 246, 268 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Frank died of a heart attack on June 14, 1924, Lillian never remarried.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Marriage and family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For more than forty years, Gilbreth's career combined psychology with the study of scientific management and engineering. She also included her perspectives as a wife and mother in her research, writing, and consulting work. Gilbreth became a pioneer in what is now known as industrial and organizational psychology. She helped industrial engineers recognize the importance of the psychological dimensions of work. In addition, she became the first American engineer ever to create a synthesis of psychology and scientific management. (Gilbreth introduced the concept of using psychology to study management at the Dartmouth College Conference on Scientific Management in 1911).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 22921, 389401, 15450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 64 ], [ 83, 104 ], [ 275, 315 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to jointly running Gilbreth, Incorporated, their business and engineering consulting firm, Lillian and Frank wrote numerous publications as sole authors, as well as co-authoring multiple books and more than fifty papers on a variety of scientific topics. However, in their joint publications, Lillian was not always named as a co-author, possibly due to publishers' concerns about naming a female writer. Although her credentials included a doctorate in psychology, she was less frequently credited in their joint publications than her husband, who did not attend college.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 48136856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Gilbreths were certain that the revolutionary ideas of Frederick Winslow Taylor would be neither easy to implement nor sufficient; their implementation would require hard work by engineers and psychologists to make them successful. The Gilbreths also believed that scientific management as formulated by Taylor fell short when it came to managing the human element on the shop floor. The Gilbreths helped formulate a constructive critique of Taylorism; this critique had the support of other successful managers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 204995, 389401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 83 ], [ 446, 455 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Frank's passing and the mourning period, Lillian found that the homages to her husband were not a sign of her own taking, when three of her biggest clients didn't renew or cancelled contracts. Close associates offered her employment in their firms, but she wanted to keep Frank's business afloat.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Gilbreth and her husband were equal partners in the engineering and management consulting firm of Gilbreth, Incorporated. She continued to lead the company for decades after his death in 1924. The Gilbreths, both pioneers in scientific management, were especially adept at performing time-and-motion studies. They named their methodology the Gilbreth System and used the slogan, \"The One Best Way to Do Work,\" to promote it. The Gilbreths also developed a new technique for their studies that used a motion-picture camera to record work processes. These filmed observations enabled the Gilbreths to redesign machinery to better suit workers' movements to improve efficiency and reduce fatigue. Their research on fatigue study was a forerunner to ergonomics. In addition, the Gilbreths applied a human approach to scientific management to develop innovations in workplace efficiency, such as improved lighting and regular breaks, as well as ideas for workplace psychological well-being, such as suggestion boxes and free books.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 1682021, 36479878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 284, 307 ], [ 746, 756 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gilbreth collaborated with her husband until his death in 1924. Afterwards, she continued to research, write, and teach, in addition to consulting with businesses and manufacturers. She also participated in professional organizations such as the American Society of Mechanical Engineers until her own death nearly fifty years later in 1972. In addition, Gilbreth turned her attention to the home, despite her aversion to housework and the fact that she had long employed full-time household help. Her children once described her kitchen as a \"model of inefficiency.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 633969 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 246, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to discrimination within the engineering community, Gilbreth shifted her efforts toward research projects in the female-friendly arena of domestic management and home economics. She applied the principles of scientific management to household tasks and \"sought to provide women with shorter, simpler, and easier ways of doing housework to enable them to seek paid employment outside the home.\" The Gilbreth children often took part in the experiments.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In addition, Gilbreth was instrumental in the development of the modern kitchen, creating the \"work triangle\" and linear-kitchen layouts that are often used today. In the late 1920s, she collaborated with Mary E. Dillon, President of Brooklyn Borough Gas Company on the creation of an efficient kitchen, equipped with gas powered appliances and named the Kitchen Practical. Inspired by Dillon's criticisms of her own kitchen, it was designed on three principles: the correct and uniform height of working surfaces; a circular work place; and a general “circular routing of working”, all carefully analyzed to reduce the time and effort required in the preparation of meals. It was unveiled in 1929 at a Women's Exposition.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 64064790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 205, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "She is also credited with the invention of the foot-pedal trash can, adding shelves to the inside of refrigerator doors (including the butter tray and egg keeper), and wall-light switches, all now standard. Gilbreth filed numerous patents for her designs, including one to improve the electric can opener and another for a wastewater hose for washing machines. When Gilbreth was an industrial engineer working at General Electric, she \"interviewed over 4,000 women to design the proper height for stoves, sinks, and other kitchen fixtures as she worked on improving kitchen designs\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 12730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 413, 429 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After World War I, the Gilbreths did pioneering work with the rehabilitation of war-veteran amputees. Lillian continued consulting with businesses and manufacturers after Frank's death. Her clients included Johnson & Johnson and Macy's, among others. Lillian spent three years at Macy's to find solutions to their sales and human resource issues. Solutions included changing light fixtures to reduce eye fatigue and eliminating duplicate recordings of sales checks.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 4764461, 166826, 277872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 17 ], [ 207, 224 ], [ 229, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1926, when Johnson & Johnson hired her as a consultant to do marketing research on sanitary napkins, Gilbreth and the firm benefited in three ways. First, Johnson & Johnson could use her training as a psychologist in the measurement and analysis of attitudes and opinions. Second, it could give her experience as an engineer specializing in the interaction between bodies and material objects. Third, her public image as a mother and a modern career woman could help the firm build consumer trust in its products. In addition to her work with Johnson & Johnson, Gilbreth was instrumental in the design of a desk in cooperation with IBM for display at the Chicago World's Fair in 1933", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 780166, 40379651, 42219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 102 ], [ 635, 638 ], [ 659, 679 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gilbreth continued her private consulting practice while serving as a volunteer and an adviser to several government agencies and nonprofit groups. In 1927 she became a charter member of the Altrusa Club of New York City, an organization for Professional and Business Women started in 1917 for the purpose of providing community service. Gilbreth's government work began as a result of her longtime friendship with Herbert Hoover and his wife Lou Henry Hoover, both of whom she had known in California (Gilbreth had presided over the Women's Branch of the Engineers' Hoover for President campaign).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 645042, 13682, 357581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 207, 220 ], [ 415, 429 ], [ 443, 459 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lou Hoover urged Gilbreth to join the Girl Scouts as a consultant in 1929. She remained active in the organization for more than twenty years, becoming a member of its board of directors. During the Great Depression, President Hoover appointed Gilbreth to the Organization on Unemployment Relief as head of the \"Share the Work\" program. In 1930, under the Hoover administration, she headed the women's section of the President's Emergency Committee for Employment and helped to gain the cooperation of women's groups for reducing unemployment. During World War II Gilbreth continued advising governmental groups and also provided expertise on education and labor issues (especially women in the workforce) for organizations such as the War Manpower Commission, the Office of War Information, and the U.S. Navy. In her later years, Gilbreth served on the Chemical Warfare Board and on Harry Truman's Civil Defense Advisory Council. During the Korean War she served on the Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 295087, 19283335, 3087962, 32927, 2139366, 1524523, 20518076, 3418303, 16772, 1870113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 49 ], [ 199, 215 ], [ 417, 463 ], [ 551, 563 ], [ 736, 759 ], [ 765, 790 ], [ 800, 809 ], [ 884, 896 ], [ 943, 953 ], [ 972, 1023 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gilbreth had a lifelong interest in teaching and education. As an undergraduate at the University of California, Berkeley, she took enough education courses to earn a teacher's certificate, and her doctoral dissertation at Brown University was on applying the principles of scientific management to secondary school teaching.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "While residing in Providence, Rhode Island, Gilbreth and her husband taught free, two-week-long summer schools in scientific management from 1913 to 1916. The Gilbreths also discussed teaching the Gilbreth System of time-and-motion study to members of industry, but it was not until after her husband's death in 1924 that she created a formal motion-study course. Gilbreth presented this idea at the First Prague International Management Congress in Prague in July 1924. Her first course began in January 1925. Gilbreth's classes offered to \"prepare a member of an organization, who has adequate training both in scientific method and in plant problems, to take charge of Motion Study work in that organization.\" Coursework included laboratory projects and field trips to private firms to witness the application of scientific management. She ran a total of seven motion study courses out of her home in Montclair, New Jersey until 1930.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 19356538, 389401, 23844, 389401, 125176, 21648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 42 ], [ 114, 135 ], [ 450, 456 ], [ 816, 837 ], [ 904, 913 ], [ 915, 925 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To earn additional income to support her large family, Gilbreth delivered numerous addresses to business and industry gatherings, as well as on college and university campuses such as Harvard, Yale, Colgate, the University of Michigan, MIT, Stanford, and Purdue University. In 1925 she succeeded her husband as a visiting lecturer at Purdue, where he had been delivering annual lectures. In 1935 she became a professor of management at Purdue's School of Mechanical Engineering, and the country's first female engineering professor. She was promoted to a full professor at Purdue in 1940. Gilbreth divided her time between Purdue's departments of industrial engineering, industrial psychology, home economics, and the dean's office, where she consulted on careers for women. In cooperation with Marvin Mundel, Gilbreth established and supervised a time-and-motion-study laboratory at Purdue's School of Industrial Engineering. She also demonstrated how time-and-motion studies could be used in agricultural studies and later transferred motion-study techniques to the home economics department under the banner of \"work simplification\". Gilbreth retired from Purdue's faculty in 1948.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 18426501, 34273, 287967, 31740, 18879, 26977, 23757, 23535218, 15450, 50649 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 184, 191 ], [ 193, 197 ], [ 199, 206 ], [ 212, 234 ], [ 236, 239 ], [ 241, 249 ], [ 255, 272 ], [ 647, 669 ], [ 671, 692 ], [ 694, 708 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Gilbreth's retirement from Purdue, she continued to travel and deliver lectures. She also taught at several other colleges and universities, and became head of the Newark College of Engineering in 1941. Gilbreth was appointed the Knapp Visiting Professor at the University of Wisconsin's School of Engineering in 1955. She also taught at Bryn Mawr College and Rutgers University. Whilst teaching at Bryn Mawr, she met then student of social economy, Anne Gillespie Shaw, who later worked for Gilbreth Management Consultants, doing commercial research studies and became a lifelong friend and colleague. In 1964, at the age of eighty-six, Gilbreth became resident lecturer at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In 1968, when her health finally began to fail, Gilbreth retired from her active public life and eventually entered a nursing home.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 283853, 23536538, 220852, 80135, 56714968, 18879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 199 ], [ 268, 291 ], [ 344, 361 ], [ 366, 384 ], [ 456, 475 ], [ 681, 718 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gilbreth died of a stroke on January 2, 1972, in Phoenix, Arizona at the age of ninety-three. Her ashes were scattered at sea.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Death and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 49121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gilbreth was best known for her work as an industrial engineer and a pioneer in the field of management theory. Dubbed \"America's first lady of engineering,\" she brought her training in psychology to time-and-motion studies and demonstrated how companies and industries could improve their management techniques, efficiency, and productivity. Gilbreth's extensive research and writings on her own and in collaboration with her husband emphasized \"the human element in scientific management.\" Her expertise and major contribution to the field of scientific management was integrating the psychological and mental processes with the time-and-motion studies. She also helped make these types of studies widely accepted. In addition, Gilbreth was among the first to establish industrial engineering curricula in college and university engineering schools. Gilbreth's book, The Psychology of Management (1914), was an early major work in the history of engineering thought and the first to combine psychology with elements of management theory. Major repositories of Gilbreth materials are at the Archives Center of the Smithsonian National Museum of American History in Washington, D.C., and at Purdue University Library, Archives and Special Collections, at West Lafayette, Indiana.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Death and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 700601, 108956, 112633 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1115, 1162 ], [ 1166, 1182 ], [ 1255, 1278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gilbreth also made contributions on behalf of women. Her pioneering work in industrial engineering influenced women in the field. In addition to her lectures on various engineering topics, she encouraged women to study industrial engineering and management. Purdue awarded its first Ph.D. in engineering to a woman in 1950, two years after Gilbreth retired from the university.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Death and legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Several engineering awards have been named in Gilbreth's honor. The National Academy of Engineering established the Lillian M. Gilbreth Lectureships in 2001 to recognize outstanding young American engineers. The highest honor bestowed by the Institute of Industrial Engineers is the Frank and Lillian Gilbreth Industrial Engineering Award for \"those who have distinguished themselves through contributions to the welfare of mankind in the field of industrial engineering\". The Lillian M. Gilbreth Distinguished Professor award at Purdue University is bestowed on a member of the industrial engineering department. The Society of Women Engineers awards the Lillian Moller Gilbreth Memorial Scholarship to female engineering undergraduates.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Death and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 5521184, 50030175, 23757, 2377830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 99 ], [ 242, 275 ], [ 531, 548 ], [ 619, 645 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two of the Gilbreth children also paid tribute to their mother in books about their family life. Cheaper by the Dozen (1948), a bestseller by Gilbreth's son, Frank Jr., and daughter, Ernestine, was made into a motion picture in 1950 starring Myrna Loy as Lillian and Clifton Webb as Frank. The book's sequel, Belles on Their Toes (1950), also written by Frank Jr. and Ernestine, was made into a motion picture sequel in 1952. Frank Jr. also paid tribute to his mother in Time Out for Happiness (1972).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Death and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 26691084, 4492414, 147369, 154682, 4506501, 18586588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 117 ], [ 210, 224 ], [ 242, 251 ], [ 267, 279 ], [ 309, 329 ], [ 395, 416 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2018, the College of Engineering at Purdue University established the prestigious Lillian Gilbreth Postdoctoral Fellowship Program to attract and prepare outstanding individuals with recently awarded Ph.D.'s for a career in engineering academia through interdisciplinary research, training, and professional development.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Death and legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Gilbreth received numerous awards and honors for her contributions.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gilbreth is the recipient of twenty-three honorary degrees from such schools as Rutgers University, Princeton University, Brown University, Smith College, and the University of Michigan. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 464751, 23922, 247957, 31740 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 58 ], [ 101, 121 ], [ 141, 154 ], [ 164, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Her portrait hangs in the National Portrait Gallery. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 537406 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Gilbreth Engineering Library at Purdue University is named in honor of Lillian and Frank Gilbreth.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In 1921 Lillian Gilbreth was the second person to be named an honorary member of the American Society of Industrial Engineers. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "She joined the British Women's Engineering Society in 1924.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gilbreth was accepted to the membership of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers in 1926, becoming its second female member.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 633969 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 1931 she received the first Gilbreth Medal, which was initiated in honor of her late husband. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 54483638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 1941 the Purdue University chapter of Mortar Board, a national honor society, named Gilbreth an honorary member.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 3021746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 1944 the American Society of Mechanical Engineers awarded Gilbreth and her husband (posthumously) the Henry Laurence Gantt Medal for their contributions to industrial engineering.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 401223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 1950 Gilbreth became the first honorary member of the newly created Society of Women Engineers.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 2377830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 1951 she was awarded the Wallace Clark Award.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 54484653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The University of California's alumni association named Gilbreth the 1954 Alumna of the Year.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In 1965 Gilbreth became the first woman elected to the National Academy of Engineering. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 5521184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 1966 Gilbreth became the first woman to receive the Hoover Medal.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 8689044 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "She was made an honorary Member of the British Women's Engineering Society in 1967.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 24504297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gilbreth was a recipient of Gold Medal award from the National Institute of Social Sciences.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In 1984 the U.S. Postal Service issued a 40-cent Great Americans series postage stamp in Gilbreth's honor,", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 50591, 3488942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 32 ], [ 50, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1995, Gilbreth was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 1034056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A Primer of Scientific Management (1912), co-authored with Frank B. Gilbreth", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Selected published works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " the Function of the Mind in Determining, Teaching and Installing Methods of Least Waste (1914)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Selected published works", "target_page_ids": [ 8094264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Motion Models (1915) with Frank B. Gilbreth", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Selected published works", "target_page_ids": [ 712775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Applied Motion Study; A collection of papers on the efficient method to industrial preparedness. (1917) with Frank B. Gilbreth", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Selected published works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fatigue Study: The Elimination of Humanity's Greatest Unnecessary Waste; a First Step in Motion Study] (1916) with Frank B. Gilbreth", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Selected published works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Motion Study for the Handicapped (1920) with Frank B. Gilbreth", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Selected published works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Quest of the One Best Way: A Sketch of the Life of Frank Bunker Gilbreth (1925)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Selected published works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Home-maker and Her Job (1927)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Selected published works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Living With Our Children (1928)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Selected published works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Normal Lives for the Disabled (1948), with Edna Yost", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Selected published works", "target_page_ids": [ 55771854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Foreman in Manpower Management (1947), with Alice Rice Cook", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Selected published works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Management in the Home: Happier Living Through Saving Time and Energy (1954), with Orpha Mae Thomas and Eleanor Clymer", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Selected published works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " As I Remember: An Autobiography (1998), published posthumously", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Selected published works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Lillian Moller Gilbreth and the Rise of Modern Industrial Engineering,\" in ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Yost, Edna, \"Lillian Moller Gilbreth\" in ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Widening Horizons - Dr. Lillian m. Gilbreth", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Biography", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Biography and Index to Purdue University Library's vast holdings of Gilbreth papers", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A 1955 newspaper interview with Gilbreth", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , comprehensive family and professional history.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Podcast (with transcript) of interview with Gilbreth's biographer Jane Lancaster, from the Lemelson Center", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 700601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lillian Gilbreth Keynote Speech, Society of Women Engineers National Convention, 1957", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1878_births", "1972_deaths", "American_industrial_engineers", "American_people_of_German_descent", "American_women_educators", "American_women_engineers", "American_women_psychologists", "Brown_University_alumni", "Engineers_from_California", "Engineers_from_New_Jersey", "Educators_from_New_Jersey", "Girl_Scouts_of_the_USA_people", "Henry_Laurence_Gantt_Medal_recipients", "People_from_Montclair,_New_Jersey", "People_from_Phoenix,_Arizona", "Time_and_motion_study", "University_of_California,_Berkeley_alumni", "Writers_from_Oakland,_California" ]

[ "Lillian Evelyn Moller Gilbreth", "Lillian Moller Gilbraith", "Lillian Gilbraith", "Lillian Evelyn Gilbreth" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Mai Elisabeth Zetterling (; 24 May 1925 – 17 March 1994) was a Swedish actress, novelist and film director.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Zetterling was born in Västerås, Sweden to a working class family. She started her career as an actress at the age of 17 at Dramaten, the Swedish national theatre, appearing in war-era films.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 1020343, 39903086, 3635807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 31 ], [ 45, 58 ], [ 124, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Zetterling appeared in film and television productions spanning six decades from the 1940s to the 1990s. Her breakthrough came in the 1944 film Torment written for her by Ingmar Bergman, in which she played a controversial role as a tormented shopgirl. Shortly afterwards she moved to England and gained instant success there with her title role in Basil Dearden's Frieda (1947) playing opposite David Farrar.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 12591488, 14626, 3018986, 23984423, 2501644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 151 ], [ 171, 185 ], [ 349, 362 ], [ 365, 371 ], [ 396, 408 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After a brief return to Sweden in which she worked with Bergman again in his film Music in Darkness (1948), she returned to Britain and starred in a number of UK films, playing against such leading men as Tyrone Power, Dirk Bogarde, Richard Widmark, Laurence Harvey, Peter Sellers, Herbert Lom, Richard Attenborough, Keenan Wynn, Stanley Baker and Dennis Price.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 11374661, 581217, 159603, 616774, 161503, 24518, 427752, 26546076, 1056595, 1098679, 170418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 99 ], [ 205, 217 ], [ 219, 231 ], [ 233, 248 ], [ 250, 265 ], [ 267, 280 ], [ 282, 293 ], [ 295, 315 ], [ 317, 328 ], [ 330, 343 ], [ 348, 360 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some of her notable films as an actress include Quartet (1948), a film based on some of W. Somerset Maugham's short stories, The Romantic Age (1949) directed by Edmond T. Gréville, Only Two Can Play (1962) co-starring Peter Sellers and directed by Sidney Gilliat, and The Witches (1990), an adaptation of Roald Dahl's book directed by Nicolas Roeg. Having gained a reputation as a sex symbol in dramas and thrillers, she was equally effective in comedies, and was active in British television in the 1950s and 1960s.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 7301220, 33187, 15641462, 25013216, 7301722, 24518, 1370903, 3112996, 55490, 70250, 49605932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 55 ], [ 88, 107 ], [ 125, 141 ], [ 161, 179 ], [ 181, 198 ], [ 218, 231 ], [ 248, 262 ], [ 268, 279 ], [ 305, 315 ], [ 335, 347 ], [ 381, 391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "She began directing and publishing novels and non-fiction in the early 1960s, her films starting with political documentaries and a short film titled The War Game (1962), which was nominated for a BAFTA award, and won a Silver Lion at Venice. Her first feature film Älskande par (1964, \"Loving Couples\"), based on the novels of Agnes von Krusenstjerna, was banned at the Cannes Film Festival for its sexual explicitness and nudity. Kenneth Tynan of The Observer later called it \"one of the most ambitious debuts since Citizen Kane\". It was not the only film she made that caused controversy for its frank sexuality.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 147943, 21759848, 8049638, 101460, 872331, 5224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 197, 202 ], [ 266, 278 ], [ 328, 351 ], [ 371, 391 ], [ 432, 445 ], [ 518, 530 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When critics reviewing her debut feature stated that \"Mai Zetterling directs like a man,\" she began to explore feminist themes more explicitly in her work. The Girls, which had an all-star Swedish cast that included Bibi Andersson and Harriet Andersson, discussed women's liberation (or lack thereof) in a society controlled by men, as the protagonists compare their lives to characters in the play Lysistrata, and find that things have not progressed very much for women since ancient times.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 32684003, 2519070, 2793155, 189894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 165 ], [ 216, 230 ], [ 235, 252 ], [ 399, 409 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1966, she appeared as a storyteller on the BBC children's programme Jackanory, and in five episodes narrated Tove Jansson's Finn Family Moomintroll.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 244350, 62265278, 49274 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 80 ], [ 89, 102 ], [ 112, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Zetterling was married to Norwegian actor Tutte Lemkow from 1944 to 1953. They had a daughter, Etienne and a son, Louis, who is professor of environmental sociology at the Autonomous University of Barcelona. In her autobiography All Those Tomorrows, published in 1985, Zetterling details love affairs with actor Herbert Lom and Tyrone Power, with whom she lived from 1956 until early 1958.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 2079614, 18717981, 61407, 2179, 427752, 581217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 54 ], [ 155, 164 ], [ 172, 206 ], [ 215, 228 ], [ 312, 323 ], [ 328, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1958 to 1976, she was married to British author David Hughes, who collaborated with her on her first films as director. The couple were friends with the composer Michael Hurd, who wrote the music scores for Flickorna and Scrubbers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 17808094, 10479311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 65 ], [ 167, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Documents at the National Archives in London show that, as a member of the Hollywood Left, she was watched by British security agents as a suspected Communist. However, the UK never had a system along the lines of the American Hollywood Blacklist.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 1131728, 9209651, 21556126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 89 ], [ 149, 158 ], [ 227, 246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 17 March 1994, a year after her final role on television, Zetterling died from cancer at the age of 68 in her home in London.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 105219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As director (complete)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As actress (selected)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lasse-Maja (1941)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 71164374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " I Killed (1943)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 71178838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Prince Gustaf (1944)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 45617041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Torment (1944)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 12591488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sunshine Follows Rain (1946)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 63485940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Iris and the Lieutenant (1946)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 31784306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Frieda (1947)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 23984423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Life Starts Now (1948)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 58419398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Music in Darkness (1948)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 11374661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Portrait from Life (1948)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 26284735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Quartet (1948)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 7301220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Romantic Age (1949)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 15641462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Bad Lord Byron (1949)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 19419795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Lost People (1949)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 28994106 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Blackmailed (1951)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 27296332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hell Is Sold Out (1951)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 30655280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Ringer (1952)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 19620206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Desperate Moment (1953)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 27756406 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Knock on Wood (1954)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 1094516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Tall Headlines (1954)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 18921786 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dance, Little Lady (1954)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 18920539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A Prize of Gold (1955)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 10057067 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A Doll's House (1956)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 71316624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Abandon Ship (1957)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 14010407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Truth About Women (1957)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 21761023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Master Builder (1958)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 1611405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Playing on the Rainbow (1958)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 71512862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jet Storm (1959)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 15591832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Faces in the Dark (1960)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 28353690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Piccadilly Third Stop (1960)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 19134853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Offbeat (1961)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 28256430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Only Two Can Play (1962)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 7301722 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Main Attraction (1962)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 19205120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Operation Mermaid (1963)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Man Who Finally Died (1963)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 31476469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Vine Bridge (1965)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hidden Agenda (1990)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 4299478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Witches (1990)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 3112996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Grandpa's Journey (1993)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 42415953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Biographical Dictionary of Swedish Women", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 65063851 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mai Zetterling at Turner Classic Movies", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 925736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mai Zetterling at Encyclopedia.com", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 21288506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mai Zetterling at Nordic Women In Film", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mai Zetterling at Britannica", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 9508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mai Zetterling Archives", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mai Zetterling at Nationalencyklopedins Internettjänst", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1925_births", "1994_deaths", "People_from_Västerås", "Swedish_film_actresses", "Swedish_film_directors", "Deaths_from_cancer_in_England", "20th-century_Swedish_actresses", "Swedish_stage_actresses", "Swedish_television_actresses", "Actresses_from_London", "Swedish_expatriates_in_England", "Swedish_women_film_directors", "20th-century_English_women", "20th-century_English_people" ]

[ "Mai Elisabeth Zetterling" ]

[ { "plaintext": "1499 (MCDXCIX) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 311439, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 13 ], [ 21, 52 ], [ 98, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 15 Samuel Maciejowski, Polish bishop (d. 1550)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15790, 41229966, 35099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 31 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 20 Sebastian Franck, German humanist (d. 1543)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 16025, 475931, 34943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 29 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 29 Katharina von Bora, German nun, wife of Martin Luther (d. 1552)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15814, 518314, 7567080, 38668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 31 ], [ 53, 66 ], [ 71, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 10 Thomas Platter, Swiss humanist scholar and writer (d. 1582)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 10991, 1676479, 34868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 28 ], [ 68, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 22 Johann Carion, German astrologer and chronicler (d. 1537)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20211, 33171992, 35528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 24 ], [ 63, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 31 Pope Pius IV (d. 1565)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20587, 24072, 35229 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 23 ], [ 28, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 14 Agostino Gallo, Italian agronomist (d. 1570)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19676, 34276108, 38604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 23 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 24 Johannes Brenz, German theologian and Protestant Reformer of the Duchy of Württemberg (d. 1570)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15812, 1819990, 3626476, 38604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 24 ], [ 75, 95 ], [ 100, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 17 Maria Salviati, Italian noble and mother of Cosimo I de Medici (d. 1543)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 16089, 18553626, 34943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 24 ], [ 77, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 14 John de Vere, 14th Earl of Oxford, English noble (d. 1526)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1417, 19634832, 38686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 45 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 3 Diane de Poitiers, French duchess, mistress of Henry II of France (d. 1566)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27989, 88351, 75910, 34889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 31 ], [ 61, 79 ], [ 84, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 13 Claude of France, queen consort of France, daughter of Louis XII of France (d. 1524)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22554, 1058883, 77655, 38688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 29 ], [ 68, 87 ], [ 92, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 14 Catherine of the Palatinate, Abbess of Neuburg am Neckar (d. 1526)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22525, 35633545, 38686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 40 ], [ 74, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 31 Günther XL, Count of Schwarzburg (1526–1552) (d. 1552)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22437, 35281811, 38668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 45 ], [ 62, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 1 Rodrigo of Aragon, Italian noble (d. 1512)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21460, 37688657, 34887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 30 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 8 Sebald Heyden, German musicologist and theologian (d. 1561)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8194, 35319536, 35101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 26 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 13 Justus Menius, German Lutheran pastor (d. 1558)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8852, 2309595, 38664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 27 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hans Asper, Swiss painter (d. 1571)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1488757, 35079 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 31, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Michael Coxcie, Flemish painter (d. 1592)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 854554, 35529 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 37, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cesare Hercolani, Italian military leader (d. 1534)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2477670, 36116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jan Łaski, Polish Protestant reformer (d. 1560)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1020642, 35145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Laurentius Petri, Archbishop of Uppsala (d. 1573)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 368644, 34757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Giulio Romano, Italian painter (d. 1546)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 735328, 35081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bernardino de Sahagún, Franciscan missionary (d. 1590)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 613525, 38590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia, Italian mathematician (d. 1557)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22148, 34959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ming, Icelandic clam (d. 2006)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 13962070, 55528, 36164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 17, 21 ], [ 26, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, Portuguese explorer (d. 1543)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 160420, 34943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 34 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 9 John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg (b. 1455)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16075, 16302, 39508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 47 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 24 Edward Stafford, 2nd Earl of Wiltshire, English nobleman (b. 1470)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20209, 503363, 39500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 49 ], [ 72, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 7 Galeotto I Pico, Duke of Mirandola (b. 1442)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2735, 52739530, 39926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 25 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 29 Alesso Baldovinetti, Florentine painter (b. 1427)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1793, 144054, 39910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 31 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 1 Marsilio Ficino, Italian philosopher (b. 1433)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22340, 19963, 39917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 27 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 23 Perkin Warbeck, Flemish imposter (b. c. 1474) (executed)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21806, 46375, 39498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 28 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 28 Edward Plantagenet, 17th Earl of Warwick, last male member of the English House of York (b. 1475)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21579, 86564, 39497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 54 ], [ 106, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rennyo, leader of the Ikko sect of Buddhism (b. 1415)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1346576, 36126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Muhammad Rumfa, ruler of Kano", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11077509, 508782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 26, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Laura Cereta, Italian humanist and feminist (b. 1469)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2469532, 34993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] } ]

[ "1499" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1497 (MCDXCVII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168851, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 19 ], [ 27, 57 ], [ 103, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Annals of the Four Masters refer to a famine in Ireland which \"prevailed through all Ireland\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 1448148, 147575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 31 ], [ 53, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 16 Philip Melanchthon, German humanist and reformer (d. 1560)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11362, 39209, 35145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 32 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 19 Matthäus Schwarz, German fashion writer (d. 1574)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11006, 39632039, 34759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 30 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March Giovanni Paolo I Sforza, Italian condottiero (d. 1535)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15051631, 34958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 31 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 2 Georg Giese, German merchant (d. 1562)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1777, 14338293, 38662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 21 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 16 Mōri Motonari, Japanese daimyō (d. 1571)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1334, 316313, 35079 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 24 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 17 Pedro de Valdivia, Spanish conquistador (d. 1553)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1974, 68517, 38667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 28 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 3 Wilhelm IV of Eberstein, President of the Reichskammergericht (d. 1562)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19350, 36017465, 38662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 31 ], [ 74, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 21 Al-Hattab, Tripolitanian Muslim jurist (d. 1547)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19684, 41492309, 38671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 18 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 27 Ernest I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (d. 1546)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15801, 2613674, 35081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 46 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 15 Francis of Denmark, Danish prince (d. 1511)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 16088, 36251975, 38696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 28 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 18 Francesco Canova da Milano, Italian composer (d. 1543)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1496, 377468, 34943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 38 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 10 Wolfgang Musculus, German theologian (d. 1563)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28020, 14216371, 38661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 32 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 29 Benedetto Accolti the Younger, Italian cardinal (d. 1549)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22435, 14781181, 38674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 42 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jean Fernel, French physician (d. 1558)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 233594, 38664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 35, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anne Seymour, Duchess of Somerset, English noblewoman (d. 1587)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1592259, 38592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gonzalo de Sandoval, Spanish conquistador (d. 1528)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5951342, 36227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Margareta Eriksdotter Vasa, Swedish noblewoman (d. 1536)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20978584, 36117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Johann Wild, German preacher (d. 1554)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11327029, 34972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 34, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Francesco Berni, Italian poet (d. 1536)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1299325, 36117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 35, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Heywood, English playwright (d. 1580)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 681182, 38597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 3 Beatrice d'Este, Duchess of Milan (b. 1475)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15789, 2672580, 39497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 27 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 30 Lê Thánh Tông, Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1442)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15813, 4334618, 39926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 26 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 6 Johannes Ockeghem, Flemish composer (b. c. 1410)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11021, 273557, 35204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 30 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 26 Antonio Manetti, Italian mathematician and architect (b. 1423)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19648, 5518440, 39906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 24 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 14 Giovanni Borgia, 2nd Duke of Gandía (assassinated) (b.1474)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15797, 1444009, 39498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 45 ], [ 64, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 27", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15801 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Michael An Gof, Cornish rebel leader (executed)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 447746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thomas Flamank, Cornish rebel leader (executed)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 612476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 28 James Tuchet, 7th Baron Audley (b. c. 1463)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15802, 13772675, 39505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 40 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July Estêvão da Gama, Portuguese explorer ( b. c. 1430)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 3186661, 39914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 22 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 23 Barbara Fugger, German banker (b. 1419) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16181, 45361095, 39902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 24 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 24 Sophie of Pomerania, Duchess of Pomerania (b. 1435) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1629, 32635134, 39920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 53 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 4 John, Prince of Asturias, only son of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile (b. 1478)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22454, 2648092, 18836110, 23909513, 36213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 36 ], [ 50, 72 ], [ 77, 98 ], [ 103, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 7 Philip II, Duke of Savoy (b. 1443)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21667, 69515, 39927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 37 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 30 Anna Sforza, Italian noble (b. 1476)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21577, 11058049, 34779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 25 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Mutawakkil II, Caliph of Cairo", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11879569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Sakhawi, Egyptian scholar (b. 1428)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 4754850, 39912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 34, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Albert Brudzewski, Polish astronomer (b. 1445)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 52659, 39929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gentile de' Becchi, Bishop of Arezzo (b. 1420/1430)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 42761114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Elia del Medigo, Italian philosopher (b. 1460)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 3750428, 39506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 26 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] } ]

