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{
"plaintext": "Shit is a word considered to be vulgar and profane in Modern English. As a noun, it refers to fecal matter, and as a verb it means to defecate; in the plural (\"the shits\"), it means diarrhea. Shite is a common variant in British and Irish English. As a slang term, shit has many meanings, including: nonsense, foolishness, something of little value or quality, trivial and usually boastful or inaccurate talk or a contemptible person. It could also be used to refer to any other noun in general or as an expression of annoyance, surprise or anger.",
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"plaintext": "The word is likely derived from Old English, having the nouns scite (dung, attested only in place names) and scitte (diarrhoea) and the verb scītan (to defecate, attested only in bescītan, to cover with excrement); eventually it morphed into Middle English schītte (excrement), schyt (diarrhoea) and shiten (to defecate), and it is virtually certain that it was used in some form by preliterate Germanic tribes at the time of the Roman Empire. The word may be further traced to Proto-Germanic *skit-, and ultimately to Proto-Indo-European *skheid- \"cut, separate\", the same root believed to have become the word shed. The word has several cognates in modern Germanic languages, such as German Scheiße, Dutch schijt, Swedish skit, Icelandic skítur, Norwegian skitt etc. Ancient Greek had 'skōr' (gen. 'skatos' hence 'scato-'), from Proto-Indo-European *sker-, which is likely unrelated.",
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"plaintext": "The word shit (also shite in British and Hiberno-English) is considered profanity and is usually avoided in formal speech. Minced oath substitutes for the word shit in English include shoot, shucks, sugar, and the euphemistic backronym, Sugar, Honey, Ice(d) Tea.",
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"plaintext": "In the word's literal sense, it has a rather small range of common usages. An unspecified or collective occurrence of feces is generally shit or some shit; a single deposit of feces is sometimes a shit or a piece of shit; and to defecate is to shit or to take a shit. While it is common to speak of shit as existing in a pile, a load, a hunk, and other quantities and configurations, such expressions flourish most strongly in the figurative. For practical purposes, when actual defecation and excreta are spoken of, it is either through creative euphemism or with a vague and fairly rigid literalism.",
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"plaintext": "When uttered as an exclamation or interjection, shit may convey astonishment or a feeling of being favorably impressed or disgusted. Similar utterances might be damn!, wow! or yuck!.",
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"plaintext": "Piece of shit may also be used figuratively to describe a particularly loathsome individual, or an object that is of poor quality (\"this car is a piece of shit\", often abbreviated to \"P.O.S.\").",
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"plaintext": "One study published in 2017 argued that \"shit studies\" is a cross-disciplinary meta-field of rhetorical inquiry about human communication and reasoning. The authors explained, \"rhetorical studies has theorized 'shit' in terms of the communication of transformation, style, and textual relations,\" particularly in relation to claims of expertise to topics such as \"anti-semitism\" and \"wine-tasting.\" They conclude that bullshit speech is one-sided discourse that is difficult to penetrate because it contains \"ideological barriers to the expectation of mutuality,\" working to deflect critical responses.",
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"plaintext": "Shit can be used as a generic mass noun similar to stuff; for instance, This show is funny (as) shit or This test is hard (as) shit, or That was stupid shit. These three usages (with funny, hard, and stupid or another synonym of stupid) are heard most commonly in the United States. Using \"as\" denotes a subtle change in the meaning of the expression; however, the overall intent is basically the same.",
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"plaintext": "In the expression Get your shit together! the word shit can refer either to one's wits or composure or to one's things, gear, etc. He doesn't have his shit together means that his affairs are disordered, reflecting not bad luck or forces beyond his control, but his personal shortcomings.",
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"plaintext": "To shoot the shit is to have a friendly but pointless conversation, as in \"Come by my place some time and we'll shoot the shit.\" ",
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"plaintext": "A shithole is any unpleasant place to be, much like a hellhole. This usage originates from a reference to a pit toilet.",
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"plaintext": "A crock of shit is something (a situation, explanation, argument, etc.) that is nonsense or fabricated as a deception or evasion; i.e. bullshit. Often abbreviated simply as crock. Example: \"You expect me to believe that ?? What a crock!\"",
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"plaintext": "The phrase built like a brick shithouse is used in the United States to compliment a curvaceous woman, but in other English-speaking countries to compliment men with athletic physiques. This meaning originates from the observation that most shithouses are rather ramshackle affairs constructed of plywood or scrap sheets of steel.",