[ "1497" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1496 (MCDXCVI) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321374, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 26, 54 ], [ 100, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 18 Mary Tudor, Queen of Louis XII of France, daughter of Henry VII of England (d. 1533)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20273, 70449, 77655, 14186, 38681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 21 ], [ 32, 51 ], [ 65, 85 ], [ 90, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 12 King Gustav I of Sweden (d. 1560)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19497, 49109, 35145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 14, 32 ], [ 37, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 10 Johann Forster, German theologian (d. 1558)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15809, 7828399, 38664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 24 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 28 Konrad Heresbach, German Calvinist (d. 1576)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1781, 6810331, 38601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 28 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 27 Hieronymus Łaski, Polish diplomat (d. 1542)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27934, 24768487, 34782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 31 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 20 Claude, Duke of Guise, French aristocrat and general (d. 1550)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22442, 655833, 35099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 34 ], [ 70, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 23 Clément Marot, French poet of the Renaissance period (d. 1544)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21806, 163771, 38676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 27 ], [ 71, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 20 Joseph ha-Kohen, Spanish-born French Jewish historian and physician (d. 1575)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8849, 7173987, 38603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 29 ], [ 86, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 21 Elisabeth Corvinus, Hungarian princess (d. 1508)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8850, 18934761, 38699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 32 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lazare de Baïf, French diplomat and author (d. 1547)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2332975, 38671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " João de Barros, Portuguese historian (d. 1570)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 160723, 38604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cuauhtémoc, 11th Tlatoani (emperor) of Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City), 1520–1521, (d. 1521)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 7478, 1475346, 29988, 35225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 18, 26 ], [ 40, 52 ], [ 90, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dirck Jacobsz., Dutch painter (d. 1567)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8202858, 38606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 35, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Richard Maitland, Scottish poet (d. 1586)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1095894, 38593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 37, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Louise de Montmorency, French noblewoman (d. 1547)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8119254, 38671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Martín Ocelotl, Mexican priest (d. c. 1537)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8192293, 35528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William Roper, son-in-law and biographer of Thomas More (d. 1578)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1241767, 30479, 38599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 45, 56 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Giovanni Battista da Sangallo, Italian architect (d. 1548)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8178791, 38672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Menno Simons, Dutch Anabaptist leader (d. 1561)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 301503, 35101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Agostino Steuco, Italian humanist scholar (d. 1548)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1989006, 38672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Johann Walter, Lutheran composer and poet (d. 1570)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 6642501, 38604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Henry Somerset, 2nd Earl of Worcester (d. 1549)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 557621, 38674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 48 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " María Pacheco, Spanish heroine and defender of Toledo (d. 1531)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3981975, 34944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 1 Charles, Count of Angoulême (b. 1459)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15787, 8770094, 36190 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 24 Eberhard I, Duke of Württemberg (b. 1445)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11007, 8068284, 39929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 45 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 4 Sigismund, Archduke of Austria (b. 1427)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20315, 38715, 39910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 40 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 12 Johann Heynlin, German humanist scholar (b. c. 1425)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20197, 3764181, 39908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 25 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 16 Charles II, Duke of Savoy (b. 1489)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1334, 25166037, 39491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 36 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 29 Fernando de Almada, 2nd Count of Avranches (b. c. 1430)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1416, 10458639, 39914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 53 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 15 Infanta Isabella of Portugal, Queen of Castile and León (b. 1428)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1442, 5068285, 39912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 40 ], [ 72, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 7 King Ferdinand II of Naples (b. 1469)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27949, 156956, 34993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 19, 41 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 15 Hugh Clopton, Lord Mayor of London (b. c. 1440)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28145, 343050, 39923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 27 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 25 Piero Capponi, Italian soldier and statesman (b. 1447)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28203, 348796, 39931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 28 ], [ 64, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 28 Boček IV of Poděbrady, Bohemian nobleman, eldest son of King George of Podebrady (b. 1442)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27533, 31575012, 39926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 36 ], [ 100, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 15 Gilbert, Count of Montpensier (b. 1443)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22555, 703435, 39927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 42 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 1 Filippo Buonaccorsi (Filip Callimachus), Italian humanist writer (b. 1437)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21460, 3026378, 36129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 52 ], [ 82, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Richard Bell, Bishop of Carlisle", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 12946233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander Inglis, Scottish clergyman", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 9561791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pietro di Francesco degli Orioli, Italian sculptor (b. c. 1458)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 14497148, 36131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Piero del Pollaiuolo, Italian painter (b. 1443)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 233351, 39927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Qaitbay, sultan of Egypt", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 607367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ercole de' Roberti, Italian artist (b. c. 1451)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11317877, 34885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Jan IV of Oświęcim, duke of Oświęcim", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 14904686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 29 ] ] } ]

[ "1496" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1494 (MCDXCIV) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 319725, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 26, 59 ], [ 105, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Charles VIII of France purchases the right to the Byzantine Empire from exiled pretender, Andreas Palaiologos.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 77606, 16972981, 9855, 526207, 3190823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 51, 67 ], [ 73, 79 ], [ 80, 89 ], [ 91, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 2 Bona Sforza, queen of Sigismund I of Poland (d. 1557)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11322, 453137, 42583, 34959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 24 ], [ 35, 56 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 11 Takeda Nobutora, Japanese warlord (d. 1574)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11184, 1827111, 34759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 29 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 20 Johan Friis, Danish statesman (d. 1570)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11025, 2929522, 38604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 25 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 24 Georgius Agricola, German mineralogist and scholar (d. 1555)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20209, 12475, 36175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 28 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 25 Elisabeth of Brandenburg-Ansbach-Kulmbach, Margravine (d. 1518)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19773, 35023548, 38690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 52 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 4 Ambrosius Moibanus, German theologian (d. 1554)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 18951826, 14332152, 34972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 28 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 20 Johannes Agricola, German Protestant reformer (d. 1566)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2195, 15970, 34889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 28 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 25 Juan Téllez-Girón, 4th Count of Ureña, Spanish count (d. 1558)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2733, 23290588, 38664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 48 ], [ 68, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 24 Pontormo, Italian painter (d. 1557)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19459, 300050, 34959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 17 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 18 Johannes Scheubel, German mathematician (d. 1570)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1496, 35681384, 38604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 29 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 8 Sri Chand, Indian founder of the ascetic sect of Udasi (d. 1629)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28488, 36450051, 35143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 23 ], [ 73, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 11 Elisabeth of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Duchess of Guelders (1518–1538) (d. 1572)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27935, 35859339, 34686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 67 ], [ 84, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 12 King Francis I of France (d. 1547)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28021, 50012, 38671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 20, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 31 Wolfgang of the Palatinate, Count Palatine of Neumarkt (1524–1558), governor of the Upper Palatinate (d. 1558)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22437, 34577426, 38664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 39 ], [ 118, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 5 Hans Sachs, German meistersinger (\"mastersinger\") (d. 1576)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21565, 508599, 38601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 23 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 6 Suleiman the Magnificent, Ottoman Sultan (d. 1566)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21758, 26992, 20427700, 34889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 37 ], [ 39, 53 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 12 Margaret of Anhalt-Köthen, Princess of Anhalt by birth, Duchess consort of Saxony (d. 1521)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21631, 32897486, 35225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 39 ], [ 100, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November (probable) François Rabelais, French Renaissance writer (d. 1553)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21445, 80833, 38667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 22, 39 ], [ 71, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alonso Álvarez de Pineda, Spanish explorer and cartographer (d. 1519)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1050052, 36169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Christina Gyllenstierna, Swedish national heroine (d. 1559)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 328788, 38665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ambrosius Holbein, German painter (d. 1519)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 48316, 36169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Qiu Ying, Chinese painter (d. 1552)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2069023, 38668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 31, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Saitō Dōsan, Japanese warlord (d. 1556)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 100954, 38666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 35, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Sutton, 3rd Baron Dudley (d. 1554)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 715793, 34972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ], [ 35, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hans Tausen, Danish religious reformer (d. 1561)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1717823, 35101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 11 Domenico Ghirlandaio, Italian artist (b. 1449)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15847, 199689, 39934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 33 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 20 Seongjong of Joseon, King of Joseon (b. 1457)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16025, 3133679, 36130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 32 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 25 King Ferdinand I of Naples (b. 1423)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15845, 156954, 39906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 18, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 7 Eskender, Emperor of Ethiopia (b. 1471)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19582, 1817574, 606626, 35498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 16 ], [ 18, 37 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 1 Giovanni Santi, Italian artist and father of Raphael (b. c. 1435)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1254, 5965836, 44525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 25 ], [ 56, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 11 Hans Memling, Flemish painter (b. c. 1430)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2192, 192503, 39914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 24 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 24 Poliziano, Italian humanist (b. 1454)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28202, 764674, 36192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 24 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 21 Gian Galeazzo Sforza, Duke of Milan (b. 1469)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22570, 3595800, 235467, 34993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 33 ], [ 35, 48 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 26 Amda Seyon II, Emperor of Ethiopia (b. c. 1487)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22403, 1816690, 606626, 36137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 26 ], [ 28, 47 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 8 Melozzo da Forlì, Italian painter (b. c. 1438)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21759, 2304207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 15 William Calthorpe, English knight (b. 1410)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21763, 4425752, 35204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 31 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 16 Theda Ukena, countess regent of East Frisia (b. 1432)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21726, 32103288, 39916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 25 ], [ 63, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 17 Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, Italian humanist (b. 1463)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21798, 152575, 39505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 43 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 19 or December 20 Matteo Maria Boiardo, Italian poet (b. c. 1434-1441)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8848, 8849, 929929, 39918, 39925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 16, 27 ], [ 29, 49 ], [ 71, 75 ], [ 76, 80 ] ] } ]

[ "1494" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1491 (MCDXCI) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321295, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 17 ], [ 25, 57 ], [ 103, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 30 Francesco Sforza, Italian noble (d. 1512)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15813, 10849878, 34887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 29 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 25 Marie d'Albret, Countess of Rethel, French nobility (d. 1549)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19773, 21619734, 38674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 45 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 10 Suzanne, Duchess of Bourbon (d. 1521)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19629, 703431, 35225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 36 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 28 Henry VIII of England (d. 1547)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15802, 14187, 38671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 31 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 3 Maria of Jülich-Berg, spouse of John III, Duke of Cleves (d. 1543)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1259, 5597936, 34943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 31 ], [ 72, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 10 Queen Janggyeong, Korean royal consort (d. 1515)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2315, 34140752, 38693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 28 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 25 Innocenzo Cybo, Catholic cardinal (d. 1550)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1519, 22204447, 35099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 26 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 6 Francis de Bourbon, Count of St. Pol, French noble (d. 1545)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22542, 28848915, 38675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 48 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " c. October 23 Ignatius of Loyola, Spanish founder of the Society of Jesus, a Roman Catholic religious order (d. 1556)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22572, 23368424, 38666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 16, 34 ], [ 114, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 26 Zhengde Emperor of China (d. 1521)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22403, 390589, 35225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 28 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 8 Teofilo Folengo, Italian poet (d. 1544)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21759, 2444188, 38676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 28 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 11 Martin Bucer, German Protestant reformer (d. 1551)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21447, 153642, 38670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 26 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 13 Martín de Azpilcueta, Spanish theologian and economist (d. 1586)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8852, 10980190, 38593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 34 ], [ 73, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 31 Jacques Cartier, French explorer (d. 1557)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8204, 70602, 34959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 29 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lapulapu, Filipino king (d. 1542)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 302170, 34782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 29, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Azai Sukemasa, Japanese samurai and warlord (d. 1546)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 366840, 35081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Isabella Losa, Spanish scholar (d. 1564)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 39915008, 34660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 37, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " George Blaurock, Swiss founder of Anabaptism (d. 1529)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 471485, 38684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Antonio Pigafetta, Italian explorer (d. 1534)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1128411, 36116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 19 Dorothea of Brandenburg, Duchess of Mecklenburg (b. 1420)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16011, 31913118, 39904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 60 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 15 Ashikaga Yoshimi, brother of Shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimasa (b. 1439)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11020, 2575071, 39922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 30 ], [ 73, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 19 Enno I, Count of East Frisia (1466–1491) (b. 1460)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11006, 25292664, 39506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 42 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 6 Richard Woodville, 3rd Earl Rivers", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19865, 603499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 31 Bonaventura Tornielli, Italian Roman Catholic priest (b. 1411)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20587, 51616064, 39895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 32 ], [ 68, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 14 Filippo Strozzi the Elder, Italian banker (b. 1428)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19676, 7854060, 39912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 34 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 13 Afonso, Prince of Portugal (b. 1475)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15878, 357364, 39497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 36 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 16 William Herbert, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, English earl (b. 1451)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15947, 4365559, 34885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 47 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 5 Jean Balue, French cardinal and statesman (b. c. 1421)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22536, 148697, 34884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 22 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 12 Fritz Herlen, German artist (b. 1449)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22530, 885615, 39934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 25 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 16 Holy Child of La Guardia, Spanish folk saint (b. n/a) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21726, 213304, 22162312 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 38 ], [ 48, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 28 Bertoldo di Giovanni, Italian sculptor (b. c. 1435)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8198, 8629113, 39920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 34 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Anne of Orléans, Abbess of Fontevraud (b. 1464)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 31097204, 39504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 52 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Musa ibn Abi al-Ghassan, knight of Granada", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 71307493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " February 9 (according to the Libro dei Morti) Antonia di Paolo di Dono, Italian artist and daughter of Paolo di Dono", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11361, 58758317, 24067 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 48, 72 ], [ 105, 118 ] ] } ]

[ "1491" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1490 (MCDXC) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168855, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 16 ], [ 24, 54 ], [ 100, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Battle of Chocontá: The northern (zaque) tribes of the pre-Columbian Muisca Confederation (central Colombia) are beaten by the southern (zipa) tribes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 50251104, 3357342, 90001, 50258153, 5222, 3357342 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 35, 40 ], [ 56, 69 ], [ 70, 90 ], [ 100, 108 ], [ 138, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 14 Valentin Friedland, German scholar and educator of the Reformation (d. 1556)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 10882, 2257554, 38666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 32 ], [ 85, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 17 Charles III, Duke of Bourbon, French military leader (d. 1527)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11164, 703438, 38685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 42 ], [ 71, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 6 Fridolin Sicher, Swiss composer (d. 1546)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19865, 28755538, 35081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 25 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 22 Francesco Maria I della Rovere, Duke of Urbino, Italian noble (d. 1538)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20211, 5654439, 38679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 57 ], [ 77, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 24 Giovanni Salviati, Italian Catholic cardinal (d. 1553)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20209, 10140955, 38667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 28 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April Vittoria Colonna, Italian poet (d. 1547)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1004, 102331, 38671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 24 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 4 Vojtěch I of Pernstein, Bohemian nobleman (d. 1534)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 18951826, 36736941, 36116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 32 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 17 Albert, Duke of Prussia, last Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights (d. 1568)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19631, 1514, 34960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 32 ], [ 80, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 28 Albert of Mainz, German elector and archbishop (d. 1545)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15802, 1513, 38675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 25 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 25 Amalie of the Palatinate, Duchess consort of Pomerania (d. 1524)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15804, 32910448, 38688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 34 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 5 Andrey of Staritsa, son of Ivan III \"the Great\" of Russia (d. 1537)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1990, 2322021, 35528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 29 ], [ 73, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 23 Johann Heß, German theologian (d. 1547)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27651, 18054497, 38671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 25 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October Olaus Magnus, Swedish ecclesiastic and writer (d. 1557)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1521675, 34959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 12 Bernardo Pisano, Italian composer (d. 1548)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22530, 1432625, 38672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 28 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 10 John III, Duke of Cleves (d. 1539)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21760, 723331, 38680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 25 Francesco Marinoni, Italian Roman Catholic priest (d. 1562)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8270, 46777323, 38662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 32 ], [ 68, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 26 Friedrich Myconius, German Lutheran theologian (d. 1546)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8360, 917172, 35081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 32 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 30 Ebussuud Efendi, Ottoman Grand Mufti (d. 1574)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8677, 20134553, 34759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 29 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " approx. date Properzia de' Rossi, Italian Renaissance sculptor (d. 1530)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1820322, 38683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 34 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus, Scottish noble (d. 1556)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1129309, 38666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 36 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Luca Ghini, Italian physician and botanist (d. 1566)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 895196, 34889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bars Bolud Jinong, Mongol Khagan (d. 1531)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11438341, 34944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 37, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Argula von Grumbach, German Protestant reformer (d. 1564)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15871424, 34660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jean Salmon Macrin, French poet (d. 1557)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 311528, 34959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Caspar Schwenckfeld, German theologian (d. 1561)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 17262, 35101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anna Bielke, Swedish noble and commander (d. 1525)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22991569, 38687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "David Reubeni, Jewish political activist and mystic (d. 1541)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3302131, 38677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Wijerd Jelckama, Frisian rebel and warlord (d. 1523)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 14987045, 36226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Adriaen Isenbrandt, Flemish painter (d. 1551)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 669228, 38670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich, Lord Chancellor of England (d. 1567)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 362726, 38606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ], [ 62, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " María de Toledo, Vicereine and regent of the Spanish Colony of Santo Domingo (d. 1549)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 41892733, 38674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 82, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Taverner, English composer and organist (d. 1545)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 295977, 38675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " María de Salinas, Lady Willoughby, Spanish lady-in-waiting and friend to Catherine of Aragon", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4081222, 841177, 6942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 44, 59 ], [ 74, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Quilago, queen regnant of the Cochasquí in Ecuador (d. 1515)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 49814672, 38597449, 38693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 31, 40 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 27 Ashikaga Yoshimasa, Japanese shōgun (b. 1435)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15866, 234755, 39920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 31 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 6 Ivan the Young, Ruler of Tver (b. 1458)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19865, 1671622, 36131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 24 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 13 Charles I, Duke of Savoy (b. 1468)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22693343, 69500, 39501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 35 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 6 King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary (b. 1443)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1008, 272105, 39927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 15, 32 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 12 Joanna, Portuguese Roman Catholic blessed and regent (b. 1452)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19497, 2439816, 606848, 39509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 15 ], [ 28, 42 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 22 Edmund Grey, 1st Earl of Kent (b. 1416)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19660, 703007, 39899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 11 Frans van Brederode, Dutch rebel leader (b. 1465)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2192, 3820013, 34957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 31 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Martí Joan de Galba, Catalan novelist", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 841969 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aonghas Óg, last independent Lord of the Isles", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 6802981, 509932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 30, 47 ] ] } ]

[ "1490" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "__NOTOC__", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Year 1488 (MCDLXXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 319727, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 22 ], [ 30, 59 ], [ 67, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 8 The Royal Netherlands Navy is formed, by the decree of Maximillian of Austria.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 15988, 198478, 39070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 16, 38 ], [ 67, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 3 Bartolomeu Dias of Portugal lands in Mossel Bay, after rounding the Cape of Good Hope at the tip of Africa, becoming the first known European to travel this far south, and entering the Indian Ocean. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 11323, 45592, 370621, 44252, 14580 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 28 ], [ 50, 60 ], [ 81, 98 ], [ 198, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 28 Choe Bu (14541504), the Korean Commissioner of Registers for the island of Cheju, shipwrecks on the south east coast of China in Taizhou, Zhejiang, during the Ming Dynasty. From then until July 12, he and his crew are hosted by Chinese military courier officers to travel along the Grand Canal of China, all the way to Beijing, and then finally back across the Yalu River into Korea. His written commentary on Chinese customs, foreign and domestic trade, and transport in places such as Hangzhou and Suzhou, are valuable records of Ming era culture and commerce.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 11311, 16293091, 1754300, 1834307, 43449, 15971, 49824, 49559, 158185, 292011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 21 ], [ 89, 94 ], [ 143, 160 ], [ 173, 185 ], [ 203, 210 ], [ 296, 316 ], [ 375, 385 ], [ 501, 509 ], [ 514, 520 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 11 Battle of Sauchieburn: James IV of Scotland becomes king after his father is killed in action.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 15796, 4277736, 50556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 31 ], [ 33, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 12 Joseon Dynasty official Choe Bu returned to Korea after months of shipwrecked travel in China.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 15971, 324222, 16293091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 24 ], [ 34, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 28 Battle of Saint-Aubin-du-Cormier: Troops loyal to King Charles VIII of France defeat rebel forces, led by the Dukes of Orleans and Brittany, in the main engagement of the Mad War.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 16040, 13365772, 77606, 77655, 642196, 13502116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 42 ], [ 65, 87 ], [ 129, 136 ], [ 141, 149 ], [ 181, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 9 Anne of Brittany becomes Duchess of Brittany at the age of 11. Her marriage to King Charles VIII in 1491 effectively ends Breton independence from France.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 28544, 642214, 25199278, 39488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 30 ], [ 39, 58 ], [ 114, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jasper Tudor, 1st Duke of Bedford, takes possession of Cardiff Castle.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 113541, 113661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ], [ 56, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Michelangelo Buonarroti becomes apprentice to Domenico Ghirlandaio.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 21019, 162619, 199689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 33, 43 ], [ 47, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The city of Bikaner in western India is founded by Rao Bika.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 796920, 1155990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 20 ], [ 52, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rathbornes Candles is established in Dublin; the company is still trading in the 21st century.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 3189830, 8504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 38, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 6 Helius Eobanus Hessus, German Latin poet (d. 1540)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15986, 1525172, 35144 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 33 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 20", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 16025 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John George, Marquess of Montferrat, Italian noble (d. 1533)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 30406388, 38681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sebastian Münster, German scholar, cartographer, and cosmographer (d. 1552)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 38378, 38668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 71, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 19 Johannes Magnus, last Catholic Archbishop of Sweden (d. 1544)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20316, 1529389, 38676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 26 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 16 Jungjong of Joseon (d. 1544)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1334, 1970582, 38676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 29 ], [ 34, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 21 Ulrich von Hutten, German religious reformer (d. 1523)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2483, 858701, 36226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 28 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 1 Sidonie of Bavaria, eldest daughter of Duke Albrecht IV of Bavaria-Munich (d. 1505)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19348, 32061267, 38701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 26 ], [ 86, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 5 Lê Uy Mục, 8th king of the later Lê dynasty of Vietnam (d. 1509)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19352, 40086877, 38700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 17 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 7 John III of the Palatinate, Administrator of the Bishopric of Regensburg (d. 1538)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19582, 37014976, 38679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 34 ], [ 85, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June Heinrich Glarean, Swiss music theorist (d. 1563)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 738832, 38661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 23 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 29 Pedro Pacheco de Villena, Spanish Catholic cardinal (d. 1560)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15842, 32635778, 35145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 34 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 15 Juan Álvarez de Toledo, Spanish Catholic cardinal (d. 1557)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 16088, 14360855, 34959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 32 ], [ 64, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 17 Ursula of Brandenburg, Duchess consort of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (d. 1510)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22366, 4161797, 38697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 34 ], [ 80, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 1 Elisabeth of Nassau-Dillenburg, Countess of Wied, German noblewoman (d. 1559)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8357, 35100754, 38665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 61 ], [ 85, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 15 Ferdinand, Duke of Calabria (d. 1550)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8145, 14646781, 35099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 41 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rabbi Yosef Karo, Spanish Jewish scholar (d. 1575)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 149173, 38603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 17 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Oswald Myconius, Swiss religious reformer (d. 1552)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 162277, 38668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jan Tarnowski, Polish nobleman (d. 1561)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1046765, 35101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thomas of Villanova, Spanish bishop (d. 1555)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4437136, 36175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gustav Trolle, Archbishop of Uppsala (d. 1533)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1553550, 38681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Thomas Audley, 1st Baron Audley of Walden, Lord Chancellor of England (d. 1544)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 317295, 38676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 42 ], [ 75, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Guillaume Gouffier, seigneur de Bonnivet, French soldier (d. 1525)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 308077, 38687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ], [ 62, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Myles Coverdale, English Bible translator (d. 1568)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 39737, 34960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lütfi Pasha, Ottoman statesman (d. 1564)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 29165928, 34660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 1 John II, Duke of Bourbon (b. 1426)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1175, 703420, 39909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 34 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 14 Girolamo Riario, Lord of Imola and Forli (b. 1443)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1862, 3845376, 39927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 26 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 9 Frederick I of Liegnitz, Duke of Chojnów and Strzelin from 1453 (b. 1446)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19524, 21151932, 39930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 31 ], [ 76, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 26 Iizasa Ienao, Japanese swordsman (b. c. 1387)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19648, 410222, 39548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 21 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 11 King James III of Scotland (at the Battle of Sauchieburn; b. c. 1451)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15796, 148025, 4277736, 34885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 15, 36 ], [ 45, 66 ], [ 74, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 18 Alvise Cadamosto, Italian explorer (b. 1432)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16090, 1034020, 39916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 26 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 28 Edward Woodville, Lord Scales (at the Battle of St. Aubin-du-Cormier; b. c. 1456)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16040, 40059786, 13365772, 39507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 39 ], [ 48, 78 ], [ 86, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 30 Clarice Orsini, Florentine noblewoman and wife of Lorenzo de’ Medici (b. 1453)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15911, 12511023, 18633, 35148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 24 ], [ 60, 78 ], [ 83, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "September Abu 'Amr 'Uthman, Hafsid caliph of Ifriqiya (b. 1419)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27529, 26309022, 1289726, 804036, 629237, 39902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 11, 27 ], [ 30, 36 ], [ 37, 43 ], [ 47, 55 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 9 Francis II, Duke of Brittany (fell from a horse) (b. 1433)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28544, 642196, 39917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 42 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 13 Charles II, Duke of Bourbon (b. 1434)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28030, 703421, 39918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 42 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mary Stewart, Countess of Arran (b. 1453)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22113489, 35148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ], [ 37, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Andrea del Verrocchio, Italian sculptor (b. c. 1435)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 214865, 39920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Borommatrailokkanat, Ayutthaya king (b. 1431)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2087995, 36127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] } ]

[ "1488" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1489 (MCDLXXXIX) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321344, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ], [ 28, 60 ], [ 106, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 9 Georg Hartmann, German instrument maker (d. 1564)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11361, 7871299, 34660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 27 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 2 Charles, Duke of Vendôme, French noble (d. 1537)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15855, 5449393, 35528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 33 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 4 Antoine, Duke of Lorraine (d. 1544)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19279145, 655727, 38676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 34 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 16 Sibylle of Bavaria, Electress Palatine consort (d. 1519)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15935, 31636088, 36169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 28 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 23 Charles II, Duke of Savoy, Italian sovereign (d. 1496)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15831, 25166037, 39486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 35 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 2 Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1556)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15846, 30502, 2345, 38666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 23 ], [ 25, 49 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August Antonio da Correggio, Italian painter (d. 1534)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 102054, 36116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 29 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 10 Jacob Sturm von Sturmeck, German statesman and reformer (d. 1553)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2315, 1177262, 38667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 36 ], [ 72, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 10 Henry V, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg and Prince of Wolfenbüttel 1514–1568 (d. 1568)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21760, 8124481, 34960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 49 ], [ 91, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 28 Margaret Tudor, Scottish regent, Queen of James IV of Scotland, daughter of Henry VII of England (d. 1541)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21579, 70549, 50556, 14186, 38677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 28 ], [ 56, 76 ], [ 90, 110 ], [ 115, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 10 Gaston of Foix, Duke of Nemours (d. 1512)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8714, 2177428, 34887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 45 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gerónimo de Aguilar, Franciscan friar who participated in the Spanish conquest of Mexico (d. 1531)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2469134, 64176, 312753, 26667, 3966054, 34944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 22, 32 ], [ 33, 38 ], [ 63, 70 ], [ 83, 89 ], [ 94, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William Farel, French evangelist (d. 1565)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 833431, 35229 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Francesco Ferruccio, Florentine captain (d. 1530)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1861111, 38683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hosokawa Sumimoto, Japanese warlord (d. 1520)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1852900, 34888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Margareta von Melen, Swedish noblewoman (d. 1541)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 52687994, 38677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tsukahara Bokuden, Japanese swordsman (d. 1571)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 317085, 35079 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Juan de Grijalva, Spanish conquistador (d. 1527)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 440403, 38685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thomas Müntzer, German pastor and rebel leader (d. 1525)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 194276, 38687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 3 Martin Truchseß von Wetzhausen, Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights (b. 1435)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15789, 5514241, 39920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 42 ], [ 85, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 14 Nicolaus von Tüngen, bishop of Warmia ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 10882, 4324643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 27 Gilbert Kennedy, 1st Lord Kennedy, Scottish noble (b. 1405)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20585, 7198591, 36212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 44 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 6 Jodha of Mandore, Ruler of Marwar (b. 1416)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1008, 3525051, 39899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 26 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 26 Ashikaga Yoshihisa, Japanese shōgun (b. 1465)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1261, 234728, 34957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 29 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 28 Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland (b. c. 1449)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1639, 429142, 39934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 50 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 3 Stanisław Kazimierczyk, Polish canon regular and saint (b. 1433)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19350, 25711015, 39917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 30 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 21 Henry V of Rosenberg, Bohemian nobleman (b. 1456)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19684, 37722420, 39507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 29 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 12 Bahlul Lodi, sultan of Delhi", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15971, 1496413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 19 Louis I, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken (b. 1424)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16091, 3905817, 39907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 48 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gerontius, Metropolitan of Moscow, Russian bishop ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 880066 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " María de Ajofrín, Spanish visionary (b. 1455)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 44742441, 39508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Girindrawardhana, ruler of Majapahit", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 52810845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] } ]

[ "1489" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1486 (MCDLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full Julian calendar for the year).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168851, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ], [ 28, 58 ], [ 87, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 6 Martin Agricola, German Renaissance composer and music theorist (d. 1556)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15986, 19739, 38666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 27 ], [ 80, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 10 George of the Palatinate, German nobleman; Bishop of Speyer (1513–1529) (d. 1529)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 10991, 35034688, 38684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 38 ], [ 90, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 18 Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Bengali ascetic and monk (d. 1534)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11363, 174267, 36116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 34 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 2 Jacopo Sansovino, Italian sculptor and architect (d. 1570)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15846, 357092, 38604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 25 ], [ 62, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 16 Andrea del Sarto, Italian painter (d. 1530)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15947, 23661242, 38683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 26 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 25 Albrecht VII, Duke of Mecklenburg (1503–1520), then Duke of Mecklenburg-Güstrow (1520–1547) (d. 1547)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15804, 5703717, 38671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 43 ], [ 106, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 28 Pieter Gillis, French philosopher (d. 1533)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 16040, 10800654, 38681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 23 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 3 Imperia Cognati, Italian courtesan (d. 1512)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1259, 40552040, 34887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 26 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 23 Sigismund von Herberstein, Austrian diplomat and historian (d. 1566)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1628, 44104, 34889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 37 ], [ 75, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 14 Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa, German astrologer and alchemist (d. 1535)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27947, 198827, 34958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 41 ], [ 79, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 20 Arthur, Prince of Wales, son of Henry VII of England (d. 1502)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28148, 177655, 14186, 38705 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 38 ], [ 47, 67 ], [ 72, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 10 Charles III, Duke of Savoy (d. 1553)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22367, 69594, 38667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 13 Johann Eck, German Scholastic theologian and defender of Catholicism during the Protestant Reformation (d. 1543)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21761, 42136, 34943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 24 ], [ 121, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 9 Philip III, Count of Waldeck-Eisenberg (1524–1539) (d. 1539)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8589, 33942591, 38680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 41 ], [ 68, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Shimon Lavi, Sephardi kabbalist (d. 1585)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 55986551, 150185, 16905, 35837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 26 ], [ 28, 36 ], [ 37, 46 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Colin Campbell, 3rd Earl of Argyll (d. 1535)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 654672, 34958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gerolamo Emiliani, Venetian-born humanitarian, canonized (d. 1537)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 773202, 35528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 62, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ludwig Senfl, Swiss composer (d. 1542 or 1543)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2079244, 34782, 34943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 34, 38 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 30 Jacques of Savoy, Count of Romont, Prince of Savoy (b. 1450)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15813, 6845399, 39510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 46 ], [ 68, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 11 Albrecht III Achilles, Elector of Brandenburg (b. 1414)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19530, 39235, 39898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 56 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 30 Thomas Bourchier, Archbishop of Canterbury and Lord Chancellor of England (b. c. 1404)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19849, 153648, 2345, 226197, 39557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 27 ], [ 29, 53 ], [ 58, 84 ], [ 92, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May Louis I, Count of Montpensier (b. 1405)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19345, 703433, 36212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 35 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 14 Margaret of Denmark, Scottish queen consort, daughter of Christian I of Denmark (b. 1456)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16018, 174687, 174698, 39507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 29 ], [ 67, 89 ], [ 94, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August (day unknown) Marco Barbarigo, the 73rd Doge of Venice, was said to have died in a dispute caused by his brother and successor, Agostino Barbarigo.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1005, 4604374, 63340, 4604346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 23, 38 ], [ 49, 63 ], [ 137, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 3 Asakura Ujikage, 8th head of the Japanese Asakura clan (b. 1449)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1259, 15091887, 39934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 26 ], [ 70, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 11 William Waynflete, English Lord Chancellor and bishop of Winchester (b. c. 1398)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2192, 610765, 36362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 29 ], [ 87, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 26 Ernest, Elector of Saxony, progenitor of the Ernestine Wettins (b. 1441)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 6048708, 1565385, 3412217, 39925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 37 ], [ 57, 66 ], [ 79, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 2 Guy XIV de Laval, French noble (b. 1406)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27531, 14810947, 39558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 30 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 19 Richard Oldham, English Catholic bishop", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28147, 758794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tízoc, Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlan (perhaps poisoned)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 31316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Souvanna Banlang, Lan Xang king (b. 1455)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 50680852, 203665, 39508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 19, 27 ], [ 37, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Aristotile Fioravanti, Italian architect and engineer (b. 1415)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 807186, 36126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 32 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] } ]

[ "1486" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1485 (MCDLXXXV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321295, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 19 ], [ 27, 59 ], [ 105, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 10 Sophie of Brandenburg-Ansbach-Kulmbach, German princess (d. 1537)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20196, 31297618, 35528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 49 ], [ 71, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 26 Sibylle of Baden, Countess consort of Hanau-Lichtenberg (d. 1518)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1261, 34945067, 38690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 27 ], [ 71, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 20 Astorre III Manfredi, Italian noble (d. 1502)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15818, 10991095, 38705 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 30 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 24", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15812 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Johannes Bugenhagen, German religious reformer (d. 1558)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 949933, 38664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Elizabeth of Denmark, Electress of Brandenburg (1502–1535) (d. 1555)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 18665986, 36175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 47 ], [ 64, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 20 Giovanni Battista Ramusio, Italian geographer (d. 1557)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15803, 17133052, 34959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 35 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 22 Beatus Rhenanus, German humanist and religious reformer (d. 1547)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1012, 2344786, 38671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 27 ], [ 73, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 14 Anna of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburgian royal (d. 1525)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27947, 31303698, 38687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 43 ], [ 70, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 1 Johannes Dantiscus, Polish poet and bishop (d. 1548)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22340, 143002, 38672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 30 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 8 Antonio Pucci, Italian Catholic cardinal (d. 1544)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22543, 23722516, 38676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 25 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 30 Veronica Gambara, Italian poet and stateswoman (d. 1550)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21577, 17590679, 35099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 30 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 16 Catherine of Aragon, first queen of Henry VIII of England, and daughter of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile (d. 1536)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8219, 6942, 14187, 18836110, 23909513, 36117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 33 ], [ 50, 71 ], [ 89, 111 ], [ 116, 137 ], [ 142, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hernán Cortés, Spanish conquistador (d. 1547)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 14013, 38671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Odet de Foix, Vicomte de Lautrec, French military leader (d. 1528)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 308089, 36227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ], [ 62, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Johanna of Hachberg-Sausenberg, ruler of Neuchatel (d. 1543)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 55487589, 34943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Giovanni da Verrazzano, Italian explorer (approximate date; d. c. 1528)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 76934, 36227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hugh Aston, English composer (d. 1558)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1195432, 38664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 34, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex, English statesman (d. 1540)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 48701, 35144 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Clément Janequin, French chanson composer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1854907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sayyida al Hurra, Moroccan pirate queen", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 31187693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sebastiano del Piombo, Italian painter (d. 1547)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1274426, 38671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Russell, 1st Earl of Bedford, English royal minister (d. 1555)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 259087, 36175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ], [ 63, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 20 Eustochia Smeralda Calafato, Italian saint (b. 1434)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16025, 12115905, 39918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 40 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 28 Niclas, Graf von Abensberg, German soldier (b. 1441)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11311, 761259, 39925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 40 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 16 Anne Neville, queen of Richard III of England (b. 1456)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19818, 49763, 26284, 39507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 23 ], [ 34, 56 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 7 Alexander Stewart, 1st Duke of Albany, Scottish prince (b. c. 1454)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1332, 1088087, 36192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 48 ], [ 73, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 15 Albert II, Duke of Brunswick-Grubenhagen (b. 1419)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1442, 32298583, 39902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 52 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 22 (killed in the Battle of Bosworth Field):", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1012, 3793 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 26, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " King Richard III of England (b. 1452)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 26284, 39509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 28 ], [ 33, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Howard, 1st Duke of Norfolk (b. 1430)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 118353, 39914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " James Harrington, Yorkist knight", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 41723333 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Richard Ratcliffe, supporter of Richard III", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 266973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Babington, High Sheriff of Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire and the Royal Forests", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 53390824, 19349871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 17, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Robert Brackenbury, English nobleman, courtier and supporter of Richard III", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 266966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Walter Devereux, 8th Baron Ferrers of Chartley, supporter of Richard III", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 6525714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William Brandon, supporter of Henry VII (b. 1456)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 433532, 39507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 25 William Catesby, supporter of Richard III (executed) (b. 1450)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1519, 247780, 39510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 27 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 17 John Scott of Scott's Hall, Warden of the Cinque Ports", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22366, 984237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 27 Rodolphus Agricola, Dutch scholar (b. 1443)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22434, 25857, 39927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 31 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 4 Françoise d'Amboise, Duchess of Brittany (b. 1427)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21805, 9288349, 39910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 32 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Date unknown Kristina Königsmarck, Swedish noblewoman.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 45519621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 35 ] ] } ]

[ "1485" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1484 (MCDLXXXIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321380, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ], [ 28, 58 ], [ 104, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 1 Huldrych Zwingli, Swiss religious reformer (d. 1531)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15787, 13602, 34944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 28 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 17 George Spalatin, German religious reformer (d. 1545)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15920, 1857945, 38675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 28 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 21 Joachim I Nestor, Elector of Brandenburg (1499–1535) (d. 1535)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11010, 16453, 34958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 54 ], [ 71, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 4 George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach (d. 1543)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20315, 13141, 34943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 49 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 12", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Maharana Sangram Singh, Rana of Mewar (d. 1528)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 675662, 36227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, Italian architect (d. 1546)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 991667, 35081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 23 Julius Caesar Scaliger, Italian humanist scholar (d. 1558)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1827, 165537, 38664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 33 ], [ 64, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 25 Bartholomeus V. Welser, German banker (d. 1561)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15799, 8303451, 35101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 32 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 11 Ottaviano de' Medici, Italian politician (d. 1546)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15873, 8422344, 35081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 30 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 29 Joachim Vadian, Swiss humanist and reformer (d. 1551)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21578, 2018953, 38670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 28 ], [ 62, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 13 Paul Speratus, German Lutheran (d. 1551)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8852, 32535217, 38670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 27 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Hosokawa Takakuni, Japanese military commander (d. 1531)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2020758, 34944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 32 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Luisa de Medrano, Spanish scholar (d. 1527)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 51443601, 38685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 31 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "date unknown Purandara Dasa, Indian composer and saint (d. 1564)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 510331, 34660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 28 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 4 Saint Casimir, Prince of Poland (b. 1458)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20315, 37290, 36131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 23 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 5 Elisabeth of Bavaria, Electress of Saxony (b. 1443)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20314, 32071713, 39927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 51 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 9 Edward of Middleham, Prince of Wales (b. c. 1473)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1787, 532892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 1 Adalbert of Saxony, Administrator of Mainz (1482–1484) (b. 1467)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19348, 34786008, 39502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 26 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 11 Mino da Fiesole, Italian sculptor (b. c. 1429)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15873, 225495, 39913 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 25 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 14 Federico I Gonzaga, Marquess of Mantua (1478–1484) (b. 1441)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16018, 7440926, 39925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 48 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 12 Pope Sixtus IV (b. 1414)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1491, 24845, 39898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 26 ], [ 31, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 20 Ippolita Maria Sforza, Italian noble (b. 1446)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 18933271, 20407276, 39930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 33 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 2 Isabel of Cambridge, Countess of Essex (b. 1409)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22527, 5704409, 39561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 50 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December Premislav of Tost, Silesian ruler (b. 1425)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8143, 6011946, 39908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 28 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " William Sinclair, 1st Earl of Caithness (b. 1410)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 433194, 35204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Luigi Pulci, Italian poet (b. 1432)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1554154, 39916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 31, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Barbara von Ottenheim, German sculpture model (b. 1430)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36196634, 39914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] } ]

[ "1484" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1482 (MCDLXXXII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 311439, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ], [ 28, 59 ], [ 105, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 7 Fray Thomas de San Martín, Roman Catholic prelate and bishop (d. 1555)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 18935042, 1656117, 36175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 35 ], [ 75, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 29 Maria of Aragon, Queen of Manuel I of Portugal, daughter of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile (d. 1517)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15842, 5510605, 144835, 18836110, 23909513, 38691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 25 ], [ 36, 56 ], [ 70, 92 ], [ 97, 118 ], [ 123, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 7 Andrzej Krzycki, Polish archbishop (d. 1537)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15863, 5430836, 35528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 24 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 23 Jo Gwang-jo, Korean philosopher (d. 1520)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1628, 4887471, 34888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 23 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 7 Ernest, Margrave of Baden-Durlach (d. 1553)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22446, 32831039, 38667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 45 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 18 Philipp III, Count of Hanau-Lichtenberg (d. 1538)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22545, 32873630, 38679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 52 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 9 Frederick II, Elector Palatine (1544–1556) (d. 1556)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8589, 8338355, 38666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 43 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Richard Aertsz, Dutch historical painter (d. 1577)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 288708, 38600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eufrasia Burlamacchi, Italian nun and manuscript illumination artist (d. 1548)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 44435022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leo Jud, Swiss religious reformer (d. 1542)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1469986, 34782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Johannes Oecolampadius, German religious reformer (d. 1531)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 180741, 34944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Matthias Ringmann, German cartographer and humanist poet (d. 1511)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1692198, 38696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bernardino Luini, Italian painter (d. 1532)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1290221, 38682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Richard Pace, English diplomat (d. 1537)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 335173, 35528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 25 Lucrezia Tornabuoni, Italian writer, adviser and spouse of Piero di Cosimo de' Medici (b. 1427)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19773, 21874567, 39910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 30 ], [ 101, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 27 Mary of Burgundy, Sovereign Duchess regnant of Burgundy, married to Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1457)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20585, 151337, 39070, 36130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 27 ], [ 79, 111 ], [ 116, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 10 Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli, Italian mathematician and astronomer (b. 1397)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19629, 1295715, 39554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 35 ], [ 78, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 23 Mary of York, daughter of King Edward IV of England (b. 1467)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19655, 5103561, 39502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 21 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 15 William, Margrave of Hachberg-Sausenberg, Margrave of Hachberg-Sausenberg (1428-1441) (b. 1406)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1442, 33592995, 39558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 52 ], [ 102, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 25 Queen Margaret of Anjou, wife of Henry VI of England (b. 1430)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1519, 47411, 46858, 39914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 18, 35 ], [ 45, 64 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 29 Queen Yun, Korean Queen (b. 1455)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1793, 30540864, 39508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 21 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 10 Federico da Montefeltro, Italian mercenary (b. 1422)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28020, 621744, 39905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 38 ], [ 62, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 17 William III, Landgrave of Thuringia, Duke of Luxembourg (b. 1425)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27993, 4158794, 39908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 50 ], [ 75, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 22 Philibert I, Duke of Savoy (b. 1465)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27889, 69496, 34957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 41 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Hugo van der Goes, Flemish artist (b. c. 1440)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1758658, 39923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 32 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In Doctor Who, the Doctor states that 1482 is a hard year to time travel to, as it is full of glitches.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 8209, 959699, 31591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 16, 26 ], [ 62, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Victor Hugo's novel The Hunchback of Notre-Dame takes place in this year.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 42146, 52803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 21, 48 ] ] } ]

[ "1482" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1479 (MCDLXXIX) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168855, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 19 ], [ 27, 57 ], [ 103, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 12 Giuliano de' Medici, Duke of Nemours (d. 1516)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20197, 296864, 38692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 47 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 13 Lazarus Spengler, German hymnwriter (d. 1534)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22693343, 24233157, 36116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 27 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 20 Ippolito d'Este, Italian Catholic cardinal (d. 1520)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 14563107, 7634495, 34888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 26 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 25 Vasili III of Russia, Grand Prince of Moscow (d. 1533)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19773, 148192, 38681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 31 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 3 Henry V, Duke of Mecklenburg (d. 1552)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19350, 31445911, 38668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 36 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 5 Guru Amar Das, third Sikh Guru (d. 1574)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19352, 520933, 2224412, 34759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 21 ], [ 29, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 12 Pompeo Colonna, Italian Catholic cardinal (d. 1532)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19497, 7562345, 38682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 23 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 14 Giglio Gregorio Giraldi, Italian scholar and poet (d. 1552)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15797, 2445600, 38668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 33 ], [ 64, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 15 Lisa del Giocondo, Florentine noblewoman believed to be the subject of the Mona Lisa (d. 1542)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15936, 1698040, 70889, 34782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 27 ], [ 85, 94 ], [ 99, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 14 Catherine of York, English princess, aunt of Henry VIII (d. 1527)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1417, 5116618, 14187, 38685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 29 ], [ 57, 67 ], [ 72, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 17 Celio Calcagnini, Italian astronomer (d. 1541)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27993, 19571223, 38677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 31 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 28 John Gage, English courtier of the Tudor period (d. 1556)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22341, 4610966, 38666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 22 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 6", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Joanna of Castile, Queen of Philip I of Castile, daughter of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon (d. 1555)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 151276, 151288, 23909513, 18836110, 36175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 29, 48 ], [ 62, 83 ], [ 88, 110 ], [ 115, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Philip I, Margrave of Baden (d. 1533)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 31363271, 38681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ], [ 33, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December Ayşe Hafsa Sultan, Ottoman Valide Sultan (d. 1534)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 17299433, 36116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 28 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Johann Cochlaeus, German humanist and controversialist (d. 1552)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 334737, 38668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vallabhacharya, Indian founder of the Vallabha sect of Hinduism (d. 1531)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3026718, 34944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Henry Stafford, 1st Earl of Wiltshire (d. 1522)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 503376, 34995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 48 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 18 Louis IX, Duke of Bavaria (b. 1417)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16202, 3484514, 39900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 20 King John II of Aragon (b. 1397)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16025, 151351, 39554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 18, 35 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February Antonello da Messina, Italian painter (b. c. 1430)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 254609, 39914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 31 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 10 Catherine of Cleves, duchess consort regent of Guelders (b. 1417)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 10991, 31273340, 39900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 33 ], [ 74, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 12 Eleanor of Navarre, queen regnant of Navarre (b. 1426)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11158, 2940926, 39909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 32 ], [ 63, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 24 Jorge Manrique, Spanish poet (b. 1440)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2734, 562741, 39923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 25 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 11 John of Sahagún, Spanish Augustinian friar, priest and saint (b. 1419)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15796, 13760899, 39902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 25 ], [ 75, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 10 Jacopo Piccolomini-Ammannati, Italian Catholic cardinal (b. 1422)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28020, 5648970, 39905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 43 ], [ 75, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 18 Fulk Bourchier, 10th Baron FitzWarin, English baron (b. 1445)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28146, 14618919, 39929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 51 ], [ 71, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 6 James Hamilton, 1st Lord Hamilton", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21758, 1995829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Johanne Andersdatter Sappi, Danish noble (b. 1400)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 41529135, 36302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ólöf Loftsdóttir, politically active Icelandic woman (b. c. 1410)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38012688, 35204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] } ]

[ "1479" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1475 (MCDLXXV) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168851, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 26, 56 ], [ 102, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 9 Crinitus, Italian humanist (d. 1507)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 16075, 4968967, 38698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 20 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 29 Giuliano Bugiardini, Italian painter (d. 1555)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15814, 9278499, 36175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 32 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 25 Edward Plantagenet, 17th Earl of Warwick, last male member of the House of York (d. 1499)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 10930, 86564, 39484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 54 ], [ 98, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 6 Michelangelo Buonarroti, Italian sculptor (d. 1564)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19865, 21019, 34660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 33 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 12 Luca Gaurico, Italian astrologer (d. 1558)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20197, 2592474, 38664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 23 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 30 Elisabeth of Culemborg, German noble (d. 1555)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19849, 22629483, 36175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 33 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 29 Beatrice d'Este, duchess of Bari and Milan (d. 1497)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15842, 2672580, 39485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 25 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 6", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Artus Gouffier, Lord of Boissy, French nobleman and politician (d. 1519)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 31951306, 36169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ], [ 68, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sebastiano Serlio, Italian Mannerist architect (d. 1554)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 823788, 34972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 8 John Stokesley, English prelate (d. 1539)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28488, 691065, 38680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 28 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 13 or April 1476 Cesare Borgia, illegitimate son of Pope Alexander VI (approximate date; d. 1507)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28030, 34779, 7504, 23791, 38698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 23, 27 ], [ 29, 42 ], [ 64, 81 ], [ 104, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 20 Giovanni di Bernardo Rucellai, Italian Renaissance man of letters (d. 1525)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22442, 38881473, 38687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 42 ], [ 83, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 2 Anne of York, seventh child of King Edward IV of England and Elizabeth Woodville (d. 1511)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21461, 5104567, 38696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 25 ], [ 98, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 28 Anne Shelton, elder sister of Thomas Boleyn (d. 1556)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21579, 17527561, 38666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 26 ], [ 62, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 11 Pope Leo X (d. 1521)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8396, 37870, 35225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 24 ], [ 29, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 24 Thomas Murner, German satirist (d. c. 1537)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8359, 337639, 35528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 27 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Valerius Anshelm, Swiss chronicler", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2008903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vasco Núñez de Balboa, Spanish conquistador (approximate date; d. 1519)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4749442, 36169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gendun Gyatso, 2nd Dalai Lama (d. 1541)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1976539, 38677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ], [ 35, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Thomas West, 9th Baron De La Warr (d. 1554)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2108850, 34972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Margaret Drummond, mistress of James IV of Scotland (d. 1502)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1377715, 50556, 38705 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 32, 52 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pierre Gringoire, French poet and playwright (d. 1538)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 806834, 38679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Filippo de Lurano, Italian composer (d. 1520)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1134153, 34888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gunilla Bese, Finnish noble and fiefholder (d. 1553)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 40018791, 38667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January Radu cel Frumos, Voivoid of Wallachia (b. c. 1437)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15642, 407923, 36129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 25 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 3 John IV, Count of Nassau-Siegen (b. 1410)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11323, 31768187, 35204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 44 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March Simon of Trent, Italian saint, subject of a blood libel", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19344, 181934, 4941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 22 ], [ 52, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 20 Georges Chastellain, Burgundian chronicler and poet", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 14563107, 2406219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 20 Alice Chaucer, Duchess of Suffolk (born c.1404)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19677, 24470498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 13 Joan of Portugal, Queen of Castile (b. 1439)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15816, 2439433, 39922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 26 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 6 Adolph II of Nassau, Archbishop of Mainz (b. c. 1423)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27948, 8085659, 39906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 33 ], [ 62, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 10 Paolo Uccello, Italian painter (b. 1397)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8714, 24067, 39554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 27 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Theodorus Gaza, Greek scholar, one of the leaders of the revival of learning in the 15th century (b. c. 1400)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 533346, 36302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 105, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Theodosius, Metropolitan of Moscow", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 879971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Masuccio Salernitano, Italian poet (b. 1410)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 205383, 35204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] } ]

[ "1475" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1474 (MCDLXXIV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321295, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 19 ], [ 27, 59 ], [ 105, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "<onlyinclude>", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " February The Treaty of Utrecht puts an end to the Anglo-Hanseatic War.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 10845, 13326278, 14076996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 15, 32 ], [ 52, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 19 The Senate of the Republic of Venice enacts the Venetian Patent Statute, one of the earliest patent systems in the world. New and inventive devices, once put into practice, have to be communicated to the Republic to obtain the right to prevent others from using them. This is considered the first modern patent system.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 20316, 27117775, 613492, 46662537, 23273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 15, 21 ], [ 29, 47 ], [ 59, 82 ], [ 104, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 25 By signing the Treaty of London, Charles the Bold of Burgundy agrees to support Edward IV of England's planned invasion of France.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 15804, 57110116, 151328, 46390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 25, 41 ], [ 43, 59 ], [ 90, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 12 Upon the death of Henry IV of Castile, a civil war ensues between his designated successor Isabella I of Castile, and her niece Juana, who is supported by her husband, Afonso V of Portugal. Isabella wins the civil war after a lengthy struggle, when her husband, the newly crowned Ferdinand II of Aragon, comes to her aid.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 8633, 972071, 23909513, 356550, 1661, 18836110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 32, 51 ], [ 105, 126 ], [ 142, 147 ], [ 182, 202 ], [ 294, 316 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Marsilio Ficino completes his book Theologia Platonica (Platonic Theology).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 19963, 40977812 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 36, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Axayacatl defeats the Matlatzinca of the Toluca Valley.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 2907, 6857084, 6190526 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 23, 34 ], [ 42, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gringotts is founded by Gringott in London. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 667658, 17867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 37, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 7 Thihathura II of Ava (d. 1501)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15987, 27284029, 38706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 32 ], [ 37, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 1 Angela Merici, Italian religious leader and saint (d. 1540)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19346, 769862, 35144 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 23 ], [ 64, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 18 Isabella d'Este, Marquise of Mantua (d. 1539)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19389, 15401, 38680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 24 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 8 Ludovico Ariosto, Italian poet (d. 1533)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28488, 17901, 38681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 30 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 7 Bernhard III, Margrave of Baden-Baden (d. 1536)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22446, 32180948, 36117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 49 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 13 Mariotto Albertinelli, High Renaissance Italian painter of the Florentine school (d. 1515)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22554, 19757, 38693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 34 ], [ 98, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 24 Bartolomeo degli Organi, Italian musician (d. 1539)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8359, 4022735, 38680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 37 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Anacaona, Taino queen and poet (d. 1503)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 9800419, 34971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Juan Diego, Mexican Catholic saint (d. 1548)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 31320562, 38672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Giacomo Pacchiarotti, Italian painter (d. 1539 or 1540)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1530933, 38680, 35144 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 43, 47 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cuthbert Tunstall, English bishop and diplomat (d. 1559)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 314921, 38665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Humphrey Kynaston, English highwayman (d. 1534)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5124935, 36116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sebastian Cabot, Venetian explorer (d. c. 1557)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 517634, 34959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Edward Guilford, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports of England (d. 1534)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 807218, 36116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stephen Hawes, English poet (d. c. 1521)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 891400, 35225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sir John Seymour, English courtier (d. 1536)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 856713, 36117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Perkin Warbeck, pretender to the throne of England (d. 1499)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 46375, 39484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 30 Queen Gonghye, Korean royal consort (b. 1456)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1011, 34140913, 39507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 24 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 4 Alain de Coëtivy, Catholic cardinal (b. 1407)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19351, 16615111, 39559 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 24 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 11 John Stanberry, Bishop of Hereford", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19452, 13051747 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 26 James III of Cyprus (b. 1473)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 6048708, 394094, 35077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 31 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November William Canynge, English merchant (b. c. 1399)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 224676, 39555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 26 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 27 Guillaume Dufay, Flemish composer (b. 1397)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21448, 321818, 39554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 29 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 11 King Henry IV of Castile (b. 1425)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8396, 972071, 39908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 19, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gomes Eannes de Azurara, Portuguese chronicler (b. c. 1410)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1571802, 35204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Antoinette de Maignelais, French royal favorite (b. 1434)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15360480, 39918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gendun Drup, 1st Dalai Lama (b. 1391)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 100612, 39550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ], [ 33, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Walter Frye, English composer", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1077185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jehan de Waurin, French chronicler", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1606988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] } ]

[ "1474" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1472 (MCDLXXII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321387, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 19 ], [ 27, 58 ], [ 104, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 17 Guidobaldo da Montefeltro, Italian condottiero and Duke of Urbino (d. 1508)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15920, 6803808, 38699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 38 ], [ 83, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 15 Piero di Lorenzo de' Medici, ruler of Florence (d. 1503)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11020, 215633, 34971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 41 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 28 Fra Bartolomeo, Italian artist (d. 1517)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19347, 11458, 38691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 25 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 5 Bianca Maria Sforza, Pavian-born Holy Roman Empress as consort to Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1510)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2194, 1384003, 39070, 38697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 29 ], [ 76, 108 ], [ 113, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 10 Margaret of York, English princess (d. 1472)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2564, 10782422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 31 Érard de La Marck, prince-bishop of Liège (d. 1538)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19653, 3100597, 38679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 26 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 11 Nikolaus von Schönberg, German Catholic cardinal (d. 1537)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2192, 5170603, 35528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 34 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 19 John Louis, Count of Nassau-Saarbrücken (d. 1545)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22568, 34800931, 38675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 52 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 31 Wang Yangming, Chinese Neo-Confucian scholar (d. 1529)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22437, 619526, 38684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 26 ], [ 62, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 24 Pietro Torrigiano, Italian sculptor of the Florentine school (d. 1528)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21522, 3040953, 36227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 31 ], [ 79, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 10 Anne de Mowbray, 8th Countess of Norfolk (d. 1481)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8714, 78346, 34886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 54 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lucas Cranach the Elder, German painter (d. 1553)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 79884, 38667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alfonsina Orsini, Regent of Florence (d. 1520)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 31941734, 34888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Barbro Stigsdotter, Swedish noblewoman and heroine (d. 1528)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 44866752, 36227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 30 Amadeus IX, Duke of Savoy (b. 1435)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19849, 69494, 39920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 36 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 25 Leon Battista Alberti, Italian painter, poet and philosopher (b. 1404)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2733, 18031, 39557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 32 ], [ 76, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 24 Charles de Valois, Duke de Berry, French noble (b. 1446)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19459, 5691114, 39930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 41 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 30 Jacquetta of Luxembourg, English duchess, daughter of Pierre de Luxembourg (b. 1416)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19654, 232011, 39899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 32 ], [ 88, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 4 Nezahualcoyotl, Aztec poet (b. 1402)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19279145, 224144, 34882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 23 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 15 Johann II of Nassau-Saarbrücken, Count of Nassau-Saarbrücken (1429–1472) (b. 1423)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16088, 34187350, 39906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 41 ], [ 87, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 25 Charles of Artois, Count of Eu, French military leader (b. 1394)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15804, 2650451, 36125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 40 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 18 Basilios Bessarion, Latin Patriarch of Constantinople (b. 1403)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21452, 155900, 212186, 34883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 32 ], [ 34, 67 ], [ 72, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 11 Margaret of York, English princess (b. 1472)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8396, 10782422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Afanasy Nikitin, Russian traveller", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1067948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Thomas Boyd, Earl of Arran", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1995998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hayne van Ghizeghem, Flemish composer (b. c. 1445)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 869659, 39929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Michelozzo, Italian architect and sculptor (b. c. 1396)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 871362, 39553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] } ]

[ "1472" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1470 (MCDLXX) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168880, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 17 ], [ 25, 55 ], [ 101, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Chimor–Inca War ends with an Inca victory. The Chimor Empire is absorbed into the Inca Empire.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 59869767, 15319 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 20 ], [ 87, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 1 Magnus I, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, German noble (d. 1543)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15787, 4453552, 34943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 44 ], [ 63, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 16 Eric I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Prince of Calenberg (1491–1540) (d. 1540)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11362, 26825101, 35144 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 48 ], [ 86, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 7 Edward Stafford, 2nd Earl of Wiltshire (d. 1498)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2735, 503363, 35500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 48 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 9 Giovanni Angelo Testagrossa, Italian composer (d. 1530)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1787, 20223038, 38683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 37 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 20 Pietro Bembo, Italian cardinal (d. 1547)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19677, 143597, 38671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 21 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 30 Charles VIII of France (d. 1498)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15843, 77606, 35500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 32 ], [ 37, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 13 Francesco Armellini Pantalassi de' Medici, Italian Catholic cardinal (d. 1528)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15878, 14061769, 36227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 51 ], [ 83, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 20 John Bourchier, 1st Earl of Bath, English noble (d. 1539)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15803, 11784137, 38680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 42 ], [ 62, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 30 Hongzhi Emperor of China (d. 1505)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15911, 390587, 5405, 38701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 25 ], [ 29, 34 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 4", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bernardo Dovizi, Italian Catholic cardinal (d. 1520)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5492983, 34888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lucrezia de' Medici, Italian noblewoman (d. 1553)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 18933275, 38667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 2", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Isabella of Aragon, Queen of Portugal, daughter of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon (d. 1498)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5096391, 23909513, 18836110, 35500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ], [ 52, 73 ], [ 78, 100 ], [ 105, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Isabella of Aragon, Duchess of Milan, daughter of King Alfonso II of Naples (d. 1524)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1941446, 1520970, 38688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ], [ 51, 76 ], [ 81, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " George I of Münsterberg, Imperial Prince, Duke of Münsterberg and Oels, Graf von Glatz (d. 1502)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 31980822, 38705 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 92, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 15 Konrad Mutian, German humanist (d. 1526)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22555, 1683358, 38686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 26 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 2 King Edward V of England, the elder of the \"Princes in the Tower\" (d. c. 1483)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21461, 39709, 70600, 36162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 18, 37 ], [ 57, 77 ], [ 86, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 28 Wen Zhengming, artist during the Ming Dynasty (d. 1559)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21579, 1149609, 38665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 27 ], [ 64, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 5 Willibald Pirckheimer, German humanist (d. 1530)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8353, 4246397, 38683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 34 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Thomas Cajetan, Italian theologian and cardinal (d. 1534)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1338245, 36116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Juan Díaz de Solís, Spanish navigator and explorer (d. 1516)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 715335, 38692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wen Zhengming, Chinese painter (d. 1559)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1149609, 38665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tang Yin, Chinese painter (d. 1524)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8583833, 38688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 31, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Polydore Vergil, Urbinate/English historian (d. 1555)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 335170, 36175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Matthias Grünewald, German painter (d. 1528)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 306574, 36227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hayuya, Taino chief (d. unknown)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 972775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hugh Latimer, Protestant martyr (d. 1555)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 196778, 36175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 37, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 2 Heinrich Reuß von Plauen, Grand Master of the Teutonic Order ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15788, 5423919 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 20 Thomas Talbot, 2nd Viscount Lisle, English nobleman killed at the Battle of Nibley Green (b. c.1449)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 14563107, 4044078, 4044262, 39934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 44 ], [ 77, 99 ], [ 106, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 15 Charles VIII of Sweden (b. 1409)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19674, 187707, 39561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 31 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 31 Frederick II, Count of Vaudémont (b. c.1428)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1711, 18901245, 39912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 44 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 18 John Tiptoft, 1st Earl of Worcester, Lord High Treasurer (b. 1427)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22545, 3737379, 39910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 48 ], [ 74, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 23 Gaston, Prince of Viana (b. 1444)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21806, 5604344, 39928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 37 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 16 John II, Duke of Lorraine (b. 1425)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8219, 655723, 39908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Domenico da Piacenza, Italian dancing master (b. 1390)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 697947, 39551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pal Engjëlli, Albanian Catholic clergyman (b. 1416)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 333645, 39899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Jacopo Bellini, Italian painter (b. 1400)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 214200, 36302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 25 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] } ]

[ "1470" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1468 (MCDLXVIII) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321374, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ], [ 28, 56 ], [ 102, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 29 Pope Paul III (d. 1549)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 10936, 47437, 38674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 27 ], [ 32, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 28 Charles I, Duke of Savoy (d. 1490)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19347, 69500, 39489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 35 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 27 Frederick Jagiellon, Primate of Poland (d. 1503)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2326, 32949966, 34971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 30 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 31 Philip, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen, German prince (d. 1500)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19653, 19013736, 35019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 40 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 30 John, Elector of Saxony (1525–1532) (d. 1532)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15843, 30870620, 38682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 33 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 24 Catherine of Saxony, Archduchess of Austria (d. 1524)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15888, 31713455, 38688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 53 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 3 Albert I, Duke of Münsterberg-Oels, Count of Kladsko (d. 1511)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1259, 31819601, 38696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 45 ], [ 68, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 26 Bernardo de' Rossi, Italian bishop (d. 1527)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 6048708, 31733120, 38685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 30 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 21 William Conyers, 1st Baron Conyers, English baron (d. 1524)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8850, 16942299, 38688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 48 ], [ 68, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Marino Ascanio Caracciolo, Italian cardinal (d. 1538)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 7132923, 38679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mir Chakar Khan Rind, Baloch chieftain (d. 1565)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 7710723, 35229 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Juan de Zumárraga, Spanish Franciscan prelate and first bishop of Mexico (d. 1548)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 558663, 38672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 78, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Alonso de Ojeda, Spanish conquistador and explorer (d. 1515)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 758725, 38693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 26 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 3 Johannes Gutenberg, inventor of printing press with replaceable letters (b. c.1398)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11323, 15745, 36362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 31 ], [ 91, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 12 Astorre II Manfredi, Italian noble (b. 1412)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20197, 10791728, 39896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 30 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 23 Sejo of Joseon, King of Joseon (b. 1417)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27651, 3131532, 39900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 29 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 10 Idris Imad al-Din, supreme leader of Tayyibi Isma'ilism, scholar and historian (b. 1392)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15805, 28935839, 3142259, 39549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 27 ], [ 47, 65 ], [ 93, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 14 Margaret Beauchamp, countess of Shrewsbury", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15797, 4044009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 30 Lady Eleanor Talbot, English noblewoman", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15843, 71859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 5 Alfonso, Prince of Asturias (b. 1453)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15861, 5218624, 35148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 36 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 26 Juan de Torquemada, Spanish Catholic cardinal (b. 1388)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28178, 886067, 36124 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 33 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 7 Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta, lord of Rimini (b. 1417)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22446, 1306000, 39900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 41 ], [ 62, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 28 Bianca Maria Visconti, Duchess of Milan (b. 1425)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22341, 2836453, 39908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 34 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 24 Jean de Dunois, French soldier (b. 1402)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21522, 744956, 34882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 28 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 6 Zanobi Strozzi, Italian painter (b. 1412)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8352, 37972364, 39896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 27 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Joanot Martorell, Spanish writer (b. 1419)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 65127, 39902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Francesco Squarcione, Italian artist b(1377)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 214315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Zara Yaqob, Emperor of Ethiopia (b. 1399)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1816597, 606626, 39555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 32 ], [ 37, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pomellina Fregoso, Monegaque regent (b. 1388", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 32287520, 36124 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] } ]

[ "1468" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1467 (MCDLXVII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321344, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 19 ], [ 27, 59 ], [ 105, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January John Colet, English churchman and educational pioneer (d. 1519)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15642, 163670, 36169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 20 ], [ 68, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 1", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Philip of Cleves, Bishop of Nevers, Amiens, Autun (d. 1505)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34307629, 38701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sigismund I the Old, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania (d. 1548)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 42583, 38672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 4", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Henry the Younger of Stolberg, Stadtholder of Friesland (1506–1508) (d. 1508)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35515612, 38699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ], [ 73, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bodo VIII, Count of Stolberg-Wernigerode (1511–1538) (d. 1538)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 33883495, 38679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 26 Guillaume Budé, French scholar (d. 1540)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15791, 163688, 35144 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 27 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 2 Columba of Rieti, Italian Dominican tertiary Religious Sister (d. 1501)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11322, 10544059, 38706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 29 ], [ 79, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 19 Bartolomeo della Rocca, Italian scholar (d. 1504)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20316, 7134781, 38702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 33 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 21 Caritas Pirckheimer, German nun (d. 1532)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20329, 21895686, 38682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 30 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 8 Adalbert of Saxony, Administrator of Mainz (1482–1484) (d. 1484)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19353, 34786008, 39494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 26 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 31 Sibylle of Brandenburg, Duchess of Jülich and Berg (d. 1524)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19653, 32967624, 38688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 31 ], [ 64, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 11 Mary of York, daughter of King Edward IV of England (d. 1482)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2192, 5103561, 39495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 24 ], [ 68, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 25 Francisco Fernández de la Cueva, 2nd Duke of Alburquerque, Spanish duke (d. 1526)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1519, 16138438, 38686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 69 ], [ 88, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 21 Giovanni il Popolano, Italian diplomat (d. 1498)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22570, 11744846, 35500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 33 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 9", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Charles II, Duke of Guelders, Count of Zutphen from 1492 (d. 1538)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 327949, 34599, 38679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ], [ 53, 57 ], [ 62, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Philippa of Guelders, twin sister of Charles, Duke of Guelders, Duchess consort of Lorraine (d. 1547)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 25528320, 38671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 97, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 25 Thomas Dacre, 2nd Baron Dacre, Knight of Henry VIII of England (d. 1525)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21580, 8838890, 38687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 43 ], [ 81, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " John Bourchier, 2nd Baron Berners, English translator (d. 1553)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 931229, 38667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Krzysztof Szydłowiecki, Polish nobleman (d. 1532)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1515056, 38682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Yonge, English ecclesiastic and diplomatist (d. 1516)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 705475, 38692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable William Latimer, English churchman and scholar (d. 1545)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 50803640, 38675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 26 ], [ 62, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 13 Vettore Cappello, Venetian statesman", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22693343, 55397069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 29 Matthew Palaiologos Asen, Byzantine aristocrat and official", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20586, 47051431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 20 Dorotea Gonzaga, Italian noble (b. 1449)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2195, 30701216, 39934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 26 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 30 John, Count of Angoulême (b. 1399)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1011, 8770387, 39555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 35 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 15 Philip III, Duke of Burgundy (b. 1396)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15936, 606972, 39553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 3 Eleanor of Portugal, Holy Roman Empress (b. 1434)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27989, 2439341, 39918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 53 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 12 Jošt of Rožmberk, Bishop of Breslau, Grand Prior of the Order of St. John (b. 1430)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8633, 37598432, 39914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 30 ], [ 92, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 15 Jöns Bengtsson Oxenstierna, archbishop and Regent of Sweden (b. 1417)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8145, 24008564, 39900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 40 ], [ 78, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Maria of Tver, Grand Princess consort of Muscovy, spouse of Ivan III of Russia (b. 1447)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2895245, 39931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 84, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Peter III Aaron, prince of Moldavia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 3309477 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jahan Shah, leader of Turkmen", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1622771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Khan Xälil of Kazan", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1374389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 20 ] ] } ]