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"plaintext": "The shitter is a slang term for a toilet, and can be used like the phrase ...down the toilet to suggest that something has been wasted. Example: \"This CD player quit working one friggin' week after I bought it, and I lost the receipt! Twenty bucks right down the shitter!\"",
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"plaintext": "Shit on a shingle is U.S. military slang for creamed chipped beef on toast. In polite company this can be abbreviated as SOS.",
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"plaintext": "Shit can be used to denote trouble, by saying one is in a lot of shit or deep shit (a common euphemism is deep doo-doo). A shitstorm would be quite a lot of trouble happening all in one place at one time. It's common for someone to refer to an unpleasant thing as hard shit (You got a speeding ticket? Man, that's some hard shit), but the phrase tough shit is used as an unsympathetic way of saying too bad to whoever is having problems (You got arrested? Tough shit, man!) or as a way of expressing to someone that they need to stop complaining about something and cope with it instead (Billy: I got arrested because of you! Tommy: Tough shit, dude, you knew you might get arrested when you chose to come with me.) Note that in this case, as in many cases with the term, tough shit is often said as a way of pointing out someone's fault in his/her own current problem. It's also common to express annoyance by simply saying Shit.",
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"plaintext": "A shitload of something is a large quantity, especially something unpleasant or disgusting. The boss dumped a shitload of extra work for me this week. A shit sandwich is something (like a situation or state of affairs) unpleasant made triflingly more palatable by packaging it in things less unpleasant, as rotten meat sandwiched in bread. The term shit sandwich originates from an old joke that goes: \"Life is a shit sandwich. The more bread (money) you got, the less shit you have to eat.\"",
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"plaintext": "Up shit creek or especially Up shit creek without a paddle describes a situation in which one is in severe difficulties with no apparent means of solution (this is simply a profane version of the older saying \"up the creek without a paddle\", profanity added for emphasis or humor).",
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"plaintext": "Shit happens means that bad happenings in life are inevitable. This is usually spoken with a sigh or a shrug, but can be spoken derisively to someone who complains too often about his ill fortunes, or in an irritating manner.",
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"plaintext": "When the shit hits the fan is usually used to refer to a specific time of confrontation or trouble, which requires decisive action. This is often used in reference to combat situations and the action scenes in movies, but can also be used for everyday instances that one might be apprehensive about. I don't want to be here when the shit hits the fan! indicates that the speaker is dreading this moment (which can be anything from an enemy attack to confronting an angry parent or friend). In polite society, it is often reduced to \"when it hits the fan\". He's the one to turn to when the shit hits the fan is an indication that the person being talked about is dependable and will not run from trouble or abandon their allies in tough situations. The concept of this phrase is simple enough, as the actual substance striking the rotating blades of a fan would cause a messy and unpleasant situation (much like being in the presence of a manure spreader). Whether or not this has actually happened, or if the concept is simply feasible enough for most people to imagine the result without needing it to be demonstrated, is unknown. Another example might be the saying shit rolls downhill, a metaphor suggesting that trouble for a manager may be transferred to the subordinates. There are a number of anecdotes and jokes about such situations, as the imagery of these situations is considered to be funny. This is generally tied-in with the concept that disgusting and messy substances spilled onto someone else are humorous.",
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"plaintext": "For someone to be described as shitfaced means that person is essentially incapacitated by alcoholic intoxication (i.e. in a thoroughly drunken state).",
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"plaintext": "Shit can comfortably stand in for the terms bad and anything in many instances (Dinner was good, but the movie was shit. You're all mad at me, but I didn't do shit!). A comparison can also be used, as in Those pants look like shit, or This stuff tastes like shit. Many usages are idiomatic. I'm shit out of luck usually refers to someone who is at the end of their wits or who has no remaining viable options. In polite company the acronym SOL is commonly substituted for this. That little shit shot me in the ass, suggests a mischievous or contemptuous person. Euphemisms such as crap are not usually used in this context.",
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"plaintext": "The exclamations oh shit! and aw shit! are used to express displeasure or embarrassment (sometimes facetiously) with oneself when one makes a mistake, especially a stupid or avoidable mistake. When used to comment on the actions of someone else, they can take on a more humorous quality if the mistake does not result in serious consequences.",