[ "1467" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1466 (MCDLXVI) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. It is one of eight years (CE) to contain each Roman numeral once (1000(M)+(-100(C)+500(D))+50(L)+10(X)+5(V)+1(I) = 1466).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 319725, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 26, 59 ], [ 105, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 11 Elizabeth of York, queen of Henry VII of England (d. 1503)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11184, 47907, 14186, 34971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 31 ], [ 42, 62 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 22 Marino Sanuto the Younger, Italian historian (d. 1536)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19660, 3239297, 36117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 34 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 18 Ottaviano Petrucci, Italian music printer (d. 1539)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15815, 191238, 38680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 28 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 5 Giovanni Sforza, Italian noble (d. 1510)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15861, 5309097, 38697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 24 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 10 Francesco II Gonzaga, Marquess of Mantua (d. 1519)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2315, 214232, 36169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 52 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 9 Ashikaga Yoshitane, Japanese shōgun (d. 1523)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28544, 234711, 36226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 32 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 28 Erasmus, Dutch philosopher (d. 1536)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22341, 10152, 36117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 20 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 16 Francesco Cattani da Diacceto, Florentine philosopher (d. 1522)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21726, 38632699, 34995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 43 ], [ 72, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 26 Edward Hastings, 2nd Baron Hastings, English noble (d. 1506)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21581, 20887138, 35499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 49 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 30 Andrea Doria, Genoese condottiero and admiral (d. 1560)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21577, 308092, 35145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 26 ], [ 64, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Probable Moctezuma II, Aztec Tlatoani (ruler) of Tenochtitlán (modern Mexico City), 1502–1520, son of Axayacatl (d. 1520)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20747, 1475346, 29988, 2907, 34888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 23 ], [ 31, 39 ], [ 51, 63 ], [ 104, 113 ], [ 119, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 23 Girishawardhana Dyah Suryawikrama, 9th Maharaja of Majapahit", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11008, 162773 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 65, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 6 Alvise Loredan, Venetian admiral and statesman (b. 1393)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19865, 55333743, 36369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 24 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 8 Francesco I Sforza, Duke of Milan (b. 1401)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20053, 11623, 39556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 28 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August Hacı I Giray, first ruler of the Crimean Khanate (b. 1397)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1005, 1411559, 39554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 21 ], [ 62, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 30 Johann Fust, German printer (b. c. 1400)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22436, 275989, 36302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 24 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 13 Donatello, Italian artist (b. 1386)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8852, 69852, 39547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 23 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Barbara Manfredi, Italian noblewoman (b. 1444)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 7551813, 39928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Isotta Nogarola, Italian writer and intellectual (b. 1418)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 9564348, 39901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nicolaus Zacharie, Italian composer (b. c. 1400)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 3780535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] } ]

[ "1466" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1464 (MCDLXIV) was a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. It is one of eight years (CE) to contain each Roman numeral once (1000(M)+(-100(C)+500(D))+50(L)+10(X)+(-1(I)+5(V)) = 1464).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 311406, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 26, 54 ], [ 100, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 23", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Robert Fayrfax, English Renaissance composer (d. 1521)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8096070, 35225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Joan of France, Duchess of Berry (d. 1505)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1614613, 38701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 6 Sophia Jagiellon, Margravine of Brandenburg-Ansbach, Polish princess (d. 1512)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19514, 24552291, 34887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 59 ], [ 81, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 30 Barbara of Brandenburg, Bohemian queen (d. 1515)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19654, 21338130, 38693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 31 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 27 Ernst II of Saxony, Archbishop of Magdeburg (1476–1513) and Administrator of Halberstadt (1480–1513) (d. 1513)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15801, 35847455, 38695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 28 ], [ 115, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 1 Clara Gonzaga, Italian noble (d. 1503)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15844, 20923780, 34971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 22 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 19 Emperor Go-Kashiwabara of Japan (d. 1526)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21574, 195016, 38686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 36 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Nezahualpilli, Aztec ruler (d. 1515)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 354508, 38693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 32, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Philippe Villiers de L'Isle-Adam, Grand Master of the Knights Hospitallers (d. 1534)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 6970731, 36116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ], [ 80, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January Desiderio da Settignano, Italian sculptor (b. c. 1428 or 1430)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 233359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 23 Zhengtong Emperor of China (b. 1427)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11008, 573451, 39910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 31 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 8 Catherine of Poděbrady, Hungarian queen consort (b. 1449)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20053, 24002629, 39934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 32 ], [ 62, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 15 Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset (executed) (b. 1436)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19674, 249360, 34778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 45 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 17 Thomas de Ros, 9th Baron de Ros, English politician (executed) (b. 1427)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19631, 1096103, 39910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 40 ], [ 76, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 25 Charles I, Count of Nevers (b. 1414)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19354, 2605862, 39898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 35 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 18 Rogier van der Weyden, Flemish painter (b. 1399 or 1400)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15815, 192488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 1 Cosimo de' Medici, ruler of Florence (b. 1389)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1254, 214876, 34881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 28 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 11 Nicholas of Cusa, German mathematician and astronomer (b. 1401)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2192, 282522, 39556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 28 ], [ 70, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 12 John Capgrave, English historian and theologian (b. 1393)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1491, 996685, 36369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 25 ], [ 64, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 14 Pope Pius II (b. 1405)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1417, 24069, 36212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 24 ], [ 29, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 7 Otto III, Duke of Pomerania-Stettin (1460–1464) (b. 1444)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27949, 33925311, 39928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 41 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 23 Bernardo Rossellino, Italian sculptor and architect (b. 1409)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27651, 357082, 39561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 34 ], [ 71, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 26 Benedetto Accolti the Elder, Italian jurist and historian (b. 1415)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28178, 334720, 36126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 42 ], [ 77, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 16 John, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach (b. 1406)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21726, 5800791, 39558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 52 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 23 Blessed Margaret of Savoy (b. 1382 or 1390)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21806, 5139054, 36370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 2 Blanche II of Navarre (b. 1424)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8356, 1799027, 39907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 34 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Fra Mauro, Venetian Camaldolese monk, cartographer and accountant (b. c. 1400)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 819958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 24 ] ] } ]

[ "1464" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1463 (MCDLXIII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321295, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 19 ], [ 27, 59 ], [ 105, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 17", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Antoine Duprat, French cardinal (d. 1535)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 7275623, 34958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 37, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Frederick III, Elector of Saxony (d. 1525)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 256460, 38687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 24 Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, Italian philosopher (d. 1494)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11007, 152575, 39487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 43 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 14 Henry IV, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, German noble (d. 1514)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15797, 8140233, 38694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 46 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 4 Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici, Florentine patron of the arts (d. 1503)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2418, 297153, 34971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 46 ], [ 82, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 29 Louis I, Count of Löwenstein and founder of the House of Löwenstein-Wertheim (d. 1523)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28204, 9344368, 36226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 43 ], [ 96, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 20 or October 29 Alessandro Achillini, Bolognese philosopher (d. 1512)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22442, 22435, 1491161, 34887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 15, 25 ], [ 27, 47 ], [ 75, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 29 Andrea della Valle, Italian Catholic cardinal (d. 1534)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21578, 4000074, 36116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 32 ], [ 64, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 25 Johann of Schwarzenberg, German judge and poet (d. 1528)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8270, 21672562, 36227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 37 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Caterina Sforza, countess and regent of Forli (d. 1509)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1835849, 38700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 30 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 9 Catherine of Bologna, Italian Roman Catholic nun and saint (b. 1413)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20054, 3619053, 606848, 39897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 30 ], [ 40, 54 ], [ 73, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 25 King Stephen Tomašević of Bosnia (beheaded)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19354, 462812 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 14, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 4 Flavio Biondo, Italian humanist (b. 1392)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19279145, 1225733, 39549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 22 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 17 Infanta Catherine of Portugal, religious sister (b. 1436)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15798, 2440005, 34778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 18, 39 ], [ 62, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 23 Giovanni di Cosimo de' Medici, Italian noble (b. 1421)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27651, 8200201, 34884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 44 ], [ 64, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 1 Emperor David of Trebizond (b. c. 1408)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21460, 423666, 39560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 21, 39 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 15 Giovanni Antonio Del Balzo Orsini, Prince of Taranto and Constable of Naples (b. 1393)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21763, 1944097, 36369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 47 ], [ 95, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 18 John IV, Duke of Bavaria (b. 1437)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21452, 3082201, 36129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 29 Marie of Anjou, queen of France, spouse of Charles VII of France (b. 1404)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21578, 1157147, 76701, 39557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 28 ], [ 57, 78 ], [ 83, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 2 Albert VI, Archduke of Austria (b. 1418)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8356, 1220240, 39901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 43 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 16 Sir Philip Courtenay, British noble (b. 1404)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8219, 28427532, 39557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 34 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jacob Gaón, Jewish Basque tax collector (beheaded by the mob)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1100275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ponhea Yat, last king of the Khmer Empire and first king of Cambodia (b. 1394)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 46836934, 222431, 36125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 30, 42 ], [ 74, 78 ] ] } ]

[ "1463" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1460 (MCDLX) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar, the 1460th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 460th year of the 2nd millennium, the 60th year of the 15th century, and the 1st year of the 1460s decade.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 319727, 15651, 6088, 1400, 35938, 34567, 34996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 16 ], [ 24, 53 ], [ 99, 114 ], [ 139, 149 ], [ 159, 170 ], [ 212, 226 ], [ 249, 261 ], [ 287, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 8 Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach (d. 1536)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19353, 11788, 36117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 52 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 1 Enno I, Count of East Frisia (1466–1491) (d. 1491)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15856, 25292664, 39488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 37 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 29 Louis II de la Trémoille, French military leader (d. 1525)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28204, 2678190, 38687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 39 ], [ 68, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Vasco da Gama, Portuguese explorer (d. 1524)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 45080, 38688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Isabella Hoppringle, Scottish abbess and spy (d. 1538)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 42555153, 38679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Svante Nilsson, regent of Sweden (d. 1512)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 187541, 34887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ana de Mendonça, Spanish courtier (d. 1542)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4760906, 34782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Edward Sutton, 2nd Baron Dudley, English nobleman (d. 1532)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 717686, 38682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Antoine Brumel, Flemish composer (d. 1515)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 408547, 38693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tristão da Cunha, Portuguese explorer (d. 1540)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 170370, 35144 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Katarzyna Weiglowa, Jewish martyr (d. 1539)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 13890246, 38680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gwerful Mechain, Welsh erotic poet (d. 1502)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 866303, 38705 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Konstanty Ostrogski, Grand Hetman of Lithuania (d. 1530)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 966305, 38683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tilman Riemenschneider, German sculptor (d. 1531)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 658562, 34944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Arnolt Schlick, German organist and composer (d. after 1521)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 584134, 35225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Charles Somerset, 1st Earl of Worcester, English nobleman (d. 1526)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 434458, 38686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ], [ 63, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rodrigo de Bastidas, Spanish conquistador (d. 1527)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1478512, 38685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ponce de Leon, Spanish conquistador", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 143363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 29 Albert III, Duke of Bavaria-Munich (b. 1401)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 10936, 3082647, 39556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 24 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 10 ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Humphrey Stafford, 1st Duke of Buckingham, English military leader (b. 1402)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 245170, 34882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 42 ], [ 72, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Talbot, 2nd Earl of Shrewsbury (b. c. 1413)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 4111115, 39897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thomas Percy, 1st Baron Egremont, English baron (b. 1422)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 10138011, 39905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 19 Lord Scales, English commander (b. 1397)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16091, 5757354, 39554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 21 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 3 King James II of Scotland (b. 1430)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1259, 148026, 39914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 16, 36 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 20 Gilles Binchois, Flemish composer (b. c. 1400)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28148, 192559, 36302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 30 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 25 Katharina of Hanau, German countess regent (b. 1408)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28203, 35097677, 39560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 33 ], [ 62, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 13 Prince Henry the Navigator, Portuguese patron of exploration (b. 1394)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21761, 14092, 36125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 40 ], [ 79, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 14 Guarino da Verona, Italian humanist (b. 1370)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8851, 163788, 39535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 31 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 30 ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Edmund, Earl of Rutland, brother of Kings Edward IV of England and Richard III of England (b. 1443)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1420053, 46390, 26284, 39927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 43, 63 ], [ 68, 90 ], [ 95, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York, claimant to the English throne (in battle) (b. 1411)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 78356, 39895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ], [ 83, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 31 Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury, English politician (executed) (b. 1400)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8204, 248110, 36302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 52 ], [ 88, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Francesco II Acciaioli, last Duke of Athens (murdered by consent)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1518707 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Israel Isserlein, Austrian Jewish scholar (b. 1390)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1351787, 39551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Reginald Pecock, deposed Welsh bishop and writer (b. c. 1392)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 610786, 39549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] } ]

[ "1460" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1456 (MCDLVI) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321380, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 17 ], [ 25, 55 ], [ 101, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March Jan Łaski, Polish nobleman (d. 1531)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19344, 2040577, 34944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 17 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 1 Vladislaus II, king of Bohemia, Hungary and Croatia (d. 1516)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19346, 21756351, 38692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 23 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 11 Anne Neville, queen consort of Richard III of England (d. 1485)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15796, 49763, 26284, 39493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 22 ], [ 41, 63 ], [ 68, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 23 Margaret of Denmark, Queen of Scotland, consort of James III of Scotland (d. 1486)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15831, 174687, 148025, 39492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 48 ], [ 61, 82 ], [ 87, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 25 Henry V of Rosenberg, Bohemian nobleman (d. 1489)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15799, 37722420, 39491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 30 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 16 Ludmila of Poděbrady, Regent of the duchies of Brzeg and Oława from 1488 (d. 1503)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22556, 21426430, 34971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 33 ], [ 90, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 7 Margaret of Bavaria, Electress Palatine and hereditary princess of Bavaria-Landshut (d. 1501)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21667, 31315713, 38706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 52 ], [ 101, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 8 Queen Gonghye, Korean royal consort (d. 1474)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21759, 34140913, 39498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 26 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jeanne Hachette (Laisné), French peasant heroine", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1420155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Antonia di Paolo di Dono, Italian artist and daughter of Paolo di Dono (d. 1491)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 58758317, 24067, 39488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 58, 71 ], [ 76, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jan Lubrański, Polish bishop (d. 1520)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1261087, 34888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 33, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 17 Elisabeth of Lorraine-Vaudémont, French translator (b. 1395)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15920, 35873699, 39552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 44 ], [ 68, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 11 John Hunyadi, Hungarian statesman and military leader (b. c. 1406)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2192, 285013, 39558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 24 ], [ 73, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 20 Vladislav II of Wallachia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 18933271, 1111507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 17 Nicolas Grenon, French composer (b. 1375)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22366, 1419675, 39538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 27 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 23 Giovanni da Capistrano, Italian saint (b. 1386)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22572, 720407, 39547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 35 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 3 Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond, father of King Henry VII of England (b. 1431)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21764, 183672, 14186, 36127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 47 ], [ 64, 84 ], [ 89, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 9 Ulrich II, Count of Celje (b. 1406)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21446, 9561092, 39558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 25 Jacques Cœur, French merchant (b. 1395)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21580, 2556345, 39552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 26 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 4 Charles I, Duke of Bourbon (b. 1401)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8354, 703415, 39556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 24 Đurađ Branković, Despot of Serbia (b. 1377)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8359, 2036239, 39540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 29 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Juan de Mena, Spanish poet (b. 1411)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 657118, 39895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 27 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] } ]

[ "1456" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1455 (MCDLV) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 319725, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 16 ], [ 24, 57 ], [ 103, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 9 William IV, Duke of Jülich-Berg, Count of Ravensberg (d. 1511)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 16075, 29899831, 38696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 43 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 29 Johann Reuchlin, German-born humanist and scholar (d. 1522)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15814, 181116, 34995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 28 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 2 King John of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden (d. 1513)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11322, 176317, 38695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 18, 33 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 3", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19633 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " King John II of Portugal (d. 1495)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 147145, 36173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 25 ], [ 30, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ascanio Sforza, Italian Catholic cardinal (d. 1505)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4546450, 38701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 15 Pietro Accolti, Italian Catholic cardinal (d. 1532)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19635, 1525535, 38682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 25 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 17 Andrea Gritti, Doge of Venice (d. 1538)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1974, 2020200, 38679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 24 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 16 Wolfgang I of Oettingen, German count (d. 1522)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19659, 4389373, 34995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 32 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 1 Anne of Savoy, Savoy royal (d. 1480)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15856, 27556878, 36298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 22 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 9 Frederick IV of Baden, Dutch bishop (d. 1517)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15883, 24353659, 38691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 30 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 15 Queen Yun, Korean queen (d. 1482)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 16088, 30540864, 39495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 19 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 2 John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg (d. 1499)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1154, 16302, 39484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 46 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 15 George, Duke of Bavaria (d. 1503)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1442, 3485175, 34971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 35 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 9 John V, Count of Nassau-Siegen, Stadtholder of Guelders and Zutphen (d. 1516)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21446, 28664118, 38692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 43 ], [ 85, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Peter Vischer the Elder, German sculptor (approximate date) (d. 1529)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 755076, 38684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Estefania Carròs i de Mur, Spanish educator (approximate date) (d. 1511)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 53214395, 38696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ], [ 68, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Raden Patah, Javanese sultan, founder of the Demak Sultanate (d. 1518)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 43418147, 10457640, 38690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 46, 61 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " María de Ajofrín, Spanish visionary (d. 1489)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 44742441, 39491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nicholas Barnham, English knight, killed in the War of the Roses (d. 1485)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 30275656, 39493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 65 ], [ 70, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Angelo da Vallombrosa, Italian jurist and abbot (d. 1530)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 55158245, 38683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 18 Fra Angelico, Italian painter (b. 1395)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11363, 11457, 14532, 39552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 26 ], [ 28, 35 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 24 Pope Nicholas V (b. 1397)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20209, 44993, 39554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 26 ], [ 31, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 1 Zbigniew Oleśnicki, Polish Catholic cardinal and statesman (b. 1389)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1175, 2041677, 34881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 28 ], [ 73, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 1 Archibald Douglas, Earl of Moray (in battle)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19348, 11716560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 22 (killed at the First Battle of St Albans):", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19660, 30876909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 23, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Henry Percy, 2nd Earl of Northumberland, Lancastrian commander (b. 1393)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 429137, 36369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 39 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset, Lancastrian commander (b. 1406)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 33732052, 39558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 37 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thomas Clifford, 8th Baron de Clifford, Lancastrian commander (b. 1414)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 7246606, 39898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 38 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 3 Alonso Tostado, Spanish Catholic bishop", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27989, 1933539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 22 Johannes Brassart, Flemish composer", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22571, 1422205 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 28 Guillaume-Hugues d'Estaing, French Catholic cardinal", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22341, 35947491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 1 Lorenzo Ghiberti, Italian sculptor and metal smith (b. 1378)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8357, 160930, 39541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 29 ], [ 68, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 2 Isabel of Coimbra, queen of Portugal (b. 1432)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8356, 4760937, 39916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 30 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] } ]

[ "1455" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1452 (MCDLII) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321364, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 17 ], [ 25, 55 ], [ 101, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 6 Joanna, Princess of Portugal (d. 1490)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11021, 2439816, 39489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 41 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 14 ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 10882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Davide Ghirlandaio, Italian painter and mosaicist (d. 1525)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 14165859, 38687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pandolfo Petrucci, tyrant of Siena (d. 1512)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 775887, 34887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 10 King Ferdinand II of Aragon, Aragonese king and first king of a united Spain (by marriage to Isabella of Castile) (d. 1516)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20196, 18836110, 38692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 16, 38 ], [ 129, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 15 Leonardo da Vinci, Italian artist and inventor (d. 1519)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1010, 18079, 36169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 28 ], [ 62, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 19 King Frederick of Naples (d. 1504)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2196, 1521277, 38702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 16, 35 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 18 Henry the Younger of Poděbrady, Bohemian nobleman (d. 1492)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19389, 31979539, 34599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 39 ], [ 63, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 27", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan (d. 1508)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 239947, 38699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lucrezia Crivelli, mistress of Ludovico Sforza (d. 1508)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4848614, 38699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 12 Abraham Zacuto, Spanish Jewish astronomer, astrologer, mathematician, rabbi and historian (d. 1515)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1491, 1826924, 38693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 26 ], [ 106, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 21 Girolamo Savonarola, Italian religious reformer (d. 1498)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27532, 50139, 35500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 34 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 2 King Richard III of England (d. 1485)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22527, 26284, 39493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 17, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 6 Antonio Mancinelli, Italian humanist pedagogue and grammarian (d. 1505)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8352, 22492530, 38701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 31 ], [ 79, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 10 Johannes Stöffler, German mathematician (d. 1531)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8714, 885810, 34944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 31 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Diogo Cão, Portuguese explorer (d. 1486)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8148, 39492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lucrezia Crivelli, mistress of Ludovico Sforza of Milan (d. 1508) (approximate date)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4848614, 38699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 10 ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 10991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Švitrigaila, Grand Prince of Lithuania", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 947521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Michał Bolesław Zygmuntowicz (Michael Žygimantaitis), Prince of Black Ruthenia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1954354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 14 Konrad VII the White, Duke of Oleśnica", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 10882, 21868898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 22 William Douglas, 8th Earl of Douglas (b. 1425)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11009, 4928779, 39908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 50 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 20 Reinhard III, Count of Hanau (1451–1452) (b. 1412)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2195, 34492642, 39896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 39 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May John Stafford, Archbishop of Canterbury", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 433724, 2345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 19 ], [ 21, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October Nicholas Close, English bishop", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 923417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Gemistus Pletho, Greek philosopher", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 155895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 26 ] ] } ]

[ "1452" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1450 (MCDL) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321344, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 15 ], [ 23, 55 ], [ 101, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 12 Yejong of Joseon, Joseon King (d. 1469)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11158, 3131565, 34993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 30 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 18 Piero Soderini, Florentine statesman (d. 1513)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19389, 976736, 38695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 23 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 22 Eleanor of Naples, Duchess of Ferrara (d. 1493)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15857, 11072114, 36887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 47 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 25 Jakob Wimpfeling, Renaissance humanist (d. 1528)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15804, 4254245, 36227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 26 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 18 Marko Marulić, Croatian poet (d. 1524)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1496, 479234, 38688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 25 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 25 Ursula of Brandenburg, Duchess of Münsterberg-Oels and Countess of Glatz (d. 1508)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28203, 32164471, 38699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 65 ], [ 92, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 12 Jacques of Savoy, Count of Romont, Prince of Savoy (d. 1486)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21631, 6845399, 39492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 47 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " William Catesby, English politician (d. 1485)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 247780, 39493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bartolomeo Montagna, Italian painter (d. 1523)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 837245, 36226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Heinrich Isaak, German-Dutch composer (d. 1517)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 99478, 38691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Cabot, English explorer (d. 1499)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 17020605, 39484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 34, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād, Persian leader of the Herat school", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1639000, 14128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 44, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hieronymus Bosch, Dutch painter (d. 1516)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 45732, 38692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 37, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gaspar Corte-Real, Portuguese explorer (d. 1501)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 52350, 38706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Juan de la Cosa, Spanish navigator and cartographer (d. 1510)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 959813, 38697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Josquin des Prez, Dutch composer (d. 1521)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 55021, 35225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Heinrich Isaac, Franco-Flemish composer (d. 1517)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 99478, 38691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hugh Oldham, Bishop of Exeter (d. 1519)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 881460, 36169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 35, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pietro Antonio Solari, Italian architect (d. 1493)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1403839, 36887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Petrus Thaborita, Dutch historian and monk (d. 1527)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 13387102, 38685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nyai Gede Pinateh, Javanese merchant (d. 1500)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 64428608, 35019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 9 Adam Moleyns, English courtier and Bishop of Chichester", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16075, 12456701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 9 Agnès Sorel, mistress of Charles VII of France (b. c. 1422)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11361, 20949337, 76701, 39905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 24 ], [ 38, 59 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 8 Sejong the Great of Joseon, ruler of Korea (b. 1397)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2224, 159204, 39554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 36 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 2 William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk, English military leader (born 1396)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19349, 236109, 39553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 47 ], [ 79, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 9 Abdal-Latif Mirza, ruler of Transoxania", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19524, 9752749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 2 Ranuccio Farnese il Vecchio, Italian condottiero (b. c. 1390)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15846, 9735466, 39551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 36 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 4 James Fiennes, 1st Baron Saye and Sele, English soldier and politician (b. c. 1395)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15849, 1000044 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 18 Francis I, Duke of Brittany (b. 1414)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16090, 640424, 39898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 37 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 26 Cecily Neville, Duchess of Warwick (b. 1424)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15892, 22590232, 39907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 44 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 15 Alberto da Sarteano, Italian Franciscan friar and papal legate (b. 1385)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1442, 5166020, 39546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 31 ], [ 79, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 27 Reginald West, 6th Baron De La Warr, English politician (b. 1395)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1013, 2103518, 39552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 47 ], [ 72, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 31 Isabella of Navarre, Countess of Armagnac (b. 1395)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1711, 22292657, 39552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 53 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 16 Louis Aleman, French cardinal", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27650, 18028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 22 William Tresham, English politician", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27889, 1216835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 1 Leonello d'Este, Marquis of Ferrara, Italian noble (b. 1407)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22340, 5547077, 39559 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 47 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 3 Paola Colonna, Lady of Piombino (b. c. 1378)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21764, 19728530, 39541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 26 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 5 John IV, Count of Armagnac (b. 1396)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21565, 12991309, 39553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] } ]

[ "1450" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1349 (MCCCXLIX) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321344, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 19 ], [ 27, 59 ], [ 105, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 9 Duke Albert III of Austria (d. 1395)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28544, 1163286, 39552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 19, 40 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Friar John, Minister of the Friars Preachers of Ireland (alive 1405)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 36212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Venerable Macarius of Yellow Lake and Unzha, semi-legendary Russian saint (d. 1444)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 7834779, 39928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 44 ], [ 79, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 26 Fatima bint al-Ahmar, Nasrid princess in the Emirate of Granada (b. c.1260)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11141, 61274956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 3 Eudes IV, Duke of Burgundy (b. 1295)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2279, 628906, 39978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 36 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 31 Thomas Wake, English politician (b. 1297)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19653, 1807043, 36062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 20 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June John Clyn, Irish Franciscan friar and chronicler", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15785, 1289164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 7, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 14 Günther von Schwarzburg, German king (b. 1304)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15797, 1449744, 39951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 33 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 26 Thomas Bradwardine, Archbishop of Canterbury", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 6048708, 153676, 2345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 30 ], [ 32, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 11 Bonne of Luxembourg, queen of John II of France (b. 1315)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27935, 767157, 77502, 39959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 34 ], [ 45, 62 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 30 Richard Rolle, English religious writer (b. c.1300)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27843, 1098889, 35241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 28 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 6 Joan II of Navarre, daughter of Louis X of France (b. 1311)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22542, 840205, 78345, 39956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 30 ], [ 44, 61 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 25 James III of Majorca (b. 1315)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22333, 1589242, 39959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 33 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 18 Frederick II, Margrave of Meissen (b. 1310)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21452, 3108686, 39957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 47 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Hamdallah Mustawfi, Persian historian and geographer (b. 1281)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1475308, 42509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 33 ], [ 72, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable William of Ockham, English philosopher (b. 1285)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 33617, 42511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 28 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] } ]

[ "1349" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1347 (MCCCXLVII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar, and a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Proleptic Gregorian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168880, 15651, 168851, 23397214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ], [ 28, 58 ], [ 104, 119 ], [ 127, 157 ], [ 203, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Mamluk Empire is hit by the plague in the autumn. Baghdad is hit in the same year.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Asia", "target_page_ids": [ 20738544, 4492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 54, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After years of resistance against the Delhi Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq, the Bahmani Kingdom, a Muslim Sultanate in Deccan, was established on August 3, when King Ala-ud-din Hasan Bahman Shah was crowned in a mosque in Daulatabad. Later in the year, the Kingdom's capital was moved from Daulatabad to the more central Gulbarga. Southeast Asia suffered a drought which dried up an important river which ran through the capital city of the Kingdom of Ayodhya, forcing the King to move the capital to a new location on the Lop Buri River.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Asia", "target_page_ids": [ 1585726, 914020, 459370, 913398, 156095, 5220539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 71 ], [ 77, 92 ], [ 116, 122 ], [ 219, 229 ], [ 318, 326 ], [ 520, 534 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On February 2 the Byzantine Empire's civil war between John VI Kantakouzenos and the regency ended with John VI entering Constantinople. On February 8, an agreement was concluded with the empress Anna of Savoy, whereby he and John V Palaiologos would rule jointly. The agreement was finalized in May when John V married Kantakouzenos' 15-year-old daughter. The war had come at a high cost economically and territorially, and much of the Empire was in need of rebuilding. To make matters worse, in May Genoese ships fleeing the Black Death in Kaffa stopped in Constantinople. The plague soon spread from their ships to the city. By autumn, the epidemic had spread throughout the Balkans, possibly through contact with Venetian ports along the Adriatic Sea. Specific cases were recorded in the northern Balkans on December 25, in the city of Split.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Europe", "target_page_ids": [ 16972981, 23325915, 74226, 14728582, 74224, 4501, 4829, 18952408 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 34 ], [ 37, 46 ], [ 55, 76 ], [ 196, 209 ], [ 226, 244 ], [ 527, 538 ], [ 678, 685 ], [ 840, 845 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After being proclaimed Tsar of Serbia in the previous year by the newly promoted Serbian Patriarch Joanikije II, Stefan Dušan continued his southern expansion by conquering Epirus, Aetolia and Acarnania, appointing his half-brother, despot Simeon Uroš as governor of those provinces.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Europe", "target_page_ids": [ 26736086, 2801070, 42209148, 236637, 38260, 160055, 63880, 5439447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 37 ], [ 81, 98 ], [ 99, 111 ], [ 113, 125 ], [ 173, 179 ], [ 181, 188 ], [ 193, 202 ], [ 240, 251 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On May 20 Cola di Rienzo, a Roman commoner, declared himself Emperor of Rome in front of a huge crowd in response to what had been several years of power struggles among the upper-class barony. Pope Clement VI, along with several of Rome's upper-class nobility, united to drive him out of the city in November. In October, Genoese ships arrived in southern Italy with the Black Plague, beginning the spread of the disease in the region.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Europe", "target_page_ids": [ 23797501, 24103 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ], [ 199, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jews were first accused of ritual murders in Poland in 1347. Casimir III of Poland issues Poland's first codified collection of laws after the diet of Wiślica. Separate laws are codified for greater and lesser Poland.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Europe", "target_page_ids": [ 7362, 1873949 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 82 ], [ 151, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the continuing Hundred Years' War, the English won the city of Calais in a treaty signed in September. In a meeting with the Estates General in November, the French King Phillip was told that in the recent war efforts they had \"lost all and gained nothing.\" Phillip, however, was granted a portion of the money he requested and was able to continue his war effort. The English King Edward offered Calais a package of economic boosts which would make Calais the key city connecting England with France economically. Edward returned to England at that height of his popularity and power and for six months celebrated his successes with others in the English nobility. Although the Kingdom's funds were largely pushed towards the war, building projects among the more wealthy continued, with, for example, the completion of Pembroke College in this year.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Europe", "target_page_ids": [ 19038039, 85468, 208202, 24927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 36 ], [ 66, 72 ], [ 128, 143 ], [ 824, 840 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The French city of Marseilles recognized the plague on September 1 and by November 1 it had spread to Aix-en-Provence. The earliest recorded invasion of the plague into Spanish territory was in Majorca in December 1347, probably through commercial ships. Three years of plague began in England.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Europe", "target_page_ids": [ 40888948, 79495, 59310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 29 ], [ 102, 117 ], [ 194, 201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 6 Dorothea of Montau, German hermitess and visionary (d. 1394)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11021, 5413809, 271054, 753057, 36125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 31 ], [ 40, 49 ], [ 54, 63 ], [ 68, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 27 Alberto d'Este, Lord of Ferrara and Modena (d. 1393)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11310, 11411804, 36369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 28 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 25 Catherine of Siena, Italian saint (d. 1380)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19773, 7471, 34956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 29 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 31 Frederick III, Duke of Austria, second son of Duke Albert II of Austria (d. 1362)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20587, 3171161, 39527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 41 ], [ 87, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 28 Margherita of Durazzo, Queen consort of Charles III of Naples (d. 1412)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 16040, 9522436, 39896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 31 ], [ 76, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 29 John Hastings, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, English nobleman and soldier (d. 1375)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1793, 3714123, 39538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 47 ], [ 82, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Eleanor of Arborea, ruler of Sardinia (d. 1404)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 486859, 39557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Elizabeth of Pomerania, fourth and final wife of Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1393)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5958282, 38895, 36369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 50, 80 ], [ 85, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Emperor Go-Kameyama, 99th Emperor of Japan (d. 1424)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 45769, 39907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Richardis of Schwerin, queen consort of Sweden (d. 1377)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 14688950, 39540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 2 Thomas Bek, Bishop of Lincoln (b. 1282)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11322, 3661970, 34723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 42 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 30 John Darcy, 1st Baron Darcy de Knayth, English peer (b. 1290)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19654, 10515611, 47126688, 39983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 46 ], [ 56, 60 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June John de Warenne, 7th Earl of Surrey, English nobleman (b. 1286)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15785, 808485, 42320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 7, 42 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 11 Bartholomew of San Concordio, Italian Dominican canonist and man of letters (b. 1260)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15796, 10147594, 42495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 38 ], [ 90, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 11 Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1282)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22440, 38802, 34723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 41 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November Richard de Pilmuir, bishop of Dunkeld", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21445, 6184718, 1082345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 29 ], [ 32, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 12 John of Viktring, Austrian chronicler and political advisor in Carinthia (b. 1270–1280)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21631, 4238609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 15 James I of Urgell, Prince of Aragon (b. 1321)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21763, 16651989, 39964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 31 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Shah Jalal, Sufi saint of Bengal (b. 1271)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 3882097, 28246, 4862, 39989 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 17 ], [ 27, 33 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William of Ockham, English philosopher (b. 1288)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 33617, 42513 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Blanca de La Cerda y Lara, Spanish noblewoman (b. 1317)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 4157914, 39961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John de Egglescliffe, English bishop", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 6095449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Adam Murimuth, English ecclesiastic and chronicler (b. 1274)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 315003, 39986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Peter III of Arborea, Judge of Arborea", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 9927657, 8740392 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 23, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lamberto II and Pandolfo da Polenta, brothers and lords of Ravenna and Cervia", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11710805, 11710789, 37409, 4916404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 17, 36 ], [ 60, 67 ], [ 72, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kokan Shiren, Japanese Rinzai Zen patriarch and celebrated Chinese poet (b. 1278)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 7524741, 1161669, 30153241, 42505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 24, 30 ], [ 31, 34 ], [ 77, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sang Nila Utama, Founder and First King of Singapura", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 4802072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1331", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 36358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] } ]

[ "1347" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1344 (MCCCXLIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321380, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 19 ], [ 27, 57 ], [ 103, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 9 Meinhard III, Count of Tyrol (d. 1363)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11361, 1376601, 39528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 41 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 18 Marie Valois, French princess, daughter of King John II of France (d. 1404)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28146, 5308236, 77502, 39557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 27 ], [ 63, 80 ], [ 85, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 10 Mary Plantagenet, duchess consort of Brittany, daughter of King Edward III of England (d. 1362)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22367, 6553252, 46377, 39527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 29 ], [ 77, 98 ], [ 103, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Beatrix of Bavaria, queen consort of Sweden (d. 1359)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 14689076, 34880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Azzo X d'Este, Italian condottiero (d. 1415)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 7552728, 36126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John I, Count of La Marche (d. 1393)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2940859, 36369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ], [ 32, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Parameswara, Malay Srivijayan prince (d. 1424)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 30861084, 39907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 4 Robert de Lisle, 1st Baron Lisle, English peer (b. 1288)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15982, 40890814, 42513 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 44 ], [ 63, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 11 Thomas Charlton, Bishop of Hereford, Lord High Treasurer of England, Lord Privy Seal, and Lord Chancellor of Ireland", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15847, 823132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 30 William Montacute, 1st Earl of Salisbury (b. 1301)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15813, 460835, 39948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 53 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 17 Constantine II, King of Armenia (Gosdantin, Կոստանդին Բ)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1974, 403242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 29 Joan of Savoy, duchess consort of Brittany, throne claimant of Savoy (b. 1310)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15842, 31386398, 39957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 23 ], [ 83, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 11 Ulrich III, Count of Württemberg (b. c. 1286)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15873, 8497832, 42320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 42 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 16 An-Nasir Ahmad, deposed Bahri Mamluk sultan of Egypt (b. 1316)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15947, 49035607, 39960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 24 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gersonides, French rabbi and mathematician (b. 1288)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 61626, 42513 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Raoul I of Brienne, Count of Eu", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2399829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wajih ad-Din Mas'ud, leader of the Sarbadars of Sabzewar", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 13828019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Prince Narinaga, Japanese Shōgun (b. 1326, d. either 1337 or 1344, the sources are contradictory).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 355697, 10736899, 34879, 39974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 27, 33 ], [ 38, 42 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Simone Martini, Sienese painter (b. 1284)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 217062, 35327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 25 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] } ]

[ "1344" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1343 (MCCCXLIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 319725, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ], [ 28, 61 ], [ 107, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 19 William I, Margrave of Meissen (d. 1407)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8848, 32222949, 39559 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 44 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Emperor Chōkei of Japan (d. 1394)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 45768, 36125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 29, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Constance of Aragon, queen consort of Sicily (d. 1363)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 9481072, 39528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thomas Percy, 1st Earl of Worcester, English rebel (d. 1403)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 248138, 34883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nang Keo Phimpha, queen of Lan Xang (d. 1438)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2895549, 203665, 39921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 28, 36 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tommaso Mocenigo, doge of Venice (d. 1423)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 12460109, 39906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Paolo Alboino della Scala, lord of Verona (d. 1375)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11847580, 39538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander Stewart, Earl of Buchan, Scottish ruler (d. 1405)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 528640, 36212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Geoffrey Chaucer, English poet (approximate date) (d. 1400)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 12787, 36302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 20 Robert of Naples (b. 1276)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16025, 204279, 39984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 29 ], [ 34, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 29 Francesco I Manfredi, lord of Faenza", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19355, 11708970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 22 Aimone, Count of Savoy (b. 1291)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15857, 69292, 39982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 32 ], [ 37, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 23 Giacomo Gaetani Stefaneschi, Italian cardinal (b. c. 1270)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15831, 10493702, 39990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 37 ], [ 63, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 16 Philip III of Navarre (b. 1306)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27650, 1666463, 39953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 36 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 15 Hasan Kucek, Chobanid prince (b. c. 1319)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8145, 1966346, 39963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 25 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sir Ulick Burke, Irish nobleman", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8173317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anne of Austria, Duchess of Bavaria (b. 1318)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 23172263, 39962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Veera Ballala III, ruler of the Hoysala Empire (b. 1291)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 6841475, 39982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] } ]

[ "1343" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1342", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (MCCCXLII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 311439, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 10 ], [ 18, 49 ], [ 95, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 21June 27 An-Nasir Ahmad, Sultan of Egypt, rules prior to being deposed by his half-brother As-Salih Ismail.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 23751607, 15801, 49035607, 49036401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 11, 18 ], [ 20, 51 ], [ 102, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 7 Pope Clement VI succeeds Pope Benedict XII, as the 198th Pope.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 19582, 24103, 24018, 23056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 23 ], [ 33, 50 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 16 Louis I becomes king of Hungary.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 15947, 38740, 879716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 17 ], [ 34, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 18 Battle of Zava: Mu'izz al-Din Husayn defeats the Sarbadars.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 16090, 37656542, 2228295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 24 ], [ 59, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 22 St. Mary Magdalene's flood is the worst such event on record for central Europe.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 15996, 28760556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 15 Louis \"the Child\" becomes king of Sicily and duke of Athens.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 1442, 2820835, 27619, 310288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 29 ], [ 46, 52 ], [ 57, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 4 John III of Trebizond (John III Comnenus) becomes emperor of Trebizond.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 27765, 3444324, 652643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 35 ], [ 64, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Guy de Lusignan becomes Constantine II, King of Armenia (Gosdantin, Կոստանդին Բ).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 403242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Patriarch of Antioch is transferred to Damascus, under Ignatius II.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 273241, 8914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 25 ], [ 44, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kitzbühel becomes part of Tyrol.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 416540, 7946086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 27, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347 The Zealots seize power in Thessalonica, expelling its aristocrats and declaring themselves in favour of the regency.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 23325915, 2657696, 40471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ], [ 39, 46 ], [ 62, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 17 Philip II, Duke of Burgundy (d. 1404)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15920, 69489, 39557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 40 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 6 Infanta Maria, Marchioness of Tortosa (d. after 1363)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1008, 2432417, 39528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 47 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 8 Julian of Norwich, English mystic (approximate date; d. 1413)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21759, 43418, 39897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 30 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Levon V Lusignan of Armenia (d. 1393)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 403517, 36369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ], [ 33, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Avignon Pope Clement VII (d. 1394)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 30876488, 36125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 30, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Humphrey de Bohun, 7th Earl of Hereford (d. 1373)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1338170, 39537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Trevisa, English translator (d. 1402)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1271650, 34882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 31 Dionigi di Borgo San Sepolcro, Italian Augustinian monk", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20587, 12194750, 144980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 40 ], [ 50, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 25 Pope Benedict XII", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2733, 24018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 16 King Charles I of Hungary", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15947, 70219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 15, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 4 Anna Anachoutlou, Empress of Trebizond", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27765, 3444121, 652643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 30 ], [ 32, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 29 Michael of Cesena, Italian Franciscan leader (b. 1270)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21578, 252503, 39990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 31 ], [ 63, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Jaldaki, Persian physician and alchemist", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1845978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Peter Paludanus, French bishop and theologian (b. c. 1275)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8066130, 39985 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William de Ros, 3rd Baron de Ros", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1095944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Marsilius of Padua, Italian scholar (b. 1270)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 33786652, 39990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 29 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] } ]

[ "1342" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1340 (MCCCXL) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321364, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 17 ], [ 25, 55 ], [ 101, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 5 Cansignorio della Scala, Lord of Verona (d. 1375)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20314, 10842008, 39538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 33 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 6 John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster (d. 1399)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19865, 53294, 39555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 23 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August Haakon VI, king of Norway 13551380 and of Sweden 13621364 (d. 1380)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1005, 203048, 39522, 34956, 39527, 36122, 34956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 18 ], [ 35, 39 ], [ 39, 43 ], [ 58, 62 ], [ 62, 66 ], [ 71, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October Geert Groote, Dutch founder of the Brethren of the Common Life (d. 1384)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22332, 72363, 39545 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 22 ], [ 77, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 30 John, Duke of Berry, son of John II of France (d. 1416)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21577, 703592, 77502, 39899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 33 ], [ 42, 59 ], [ 64, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Enguerrand VII, Lord of Coucy (d. 1397)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1818070, 39554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ], [ 35, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John of Nepomuk, saint of Bohemia (d. 1393)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 555211, 36369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Narayana Pandit, Indian mathematician (d. 1400)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1156686, 36302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Margaret Drummond, queen consort of Scotland (d. 1375)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5909068, 39538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Philip van Artevelde, Flemish patriot (d. 1382)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 772408, 36370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 31 Ivan I of Moscow (b. 1288)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20587, 148180, 42513 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 27 ], [ 32, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 5 William Melton, English archbishop ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2194, 624259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 6 Emperor Basil Megas Komnenos of Trebizond", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1008, 3434589, 652643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 18, 38 ], [ 42, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 7 Bolesław Jerzy II of Mazovia (b. 1308)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2735, 660619, 36361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 2 Geoffrey le Scrope, Chief Justice of King Edward III of England", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8356, 6309948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 4 Henry Burghersh, English bishop and chancellor (b. 1292)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8354, 995963, 39981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 28 ], [ 64, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 20 John I, Duke of Bavaria (b. 1329)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8849, 6230332, 39970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 37 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Simonida, queen consort of Serbia (b. 1294)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11840730, 39979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 23 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] } ]

[ "1340" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1350 (MCCCL) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168855, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 16 ], [ 24, 54 ], [ 100, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 23 Vincent Ferrer, Valencian missionary and saint (d. 1419)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15990, 1195103, 39902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 27 ], [ 64, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 13 Margaret III, Countess of Flanders (d. 1405)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1541, 840720, 36212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 45 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 27 Manuel II Palaiologos, Byzantine Emperor (d. 1425)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15801, 44839, 4016, 39908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 31 ], [ 33, 50 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 12 Dmitri Donskoi, Grand Duke of Muscovy and Vladimir (d. 1389)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22530, 148185, 21476285, 463924, 34881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 27 ], [ 43, 50 ], [ 55, 63 ], [ 68, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 25 Katherine Swynford, mistress of John of Gaunt (approximate date; d. 1403)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21580, 69089, 53294, 34883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 32 ], [ 46, 59 ], [ 82, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 27 John I of Aragon (d. 1396)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8452, 151347, 39553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 30 ], [ 35, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jehuda Cresques, Catalan cartographer (d. 1427)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 53075, 39910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Agnolo Gaddi, Italian painter (d. 1396)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 329567, 39553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 35, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William Gascoigne, Chief Justice of England (approximate date; d. 1419)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 536348, 39902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thomas Holland, 2nd Earl of Kent (d. 1397)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 297492, 39554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Montacute, 3rd Earl of Salisbury (approximate date; d. 1400)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 23617512, 36302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Madhava of Sangamagrama, Indian mathematician (d. 1425)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2793007, 39908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John I Stanley of the Isle of Man (approximate date; d. 1414)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 861799, 39898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hrvoje Vukčić Hrvatinić (d. 1415)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3534946, 36126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 29, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William le Scrope, 1st Earl of Wiltshire (d. 1399)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1722195, 39555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Andrew of Wyntoun, Scottish historian (d. 1420)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 148235, 39904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Záviš von Zap, Czech theologian and composer (d. c. 1411)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15617692, 39895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 6 Giovanni I di Murta, second doge of the Republic of Genoa", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15986, 34888895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 26 or 27 March Alfonso XI of Castile (b. 1311)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20427, 20585, 70642, 39956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 13, 21 ], [ 23, 44 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 22 Philip VI of France (b. 1293)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1012, 77498, 39980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 31 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 19 Raoul II of Brienne, Count of Eu", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21574, 2399896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 26 Jean de Marigny, French bishop", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8360, 2960159 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Maol Íosa V, Earl of Strathearn, last Gaelic Mormaer of Strathearn", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 3382807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gayatri Rajapatni, Queen consort of Majapahit", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 39996497, 170435, 162773 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 20, 33 ], [ 37, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Juan Ruiz, Archpriest of Hita (b. c. 1283)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 297194, 42510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Margaret, Countess of Soissons", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 24260966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Namdev, Marathi saint and poet (b. 1270)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 3305368, 39990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] } ]

[ "1350" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1352 (MCCCLII) was a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 311406, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 26, 54 ], [ 100, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Bengal Sultanate is formed after the realms of Satgaon, Lakhnauti and Sonargaon are united under Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 22286204, 12691083, 2627711, 2059268, 12224450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 21 ], [ 52, 59 ], [ 61, 70 ], [ 75, 84 ], [ 102, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Coming from Hungary, the noble Vlach Dragoş becomes the first voivode of Moldova, being seen as the founder of this principality (some scholars place this moment as early as 1345).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 2355367, 149044, 19260, 14944095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 44 ], [ 63, 70 ], [ 74, 81 ], [ 175, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Following the death of his father Basarab, Nicholas Alexander becomes voivode of Wallachia, after being co-ruler for about eight years.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 52750, 1047454, 46026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 42 ], [ 44, 62 ], [ 82, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The town of Biel/Bienne, Switzerland, finalizes its alliance with the city of Bern.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 502070, 49749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 24 ], [ 79, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lionel of Antwerp marries Elizabeth, daughter of William de Burgh, 3rd Earl of Ulster.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 203144, 1463635 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 50, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Reginald de Cobham, 1st Baron Cobham becomes a Companion of the Most Noble Order of the Garter of England.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 977858, 73259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ], [ 65, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Metropolitan of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church; the Metropolitan of Halych begins to relocate back to Kyiv, after having moved to Halych in 1299. Thereafter, the Metropolitan will hold the title of Metropolitan of Kiev-Halych and All Rus.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 336048, 461856, 585629, 473024, 34878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 17 ], [ 25, 56 ], [ 112, 116 ], [ 140, 146 ], [ 150, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " After years of begging and being a Buddhist monk, the penniless Chinese peasant Zhu Yuanzhang joins the Red Turban Rebellions against the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China; he will later become the first emperor of the Ming dynasty.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 226808, 5405, 163029, 7526441, 19606306, 43449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 44 ], [ 65, 72 ], [ 81, 94 ], [ 105, 126 ], [ 150, 162 ], [ 219, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Earliest surviving illustration of someone wearing spectacles, a fresco in the chapter house of the Dominican convent of San Nicolò, Treviso by Tommaso da Modena (anachronistically) depicting Hugh of Saint-Cher.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 925340, 10618770 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 141 ], [ 145, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta reports the existence of the ngoni and balafon musical instruments, at the court of Mansa Musa.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 15229, 626864, 185508, 159784 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 31 ], [ 61, 66 ], [ 71, 78 ], [ 116, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 5 Rupert of Germany, Count Palatine of the Rhine (d. 1410)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19352, 38830, 35204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 25 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Elizabeth of Slavonia, Latin empress consort of Constantinople", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 17658727 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " John Holland, 1st Duke of Exeter (d. 1400)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 297448, 36302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vytautas the Great, Grand Duke of Lithuania (d. 1430)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 599923, 39914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 15 Ewostatewos, Ethiopian monk and religious leader (b. 1273)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28145, 3065971, 39987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 26 ], [ 68, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 6 Pope Clement VI (b. 1291)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8352, 24103, 39982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 28 ], [ 33, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Matthias of Arras, French architect (b. 1290)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1941269, 39983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Elizabeth of Carinthia, Queen of Sicily, regent of Sicily (b. 1298)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8962043, 39976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ], [ 63, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William de Ros, 3rd Baron de Ros (b. 1325)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1095944, 39966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Basarab I of Wallachia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 52750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Hakim II, Caliph of Cairo", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1570740 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Laurence Minot, English poet (b. 1300)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1098648, 35241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 34, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vasilii Kalika, Archbishop of Novgorod", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 12523521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Yoshida Kenkō, Japanese monk and author (b. 1283)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 983067, 42510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] } ]

[ "1352" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1353 (MCCCLIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 311439, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 19 ], [ 27, 58 ], [ 104, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March Margaret I of Denmark, queen of Haakon VI of Norway (d. 1412)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19344, 58726, 203048, 39896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 29 ], [ 40, 59 ], [ 64, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 15 Vladimir the Bold, Russian prince (d. 1410)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 16088, 2428666, 35204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 27 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Thomas Arundel, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1414)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 206087, 2345, 39898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 17, 41 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Helvis of Brunswick-Grubenhagen, queen consort of Armenia and Cyprus (d. 1421)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27858112, 34884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ], [ 74, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Purvey, English scholar and Bible translator (d. 1428)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 652144, 39912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 2 Anne of Bavaria, queen consort of Bohemia (b. 1329)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11322, 9671393, 39970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 28 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 6 Roger Grey, 1st Baron Grey de Ruthyn", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19865, 1651291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 11 Theognostus, metropolitan of Kiev and Moscow", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19530, 876609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 27 Simeon of Russia, Grand Prince of Moscow and Vladimir", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2326, 148182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 4 Rudolf II, Duke of Bavaria (b. 1306)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22454, 3506104, 39953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November or December Togha Temür, claimant to the throne of the Mongol Il-Khanate in Persia (assassinated)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 4792603, 18984, 542300, 14653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 34 ], [ 66, 72 ], [ 73, 83 ], [ 87, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Matilda, daughter of King Robert the Bruce of Scotland", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 26582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Elisabeth of Austria, Duchess of Lorraine, regent of Lorraine ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 25731302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sir Ulick Burke, Irish nobleman", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1467970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] } ]

[ "1353" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1354 (MCCCLIV) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 319725, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 26, 59 ], [ 105, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Constance of Castile, wife of John of Gaunt (d. 1394)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2064430, 53294, 36125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 31, 44 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Denis, Lord of Cifuentes, infante of Portugal (d. c.1397)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2432711, 39554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alonso Enríquez, Spanish nobleman (d. 1429)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34196447, 39913 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Frederick III, Count of Moers, German nobleman (d. 1417)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 37184638, 39900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gilbert de Greenlaw, Scottish bishop (d. 1421)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5862785, 34884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jean de Grouchy, Norman knight (k. 1435)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3946598, 39920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Margaret of Joinville, French noblewoman (d. 1418)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 37202107, 39901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thomas de Morley, 4th Baron Morley, English nobleman (d. 1416)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 14262294, 39899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eric IV, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg (d. 1411/12)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 25292748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roger de Scales, 4th Baron Scales, English nobleman (d. 1387)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 24964053, 39548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Catherine of Vendôme, French noblewoman (d. 1412)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20555827, 39896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Violante Visconti, Italian noblewoman (d. 1386)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 26847980, 39547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Walram IV, Count of Nassau-Idstein, German nobleman (d. 1393)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34904930, 36369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 8 Charles de La Cerda (b. 1327)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15988, 3764233, 39967 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 31 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 16 Joanna of Châtillon, Duchess of Athens (b. c. 1285)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16022, 8374588, 42511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 32 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 1 Kitabatake Chikafusa (b. 1293)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15856, 2455834, 39980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 29 ], [ 34, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 9 Stephen, Duke of Slavonia, Hungarian prince (b. 1332)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1027, 17657832, 39972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 36 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 7 Andrea Dandolo, doge of Venice (b. 1306)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27949, 9042377, 39953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 28 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 5 Giovanni Visconti, Italian Roman Catholic cardinal (b. 1290)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22536, 7616037, 39983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 29 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 8 Cola di Rienzo, Roman tribune (b. c. 1313)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22543, 23797501, 36356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 26 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 19 Yusuf I, Sultan of Granada (b. 1318)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22568, 12808261, 39962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Wu Zhen, Chinese painter (b. 1280)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1902726, 42508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 22 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] } ]

[ "1354" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1355 (MCCCLV) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321344, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 17 ], [ 25, 57 ], [ 103, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 7 Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester, son of King Edward III of England (d. 1397)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15987, 212504, 46377, 39554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 55 ], [ 69, 90 ], [ 95, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 16 Philippa Plantagenet, Countess of Ulster (d. 1382)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1448, 356557, 36370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 32 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Acamapichtli, 1st tlatoani (monarch) of Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City), 1375-1395 (d. 1395)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 453414, 1475346, 29988, 39552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 19, 27 ], [ 41, 53 ], [ 90, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Manuel Chrysoloras, Byzantine humanist (d. 1415)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 163791, 36126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Konrad von Jungingen, German 25th Grand Master of the Teutonic Order", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3545705, 30776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 51, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gemistus Pletho, Greek scholar", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 155895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Foelke Kampana, Frisian lady and regent (d. 1418)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 38336084, 39901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mircea I of Wallachia (d. 1418)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 264587, 39901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 27, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 7 Inês de Castro, lover of King Peter I of Portugal (murdered) (b. 1325)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15987, 353066, 252902, 39966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 26 ], [ 42, 61 ], [ 77, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 17 Marin Falier, Doge of Venice (b. 1285)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1974, 296988, 63340, 42511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 23 ], [ 25, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 22 Eleanor of Woodstock, countess regent of Guelders, eldest daughter of King Edward II of England (b. 1318)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1710, 5061842, 44848, 39962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 31 ], [ 86, 106 ], [ 111, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 3 Bartholomew de Burghersh, 1st Baron Burghersh", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1259, 997363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 16 Louis of Sicily", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22556, 2820835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 5 John III, Duke of Brabant (b. 1300)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8353, 75964, 35241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 20 Stefan Uroš IV Dušan, Emperor of Serbia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8849, 236637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Bettina d'Andrea, Italian lawyer and professor", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27555041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 31 ] ] } ]

[ "1355" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1356 (MCCCLVI) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321374, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 26, 54 ], [ 100, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 29 Martin of Aragon (d. 1410)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15968, 280996, 35204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 26 ], [ 31, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Robert IV of Artois, Count of Eu (d. 1387)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2650018, 39548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 47 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ingegerd Knutsdotter, Swedish abbess (d. 1412)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 24538403, 39896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 23 Margaret II, Countess of Hainaut (b. 1311)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15831, 358964, 39956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 42 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 19 (killed at the Battle of Poitiers):", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Peter I, Duke of Bourbon (b. 1311)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 703394, 39956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 30, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Walter VI, Count of Brienne, Constable of France (b. 1304)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 870199, 39951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Harihara I, founder of the Vijayanagara Empire", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 4048642, 478684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 28, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Zheng Yunduan, Chinese poet (b. c. 1327)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11662613, 39967 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] } ]

[ "1356" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1357 (MCCCLVII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168851, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 19 ], [ 27, 57 ], [ 103, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 11 King John I of Portugal (d. 1433)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2395, 153575, 39917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 16, 34 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Art mac Art MacMurrough-Kavanagh, King of Leinster (d. 1417)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2021552, 39900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hugo von Montfort, Austrian minstrel (d. 1423)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15356721, 39906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anna of Trebizond, Queen of Georgia (d. 1406)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27207298, 39558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fang Xiaoru, Confucian scholar (d. 1402)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 18310181, 34882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Je Tsongkhapa, founder of the Geluk school of Tibetan Buddhism (d. 1419)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1323461, 39902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 68, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 18 Maria of Portugal, infanta (b. 1313)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16202, 579364, 36356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 30 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 28 King Afonso IV of Portugal (b. 1291)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19672, 1660, 39982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 14, 35 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 13 Bartolus de Saxoferrato, Italian jurist (b. 1313)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15878, 1387904, 36356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 33 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Usman Serajuddin, court scholar of the Bengal Sultanate (b. 1258)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38006097, 22286204, 42493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 40, 56 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ziauddin Barani, historian and political thinker of the Delhi Sultanate (b. 1285)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1326011, 295402, 42511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 57, 72 ], [ 77, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jani Beg, Khan of the Blue Horde", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1755270, 25763160 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 23, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kazerouni, Masoud, Persian physician", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28005345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rao Tida, Rathore ruler of Marwar", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2253608, 1810817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 28, 34 ] ] } ]

[ "1357" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1358 (MCCCLVIII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168880, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ], [ 28, 58 ], [ 104, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 20 Eleanor of Aragon, queen of John I of Castile (d. 1382)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11025, 1784209, 153265, 36370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 31 ], [ 42, 59 ], [ 64, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 24 King John I of Castile (d. 1390)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1629, 153265, 39551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 17, 34 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 25 Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, Japanese shōgun (d. 1408)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28203, 47870703, 10736899, 39560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 34 ], [ 45, 51 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ide Pedersdatter Falk, Danish noblewoman (d. 1399)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 41531220, 39555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anne of Auvergne, Sovereign Dauphine of Auvergne and Countess of Forez (d. 1417)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35915100, 39900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 76, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 6 Gertrude van der Oosten, Dutch beguine ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15986, 17875457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 10 Abu Inan Faris, Marinid ruler of Morocco (b. 1329)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16076, 7520631, 1661433, 19291, 39970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 27 ], [ 29, 36 ], [ 46, 53 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 11 Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah, first Bahmani Sultan of Deccan", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11184, 14035634, 914020, 459370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 36 ], [ 44, 58 ], [ 62, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 7 Ashikaga Takauji, Japanese shōgun (b. 1305)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15795, 297001, 10736899, 39952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 25 ], [ 36, 42 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 31 Étienne Marcel, Provost of the merchants of Paris", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 18679439, 743238, 1656735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 24 ], [ 26, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 16 Albert II, Duke of Austria (b. 1298)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1448, 1151624, 39976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 22 Isabella of France, queen of Edward II of England (b. 1295)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1012, 47621, 44848, 39978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 30 ], [ 41, 61 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November Gregory of Rimini, Italian philosopher", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2601179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Brian MacCathmhaoil, Irish Bishop of Clogher", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19519442, 1299905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 28, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Guillaume Caillet, French peasant revolutionary (executed)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 5905005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] } ]

[ "1358" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1361 (MCCCLXI) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168855, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 26, 56 ], [ 102, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 26 Wenceslaus, King of the Romans, King of Bohemia (d. 1419)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11141, 38826, 39902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 44 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " John Beaumont, 4th Baron Beaumont, Constable of Dover Castle (d. 1396)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 997405, 39553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Isabella, Countess of Foix, vassal ruler (d. 1428)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 29498949, 39912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " King Charles III of Navarre (d. 1425)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 343487, 39908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 28 ], [ 33, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " She Xiang, Chinese tribute chieftain (d. 1396)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 53327439, 39553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 7 Gerlach I of Nassau-Wiesbaden", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15987, 3529456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 17 An-Nasir Hasan, Mamluk Sultan of Egypt (b. 1334/35)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20223, 49074696, 20738544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 25 ], [ 27, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 23 Henry of Grosmont, Duke of Lancaster, English soldier and diplomat", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20210, 908169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 21 Orhan Ghazi, Ottoman Sultan (b. 1274) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19684, 22493, 22278, 39986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 20 ], [ 22, 36 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 9 Philippe de Vitry, French composer (b. 1291)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15865, 690297, 39982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 26 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 15 Johannes Tauler, German mystic theologian", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15936, 1717775, 4853729 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 25 ], [ 27, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 17 Ingeborg of Norway, princess consort and regent of Sweden (b. 1301) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15798, 5564361, 39948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 28 ], [ 72, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 18 Louis V, Duke of Bavaria (b. 1315)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28146, 3315388, 39959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 4 John de Mowbray, 3rd Baron Mowbray, English baron (b. 1310)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22454, 9115584, 39957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 46 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 8 John Beauchamp, 3rd Baron Beauchamp, Warden of the Cinque Ports", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22543, 1057031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 21 Philip I, Duke of Burgundy (plague) (b. 1346)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21576, 628922, 36119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 40 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Giovanni, son of Francesco Petrarch (plague)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 23734 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Richard Badew, Chancellor of Cambridge University", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1825385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Reginald de Cobham, 1st Baron Cobham (b. 1295)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 977858, 39978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hajji Beg, Barlas leader", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 3381906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] } ]

[ "1361" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1362 (MCCCLXII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321295, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 19 ], [ 27, 59 ], [ 105, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 16 Robert de Vere, Duke of Ireland (d. 1392)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 16022, 251315, 39549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 44 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Murdoch Stewart, 2nd Duke of Albany (d. 1425)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1088057, 39908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 50 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Empress Xu (Ming dynasty) of China (d. 1407)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 24455544, 39559 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Wang Fu, Chinese painter (d. 1416)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 18387811, 39899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March Orhan, Ottoman sultan (b. 1281)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19344, 22493, 42509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 13 ], [ 34, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 6 James I, Count of La Marche, French soldier (b. 1319)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1008, 2669901, 39963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 37 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 10 Maud, Countess of Leicester (b. 1339)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2564, 7571929, 39975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 26 Louis of Taranto (b. 1320)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19648, 1183665, 36098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 25 ], [ 30, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 11 Anna von Schweidnitz, empress of Charles IV (b. 1339) (childbirth)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15873, 20052346, 38895, 39975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 30 ], [ 43, 53 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 22 Louis of Durazzo, Italian soldier (poisoned) (b. 1324)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15996, 2077801, 39965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 26 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 7 Joan of The Tower, Queen consort of king David II of Scotland (b. 1321)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27949, 2255364, 147969, 39964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 31 ], [ 55, 75 ], [ 80, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 12 Pope Innocent VI (b. 1282 or 1295)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28021, 24473, 34723, 39978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 31 ], [ 36, 40 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 10 Frederick III, Duke of Austria, second son of Duke Albert II of Austria (b. 1347)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8714, 3171161, 39512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 44 ], [ 90, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 21 Constantine III, King of Armenia (b. 1313)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8850, 403260, 36356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 46 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Emperor John of Trebizond", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 3444324, 652643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 27 ], [ 31, 40 ] ] } ]

[ "1362" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1363 (MCCCLXIII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168851, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ], [ 28, 58 ], [ 104, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 2 Maria, Queen of Sicily (d. 1401)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15846, 280983, 39556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 31 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 13 Jean Gerson, chancellor of the University of Paris (d. 1429)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8852, 23838961, 84692, 39913 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 25 ], [ 45, 64 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Margaret of Bavaria, Burgundian regent (d. 1423)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 10757059, 39906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thomas Langley, bishop of Durham and lord chancellor of England (d. 1437)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 7535582, 6797001, 36129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 17, 33 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Zeami Motokiyo, Japanese actor and playwright (d. 1443)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 659316, 39927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 25 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 13 Meinhard III, Count of Tyrol", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16191, 1376601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 3 Simone Boccanegra, first doge of Genoa (approximate date)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19633, 1965709, 461272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 27 ], [ 35, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " c. April Blanche of Namur, queen consort of Sweden (b. 1320)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 828120, 36098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 27 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 29 John Bardolf, 3rd Baron Bardolf (b. 1314)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15968, 14067871, 39958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 41 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 23 Chen Youliang, founder of the Dahan regime (b. 1320)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1628, 410243, 36098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 25 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 7 Eleanor de Bohun, Countess of Ormonde (b. 1304)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22446, 16496489, 39951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 49 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Adil-Sultan, khan of the Chagatai Khanate", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 5453186, 952728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 25, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jean Buridan, French philosopher (b. 1295)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 172466, 39978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Ranulf Higdon, English chronicler (b. c. 1299)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 620600, 34878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 24 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] } ]