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"plaintext": "The term piece of shit is generally used to classify a product or service as being sufficiently below the writer's understanding of generally accepted quality standards to be of negligible and perhaps even negative value. The term piece of shit has greater precision than shit or shitty in that piece of shit identifies the low quality of a specific component or output of a process without applying a derogatory slant to the entire process. For example, if one said \"The youth orchestra has been a remarkably successful initiative. The fact that the orchestra's recent rendition of Tchaikovsky's Manfred Symphony in B minor was pretty much a piece of shit should not in any way detract from this.\" The substitution of shit or shitty for pretty much a piece of shit would imply irony and would therefore undermine the strength of the statement.",
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"plaintext": "The phrase \"(I don't) give a shit\" can be used when one does not care about something, or has a passive attitude toward said thing, as it denotes indifference. In context, one can say: \"You're offended? Well, I don't give a shit!\" or \"You're telling me? Go find somebody who gives a shit.\" President Richard Nixon said to aide H.R. Haldeman while being tape recorded in the Oval Office, \"I don't give a shit about the lira.\" He meant he was too busy managing the Watergate affair to consider a crisis in the Italian monetary system.",
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"plaintext": "The shit list is a category of people who are in ill favor with some individual or group of people, perhaps as the managers of a company, and likely to be the targets of special treatment.",
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"plaintext": "The phrase \"take shit\" means to receive bad or frivolous treatment from someone. Such an abused person might say \"I'm not taking any more of your shit!\" to indicate that they will no longer tolerate such treatment.",
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"plaintext": "Whale shit is sometimes used to describe a person who inspires displeasure or disgust, as in: \"You're lower than whale shit at the bottom of the ocean!\"",
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"plaintext": "“You can’t polish shit” is a popular aphorism roughly equivalent to \"putting Lipstick on a pig\" (although \"a turd\" is more commonly used). However, the TV show Mythbusters showed you can, in fact, polish a turd.",
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"plaintext": "Shit can also be used to establish social superiority over someone else. The most common gibe is eat shit! (cf coprophagy) expressing contempt. Some other personal word may be added such as eat my shit implying truly personal connotations. As an aside, the above is actually a contraction of the phrase eat shit and die!. It is often said without commas as a curse; they command the other party to perform exactly those actions in that order. However, the term was originally Eat, Shit, and Die naming the three most basic things humans have to do, and it is common among soldiers.",
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"plaintext": "The phrase You ain't shit, expresses an air of intimidation over the addressee, expressing that they mean nothing or are worthless.",
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"plaintext": "Hot shit can be a reference to a matter or thing of supreme importance or urgency (\"This report is really hot shit!\"). It can be used in adjectival form: \"This memo's shit-hot!\". Hot shit can also refer to a person who either overestimates his own worth or ability, or is highly estimated by others (\"He thinks he's some hot shit!\" or \"He's one hot shit!\"). In polite company the euphemism hotshot may be substituted when referring to a person.",
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"plaintext": "A speaker may show dominance through arrogance using the phrase His shit don't stink. Its grammatical incorrectness highlights the self-importance of the referent relative to the speaker; though His shit does not stink may come across as being more emphatic due to the mixed diction between its grammatical correctness and the vulgarity of shit. This phrase conveys the haughtiness of the referent and that he considers himself beyond reproach. For example: \"Those pompous assholes in Finance are the ones who ruined the company – their shit don't even stink!\" A variation on this theme might be: \"Everything he shits smells just like roses!\"",
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"plaintext": "The expression shitkicker can be used as a pejorative for a menial worker or other low class person.",
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"plaintext": "The word shithead is a commonly heard insult. A shithead may also be referred to as a shit-for-brains. Another word for a spectacularly stupid (or contemptible) person is dipshit. Shithead is also the name of a card game.",
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"plaintext": "In North American slang, prefixing the article the to shit gives it a completely opposite definition, meaning the best, as in, for example \"Altered Beast is the shit\". Other slang words of the same meaning, such as crap, are not used in such locutions.",
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"plaintext": "To wear a shit-eating grin means the person wearing it may be displaying self-satisfaction, smugness, embarrassment, or mischief. It may also be a playful evasion, as a response to the query \"I'll bet you drank the whole bottle of booze yourself, didn't you?\"",
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"plaintext": "The expression no shit? (a contraction of no bullshit?) is used in response to a statement that is extraordinary or hard to believe. Alternatively the maker of the hard-to-believe statement may add no shit to reinforce the sincerity or truthfulness of their statement, particularly in response to someone expressing disbelief at their statement. No shit is also used sarcastically in response to a statement of the obvious, as in no shit, Sherlock.",