[ "1363" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The 1992 United States presidential election was the 52nd quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 3, 1992. Democratic Governor Bill Clinton of Arkansas defeated incumbent Republican President George H. W. Bush, independent businessman Ross Perot of Texas, and a number of minor candidates. The election marked the end of a period of Republican dominance in American politics that began in 1968, and also marked the end of 12 years of Republican rule of the White House. This was the last election until 2020 in which the incumbent president failed to win a second term.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21491579, 5043544, 3356, 1930, 32070, 11955, 43505, 29810, 40567, 33057, 48410011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 91 ], [ 128, 138 ], [ 148, 160 ], [ 164, 172 ], [ 192, 202 ], [ 213, 230 ], [ 256, 266 ], [ 270, 275 ], [ 410, 414 ], [ 478, 489 ], [ 524, 528 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bush had alienated many of the conservatives in his party by breaking his 1988 campaign pledge against raising taxes, but he fended off a primary challenge from paleoconservative commentator Pat Buchanan. Bush's popularity following his success in the Gulf War dissuaded high-profile Democratic candidates like Mario Cuomo from entering the 1992 Democratic primaries. Clinton, a leader of the centrist Democratic Leadership Council, established himself as the front-runner for the Democratic nomination by sweeping the Super Tuesday primaries. He defeated former Governor of California Jerry Brown, former Massachusetts Senator Paul Tsongas, and other candidates to win his party's nomination, and chose Tennessee Senator Al Gore as his running mate. Billionaire Ross Perot launched an independent campaign, emphasizing his opposition to the North American Free Trade Agreement and his plan to reduce the national debt.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2298740, 10024939, 217462, 168890, 182000, 277935, 484796, 284195, 453899, 175220, 1645518, 445916, 30395, 5042706, 15105981, 22050, 322221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 44 ], [ 138, 155 ], [ 161, 178 ], [ 191, 203 ], [ 252, 260 ], [ 311, 322 ], [ 341, 366 ], [ 402, 431 ], [ 519, 532 ], [ 586, 597 ], [ 606, 619 ], [ 628, 640 ], [ 704, 713 ], [ 722, 729 ], [ 783, 806 ], [ 842, 877 ], [ 905, 918 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The economy had recovered from a recession in the spring of 1991, followed by 19 consecutive months of economic growth, but perceptions of the economy's slow growth harmed Bush, for he had inherited a substantial economic boom from his predecessor Ronald Reagan. Bush's greatest strength, foreign policy, was regarded as much less important following the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, as well as the relatively peaceful climate in the Middle East after the Gulf War. Perot led in several polls taken in June 1992, but severely damaged his candidacy by temporarily dropping out of the race in July. The Bush campaign criticized Clinton's character and emphasized Bush's foreign policy successes, while Clinton focused on the economy.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25433, 7564, 40494892, 325329, 1293289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 248, 261 ], [ 289, 303 ], [ 355, 386 ], [ 406, 414 ], [ 740, 762 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Clinton won a plurality in the popular vote and a majority of the electoral vote, breaking a streak of three consecutive Republican victories. He won states in every region of the country; he swept the Northeast and the West Coast, marking the start of Democratic dominance in both regions in both presidential and statewide elections. Clinton also performed well in the eastern Midwest, the Mountain West, Appalachia, and parts of the South. This election was the first time a Democrat had won the presidency without Texas since its statehood and North Carolina since 1844. This was the last time a presidential candidate won an election without winning the battleground state of Florida until 2020, as Clinton went on to carry Florida when he won reelection in 1996. This was also the last time to date that the state of Montana voted Democratic in a presidential election, and the last time until 2020 that Georgia did so. Clinton flipped a total of 22 states that had voted Republican in the election of 1988. Clinton would win with the smallest vote share of the national vote since Woodrow Wilson in 1912, when the Republican Party experienced a drastic split.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 85533, 431669, 179578, 104697, 30873819, 292598, 816925, 36100025, 355738, 27914247, 41445022, 48410011, 32077, 19978, 48830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 80 ], [ 202, 211 ], [ 220, 230 ], [ 379, 386 ], [ 392, 405 ], [ 407, 417 ], [ 436, 441 ], [ 518, 523 ], [ 530, 543 ], [ 548, 562 ], [ 569, 573 ], [ 695, 699 ], [ 763, 767 ], [ 823, 830 ], [ 910, 917 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Along with Gerald Ford (1976), Jimmy Carter (1980), and Donald Trump (2020), Bush is one of four incumbent presidents since World War II to lose a bid for a second term.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5030380, 40569, 15992, 40570, 4848272, 48410011, 32927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 22 ], [ 24, 28 ], [ 31, 43 ], [ 45, 49 ], [ 56, 68 ], [ 70, 74 ], [ 124, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Perot won 18.9% of the popular vote, the highest share of the vote won by a candidate outside of the two major parties since 1912. Although he failed to win any electoral votes, he beat either main candidate in some states and found significant support in every state, resulting in no state giving an absolute majority to any candidate except Clinton's home state of Arkansas. As such, this is the final election to date in which the Democratic nominee won less than 50% of the vote in California, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Illinois, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Rhode Island, and Vermont; and in which the Republican nominee won less than 50% in Alabama, Alaska, Idaho, Kansas, and Nebraska. It is also the third and final election since the Civil War in which a Republican or Democratic nominee failed to break 50% in a single state, the first two being 1912 for William Howard Taft and 1984 for Walter Mondale. As of 2022, this is the last time that either a Democratic or Republican candidate received fewer than 40 Percentage of the popular vote.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 50655075, 40534, 36081515, 40534, 33522, 40571, 42172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 54 ], [ 125, 129 ], [ 367, 375 ], [ 879, 883 ], [ 888, 907 ], [ 912, 916 ], [ 921, 935 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the successful performance by U.S. and coalition forces in the Persian Gulf War, President George H. W. Bush's approval ratings were 89%. His re-election was considered very likely; several high-profile candidates, such as Mario Cuomo and Jesse Jackson refused to seek the Democratic nomination. Senator Al Gore refused to seek the nomination due to the fact his son had been struck by a car and was undergoing surgery and physical therapy. However, Tom Harkin, Paul Tsongas, Jerry Brown, Larry Agran, Bob Kerrey, Douglas Wilder and Bill Clinton chose to run as candidates.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 11955, 277935, 18603579, 5042706, 375268, 445916, 175220, 275633, 395674, 175366, 3356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 118 ], [ 233, 244 ], [ 249, 262 ], [ 314, 321 ], [ 460, 470 ], [ 472, 484 ], [ 486, 497 ], [ 499, 510 ], [ 512, 522 ], [ 524, 538 ], [ 543, 555 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "U.S. Senator Tom Harkin (Iowa) ran as a populist liberal with labor union support. Former U.S. Senator Paul Tsongas (Mass.) highlighted his political independence and fiscal conservatism. Former California Governor Jerry Brown, who had run for the Democratic nomination in 1976 and 1980, declared a significant reform agenda, including Congressional term limits, campaign finance reform, and the adoption of a flat income tax. Nebraska Senator Bob Kerrey was an attractive candidate based on his business and military background, but made several gaffes on the campaign trail. Arkansas Governor Bill Clinton positioned himself as a centrist, or New Democrat. He was relatively unknown nationally before the primary season. That quickly changed however, when Gennifer Flowers alleged an extramarital affair. Clinton denied the story, appearing on 60 Minutes with his wife, Hillary Clinton; in 1998, he admitted the affair.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 505825, 40557, 46334, 3356, 949253, 345890, 35061, 5043192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 350, 360 ], [ 363, 386 ], [ 410, 425 ], [ 595, 607 ], [ 645, 657 ], [ 758, 774 ], [ 846, 856 ], [ 872, 887 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The primary began with Harkin winning his native Iowa as expected. Tsongas won the New Hampshire primary on February 18, but Clinton's second-place finish, helped by his speech labeling himself \"The Comeback Kid,\" energized his campaign. Brown won the Maine caucus and Kerrey won South Dakota. Clinton won his first primary in Georgia. Tsongas won the Utah and Maryland primaries and a caucus in Washington. Harkin won caucuses in Idaho and Minnesota while Jerry Brown won Colorado. Kerrey dropped out two days later. Clinton won the South Carolina and Wyoming primaries and Tsongas won Arizona. Harkin dropped out. Brown won the Nevada caucus. Clinton swept nearly all of the Super Tuesday primaries on March 10 making him the solid front runner. Clinton won the Michigan and Illinois primaries. Tsongas dropped out after finishing 3rd in Michigan. Brown, however, began to pick up steam, aided by using a phone number to receive funding from small donors. Brown scored surprising wins in Connecticut, Vermont and Alaska. As the race moved to the primaries in New York and Wisconsin, Brown had taken the lead in polls in both states. Then he made a serious gaffe by announcing to an audience of New York City's Jewish community that he would consider Reverend Jesse Jackson as a vice presidential candidate; Jackson had offended many Jewish people with remarks he had made during his own presidential campaigns. Clinton won dramatically in New York (41%–26%) and closely in Wisconsin (37%–34%). Clinton then proceeded to win a long streak of primaries leading up to Brown's home state of California. Clinton won this state 48% to 41% and secured the delegates needed to lock the nomination.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 36084799, 26746, 13015878, 453899, 1131183, 18603579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 104 ], [ 280, 292 ], [ 396, 406 ], [ 677, 690 ], [ 1212, 1218 ], [ 1261, 1274 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The convention met in New York City, and the official tally was:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bill Clinton 3,372", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 3356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jerry Brown 596", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 175220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Paul Tsongas 289", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 445916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Robert P. Casey 10", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 619184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pat Schroeder 5", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 1538517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Larry Agran 3", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 275633 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Al Gore 1", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 5042706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Clinton chose U.S. Senator Al Gore (D-Tennessee) to be his running mate on July 9, 1992. Choosing fellow Southerner Gore went against the popular strategy of balancing a Southern candidate with a Northern partner. Gore served to balance the ticket in other ways, as he was perceived as strong on family values and environmental issues, while Clinton was not. Also, Gore's similarities to Clinton allowed him to push some of his key campaign themes, such as centrism and generational change.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 5042706, 5043544, 30395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 34 ], [ 36, 37 ], [ 38, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Paleoconservative journalist Pat Buchanan was the primary opponent of President Bush; Ron Paul, the Libertarian Party's presidential nominee in 1988, had planned to run against the President, but dropped out shortly after Buchanan's entry in December. Buchanan's best showing was in the New Hampshire primary on February 18, 1992—where Bush won by a 53–38% margin. President Bush won 73% of all primary votes, with 9,199,463 votes. Buchanan won 2,899,488 votes; unpledged delegates won 287,383 votes, and David Duke, Grand Wizard of the Ku Klux Klan, won 119,115 votes. Just over 100,000 votes were cast for all other candidates, half of which were write-in votes for H. Ross Perot. Former Minnesota Governor Harold Stassen, who had run for President 9 times since 1944, also mounted his final campaign.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 168890, 168715, 32044, 456252, 1629492, 16779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 41 ], [ 86, 94 ], [ 100, 117 ], [ 505, 515 ], [ 517, 529 ], [ 537, 549 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "President George H. W. Bush and Vice President Dan Quayle easily won renomination by the Republican Party. However, the success of the opposition forced the moderate Bush to move further to the right than in the previous election, and to incorporate many socially conservative planks in the party platform. Bush allowed Buchanan to give a prime time address at the Republican National Convention in Houston, Texas, and his culture war speech alienated many moderates.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 11955, 15923, 32070, 39531, 715813, 13774, 181322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ], [ 47, 57 ], [ 89, 105 ], [ 208, 229 ], [ 365, 395 ], [ 399, 406 ], [ 423, 434 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With intense pressure on the Buchanan delegates to relent, the tally for president went as follows:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " George H. W. Bush 2166", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 11955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pat Buchanan 18", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 168890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " former ambassador Alan Keyes 1", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 483086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vice President Dan Quayle was renominated by voice vote.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 15923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The public's concern about the federal budget deficit and fears of professional politicians allowed the independent candidacy of billionaire Texan Ross Perot to explode on the scene in dramatic fashion—at one point Perot was leading the major party candidates in the polls. Perot crusaded against the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and internal and external national debt, tapping into voters' potential fear of the deficit. His volunteers succeeded in collecting enough signatures to get his name on the ballot in all 50 states. In June, Perot led the national public opinion polls with support from 39% of the voters (versus 31% for Bush and 25% for Clinton). Perot severely damaged his credibility by dropping out of the presidential contest in July and remaining out of the race for several weeks before re-entering. He compounded this damage by eventually claiming, without evidence, that his withdrawal was due to Republican operatives attempting to disrupt his daughter's wedding.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 43505, 22050, 32070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 157 ], [ 301, 336 ], [ 934, 944 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Perot and retired Vice Admiral James Stockdale drew 19,743,821 votes (19% of the popular vote).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 229405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Libertarian candidates:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Andre Marrou, former Alaska State Representative and 1988 vice presidential nominee", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 448320, 624, 1071790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 22, 28 ], [ 29, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Richard B. Boddie, political science professor from California", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The 6th Libertarian Party National Convention was held in Chicago, Illinois. There, the Libertarian Party nominated Andre Marrou, former Alaska State Representative and the Party's 1988 vice-presidential candidate, for President. Nancy Lord was his running mate.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 35955930, 32044, 448320, 624, 1071790, 531515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 45 ], [ 88, 105 ], [ 116, 128 ], [ 137, 143 ], [ 144, 164 ], [ 230, 240 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Marrou and Lord drew 291,627 votes (0.28% of the popular vote).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "New Alliance candidate:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lenora Fulani, Psychotherapist and political activist from New Jersey, and the 1988 Presidential nominee", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 651493, 21648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 60, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lenora Fulani, who was the 1988 presidential nominee of the New Alliance Party, received a second consecutive nomination from the Party in 1992. Unlike in 1988, Fulani failed to gain ballot access in every state, deciding to concentrate some of that campaign funding towards exposure of her candidacy and the Party to the national public.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 651493, 652828 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 60, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fulani also sought the endorsement of the Peace and Freedom Party of California, but despite winning a majority in that party's primary, she would lose the nomination to Ronald Daniels, the former Director the National Rainbow Coalition. Rather than pursuing a ballot space of her own, Fulani would endorse Daniels's candidacy in California.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 248633, 4626690, 1211026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 65 ], [ 170, 184 ], [ 210, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fulani and her running mate Maria Elizabeth Muñoz received 73,622 votes (0.1% of the popular vote).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 4505319 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The newly formed Natural Law Party nominated scientist and researcher John Hagelin for President and Mike Tompkins for Vice President. The Natural Law Party had been founded in 1992 by Hagelin and 12 others who felt that governmental problems could be solved more effectively by following \"Natural Laws\". The party platform included preventive health care, sustainable agriculture and renewable energy technologies. During this and future campaigns, Hagelin favored abortion rights without public financing, campaign finance law reform, improved gun control, a flat tax, the eradication of PACs, a ban on soft money contributions, and school vouchers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 32012, 16077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 34 ], [ 70, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The party's first presidential ticket appeared on the ballot in 28 states and drew 37,137 votes (<0.1% of the popular vote).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "U.S. Taxpayers' candidates:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Howard Phillips, conservative political activist from Virginia", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 519956, 32432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 55, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pat Buchanan, conservative columnist from Virginia (declined interest)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 168890, 32432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 43, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gordon J. Humphrey, former Senator from New Hampshire (declined interest)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 2400126, 21134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 41, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The U.S. Taxpayers Party ran its first presidential ticket in 1992, having only been formed the prior year. Initially Howard Phillips had hoped to successfully entice a prominent conservative politician, such as the former Senator Gordon J. Humphrey from New Hampshire, or even Patrick Buchanan who at the time had only been mulling over running against President Bush (he would officially declare in December 1991).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 32253, 519956, 2400126, 168890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 24 ], [ 118, 133 ], [ 231, 249 ], [ 278, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "No one, however, announced any intention to seek the Taxpayers Party nomination; Buchanan himself in the end endorsed President Bush at the Republican National Convention in Houston. Phillips had been unofficially nominated earlier in the year so as to allow the Party to be able to seek ballot access properly. While initially a temporary post, it was made permanent at the party's national convention, which was held in New Orleans on September 4 and 5. At the convention, which was attended by delegates from thirty-two states and Washington, D.C., Phillips received 264 votes on the first ballot, while Albion Knight was approved as his running mate by acclamation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 53842, 761214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 422, 433 ], [ 607, 620 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Earlier that year, in the June 2 California primary, Phillips had received 15,456 votes in the American Independent Party primary. On August 30, the American Independent Party voted to affiliate with the U.S. Taxpayers Party, an affiliation which continued until 2008.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 307452 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Phillips and Knight drew 43,369 votes (<0.1% of the popular vote).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Populist candidate:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bo Gritz, Former United States Army Special Forces officer and Vietnam veteran", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 889902, 32087, 320247, 32594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 18, 36 ], [ 37, 51 ], [ 64, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Former United States Army Special Forces officer and Vietnam veteran Bo Gritz was the nominee of the Populist Party, facing virtually no opposition. Under the campaign slogan \"God, Guns and Gritz\" and publishing his political manifesto \"The Bill of Gritz\" (playing on his last name rhyming with \"rights\"), he called for staunch opposition to what he called \"global government\" and \"The New World Order\", ending all foreign aid, abolishing federal income tax, and abolishing the Federal Reserve System. During the campaign, Gritz openly proclaimed the United States to be a \"Christian Nation\", stating that the country's legal statutes \"should reflect unashamed acceptance of Almighty God and His Laws\". His run on the America First/Populist Party ticket was prompted by his association with another far-right political Christian talk radio host, Tom Valentine. During his campaign, part of Gritz's standard stump speech was an idea to pay off the National debt by minting a coin at the Treasury and sending it to the Federal Reserve. This predates the 2012 trillion dollar coin concept.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 32087, 320247, 32594, 889902, 29439233, 38119013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 25 ], [ 26, 40 ], [ 53, 68 ], [ 69, 77 ], [ 101, 115 ], [ 1057, 1077 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During August 1992, Gritz attracted national attention as mediator during the government standoff with Randy Weaver at Ruby Ridge, Idaho.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 951434, 501385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 115 ], [ 119, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He received 106,152 votes nationwide (0.1% of the popular vote). In two states he had a respectable showing for a minor third party candidate: Utah, where he received 3.8% of the vote and Idaho, where he received 2.1% of the vote. In some counties, his support topped 10%, and in Franklin County, Idaho, was only a few votes away from pushing Bill Clinton into fourth place in the county.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 3356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 343, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While officially running for the Democratic Presidential nomination, Lyndon LaRouche also decided to run as an Independent in the general election, standing as the National Economic Recovery candidate. LaRouche was in jail at the time, having been convicted of conspiracy to commit mail fraud in December 1988; it was only the second time in history that the presidency was sought from a prison cell (after Socialist Party candidate Eugene V. Debs, while imprisoned for his opposition to U.S. involvement in World War I, ran in 1920). His running-mate was James Bevel, a civil rights activist who had represented the LaRouche movement in its pursuit of the Franklin child prostitution ring allegations.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 229257, 50538, 4764461, 4313171, 31770104 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 84 ], [ 433, 447 ], [ 508, 519 ], [ 556, 567 ], [ 657, 701 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to the displayed states, LaRouche had nearly made the ballot in the states of New York and Mississippi. In the case of New York, while his petition was valid and had enough signatures, none of his electors filed declarations of candidacy; in the cases of Mississippi a sore-loser law was in place, and because he ran in that state's Democratic presidential primary he was ineligible to run as an Independent in the general. Ohio also had a sore-loser law, but it was ruled in Brown vs. Taft that it did not apply to presidential candidates.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 22039950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 281, 295 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "LaRouche and Beval drew 22,863 votes. (<0.1% of the popular vote).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Socialist Workers candidate:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " James Warren, journalist and steel worker from Illinois, and the 1988 Presidential nominee", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 4503404, 14849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 48, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "James Warren, who was the 1988 presidential nominee of the Socialist Workers Party, received a second consecutive nomination from the Party on the first of November 1991. Warren had two running mates that varied from state to state; Estelle DeBates and Willie Mae Reid, the latter also a resident of Illinois.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 4503404, 43441278, 4020884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 59, 82 ], [ 253, 268 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Warren received 22,882 votes (<0.1% of the popular vote).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ronald Daniels, former director of the National Rainbow Coalition", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 4626690, 1211026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 40, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ronald Daniels was the former executive director for the Center for Constitutional Rights, the former director of the National Rainbow Coalition, and the worked on both of Jesse Jackson's campaigns for the Democratic presidential nomination. Asiba Tupahache, a Native American activist from New York was his running-mate.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 4626690, 3763496, 1211026, 18603579, 4558415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 57, 89 ], [ 118, 144 ], [ 172, 185 ], [ 242, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Though running an Independent campaign under the label \"Campaign for a Better Tomorrow\", Daniels was endorsed by a number of third parties across the states, most notably the Peace and Freedom Party of California; though he had lost that party's presidential primary to Lenora Fulani, the nominee of the New Alliance Party, the delegates at its convention voted in favor of his candidacy 110–91, the only time it has ever nominated someone other than the winner of the primary.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 651493, 652828 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 270, 283 ], [ 304, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Daniels and Tupachache drew 27,396 votes (<0.1% of the popular vote).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The 1992 campaign also marked the entry of Ralph Nader into presidential politics as a candidate. Despite the advice of several liberal and environmental groups, Nader did not formally run. Rather, he tried to make an impact in the New Hampshire primaries, urging members of both parties to write-in his name. As a result, several thousand Democrats and Republicans wrote-in Nader's name. Despite supporting mostly liberal legislation during his career as a consumer advocate, Nader received more votes from Republicans than Democrats.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 25671, 445301, 18576029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 54 ], [ 232, 255 ], [ 458, 475 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Worker's League nominated Helen Halyard for President; she was the party's nominee for Vice President in 1984 and 1988. Fred Mazelis was nominated for Vice President. Halyard and Mazelis drew 3,050 votes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 38433171, 38433171, 4494719 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 30, 43 ], [ 124, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ballot Access: Michigan, New Jersey (33 Electoral)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "John Yiamouyiannis, a major opponent of water fluoridation, ran as an Independent under the label \"Take Back America\". Allen C. McCone was his running-mate. Yiamouyiannis and McCone drew 2,199 votes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 1991808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ballot Access: Arkansas, Iowa, Louisiana, Tennessee (33 Electoral)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Socialist Party nominated J. Quinn Brisben for President and Barbara Garson for Vice President. Brisben and Garson drew 2,909 votes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 248589, 4495876, 3059777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 30, 46 ], [ 65, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ballot Access: DC, Tennessee, Utah, Wisconsin (30 Electoral)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Grassroots Party nominated Jack Herer, a noted cannabis activist for President and Derrick Grimmer for Vice President. Herer and Grimmer drew 3,875 votes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 53597086, 252496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ], [ 31, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ballot Access: Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin (28 Electoral)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Prohibition Party nominated Earl Dodge, the party's chairman for President and George Ormsby for Vice President. Dodge and Ormsby drew 935 votes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 307316, 961893, 54458723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ], [ 32, 42 ], [ 83, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ballot Access: Arkansas, New Mexico, Tennessee (22 Electoral)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Drew Bradford was an Independent candidate for the Presidency; he did not have a running-mate. Bradford drew 4,749 votes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ballot Access: New Jersey (15 Electoral)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Eugene R. Hem was an Independent candidate for the Presidency, running under the label \"The Third Party\". His running-mate was Joanne Roland. Hem and Roland drew 405 votes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ballot Access: Wisconsin (11 Electoral)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Delbert Ehlers was an Independent candidate for the Presidency. His running-mate was Rick Wendt. Ehlers and Wendt drew 1,149 votes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ballot Access: Iowa (7 Electoral)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "James Boren was an Independent candidate for the Presidency, running under the label \"Apathy\". His running-mate was Bill Weidman. Boren and Weidman drew 956 votes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 37813903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ballot Access: Arkansas (6 Electoral)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Professor Isabell Masters was an Independent candidate for the Presidency, running under the label \"Looking Back\". Her running-mate was her son, Walter Ray Masters. Masters drew 327 votes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 903049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ballot Access: Arkansas (6 Electoral)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The American Party nominated Robert J. Smith for President and Doris Feimer for Vice President. However, for a time neither the Utah or South Carolina state parties would endorse the ticket. The American Party of South Carolina would ultimately endorse the candidacy of Howard Phillips, the nominee of the U.S. Taxpayers Party, while the American Party of Utah would decide to endorse Smith. Smith and Feimer drew 291 votes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 7426580, 519956, 32253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 270, 285 ], [ 306, 326 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ballot Access: Utah (5 Electoral)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Workers World Party nominated Gloria La Riva for President and Larry Holmes for Vice President. Initially the party had voted not to field a presidential candidate in 1992, but it was later found that the party would need to get at least half a percent of the vote in New Mexico in order to maintain its ballot access in that state. La Riva and Holmes drew 181 votes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 42034840, 3987443 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 23 ], [ 34, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ballot Access: New Mexico (5 Electoral)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After Bill Clinton secured the Democratic Party's nomination in the spring of 1992, polls showed Ross Perot leading the race, followed by President Bush and Clinton in third place after a grueling nomination process. Two-way trial heats between Bush and Clinton in early 1992 showed Bush in the lead. As the economy continued to sour and the President's approval rating continued to slide, the Democrats began to rally around their nominee. On July 9, 1992, Clinton chose Tennessee senator and former 1988 presidential candidate Al Gore to be his running mate. As Governor Clinton's nomination acceptance speech approached, Ross Perot dropped out of the race, convinced that staying in the race with a \"revitalized Democratic Party\" would cause the race to be decided by the United States House of Representatives. Clinton gave his acceptance speech on July 16, 1992, promising to bring a \"new covenant\" to America, and to work to heal the gap that had developed between the rich and the poor during the Reagan/Bush years. The Clinton campaign received the biggest convention \"bounce\" in history which brought him from 25 percent in the spring, behind Bush and Perot, to 55 percent versus Bush's 31 percent.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 3356, 19468510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 18 ], [ 775, 813 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the convention, Clinton and Gore began a bus tour around the United States, while the Bush/Quayle campaign began to criticize Clinton's character, highlighting accusations of infidelity and draft dodging. The Bush campaign emphasized its foreign policy successes such as Desert Storm, and the end of the Cold War. Bush also contrasted his military service to Clinton's lack thereof, and criticized Clinton's lack of foreign policy expertise. However, as the economy was the main issue, Bush's campaign floundered across the nation, even in strongly Republican areas, and Clinton maintained leads with over 50 percent of the vote nationwide consistently, while Bush typically saw numbers in the upper 30s. As Bush's economic edge had evaporated, his campaign looked to energize its socially conservative base at the 1992 Republican National Convention in Houston, Texas. At the convention, Bush's primary campaign opponent Pat Buchanan gave his famous \"culture war\" speech, criticizing Clinton's and Gore's social progressiveness, and voicing skepticism on his \"New Democrat\" brand. After President Bush accepted his renomination, his campaign saw a small bounce in the polls, but this was short-lived, as Clinton maintained his lead. The campaign continued with a lopsided lead for Clinton through September, until Ross Perot decided to re-enter the race. Ross Perot's re-entry in the race was welcomed by the Bush campaign, as Fred Steeper, a poll taker for Bush, said, \"He'll be important if we accomplish our goal, which is to draw even with Clinton.\" Initially, Perot's return saw the Texas billionaire's numbers stay low, until he was given the opportunity to participate in a trio of unprecedented three-man debates. The race narrowed, as Perot's numbers significantly improved as Clinton's numbers declined, while Bush's numbers remained more or less the same from earlier in the race as Perot and Bush began to hammer at Clinton on character issues once again.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 182000, 715813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 277, 289 ], [ 821, 856 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Commission on Presidential Debates organized four presidential debates", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 899023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many character issues were raised during the campaign, including allegations that Clinton had dodged the draft during the Vietnam War, and had used marijuana, which Clinton claimed he had pretended to smoke, but \"didn't inhale.\" Bush also accused Clinton of meeting with communists on a trip to Russia he took as a student. Clinton was often accused of being a philanderer by political opponents.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 472220, 32611, 1481886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 110 ], [ 122, 133 ], [ 148, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Allegations were also made that Bill Clinton had engaged in a long-term extramarital affair with Gennifer Flowers. Clinton denied ever having an affair with Flowers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 345890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On November 3, Bill Clinton won the election to serve as the 42nd president of the United States by a wide margin in the Electoral College, receiving 43% of the popular vote against Bush's 37.4% and Perot's 18.9%. It was the first time since 1968 that a candidate won the White House with under 50% of the popular vote. Only Washington, D.C. and Clinton's home state of Arkansas gave the majority of their votes to a single candidate in the entire country; the rest were won by pluralities of the vote.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 3356, 85533, 40567, 1930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 27 ], [ 121, 138 ], [ 242, 246 ], [ 370, 378 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Even though Clinton roughly received 3.1 million more votes than Democratic nominee Michael Dukakis had four years earlier, the Democrats recorded a 2.6 percentage point decrease in their share of the popular vote compared to 1988 due to the higher turnout. His 43% share of the popular vote was the second-lowest for any winning candidate in the 20th century after Woodrow Wilson in 1912 (41.8%). President Bush's 37.4% was the lowest percentage total for a sitting president seeking re-election since William Howard Taft, also in 1912 (23.2%). 1992 was, as the 1912 election was, a three-way race (that time between Taft, Wilson, and Theodore Roosevelt). It was also the lowest percentage for a major-party candidate since Alf Landon received 36.5% of the vote in 1936. Bush had a lower percentage of the popular vote than even Herbert Hoover, who was defeated in 1932 (39.7%). However, none of these races included a major third candidate. Bush was the last president voted out of office after one term until Donald Trump in 2020, as Clinton, Bush’s son George W. Bush and Barack Obama were all re-elected to second terms in office.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 74453, 33523, 40534, 33522, 30535, 104466, 40558, 13682, 40556, 4848272, 48410011, 3414021, 534366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 99 ], [ 366, 380 ], [ 384, 388 ], [ 503, 522 ], [ 636, 654 ], [ 725, 735 ], [ 766, 770 ], [ 830, 844 ], [ 866, 870 ], [ 1012, 1024 ], [ 1028, 1032 ], [ 1057, 1071 ], [ 1076, 1088 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Independent candidate Ross Perot received 19,743,821 with 18.9% of the popular vote. The billionaire used his own money to advertise extensively, and is the only third-party candidate ever allowed into the nationally televised presidential debates with both major party candidates (Independent John Anderson debated Republican Ronald Reagan in 1980, but without Democrat Jimmy Carter, who had refused to appear in a three-man debate). Speaking about the North American Free Trade Agreement, Perot described its effect on American jobs as causing a \"giant sucking sound\". For a period of time, Perot was leading in the polls, but he lost much of his support when he temporarily withdrew from the election, only to declare himself a candidate again soon after. This was also the most recent time that a third-party candidate won at least one county.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 43505, 222069, 43424, 25433, 40570, 15992, 22050, 2530474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 32 ], [ 227, 247 ], [ 294, 307 ], [ 327, 340 ], [ 344, 348 ], [ 371, 383 ], [ 454, 489 ], [ 549, 568 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Perot's almost 19% of the popular vote made him the most successful third-party presidential candidate in terms of popular vote since Theodore Roosevelt in the 1912 election. Also, his 19% of the popular vote was the highest ever for a candidate who did not win any electoral votes. Although he did not win any states, Perot managed to finish ahead of one of the two major party candidates in two states: In Maine, he received 30.44% of the vote to Bush's 30.39% (Clinton won Maine with 38.77%); in Utah, he collected 27.34% of the vote to Clinton's 24.65%. Bush won that state with 43.36%. He also came in 2nd in Maine's 2nd Congressional District where he had his best overall showing. He won 33.2% of the vote there and missed out on the district's 1 elector by only 4.5% of the vote.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 30535, 85533, 19977, 31716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 152 ], [ 266, 281 ], [ 408, 413 ], [ 499, 503 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The election was the most recent in which Montana voted for the Democratic candidate, the last time Florida backed the losing candidate and Georgia voted for the Democratic candidate until 2020, and the last time that Colorado voted Democratic until 2008. This was also the first time since Texas' admission to the Union in 1845 that a Democrat won the White House without winning the state, and the second time a Democrat won the White House without North Carolina (the first was 1844), and the second time since Florida's admission (also in 1845) that a Democrat won without winning the state (John F. Kennedy in 1960 was the first).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 19978, 18933066, 48830, 48410011, 29810, 5119376, 40565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 49 ], [ 100, 107 ], [ 140, 147 ], [ 189, 193 ], [ 291, 296 ], [ 596, 611 ], [ 615, 619 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Clinton was also the only Democrat at that point to win every electoral vote in the Northeast except for Lyndon Johnson in 1964. John Kerry and Barack Obama have been the only Democrats to repeat this since. Also, this was the first time since 1964 that the following nine states had voted Democratic: California, Colorado, Illinois, Montana, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, and Vermont.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 54533, 40566, 5399, 14849, 19978, 21216, 21134, 21648, 21649, 32578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 119 ], [ 123, 127 ], [ 314, 322 ], [ 324, 332 ], [ 334, 341 ], [ 343, 349 ], [ 351, 364 ], [ 366, 376 ], [ 378, 388 ], [ 394, 401 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 168 electoral votes received by Bush, added to the 426 electoral votes he received in 1988, gave him the most total electoral votes received by any candidate who was elected to the office of president only once (594), and the ninth largest number of electoral votes received by any candidate who was elected to the office of president behind Grover Cleveland's 664, Barack Obama's 697, Woodrow Wilson's 712, Bill Clinton's 749, Richard Nixon's 821, Dwight Eisenhower's 899, Ronald Reagan's 1,014 and Franklin D. Roosevelt's 1,876 total electoral votes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 39531, 12495, 534366, 33523, 3356, 25473, 8182, 25433, 10979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 94 ], [ 346, 362 ], [ 370, 382 ], [ 390, 404 ], [ 412, 424 ], [ 432, 445 ], [ 453, 470 ], [ 478, 491 ], [ 504, 525 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several factors made the results possible. First, the campaign came on the heels of an economic slowdown. Exit polling showed that 75% thought the economy was in fairly or very bad shape while 63% thought their personal finances were better or the same as four years ago. The decision by Bush to accept a tax increase adversely affected his re-election bid. Pressured by rising budget deficits, Bush agreed to a budget compromise with Congress which raised taxes and reduced the federal budget deficit. Clinton was able to condemn the tax increase effectively on both its own merits and as a reflection of Bush's dishonesty. Effective Democratic TV ads were aired showing a clip of Bush's 1988 acceptance speech in which he promised \"Read my lips … No new taxes.\" Most importantly, Bush's coalition was in disarray, for both the aforementioned reasons and for unrelated reasons. The end of the Cold War allowed old rivalries among conservatives to re-emerge and meant that other voters focused more on domestic policy, to the detriment of Bush, a social and fiscal moderate. The consequence of such a perception depressed conservative turnout.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 268487, 325329, 967280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 378, 392 ], [ 894, 902 ], [ 1002, 1017 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike Bush, Clinton was able to unite his fractious and ideologically diverse party behind his candidacy, even when its different wings were in conflict. To garner the support of moderates and conservative Democrats, he attacked Sister Souljah, an obscure rap musician whose lyrics Clinton condemned. Furthermore, Clinton made clear his support of the death penalty and would later champion making school uniforms in public schools a requirement. Clinton could also point to his centrist record as governor of Arkansas. More liberal Democrats were impressed by Clinton's record on abortion and affirmative action. His strong connections to African Americans also played a key role. In addition, he organized significant numbers of young voters and became a symbol of the rise of the Baby Boomer generation to political power. Supporters remained energized and confident, even in times of scandal or missteps.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 965824, 18945847, 55615, 47127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 230, 244 ], [ 257, 266 ], [ 399, 413 ], [ 784, 795 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The effect of Ross Perot's candidacy has been a contentious point of debate for many years. In the ensuing months after the election, various Republicans asserted that Perot had acted as a spoiler, enough to the detriment of Bush to lose him the election. While many disaffected conservatives may have voted for Ross Perot to protest Bush's tax increase, further examination of the Perot vote in the Election Night exit polls not only showed that Perot siphoned votes nearly equally among Bush and Clinton, but roughly two-thirds of those voters who cited Bush's broken \"No New Taxes\" pledge as \"very important\" (25%) voted for Bill Clinton. The voting numbers reveal that to win the electoral vote Bush would have had to win 10 of the 11 states Clinton won by less than five percentage points. For Bush to earn a majority of the popular vote, he would have needed 12.2% of Perot's 18.9% of the vote, 65% of Perot's support base. State exit polls suggested that Perot did not alter the electoral college count, except potentially in one state (Ohio), which nonetheless showed a result in the margin of error. Furthermore, Perot was most popular in states that strongly favored either Clinton or Bush, limiting his real electoral impact for either candidate.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 43505, 538393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 24 ], [ 189, 196 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Perot gained relatively little support in the Southern states and happened to have the best showing in states with few electoral votes. Perot appealed to disaffected voters all across the political spectrum who had grown weary of the two-party system. NAFTA played a role in Perot's support, and Perot voters were relatively moderate on hot-button social issues. A 1999 study in the American Journal of Political Science estimated that Perot's candidacy hurt the Clinton campaign, reducing \"Clinton's margin of victory over Bush by seven percentage point.\" In 2016, FiveThirtyEight stated that it was \"unlikely\" that Perot was a spoiler.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 18030657 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 566, 581 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Clinton, Bush, and Perot did not focus on abortion during the campaign. Exit polls, however, showed that attitudes toward abortion \"significantly influenced\" the vote, as pro-choice Republicans defected from Bush.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 37600898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 171, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Seymour Martin Lipset, this election had several unique characteristics. Voters felt that economic conditions were worse than they actually were, which harmed Bush. A rare event was a strong third-party candidate. Liberals launched a backlash against 12 years of a conservative White House. The chief factor was Clinton's uniting his party, and winning over a number of heterogeneous groups.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 2253929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Clinton's election ended an era in which the Republican Party had controlled the White House for 12 consecutive years, and for 20 of the previous 24 years. The election also brought the Democrats full control of the legislative and executive branches of the federal government, including both houses of U.S. Congress and the presidency, for the first time since the administration of the last Democratic president, Jimmy Carter. This would not last for very long, however, as the Republicans won control of both the House and Senate in 1994. Reelected in 1996, Clinton would become the first Democratic President since Franklin D. Roosevelt to serve two full terms in the White House.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 33057, 31756, 15992, 10979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 92 ], [ 303, 316 ], [ 415, 427 ], [ 619, 640 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1992 was arguably a political realignment election. It made the Democratic Party dominant in presidential elections in the Northeast, the Great Lakes region (until 2016) and the West Coast, where many states had previously either been swing states or Republican-leaning. Clinton picked up several states that went Republican in 1988, and which have remained in the Democratic column ever since: California, Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, most of Maine (besides the state's second congressional district, which broke the state's total straight Democratic voting record since, when it voted for Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump in 2016), Maryland, New Jersey, and Vermont. Vermont, carried by Clinton, had been heavily Republican for generations prior to the election, voting for a Democrat only once (in 1964). The state has been won by the Democratic nominee in every presidential election since. Bill Clinton narrowly defeated Bush in New Jersey (by two points), which had voted for the Republican nominee all but twice since 1948. Clinton would later win the state in 1996 by eighteen points; like Vermont, Republicans have not won the state since. California, which had been a Republican stronghold since 1952, was now trending Democratic. Clinton, a native Southerner, was able to carry several states in the South that the GOP had won for much of the past two decades, but ultimately won only four of eleven former Confederate states. This reflected the final shift of the South to the Republican Party. In subsequent presidential elections from 1996 to 2020, 28 out of the 50 states were carried by the same party as in 1992 (15 for the Democrats and 13 for the Republicans).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 440517, 12010, 21377251, 6466, 7930, 14849, 19977, 18858, 21648, 32578, 40562, 7023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 41 ], [ 138, 149 ], [ 164, 168 ], [ 407, 418 ], [ 420, 428 ], [ 430, 438 ], [ 448, 453 ], [ 652, 660 ], [ 662, 672 ], [ 678, 685 ], [ 1043, 1047 ], [ 1436, 1447 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Source (Popular Vote): ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Detailed results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Source (Electoral Vote): ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Detailed results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "†Maine and Nebraska each allowed their electoral votes to be split between candidates using the Congressional District Method for electoral vote assignment. In both states, two electoral votes were awarded to the winner of the statewide race and one electoral vote was awarded to the winner of each congressional district. District results for Maine and Nebraska do not include results for Marrou or other candidates and so totals differ from those for the states' at-large. Because Perot finished in 2nd place in some districts, the margins of the districts do not match the margin at-large.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Detailed results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "States with margin of victory less than 1% (27 electoral votes):", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Detailed results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "States/Districts with margin of victory less than 5% (175 electoral votes):", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Detailed results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (margin over Ross Perot)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Detailed results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (tipping point state)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Detailed results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "States with margin of victory between 5% and 10% (131 electoral votes):", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Detailed results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (margin over Ross Perot)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Detailed results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Source: New York Times President Map", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Detailed results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Counties with Highest Percent of Vote (Democratic)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Detailed results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Counties with Highest Percent of Vote (Republican)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Detailed results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Counties with Highest Percent of Vote (Other)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Detailed results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Source: Voter News Service exit poll, reported in The New York Times, November 10, 1996, 28.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Detailed results", "target_page_ids": [ 325011, 665947, 30680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 26 ], [ 27, 36 ], [ 50, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Newspaper endorsements in the 1992 United States presidential election ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 67902921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chicken George", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6088228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Giant sucking sound\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2530474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"It's the economy, stupid\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1293289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \" no new taxes\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1992 United States gubernatorial elections", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12696924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1992 United States Senate elections", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1104564 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1992 United States House of Representatives elections", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1341549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " First inauguration of Bill Clinton", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21203404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bulk of article text as of January 9, 2003 copied from this page, when it was located at and titled \"An Outline of American History: Chapter 13: Toward the 21st century\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " An ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " This page is in the public domain as a government publication.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Buell Jr, Emmett H. \"The 1992 Elections.\" Journal of Politics (1994): 1133-1144; reviews leading political science studies of the election", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ceaser, James, and Andrew Busch. Upside Down and Inside Out: The 1992 Elections and American Politics (1993).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Crotty, William, ed. America's Choice: The Election of 1992 (1993)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Doherty, Kathryn M., and James G. Gimpel. \"Candidate Character vs. the Economy in the 1992 Election.\" Political Behavior 19.3 (1997): 177-196. online", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Germond, Jack, and Jules Witcover. Mad As Hell: Revolt at the Ballot Box, 1992 (1993). online", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Goldman, Peter. et al. Quest for the Presidency 1992 (1994) 805pp.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Herron, Michael C., et al. \"Measurement of political effects in the United States economy: A study of the 1992 presidential election.\" Economics & Politics 11.1 (1999): 51-81.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kellstedt, Lyman A., et al. \"Religious voting blocs in the 1992 election: The year of the evangelical?.\" Sociology of Religion 55.3 (1994): 307-326. [Kellstedt, Lyman A., et al. \"Religious voting blocs in the 1992 election: The year of the evangelical?.\" Sociology of Religion 55.3 (1994): 307-326. online]", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Klein, Jill Gabrielle. \"Negativity in impressions of presidential candidates revisited: The 1992 election.\" Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 22.3 (1996): 288-295.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ladd, Everett Carll. \"The 1992 vote for President Clinton: Another brittle mandate?.\" Political Science Quarterly 108.1 (1993): 1-28. online", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lipset, Seymour Martin. \"The significance of the 1992 election.\" PS: Political Science and Politics 26.1 (1993): 7-16. online", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Nelson, Michael ed. The Elections of 1992 (1993)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Nelson, Michael. Clinton's Elections: 1992, 1996, and the Birth of a New Era of Governance (2020) excerpt", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " O'Mara, Margaret. Pivotal Tuesdays: Four Elections That Shaped the Twentieth Century (2015), compares 1912, 1932, 1968, 1992 in terms of social, economic, and political history", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ornstein, Norman J. \"Foreign policy and the 1992 election.\" Foreign Affairs 71.3 (1992): 1-16. online", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Pomper, Gerald M. ed. The Election of 1992 (1993).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Post, Jerrold M. \"The Political psychology of the Ross Perot phenomenon.\" in The Clinton Presidency (Routledge, 2019. 37-56).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Troy, Gil. \"Stumping in the bookstores: A literary history of the 1992 presidential campaign.\" Presidential Studies Quarterly (1995): 697-710. online", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Weaver, David, and Dan Drew. \"Voter learning in the 1992 presidential election: Did the “nontraditional” media and debates matter?.\" Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 72.1 (1995): 7-17.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Barlett, Donald L. and James B. Steele. America: What Went Wrong? (1992) online.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Clinton, Bill, and Al Gore. Putting People First: How We Can All Change America (1992)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cramer, Richard Ben. What It Takes: The Way to the White House (1992). online.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dionne, E. J. Why Americans Hate Politics (1992). online", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Duffy, Michael, and Dan Goodgame. Marching in Place: The Status Quo Presidency of George Bush (1992) online.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Edsall Thomas Byrne, and Mary D. Edsall. Chain Reaction: The Impact of Race, Rights, and Taxes on American Politics (1992) online.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ehrenhalt, Alan. The United States of Ambition: Politicians, Power, and the Pursuit of Office (1992) online. ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gore, Al. Earth in the Balance: Ecology and the Human Spirit (1992). online", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Greider, William. Who Will Tell the People: The Betrayal of American Democracy (1992) online.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jamieson, Kathleen Hall. Dirty Politics: Deception, Distraction, and Democracy (1992) online.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Perot, Ross. United We Stand: How We Can Take Back Our Country (1992) online.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Phillips, Kevin. The Politics of Rich and Poor: Wealth and the American Electorate in the Reagan Aftermath (1992) online.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sabato, Larry J. Feeding Frenzy: How Attack Journalism Has Transformed American Politics (1991) online", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Will, George F. Restoration: Congress, Term Limits and the Recovery of Deliberative Democracy (1992) online.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Election Wall's 1992 Election Video Page", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1992 popular vote by counties", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1992 popular vote by state", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1992 popular vote by states (with bar graphs)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Presidential Campaign Commercials, C-SPAN", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 77799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Campaign commercials from the 1992 election", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " — Michael Sheppard, Massachusetts Institute of Technology", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Booknotes interview with Tom Rosenstiel on Strange Bedfellows: How Television and the Presidential Candidates Changed American Politics, 1992, August 8, 1993.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Election of 1992 in Counting the Votes", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1992_United_States_presidential_election", "Al_Gore", "Dan_Quayle", "Presidency_of_George_H._W._Bush", "George_H._W._Bush", "Bill_Clinton", "Ross_Perot", "November_1992_events_in_the_United_States" ]

[ "United States presidential election 1992", "1992 U.S.A. presidential election" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1366 (MCCCLXVI) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321344, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 19 ], [ 27, 59 ], [ 105, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 13 Henry II deposes his half-brother, Pedro of Castile, to become King of Castile.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 22693343, 167050, 151358, 4711133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 19 ], [ 46, 62 ], [ 82, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 12 Frederick III of Sicily forbids decorations on synagogues.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 22530, 281068, 48559 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 36 ], [ 60, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 26 Comet 55P/Tempel–Tuttle passes from Earth.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 22403, 583290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 19, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thomas Fraser obtains lands in Aberdeenshire, upon which he starts the building of a towerhouse, that will later be known as Muchalls Castle.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 5028218, 857, 3659685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 32, 45 ], [ 126, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Muhammed V builds the Granada Hospital in Granada (in present-day Spain).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 5977981, 38264, 26667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 43, 50 ], [ 67, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " War continues between the Hindu Vijayanagar Empire and the Muslim Bahmani Sultanate in present-day southern India. Tens of thousands of civilians are massacred by each side.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 13677, 478684, 19541, 914020, 14533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 32 ], [ 33, 51 ], [ 60, 66 ], [ 67, 84 ], [ 109, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dmitri Donskoi, ruler of Moscow and Vladimir, makes peace with Dmitri Konstantinovich, former ruler of Vladimir.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 148185, 21476285, 463924, 2201133, 463924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 26, 32 ], [ 37, 45 ], [ 64, 86 ], [ 104, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Abu Faris Abd al-Aziz I of Morocco succeeds assassinated Abu Zayyan, as Sultan of the Marinid Empire in Morocco.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 39376104, 64647, 1661433, 19291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ], [ 73, 79 ], [ 87, 94 ], [ 105, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Den Hoorn brewery is founded at Leuven in the Low Countries. In 1708 this would be renamed the Brouwerij Artois, and later releases a beer named Stella Artois.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 51402, 28486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 64 ], [ 150, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Statutes of Kilkenny are passed in Ireland.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 2017130, 170034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 25 ], [ 40, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Zhu Yuanzhang, leader of the Red Turban Rebellion that will overthrow the Yuan Dynasty, and establish the Ming Dynasty two years later, begins building the walls for a new capital city at Nanjing.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 163029, 7526441, 19606306, 43449, 21791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 30, 50 ], [ 75, 87 ], [ 107, 119 ], [ 189, 196 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 11 Anne of Bohemia, queen of Richard II of England (d. 1394)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19452, 71370, 46531, 36125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 24 ], [ 35, 56 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 28 Jean Le Maingre, marshal of France (d. 1421)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1781, 1278173, 34884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 27 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lady Elizabeth FitzAlan, English noblewoman (d. 1425)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 433444, 39908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Miran Shah, governor of Azerbaijan (d. 1408)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1847993, 39560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Approximate", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Eleanor de Bohun, English noble (d.1399)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8140242, 39555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 25 Henry Suso, German mystic (b. c. 1295)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15845, 1919541, 4853729, 39978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 23 ], [ 25, 38 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 26 Simon Islip, Archbishop of Canterbury", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1261, 738920, 2345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 22 ], [ 24, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 20 Maria of Calabria, Empress of Constantinople (b. 1329)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19677, 17559336, 39970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 26 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Summer Ming Yuzhen, founder of the rebel empire of Daxia (b. 1331)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 410241, 36358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 20 ], [ 63, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 14 Ibn Nubata, Arab poet (b. 1287)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22525, 60643057, 42512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 23 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 18 Petrus Torkilsson, Archbishop of Uppsala", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22545, 1758130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 30 ] ] } ]

[ "1366" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The 1988 United States presidential election was the 51st quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 8, 1988. The Republican nominee, incumbent Vice President George H. W. Bush, defeated the Democratic nominee, Governor Michael Dukakis of Massachusetts. This was the first presidential election since 1948, and the most recent to date, in which a party won a third consecutive presidential term. This also remains the most recent election in which a candidate won over 400 electoral votes.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21491579, 32070, 32759, 11955, 5043544, 74453, 1645518, 40562 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 91 ], [ 132, 142 ], [ 162, 176 ], [ 177, 194 ], [ 209, 219 ], [ 238, 253 ], [ 257, 270 ], [ 319, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "President Ronald Reagan was ineligible to seek a third term. Bush entered the Republican primaries as the front-runner, defeating U.S. Senator Bob Dole and televangelist Pat Robertson to win the nomination. He selected U.S. Senator Dan Quayle of Indiana as his running mate. Dukakis won the Democratic primaries after Democratic leaders such as Gary Hart and Ted Kennedy withdrew or declined to run. He selected U.S. Senator Lloyd Bentsen of Texas as his running mate.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25433, 15016509, 55846, 49908, 15923, 14712923, 200496, 184136, 299257 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ], [ 74, 98 ], [ 143, 151 ], [ 170, 183 ], [ 232, 242 ], [ 287, 311 ], [ 345, 354 ], [ 359, 370 ], [ 425, 438 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bush ran an aggressive campaign concentrated on the strong economy, reducing urban crime, and continuing Reagan's policies. He attacked Dukakis as an elitist \"Massachusetts liberal\", and Dukakis appeared to fail to respond effectively to Bush's criticism. Despite Dukakis' initial lead in polls, Bush pulled ahead after the Republican National Convention and extended his lead after strong performances in two debates. Bush won a decisive victory over Dukakis, winning the Electoral College and the popular vote by sizable margins.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11231947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 159, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of , no candidate of either party has since equaled or surpassed Bush's share of the electoral or popular vote; only Bush's son George W. Bush in 2004 has won the popular vote in a presidential election for the Republicans since, and no Republican candidate has since won California, Illinois, New Jersey, Maryland, Connecticut, all of Maine, Delaware, or Vermont. Pennsylvania and Michigan did not go Republican again until Donald Trump won them in 2016.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3414021, 1297662, 5407, 14849, 21648, 18858, 6466, 19977, 7930, 32578, 23332, 18859, 4848272, 21377251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 145 ], [ 149, 153 ], [ 275, 285 ], [ 287, 295 ], [ 297, 307 ], [ 309, 317 ], [ 319, 330 ], [ 339, 344 ], [ 346, 354 ], [ 359, 366 ], [ 368, 380 ], [ 385, 393 ], [ 428, 440 ], [ 453, 457 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "George H. W. Bush became the first sitting vice president to be elected president since Martin Van Buren in 1836. In addition, this is the only presidential election since 1928 in which the party of the incumbent president won without the incumbent being their nominee, and one of only three such elections in the 20th century (1908 and 1928 being the other two).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 19763, 40512, 40538, 40533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 104 ], [ 108, 112 ], [ 172, 176 ], [ 328, 332 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " George H. W. Bush, Vice President", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 11955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bob Dole, U.S. senator from Kansas", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 55846 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pat Robertson, televangelist from Virginia", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 49908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jack Kemp, U.S. representative from New York", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 16200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pete du Pont, former governor of Delaware", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 216181, 234136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 22, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander Haig, former secretary of state, from Pennsylvania", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 80140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ben Fernandez, former Special Ambassador to Paraguay, from California", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 9936024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Paul Laxalt, former United States Senator from Nevada", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 868142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Donald Rumsfeld, former Secretary of Defense from Illinois", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 8629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Harold E. Stassen, former Governor of Minnesota", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 237818, 214877 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 27, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bush unexpectedly came in third in the Iowa caucus, which he had won in 1980, behind Dole and Robertson. Dole was also leading in the polls of the New Hampshire primary, and the Bush camp responded by running television commercials portraying Dole as a tax raiser, while Governor John H. Sununu campaigned for Bush. Dole did nothing to counter these ads and Bush won, thereby gaining crucial momentum, which he called \"Big Mo\". Once the multiple-state primaries such as Super Tuesday began, Bush's organizational strength and fundraising lead were impossible for the other candidates to match, and the nomination was his.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 435012, 445301, 212948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 50 ], [ 147, 168 ], [ 280, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Republican Party convention was held in New Orleans, Louisiana. Bush was nominated unanimously and selected U.S. Senator Dan Quayle of Indiana as his running mate. In his acceptance speech, Bush made the pledge \" No new taxes,\" which contributed to his loss in the 1992 election.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 53842, 15923, 21883857, 39529 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 66 ], [ 125, 135 ], [ 139, 146 ], [ 269, 282 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1984 presidential election the Democrats had nominated Walter Mondale, a traditional New Deal-type liberal, who advocated for those constituencies that Franklin Roosevelt forged into a majority coalition, as their candidate. When Mondale was defeated in a landslide, party leaders became eager to find a new approach to get away from the 1980 and 1984 debacles. After Bush's image was affected by his involvement on the Iran-Contra scandal much more than Reagan's, and after the Democrats won back control of the U.S. Senate in the 1986 congressional elections following an economic downturn, the party's leaders felt optimistic about having a closer race with the GOP in 1988, although probabilities of winning the presidency were still marginal given the climate of prosperity.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 40571, 42172, 19283361, 14787, 24909346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 33 ], [ 62, 76 ], [ 92, 100 ], [ 427, 438 ], [ 520, 531 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One goal of the party was to find a new, fresh candidate who could move beyond the traditional New Deal-Great Society ideas of the past and offer a new image of the Democrats to the public. To this end party leaders tried to recruit New York Governor Mario Cuomo to be a candidate. Cuomo had impressed many Democrats with his keynote speech at the 1984 Democratic Convention, and they believed he would be a strong candidate. After Cuomo chose not to run, the Democratic frontrunner for most of 1987 was former Colorado Senator Gary Hart. He had made a strong showing in the 1984 presidential primaries and, after Mondale's defeat, had positioned himself as the moderate centrist many Democrats felt their party would need to win.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 12861, 277935, 200496, 14710295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 233, 250 ], [ 251, 262 ], [ 528, 537 ], [ 575, 602 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "But questions and rumors about extramarital affairs and past debts dogged Hart's campaign. Hart had told New York Times reporters who questioned him about these rumors that, if they followed him around, they would \"be bored\". In a separate investigation, the Miami Herald had received an anonymous tip from a friend of Donna Rice that Rice was involved with Hart. After his affair emerged, the Herald reporters found Hart's quote in a pre-print of The New York Times magazine. After the Heralds findings were publicized, many other media outlets picked up the story and Hart's ratings in the polls plummeted. On May 8, 1987, a week after the Rice story broke, Hart dropped out of the race. His campaign chair, Representative Patricia Schroeder, tested the waters for about four months after Hart's withdrawal, but decided in September 1987 that she would not run. In December 1987, Hart surprised many pundits by resuming his campaign, but the allegations of adultery had delivered a fatal blow to his candidacy, and he did poorly in the primaries before dropping out again.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 30680, 607797, 703824, 30680, 1538517, 1700192, 58809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 119 ], [ 259, 271 ], [ 319, 329 ], [ 448, 466 ], [ 725, 743 ], [ 902, 909 ], [ 959, 967 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Senator Ted Kennedy of Massachusetts had been considered a potential candidate, but he ruled himself out of the race in the fall of 1985. Two other politicians mentioned as possible candidates, both from Arkansas, did not join the race: Senator Dale Bumpers and Governor and future President Bill Clinton.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 184136, 300348, 233866, 3356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 19 ], [ 245, 257 ], [ 262, 270 ], [ 292, 304 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Joe Biden's campaign also ended in controversy after he was accused of plagiarizing a speech by Neil Kinnock, then-leader of the British Labour Party. The Dukakis campaign secretly released a video in which Biden was filmed repeating a Kinnock stump speech with only minor modifications. Biden later called his failure to attribute the quotes an oversight, and in related proceedings the Delaware Supreme Court's Board on Professional Responsibility cleared him of a separate plagiarism charge, leveled for plagiarizing an article during his law school. This ultimately led him to drop out of the race. Dukakis later revealed that his campaign had leaked the tape, and two members of his staff resigned. (Biden later ran twice more for the Democratic nomination, unsuccessfully in 2008 and successfully in 2020. He was elected the 47th vice president in 2008, serving two terms under President Barack Obama. In 2021, he became the 46th president, over 33 years after his first campaign for the office ended.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 145422, 18960210, 21978, 19279158, 2974457, 12112193, 55026675, 406859, 534366, 64651467 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 71, 83 ], [ 96, 108 ], [ 137, 149 ], [ 388, 410 ], [ 781, 785 ], [ 806, 810 ], [ 854, 858 ], [ 894, 906 ], [ 911, 915 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Al Gore, a senator from Tennessee, also chose to run for the nomination. Turning 40 in 1988, he would have been the youngest man to contest the presidency on a major party ticket since William Jennings Bryan in 1896, and the youngest president ever if elected, younger than John F. Kennedy at election age and Theodore Roosevelt at age of assumption of office. He eventually became the 45th Vice President of the United States under Bill Clinton, then the Democratic presidential nominee in 2000, losing to George W. Bush, George H.W.'s son.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 5042706, 30395, 5119376, 30535, 3356, 32009, 3414021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 24, 33 ], [ 274, 289 ], [ 310, 328 ], [ 433, 445 ], [ 491, 495 ], [ 507, 521 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Hart withdrew from the race, no clear frontrunner emerged before the primaries and caucuses began. The Iowa caucus was won by Dick Gephardt, who had been sagging heavily in the polls until, three weeks before the vote, he began campaigning as a populist and his numbers surged. Illinois Senator Paul M. Simon finished a surprising second, and Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis finished third. In the New Hampshire primary, Dukakis came in first, Gephardt fell to second, and Simon came in third. In an effort to weaken Gephardt's candidacy, both Dukakis and Gore ran negative television ads against Gephardt. The ads convinced the United Auto Workers, which had endorsed Gephardt, to withdraw their endorsement; this crippled Gephardt, as he relied heavily on the support of labor unions.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 435012, 165912, 211484, 14849, 24909346, 395237, 1645518, 74453, 445301, 320140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 120 ], [ 132, 145 ], [ 251, 259 ], [ 284, 292 ], [ 293, 300 ], [ 301, 314 ], [ 349, 362 ], [ 372, 387 ], [ 411, 432 ], [ 642, 661 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Super Tuesday races, Dukakis won six primaries, to Gore's five, Jesse Jackson five and Gephardt one, with Gore and Jackson splitting the Southern states. The next week, Simon won Illinois with Jackson finishing second. 1988 remains the race with the most candidates winning primaries since the McGovern reforms of 1971. Jackson captured 6.9 million votes and won 11 contests: seven primaries (Alabama, the District of Columbia, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Puerto Rico and Virginia) and four caucuses (Delaware, Michigan, South Carolina and Vermont). He also scored March victories in Alaska's caucuses and Texas's local conventions, despite losing the Texas primary. Briefly, after he won 55% of the vote in the Michigan Democratic caucus, he had more pledged delegates than all the other candidates.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 453899, 18603579, 303, 108956, 48830, 18130, 16949861, 23041, 32432, 7930, 18859, 27956, 32578, 624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ], [ 71, 84 ], [ 400, 407 ], [ 413, 433 ], [ 435, 442 ], [ 444, 453 ], [ 455, 466 ], [ 468, 479 ], [ 484, 492 ], [ 513, 521 ], [ 523, 531 ], [ 533, 547 ], [ 552, 559 ], [ 596, 602 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jackson's campaign suffered a significant setback less than two weeks later when he was defeated in the Wisconsin primary by Dukakis. Dukakis's win in New York and then in Pennsylvania effectively ended Jackson's hopes for the nomination.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 33127, 23332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 113 ], [ 172, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Democratic Party Convention was held in Atlanta, Georgia from July 18–21. Arkansas Governor Bill Clinton placed Dukakis's name in nomination, and delivered his speech, scheduled to be 15 minutes long, but lasting so long that some delegates began booing to get him to finish; he received great cheering when he said, \"In closing...\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 602874, 3138, 3356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 31 ], [ 44, 51 ], [ 96, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Texas State Treasurer Ann Richards, who was elected the state governor two years later, gave a speech attacking George Bush, including the line \"Poor George, he can't help it, he was born with a silver foot in his mouth.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 21274201, 317840, 214883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 22, 34 ], [ 56, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With only Jackson remaining as an active candidate to oppose Dukakis, the tally for president was:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jackson's supporters said that since their candidate had finished in second place, he was entitled to the vice-presidential spot. Dukakis disagreed, and instead selected Senator Lloyd Bentsen from Texas. Bentsen's selection led many in the media to dub the ticket the \"Boston-Austin\" axis, and to compare it to the pairing of John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson in the 1960 presidential campaign. Like Dukakis and Bentsen, Kennedy and Johnson were from Massachusetts and Texas respectively.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 299257, 5119376, 54533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 178, 191 ], [ 326, 341 ], [ 346, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ron Paul and Andre Marrou formed the ticket for the Libertarian Party. Their campaign called for the adoption of a global policy on military nonintervention, advocated an end to the federal government's involvement with education, and criticized Reagan's \"bailout\" of the Soviet Union. Paul was a former member of the U.S. House of Representatives, first elected as a Republican from Texas in an April 1976 special election. He protested the War on Drugs in a letter to Drug Czar William Bennett.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 168715, 448320, 32044, 24026546, 3107223, 26779, 19468510, 32070, 1181646, 874565, 215206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 13, 25 ], [ 52, 69 ], [ 71, 85 ], [ 141, 156 ], [ 272, 284 ], [ 318, 347 ], [ 368, 378 ], [ 442, 454 ], [ 470, 479 ], [ 480, 495 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lenora Fulani ran for the New Alliance Party, and focused on issues concerning unemployment, healthcare, and homelessness. The party had full ballot access, meaning Fulani and her running mate, Joyce Dattner, were the first pair of women to receive ballot access in all 50 states. Fulani was the first African American to do so.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 651493, 652828, 361354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 26, 44 ], [ 142, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Willa Kenoyer and Ron Ehrenreich ran for the Socialist Party, advocating a decentralist government approach with policies determined by the needs of the workers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 3987277, 4620315, 248589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 18, 32 ], [ 45, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "David E. Duke stood for the Populist Party. A former leader of the Louisiana Ku Klux Klan, he advocated a mixture of White nationalist and separatist policies with more traditionally conservative positions, such as opposition to most immigration from Latin America and to affirmative action.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 456252, 29439233, 16779, 313027, 33178, 49392 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 28, 42 ], [ 77, 89 ], [ 117, 134 ], [ 139, 149 ], [ 272, 290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the election, the Bush campaign sought to portray Dukakis as an unreasonable \"Massachusetts liberal.\" Dukakis was attacked for such positions as opposing mandatory recitation of the Pledge of Allegiance in schools, and being a \"card-carrying member of the ACLU\" (a statement Dukakis made early in the primary campaign to appeal to liberal voters). Dukakis responded by saying that he was a \"proud liberal\" and that the phrase should not be a bad word in America.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 11231947, 59581, 1950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 106 ], [ 189, 209 ], [ 263, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bush pledged to continue Reagan's policies, but also vowed a \"kinder and gentler nation\" in an attempt to win over more moderate voters. The duties delegated to him during Reagan's second term (mostly because of the President's advanced age, Reagan turning 78 just after he left office) gave him an unusually high level of experience for a vice president.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 11955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A graduate of Yale University, Bush derided Dukakis for having \"foreign-policy views born in Harvard Yard's boutique.\" New York Times columnist Maureen Dowd asked, \"Wasn't this a case of the pot calling the kettle elite?\" Bush said that, unlike Harvard, Yale's reputation was \"so diffuse, there isn't a symbol, I don't think, in the Yale situation, any symbolism in it... Harvard boutique to me has the connotation of liberalism and elitism,\" and said he intended Harvard to represent \"a philosophical enclave\", not a statement about class. Columnist Russell Baker wrote, \"Voters inclined to loathe and fear elite Ivy League schools rarely make fine distinctions between Yale and Harvard. All they know is that both are full of rich, fancy, stuck-up and possibly dangerous intellectuals who never sit down to supper in their undershirt no matter how hot the weather gets.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 34273, 320200, 297883, 6516933, 2166371 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 29 ], [ 93, 105 ], [ 144, 156 ], [ 187, 213 ], [ 551, 564 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dukakis was badly damaged by the Republicans' campaign commercials, including \"Boston Harbor\", which attacked his failure to clean up environmental pollution in the harbor, and especially by two commercials that were accused of being racially charged, \"Revolving Door\" and \"Weekend Passes\" (also known as \"Willie Horton\"), that portrayed him as soft on crime. Dukakis was a strong supporter of Massachusetts's prison furlough program, which had begun before he was governor. As governor, Dukakis vetoed a 1976 plan to bar inmates convicted of first-degree murder from the furlough program. In 1986, the program had resulted in the release of convicted murderer Willie Horton, an African American man who committed a rape and assault in Maryland while out on furlough.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 1066561, 7679410, 458647, 3822124 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 171 ], [ 253, 267 ], [ 273, 321 ], [ 417, 425 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A number of false rumors about Dukakis were reported in the media, including Idaho Republican Senator Steve Symms's claim that Dukakis's wife Kitty had burned an American flag to protest the Vietnam War, as well as the claim that Dukakis himself had been treated for mental illness.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 1754817, 874656, 32611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 113 ], [ 142, 147 ], [ 191, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dukakis attempted to quell criticism that he was ignorant on military matters by staging a photo op in which he rode in an M1 Abrams tank outside a General Dynamics plant in Sterling Heights, Michigan. The move ended up being regarded as a major public relations blunder, with many mocking Dukakis's appearance as he waved to the crowd from the tank. The Bush campaign used the footage in an attack ad, accompanied by a rolling text listing Dukakis's vetoes of military-related bills. The incident remains a commonly cited example of backfired public relations.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 74453, 37744, 52108, 118026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 99 ], [ 123, 132 ], [ 148, 164 ], [ 174, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One reason for Bush's choice of Senator Dan Quayle as his running mate was to appeal to younger Americans identified with the \"Reagan Revolution.\" Quayle's looks were praised by Senator John McCain: \"I can't believe a guy that handsome wouldn't have some impact.\" But Quayle was not a seasoned politician, and made a number of embarrassing statements. The Dukakis team attacked Quayle's credentials, saying he was \"dangerously inexperienced to be first-in-line to the presidency.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 15923, 871552, 43715 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 50 ], [ 127, 144 ], [ 186, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the vice presidential debate, Quayle attempted to dispel such allegations by comparing his experience with that of pre-1960 John F. Kennedy, who had also been a young politician when running for the presidency (Kennedy had served 14 years in Congress to Quayle's 12). Quayle said, \"I have as much experience in the Congress as Jack Kennedy did when he sought the presidency.\" \"Senator, I served with Jack Kennedy. I knew Jack Kennedy,\" Dukakis's running mate, Lloyd Bentsen, responded. \"Jack Kennedy was a friend of mine. Senator, you're no Jack Kennedy.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 5119376, 3311117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 146 ], [ 529, 560 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Quayle responded, \"That was really uncalled for, Senator,\" to which Bentsen said, \"You are the one that was making the comparison, Senator, and I'm one who knew him well. And frankly I think you are so far apart in the objectives you choose for your country that I did not think the comparison was well-taken.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Democrats replayed Quayle's reaction to Bentsen's comment in subsequent ads as an announcer intoned, \"Quayle: just a heartbeat away.\" Despite much press about the Kennedy comments, this did not reduce Bush's lead in the polls. Quayle had sought to use the debate to criticize Dukakis as too liberal rather than go point for point with the more seasoned Bentsen. Bentsen's attempts to defend Dukakis received little recognition, with greater attention on the Kennedy comparison.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During the course of the campaign, Dukakis fired his deputy field director Donna Brazile after she spread false rumors that Bush had had an affair with his assistant Jennifer Fitzgerald. Bush and Fitzgerald's relationship was briefly rehashed in the 1992 campaign.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 899662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There were two presidential debates and one vice-presidential debate.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Voters were split as to who won the first presidential debate. Bush improved in the second debate. Before the second debate, Dukakis had been suffering from the flu and spent much of the day in bed. His performance was generally seen as poor and played to his reputation of being intellectually cold. Reporter Bernard Shaw opened the debate by asking Dukakis whether he would support the death penalty if Kitty Dukakis were raped and murdered; Dukakis said \"no\" and discussed the statistical ineffectiveness of capital punishment. Some commentators thought the question itself was unfair, in that it injected an overly emotional element into the discussion of a policy issue, but many observers felt Dukakis's answer lacked the normal emotions one would expect of a person talking about a loved one's rape and murder. Tom Brokaw of NBC reported on his October 14 newscast, \"The consensus tonight is that Vice President George Bush won last night's debate and made it all the harder for Governor Michael Dukakis to catch and pass him in the 25 days remaining. In all of the Friday morning quarterbacking, there was common agreement that Dukakis failed to seize the debate and make it his night.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 1363440, 167290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 310, 322 ], [ 818, 828 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the November 8 election, Bush won a majority of the popular vote and the Electoral College. Neither his popular vote percentage (53.4%), his total electoral votes (426), nor his number of states won (40) have been surpassed in any subsequent presidential election. Bush was the last candidate to receive an absolute majority of the popular vote until his son George W. Bush did in 2004.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 3414021, 1297662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 362, 376 ], [ 384, 388 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Like Reagan in 1980 and 1984, Bush performed very strongly among suburban voters, in areas such as the collar counties of Chicago (winning over 60% in DuPage and Lake counties), Philadelphia (sweeping the Main Line counties), Baltimore, Los Angeles (winning over 60% in the Republican bastions of Orange and San Diego counties) and New York. As of 2020, Bush is the last Republican to win the heavily suburban states of California, Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Maryland, and New Jersey. He is also the last Republican candidate to win rural Vermont, which was historically Republican but by this time shifting away from the party, as well as the last Republican candidate to win Maine in its entirety, though Donald Trump won one electoral vote from the state in both 2016 and 2020. Bush lost New York state by just over 4%. Bush is the first Republican to win the presidency without Iowa. In contrast to the suburbs, a solidly Republican constituency, Bush received a significantly lower level of support than Reagan in rural regions. Farm states had fared poorly during the Reagan administration, and Dukakis was the beneficiary.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 30694438, 96258, 96220, 505820, 45330, 27003223, 5407, 6466, 7930, 14849, 18858, 21648, 32578, 19977, 4848272, 8210131, 24739031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 129 ], [ 151, 157 ], [ 162, 166 ], [ 205, 214 ], [ 297, 303 ], [ 308, 317 ], [ 420, 430 ], [ 432, 443 ], [ 445, 453 ], [ 455, 463 ], [ 465, 473 ], [ 479, 489 ], [ 545, 552 ], [ 683, 688 ], [ 713, 725 ], [ 797, 805 ], [ 1040, 1068 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Illinois, Bush lost a number of downstate counties that previously went for Reagan, and he lost Iowa by a wide margin, even losing in traditionally Republican areas. Bush also performed weaker in Missouri's northern counties, narrowly winning that state. In three typically solid Republican states, Kansas, South Dakota, and Montana, the vote was much closer than usual. The rural state of West Virginia, though not an agricultural economy, narrowly flipped back into the Democratic column. As of , this is the only election since 1916 where Blaine County, Montana did not vote for the winning candidate.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 95452 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 545, 567 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bush performed strongest in the South and West. Despite Bentsen's presence on the Democratic ticket, Bush won Texas by 12 points. He lost the states of the Pacific Northwest but narrowly held California in the Republican column for the sixth straight time. As of , this was the last election in which the Republican candidate won the support of a majority or plurality of women voters.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 78147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Source (popular vote): , ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Source (electoral vote): ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "(a) West Virginia faithless elector Margarette Leach voted for Bentsen as president and Dukakis as vice president in order to make a statement against the U.S. Electoral College. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 32905, 1387946, 14897704, 85533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 18, 35 ], [ 36, 52 ], [ 155, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "(b) Fulani's running mate varied from state to state. Among the six vice presidential candidates were Joyce Dattner, Harold Moore, and Wynonia Burke.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bush carried many states and congressional districts that have rarely voted for a Republican since:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " As of 2020, California, Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Maryland, Maine, New Jersey, and Vermont have not voted for a Republican since.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 5407, 6466, 7930, 14849, 18858, 19977, 21648, 32578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 23 ], [ 25, 36 ], [ 38, 46 ], [ 48, 56 ], [ 58, 66 ], [ 68, 73 ], [ 75, 85 ], [ 91, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Michigan, Pennsylvania, and Maine's 2nd congressional district did not vote Republican again until 2016.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 18859, 23332, 5079607 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 23 ], [ 29, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " New Mexico did not vote Republican again until 2004.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 21649 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of 2020, this is the last presidential election where Texas voted more Democratic than Florida did. From 1992 to present, Florida would vote to the left of Texas in every presidential election since.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 40242680, 5043544, 23946643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 62 ], [ 74, 84 ], [ 90, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of , 1988 is the last election in which a Republican won a majority of Northern electoral votes and was elected while losing West Virginia.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 32905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of 2022, 1988 is the last election in which California, Utah and Florida voted for the same candidate.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This is the first time a Republican won a presidential election without carrying Iowa, the second time a Republican was elected without carrying Oregon (after 1868), and the last time a Republican carried any of the contiguous states on the West Coast.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Maine allowed its electoral votes to be split between candidates. Two electoral votes were awarded to the winner of the statewide race and one electoral vote to the winner of each congressional district. Bush won all four votes. This was the last election in which Nebraska awarded its electors in a winner-take-all format before switching to the congressional district method.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "States with margin of victory less than 5% (195 electoral votes)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "States with margin of victory between 5% and 10% (70 electoral votes):", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (tipping point state)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Counties with Highest Percent of Vote (Republican)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Counties with Highest Percent of Vote (Democratic)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Source: CBS News and The New York Times exit poll from the Roper Center for Public Opinion Research ()", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 359551, 30680, 22543346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 16 ], [ 21, 39 ], [ 59, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1988 United States House of Representatives elections", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1341577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1988 United States Senate elections", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1106178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1988 United States gubernatorial elections", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14791775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of the United States (1988–present)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 472948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Al Gore 1988 presidential campaign", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1305110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Inauguration of George H. W. Bush", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21203949 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander, Herbert E. Financing the 1988 election (1991)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " online", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " de la Garza, Rodolfo O., ed. From Rhetoric to Reality: Latino Politics in the 1988 Elections (1992)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Drew, Elizabeth. Election journal: political events of 1987-1988 (1989) online", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 7521570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Germond, Jack W., and Jules Witcover. Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? (1989), narrative by two famous reporters; online", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Guth, James L., and John C. Green, eds. The Bible and the Ballot Box: Religion and Politics in the 1988 Election. (1991) excerpt", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Pitney, Jr., John J. After Reagan: Bush, Dukakis, and the 1988 Election (UP Kansas, 2019) excerpt", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Pomper, Gerald M., ed The Election of 1988 : reports and interpretations'' (1989) online", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1988 popular vote by counties", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1988 popular vote by state", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1988 popular vote by states (with bar graphs)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Campaign commercials from the 1988 election", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " —Michael Sheppard, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (archived)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Senator Paul Simon Papers at Southern Illinois University Carbondale", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Booknotes interview with Jack Germond and Jules Witcover on Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988, August 27, 1989.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Booknotes interview with Arthur Grace on Choose Me: Portraits of a Presidential Race, December 10, 1989.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Booknotes interview with Paul Taylor on See How They Run: Electing the President in an Age of Mediaocracy, November 4, 1990.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Booknotes interview with Richard Ben Cramer on What It Takes: The Way to the White House, July 26, 1992", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Election of 1988 in Counting the Votes", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1988_United_States_presidential_election", "George_H._W._Bush", "Dan_Quayle", "Michael_Dukakis", "November_1988_events_in_the_United_States" ]

[ "United States presidential election, 1988" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1367 (MCCCLXVII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168855, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ], [ 28, 58 ], [ 104, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 18 Ferdinand I becomes King of Portugal after the death of his father, Peter I.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 16202, 153586, 9352542, 252902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 24 ], [ 41, 49 ], [ 81, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 3 Battle of Nájera: Pedro of Castile is restored as King of Castile (in modern-day Spain) after defeating his half-brother, Henry II. Pedro is aided in the battle by the English under Edward, the Black Prince, and Henry by the French.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 2279, 3180640, 151358, 4711133, 167050, 407950, 58917, 2687967 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 26 ], [ 28, 44 ], [ 68, 75 ], [ 132, 140 ], [ 178, 185 ], [ 192, 216 ], [ 235, 241 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 24 Otto I, \"the Evil\", becomes Duke of the independent city of Göttingen (in modern-day Germany) on the death of his father, Ernst I.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 2734, 33113235, 23307013, 11867, 33964325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 29 ], [ 71, 80 ], [ 96, 103 ], [ 133, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 16 Pope Urban V makes the first attempt to move the Papacy back to Rome from Avignon. This move is reversed in 1370, when he is forced to return to Avignon, and shortly afterwards dies.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 22556, 24297, 23056, 38166, 39535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 25 ], [ 62, 68 ], [ 87, 94 ], [ 121, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Winter Construction of a stone Moscow Kremlin Wall around the city is begun to resist invasion by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 2242282, 380252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 52 ], [ 104, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " End Petru I succeeds his grandfather Bogdan I as voivode (ruler) of Moldavia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 1345890, 2356641, 149044, 46007 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 13 ], [ 39, 47 ], [ 51, 58 ], [ 70, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Undated The first university in Pécs, Hungary, is founded by King Louis I.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 19725260, 211931, 13275, 38740 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 30 ], [ 34, 38 ], [ 40, 47 ], [ 63, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 6 King Richard II of England (d. 1400)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15986, 46531, 36302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 17, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 22 or 1368 Thomas de Mowbray, 1st Duke of Norfolk, English politician (d. 1399)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20211, 39533, 196680, 39555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 13, 17 ], [ 19, 57 ], [ 82, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 13 King Taejong of Joseon, Korean king (d. 1422)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15816, 498797, 39905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 15, 32 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Michael de la Pole, 2nd Earl of Suffolk, English politician (d. 1415)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1757155, 36126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 54 ], [ 79, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Mary of Enghien, queen consort of Naples (d. 1446)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1944156, 39930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 26 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 9 Giulia della Rena, Italian saint (b. 1319)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16075, 51272727, 39963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 29 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 18 King Peter I of Portugal (b. 1320)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16202, 252902, 36098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 18, 37 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 13 John Tiptoft, 2nd Baron Tibetot (b. 1313)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1541, 3736877, 36356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 42 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 23 Gil Álvarez Carrillo de Albornoz, Spanish cardinal (b. 1310)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1628, 12480, 39957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 44 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 25 Jakushitsu Genkō, Japanese poet (b. 1290)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28203, 15358411, 39983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 31 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 28 Ashikaga Yoshiakira, Japanese shōgun (b. 1330)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8198, 234810, 10736899, 39971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 33 ], [ 44, 50 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bogdan I of Moldavia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2356641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] } ]

[ "1367" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1368 (MCCCLXVIII) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321364, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 21 ], [ 29, 59 ], [ 105, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 14 Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1437)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 10882, 38889, 36129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 43 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 3 King Charles VI of France (d. 1422)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8355, 77413, 39905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 18, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Louis VII, Duke of Bavaria (d. 1447)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3483752, 39931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ], [ 32, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ida de Grey, Cambro-Norman noble (d. 1426)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22871284, 39909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pope Martin V (d. 1431)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 23937, 36127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 19, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thomas Hoccleve, English poet (d. 1426)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1155869, 39909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 35, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 29 Emperor Go-Murakami of Japan (b. 1328)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20586, 195023, 15573, 39968 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 30 ], [ 34, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 25 Andrea Orcagna, Italian painter, sculptor and architect", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1519, 217003 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 12 Blanche of Lancaster, English duchess, spouse of John of Gaunt (b. 1345)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28021, 2778247, 53294, 14944095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 35 ], [ 64, 77 ], [ 82, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 7 Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence, son of Edward III of England (b. 1338)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22446, 203144, 46377, 36366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 51 ], [ 60, 81 ], [ 86, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " undated Maha Thammaracha I, Thai ruler of the Sukhothai Kingdom and Buddhist philosopher (b. c.1300)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2789023, 174668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ], [ 48, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Ibn Battuta, Arabian traveler", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15229 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 22 ] ] } ]

[ "1368" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1369 (MCCCLXIX) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168880, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 19 ], [ 27, 57 ], [ 103, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 28th Muzio Sforza, Italian condottiero (d. 1424)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19672, 631496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown William de Ros, 6th Baron de Ros, Lord Treasurer of England (d. 1414)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1096029, 39898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 47 ], [ 79, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable King Constantine I of Georgia (d. c. 1412)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3011033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " approximate Jan Hus, Czech priest and philosopher (d. 1415)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 16028, 151873, 36126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 21 ], [ 23, 28 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " approximate Margareta, Swedish Sami missionary (d. 1425)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 40866175, 39908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 23 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 17 King Peter I of Cyprus (murdered) (b. 1328)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15920, 2063844, 39968 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 18, 35 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 23 King Peter of Castile (b. 1334) (murdered after the battle of Montiel)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20210, 151358, 36363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 16, 32 ], [ 37, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 15 Philippa of Hainault, queen of Edward III of England (b. 1311) (dropsy)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1442, 47754, 46377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 32 ], [ 43, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 3 Margaret, Countess of Tyrol (b. 1318)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22347, 1007951, 39962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 13 Thomas de Beauchamp, 11th Earl of Warwick", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21761, 434187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sir John Chandos, English knight", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 717748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Agnes Dunbar, Countess of Moray", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1397118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnus the Pious, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 3241677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ramathibodi I, first king of Ayutthaya (b. 1314)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 204337, 165348, 39958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 30, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] } ]

[ "1369" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1370 (MCCCLXX) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 311439, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 26, 57 ], [ 103, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 11 Frederick I, Elector of Saxony (d. 1428)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2395, 3101072, 39912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 41 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 23 Pier Paolo Vergerio the Elder, Italian humanist (d. 1444 or 1445)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 16181, 9245860, 39928, 39929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 39 ], [ 62, 66 ], [ 70, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Erasmo of Narni, Italian mercenary (d. 1443)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 880938, 39927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Guarino da Verona, Italian humanist (d. 1460)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 163788, 39506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John VII Palaiologos, Byzantine Emperor (d. 1408)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 74227, 4016, 39560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 23, 40 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " King Olav IV of Norway (d. 1387)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 66273, 39548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 23 ], [ 28, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jan Piast, Duke of Ziebice (d. 1428)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22157237, 39912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 32, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jan Sindel, Polish scientist (d. 1443)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 779938, 39927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 34, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Joan of Navarre, Queen of England, Duchess regent of Brittany (d. 1437)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 74246, 36129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Lydgate, English Benedictine monk and poet (d. 1451)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 264504, 34885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Paulus Vladimiri, Polish scholar (d. 1435)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 367130, 39920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Duke William of Austria (d. 1406)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1168530, 39558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 24 ], [ 29, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 31 St. Vitalis of Assisi, Italian hermit (b. 1295)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19653, 11491278, 39978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 13, 30 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " c. September 20 Edward of Angoulême, French-born royal prince of England (b. 1365)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28148, 40614100, 36123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 18, 37 ], [ 79, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 5 Casimir III the Great, King of Poland (b. 1310)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21565, 7362, 39957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 34 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 19 Pope Urban V (b. 1310)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8848, 24297, 39957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 26 ], [ 31, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Simeon Uroš, Emperor of Serbs and Greeks and half-brother of Stefan Dušan (b. 1326)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 5439447, 26736086, 236637, 34879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 41 ], [ 62, 74 ], [ 79, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vedanta Desika, Indian Hindu guru and poet (b. 1269)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2305916, 42504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Yang Weizhen, Chinese painter (b. c. 1296)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 18396895, 39977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Toghon Temür, Emperor Huizong of Yuan dynasty China (b. 1320)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1080647, 19606306, 36098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 34, 46 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable date Empress Gi of Yuan dynasty China (b. 1315)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 183921, 39959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 26 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] } ]

[ "1370" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1372 (MCCCLXXII) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321380, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ], [ 28, 58 ], [ 104, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 18 Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, Islamic scholar (d. 1449)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11363, 30865968, 39934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 35 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 13 Louis of Valois, Duke of Orléans, son of King Charles V of France (d. 1407)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22693343, 703576, 77447, 39559 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 43 ], [ 57, 76 ], [ 81, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 8 Thomas Holland, 1st Duke of Surrey (d. 1400)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28488, 297500, 36302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 48 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October John Hastings, 3rd Earl of Pembroke (d. 1389)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3711000, 34881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 45 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " approximate date", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Helena Dragaš, empress consort of Byzantium (d. 1450)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8551008, 39510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Olivera, daughter of Lazar of Serbia and wife of Bayezid I", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35129828, 326125, 4241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 22, 37 ], [ 50, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 11 Eleanor of Lancaster, English noblewoman (b. 1318)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15847, 433473, 39962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 33 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 19 John II, Marquess of Montferrat (b. 1321)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20316, 8446740, 39964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 42 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 21 Rudolf VI, Margrave of Baden", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20329, 3537760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 24 Casimir III, Duke of Pomerania (b. 1348)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1629, 12783674, 36120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 42 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 31 Ralph de Stafford, 1st Earl of Stafford, English soldier (b. 1301)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1711, 910997, 39948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 51 ], [ 73, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Bagrat I of Imereti, King of Georgia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1794663 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 34 ] ] } ]

[ "1372" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1373 (MCCCLXXIII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321295, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 21 ], [ 29, 61 ], [ 107, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 29 Marie d'Alençon, French princess (d. 1417)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20586, 17873681, 39900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 26 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 25 Queen Joanna II of Naples (d. 1435)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15799, 954798, 39920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 16, 35 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 22 Thomas le Despenser, 1st Earl of Gloucester (d. 1400)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27889, 4017584, 36302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 58 ], [ 63, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Edward of Norwich, 2nd Duke of York (d. 1415)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 211067, 36126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Margery Kempe, writer of the first autobiography in English", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 297182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 16 Humphrey de Bohun, 7th Earl of Hereford (b. 1342)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16022, 1338170, 39516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 52 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February Ibn Kathir, Mamluk Islamic scholar (b. 1301)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 10845, 455164, 39948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 21 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 23 Saint Birgitta, Swedish saint (b. 1303)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16181, 89340, 39950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 24 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 3 Jeanne de Valois, Queen of Navarre (b. 1343)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21764, 9111132, 39515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 47 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 7 Rafał of Tarnów, Polish nobleman (b. c. 1330)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8144, 1868952, 39971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 28 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Constantine IV, King of Armenia (assassinated)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 403295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Robert le Coq, French bishop and councillor", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1826973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tiphaine Raguenel, Breton astrologer (b. c. 1335)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 68557116, 39973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] } ]

[ "1373" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1375 (MCCCLXXV) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168880, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 19 ], [ 27, 57 ], [ 103, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October Joanna of Aragon, Countess of Foix, Aragonese throne claimant (d. 1407)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22332, 28190407, 39559 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 44 ], [ 76, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Richard of Conisburgh, 3rd Earl of Cambridge (approximate date; d. 1415)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 211068, 36126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 45 ], [ 68, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nicolas Grenon, French composer (approximate date; d. 1456)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1419675, 39507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lan Kham Deng, King of Lan Xang 1416–1428 (d. 1428)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2546466, 203665, 39899, 39912, 39912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 24, 32 ], [ 33, 37 ], [ 38, 42 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Johannes Abezier (1375–1424), Roman Catholic religious and political leader of the Teutonic Knights, over Polish territory", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 761377, 39907, 606848, 30776, 22936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 24, 28 ], [ 31, 45 ], [ 84, 100 ], [ 107, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 21 Elisabeth of Meissen, Burgravine consort of Nuremberg (b. 1329)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2483, 9598574, 39970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 31 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 19 Cansignorio della Scala, Lord of Verona (b. 1340)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22568, 10842008, 39517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 36 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 16 John Hastings, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, English nobleman and soldier (b. 1347)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1334, 3714123, 39512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 46 ], [ 81, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 16 Liu Bowen, Chinese military strategist, officer, statesman and poet (b. 1311)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19659, 4578219, 39956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 18 ], [ 81, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 5 Charles III of Alençon, French archbishop (b. 1337)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15861, 2206948, 39974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 31 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 1 Philip of Valois, Duke of Orléans (b. 1336)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27530, 6377650, 36359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 47 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 24 King Valdemar IV of Denmark", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22345, 203050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 18, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 12 John Henry, Margrave of Moravia (b. 1322)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21631, 5600212, 36360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 45 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 21 Giovanni Boccaccio, Italian writer (b. 1313)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8850, 12957, 36356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 32 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Adityawarman, king of Malayapura", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 5595318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Margaret Drummond, dowager queen consort of Scotland (b. c.1340)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 5909068, 39517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lațcu, voivode of Moldavia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 3141175, 46007 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 19, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tenoch, Mexica ruler", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 465433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] } ]

[ "1375" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1376 (MCCCLXXVI) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 319727, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ], [ 28, 57 ], [ 103, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "<onlyinclude>", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " March The peace treaty between England and France is extended until April, 1377.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 19344, 407950, 2687967, 1004, 39540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 33, 40 ], [ 45, 51 ], [ 70, 75 ], [ 77, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 31 Pope Gregory XI excommunicates all members of the government of Florence, and places the city under an interdict. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 20587, 24227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 28 The Good Parliament begins in England (so called because its members attempted to reform the corrupt Royal Council on that date).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 1639, 330759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 15, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 3 Olav IV Haakonsson is elected King Oluf II of Denmark, following the death of his grandfather, Valdemar IV, in 1375.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 19350, 66273, 203050, 39538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 26 ], [ 103, 114 ], [ 119, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June Catherine of Siena visits Pope Gregory XI in Avignon, to attempt to persuade him to make peace with Florence, and move the Papacy back to Rome.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 15785, 7471, 24227, 38166, 11525, 25458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 7, 25 ], [ 33, 48 ], [ 52, 59 ], [ 107, 115 ], [ 145, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 7 The dying Prince Edward summons his father, Edward III, and brother, John of Gaunt, and makes them swear to uphold the claim to the throne of his son Richard; Edward is the first \"English\" Prince of Wales not to become King of England. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 15795, 58917, 46377, 53294, 46531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 19, 32 ], [ 53, 63 ], [ 78, 91 ], [ 159, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 10 The Good Parliament is dissolved (at that time, it was the longest Parliament to have sat in England).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 15809, 330759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 14, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 12 With the help of the Genoese, Byzantine co-emperor Andronicus IV Palaeologus invades Constantinople and dethrones his father, John V Palaeologus, as co-emperor. John V Palaeologus is taken prisoner.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 1491, 559961, 16972981, 253610, 5646, 74224, 74224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 33, 40 ], [ 42, 51 ], [ 63, 88 ], [ 97, 111 ], [ 138, 156 ], [ 173, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September John of Gaunt summons religious reformer John Wyclif to appear before the Royal Council.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 27529, 16483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 53, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 20 Richard of Bordeaux, son of the Black Prince, is created Prince of Wales in succession to his father.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 21575, 46531, 46204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 33 ], [ 71, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 25 John of Gaunt presents his nephew, Richard of Bordeaux, to the feudatories of the realm and swears to uphold Richard's right to succeed Edward III.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 8270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Acamapichtli becomes the first tlatoani of Tenochtitlan.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 453414, 1475346, 29988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 32, 40 ], [ 44, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 9 Edmund Mortimer, English nobleman and rebel (d. c. 1409)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21446, 30170714, 39561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 28 ], [ 64, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gihwa, scholar in Korean Buddhism (d. 1433)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 294755, 297136, 39917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 19, 34 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sofia of Bavaria, queen consort of Bohemia (d. 1425)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4364223, 39908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Yusuf III, Sultan of Granada (d. 1417)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3612848, 39900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ], [ 34, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 24 Richard FitzAlan, 10th Earl of Arundel, English military leader", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15954, 428188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 6 Przecław of Pogorzela, Cardinal and Bishop of Wrocław (b. 1310)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1008, 39432192, 6221, 15116447, 39957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 31 ], [ 33, 41 ], [ 46, 63 ], [ 68, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 30 Joan of Ponthieu, Dame of Epernon, French countess regent ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19654, 22404390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 8 Edward, the Black Prince, son of King Edward III of England (b. 1330)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15864, 58917, 46377, 39971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 33 ], [ 47, 68 ], [ 73, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 22 Simon Langham, Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1310)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15996, 155808, 2345, 39957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 23 ], [ 25, 49 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] } ]

[ "1376" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1377 (MCCCLXXVII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321344, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 21 ], [ 29, 61 ], [ 107, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 15 King Ladislaus of Naples (d. 1414)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11020, 541959, 39898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 19, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 1 Emperor Go-Komatsu of Japan (d. 1433)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1254, 195020, 39917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 29 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 20 Shahrukh Mirza, ruler of Persia and Transoxiania (d. 1447)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 18933271, 1311513, 39931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 26 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 19 Albert IV, Duke of Austria (d. 1404)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28147, 1163334, 39557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 41 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 5 Jianwen Emperor of China (d. 1402)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8353, 634503, 34882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 28 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Louis II of Anjou (d. 1417)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 732584, 39900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 23, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Filippo Brunelleschi, Italian architect (d. 1446)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 90007, 39930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anglesia Visconti, queen consort of Cyprus (d. 1439)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34392182, 39922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ernest, Duke of Austria (d. 1424)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1167367, 39907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 29, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Oswald von Wolkenstein, Austrian poet (d. 1445)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 72459, 39929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stefan Lazarević, Despot of Serbia (d. 1427)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1542969, 4789521, 2768125, 39910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 19, 25 ], [ 29, 35 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Đurađ Branković, Despot of Serbia (d. 1456)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2036239, 4789521, 2768125, 39507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 18, 24 ], [ 28, 34 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Guru Ravidas, (d. 1528)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 13644060, 36227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 19, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 27 Frederick the Simple, King of Sicily (b. 1341)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15866, 281068, 36364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 33 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 16 or March 17 Marie de St Pol, Countess of Pembroke and Foundress of Pembroke College, Cambridge (b. c.1303)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19818, 20223, 1735630, 39950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 13, 21 ], [ 23, 38 ], [ 112, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April Guillaume de Machaut, French poet and composer (b. c.1300)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 181420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 23 or July 11 Richardis of Schwerin, queen consort of Sweden (b. 1347)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1827, 15873, 14688950, 39512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 13, 20 ], [ 22, 43 ], [ 73, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May Algirdas, Grand Prince of Lithuania", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19345, 1175523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 21 King Edward III of England (b. 1312)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15819, 46377, 39955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 15, 36 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ibn Battuta, Moroccan explorer (b. 1304)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15229, 39951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vladislav I, Prince of Wallachia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1047458, 154820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 33 ] ] } ]

[ "1377" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1378 (MCCCLXXVIII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168855, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 22 ], [ 30, 60 ], [ 106, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 23 Louis III, Elector Palatine (d. 1436)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15990, 4036895, 34778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 40 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 27 Zhu Quan, Chinese military commander, historian and playwright (d. 1448)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19624, 4867538, 39932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 17 ], [ 76, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 16 Hongxi Emperor of China (d. 1425)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1448, 361865, 39908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 26 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 24 David Stewart, Duke of Rothesay, heir to throne of Scotland (d. 1402)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22345, 528611, 34882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 44 ], [ 77, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 31 Pope Callixtus III (d. 1458)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8204, 24221, 36131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 32 ], [ 37, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Vittorino da Feltre, Italian humanist (d. 1446)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 975866, 14532, 39930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 22, 29 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Joan II, Countess of Auvergne, French vassal (d. 1424)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8789523, 39907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lorenzo Ghiberti, Italian sculptor and metal-worker (d. 1455)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 160930, 39508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Hardyng, English chronicler (d. 1465)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1336956, 34957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 6 Joanna of Bourbon, queen consort of Charles V of France (b. 1338)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11021, 363957, 77447, 36366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 30 ], [ 49, 68 ], [ 73, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 27 Pope Gregory XI (b. c. 1329)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20585, 24227, 39970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 26 ], [ 35, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July Owain Lawgoch, titular Prince of Wales and mercenary assassinated (b. c. 1330)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15786, 2706672, 69894, 39971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 7, 20 ], [ 40, 45 ], [ 81, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 4 Galeazzo II Visconti, Lord of Milan (b. c. 1320)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2418, 203152, 36098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 31 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 29 Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1316)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21578, 38895, 39960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 44 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 30 Andrew Stratford, English verderer and landowner", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21577, 42888021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 30 ] ] } ]

[ "1378" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1379 (MCCCLXXIX) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321295, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ], [ 28, 60 ], [ 106, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 29 John I succeeds his father, Henry II, as King of Castile and King of León.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 19355, 153265, 167050, 750274, 336544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 15 ], [ 37, 45 ], [ 58, 65 ], [ 70, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 30 New College, Oxford, is founded in England by William of Wykeham, Bishop of Winchester.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 15843, 128354, 407950, 172632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 29 ], [ 45, 52 ], [ 56, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 1 Forces of the Republic of Venice and Ottoman Turks, having invaded Constantinople, restore John V Palaiologos as Byzantine co-emperor. Andronikos IV Palaiologos is allowed to remain as co-emperor, but is confined to the city of Silivri for the remainder of his life.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 15844, 613492, 22629, 5646, 74224, 16972981, 253610, 2115751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 23, 41 ], [ 46, 59 ], [ 76, 90 ], [ 100, 118 ], [ 122, 131 ], [ 144, 169 ], [ 237, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 9 The Treaty of Neuberg is signed, splitting the Austrian Habsburg lands between brothers Albert III and Leopold III. Albert III retains the title of Duke of Austria.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 28544, 1220201, 26964606, 13824, 1163286, 1220156, 1163286 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 18, 35 ], [ 61, 68 ], [ 70, 78 ], [ 102, 112 ], [ 117, 128 ], [ 130, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bairam Khawaja establishes the independent principality of the Kara Koyunlu (Turkomans of the Black Sheep Empire), in modern-day Armenia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 806090, 10918072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 76 ], [ 130, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow raids Estonia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 148185, 19004, 28222445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 19, 25 ], [ 32, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In the Hundred Years' War, the French lose control of most of Brittany to the English.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 19038039, 2687967, 38748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 26 ], [ 32, 38 ], [ 63, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wisbech Grammar School is founded in England.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 3499264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Timur conquers the Sufid Dynasty of Khwarazm", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 25439083, 20284934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 20, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 4 King Henry III of Castile (d. 1406)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22454, 153823, 39558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 17, 37 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jerome of Prague, Hussite (d. 1416)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 910547, 39899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 31, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Empress Zhang (Hongxi) of China (d. 1442)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 33558671, 39926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 37, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 18 Albert II of Mecklenburg (b. c. 1318)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11363, 1859294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 29 King Henry II of Castile (b. 1333)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19355, 167050, 36357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 14, 33 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 15 Otto V, Duke of Bavaria (b. 1346)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21763, 3322535, 36119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 37 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 16 John Fitzalan, Marshal of England (drowned)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8219, 1150726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Aqsara'i, Persian physician", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1822442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 23 ] ] } ]

[ "1379" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1381 (MCCCLXXXI) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 311439, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ], [ 28, 59 ], [ 105, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 13 Colette of Corbie, French abbess and saint in the Catholic Church (d. 1447)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 16191, 6280452, 39931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 30 ], [ 83, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 13 Thomas FitzAlan, 12th Earl of Arundel, English politician (d. 1415)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22554, 430392, 36126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 50 ], [ 75, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Anna of Celje, Queen consort of Poland (d. 1416)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5477366, 39899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Johann Schiltberger, German traveller and writer (d. 1440)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1267349, 39923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John I, Duke of Bourbon (d. 1434)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 703409, 39918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 29, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Saint Rita of Cascia (d. 1457)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 355519, 36130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 26, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Itzcóatl, fourth Tlatoani for the Mexica Empire (d. 1440)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 454031, 1475346, 11953556, 39923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 18, 26 ], [ 35, 41 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 24 Catherine of Vadstena, Swedish saint (b. 1331 or 1332)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20209, 353296, 36358, 39972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 32 ], [ 52, 56 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 15 Eppelein von Gailingen, German robber baron", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19674, 2783284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 14 Simon Sudbury, Archbishop of Canterbury (murdered)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15797, 153652, 2345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 23 ], [ 25, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 15", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Cavendish, Lord Chief Justice of England (murdered)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 125744 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wat Tyler, English rebel (murdered)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 231196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 15 John Ball, renegade priest (executed)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16088, 491779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 2 John of Ruysbroeck, Flemish mystic", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8356, 852632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 27 Edmund Mortimer, 3rd Earl of March, English politician", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8452, 431646 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 48 ] ] } ]

[ "1381" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1383 (MCCCLXXXIII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321344, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 22 ], [ 30, 62 ], [ 108, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 30 Anne of Gloucester, English countess, granddaughter of King Edward III of England (d. 1438)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1011, 1820338, 46377, 39921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 29 ], [ 71, 92 ], [ 97, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 4 Antipope Felix V (d. 1451)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27765, 23650314, 34885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 30 ], [ 35, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 9 Niccolò III d'Este, Marquis of Ferrara (d. 1441)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21446, 8486427, 39925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 51 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Pope Eugene IV (d. 1447)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 49069, 39931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 20, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amadeus VIII, Duke of Savoy (d. 1451)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 23650314, 34885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ], [ 33, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 1 Amadeus VI, Count of Savoy (b. 1334)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19346, 69297, 36363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 36 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 3 Hugh III of Arborea", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19633, 9398709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 5 Dmitry Konstantinovich, Russian prince (b. 1324)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15820, 2201133, 25391, 39965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 31 ], [ 33, 39 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 8 Thomas de Ros, 4th Baron de Ros, English Crusader (b. 1338)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15864, 1095978, 36366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 40 ], [ 63, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 15 John VI Kantakouzenos, Byzantine Emperor (b. 1292)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15936, 74226, 39981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 31 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 7 James of Baux, titular Latin Emperor", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15863, 3548093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 22 King Fernando I of Portugal (b. 1345)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22571, 153586, 14944095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 18, 40 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 7 Wenceslaus I, Duke of Luxembourg (b. 1337)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8144, 5563404, 39974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 45 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 23 Beatrice of Bourbon, Queen of Bohemia (b. 1320)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 14750344, 19609508, 36098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 51 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Radu I, Prince of Wallachia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1047464, 154820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 28 ] ] } ]

[ "1383" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1384 (MCCCLXXXIV) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321374, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 21 ], [ 29, 57 ], [ 103, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 6 Edmund Holland, 4th Earl of Kent (d. 1408)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15986, 4686591, 39560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 44 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August Antoine, Duke of Brabant (d. 1415)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 656192, 36126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 33 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 11 Yolande of Aragon (d. 1442)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2192, 1296558, 39926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 29 ], [ 34, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " St Frances of Rome (d. 1440)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1586332, 39923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 24, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Khalil Sultan, ruler of Transoxiana (d. 1411)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2976015, 39895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sigismondo Polcastro, Italian physician and natural philosopher (d. 1473)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 51433973, 35077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 30 Louis II, Count of Flanders (b. 1330)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15813, 2587114, 39971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 40 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May William Douglas, 1st Earl of Douglas, Scottish magnate (b.c. 1327)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19345, 4904603, 39967 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 42 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 8 Kan'ami, Japanese actor and playwright (b. 1333)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15864, 1024541, 36357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 16 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 6 Francesco I of Lesbos", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1019, 14211004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 20 Geert Groote, Dutch founder of the Brethren of the Common Life (b. 1340)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 18933271, 72363, 39517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 24 ], [ 79, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 10 Joanna of Dreux, Countess of Penthievre and nominal Duchess of Brittany (b. 1319)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28020, 640281, 39963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 30 ], [ 91, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 20 Louis I, Duke of Anjou (b. 1339)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28148, 598361, 39975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 37 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October Joan Holland, Duchess of Brittany (b. 1350)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22332, 34179421, 39518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 43 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 23 Thomas Preljubović, ruler of Epirus", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 14750344, 5456882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 31 John Wycliffe, English theologian, Bible translator and Catholic reform campaigner", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8204, 16483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " John of Fordun, Scottish chronicler", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 148239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Peter of Enghien, Count of Lecce", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1981185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ruaidri mac Tairdelbach Ó Conchobair, King of Connacht", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1978195 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Liubartas, King of Galicia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1759073 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Muhammad Jamaluddin al-Makki al-Amili al-Jizzini known as al-Shahid al-Awwal. Author of Al-Lum'a al-Dimashqiyya (book) (b. ca1334)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20620663, 36363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 49 ], [ 127, 131 ] ] } ]

[ "1384" ]

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