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"plaintext": "In this form the word can also be used in phrases such as don't give me that shit or you're full of shit. The term full of shit is often used as an exclamation to charge someone who is believed to be prone to dishonesty, exaggeration or is thought to be \"phoney\" with an accusation. For example:",
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"plaintext": " \"Oh, I'm sorry I forgot to invite you to the party, it was a complete accident... but you really didn't miss anything anyway.\"",
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"plaintext": " \"You're full of shit! You had dozens of opportunities to invite me. If you have a problem with me, why not just say it!\"",
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"plaintext": "The word bullshit also denotes false or insincere discourse. (Horseshit is roughly equivalent, while chickenshit means cowardly, batshit indicates a person is crazy, and going apeshit indicates a person is entering a state of high excitement or unbridled rage.) Are you shitting me?! is a question sometimes given in response to an incredible assertion. An answer that reasserts the veracity of the claim is, I shit you not.",
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"plaintext": "Perhaps the only constant connotation that shit reliably carries is that its referent holds some degree of emotional intensity for the speaker. Whether offense is taken at hearing the word varies greatly according to listener and situation, and is related to age and social class: elderly speakers and those of (or aspiring to) higher socioeconomic strata tend to use it more privately and selectively than younger and more blue-collar speakers.",
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"plaintext": "Like the word fuck, shit is often used to add emphasis more than to add meaning, for example, shit! I was so shit-scared of that shithead that I shit-talked him into dropping out of the karate match! The term to shit-talk connotes bragging or exaggeration (whereas to talk shit primarily means to gossip [about someone in a damaging way] or to talk in a boastful way about things which are erroneous in nature), but in such constructions as the above, the word shit often functions as an interjection.",
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"plaintext": "The exclamation holy shit derives its force from the juxtaposition of the sacred with the profane.",
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"plaintext": "Unlike the word fuck, shit is not used emphatically with -ing or as an infix. For example; I lost the shitting karate match would be replaced with ...thefucking karate match. Similarly, while in-fucking-credible is generally acceptable, in-shitting-credible is not.",
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"plaintext": "The preterite and past participle of shit are attested as shat, shit, or shitted, depending on dialect and, sometimes, the rhythm of the sentence. In the prologue of The Canterbury Tales, shitten is used as the past participle; however this form is not used in modern English. In American English shit as a past participle is often correct, while shat is generally acceptable and shitted is uncommon and missing from the Random House and American Heritage dictionaries.",
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"plaintext": "To shitcan someone or something is to dismiss or dispose of casually or unceremoniously, as into a waste basket. Shitcan can also be used as a noun: Don't bother; a report like this is gonna go directly into the shitcan. It can also refer to being fired from a job: \"The boss is gonna shitcan you if you keep showing up late.\"",
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"plaintext": "The backronym form \"S.H.I.T.\" often figures into jokes, like Special High Intensity Training (a well-known joke used in job applications), Special Hot Interdiction Team (a mockery on SWAT), and any college name that begins with an S-H (like South Harmon Institute of Technology in the film Accepted (2006) or Store High In Transit in the film Kenny (2006)). South Hudson Institute of Technology has sometimes been used to describe the United States Military Academy at West Point.",
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"plaintext": "Satirist Jonathan Swift wrote a controversial poem \"The Lady's Dressing Room\" containing the following lines (115 through 118):",
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"plaintext": "In Canada, \"shit\" is one of the words considered by the Canadian Broadcast Standards Council to be \"coarse, offensive language intended for adults\", acceptable for broadcast only after 9:00 p.m.",
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"plaintext": "On the Canadian Showcase television show Trailer Park Boys, characters frequently use the term \"shit\". For example, the fictional trailer park supervisor James \"Jim\" Lahey employs many metaphors with the negative slang \"shit\" bizarrely worked in; in one episode, Mr. Lahey likens Ricky's growing ignorance to that of a \"shit tsunami\", while in another episode, Mr. Lahey tells Bubbles the \"shit hawks are swooping in low\" due to his deplorable behavior and company. The term \"shit\" is also used in the titles of that show's episodes, themselves, e.g., \"The Winds of Shit\", \"A Shit Leopard Can't Change Its Spots\", and \"Never Cry Shitwolf\".",
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"plaintext": "The first person to say \"shit\" on British TV was John Cleese of the Monty Python comedy troupe, in the late 1960s, according to his own eulogy for Graham Chapman. However, this is not independently verified. The phrase \"thick as pigshit\" is used in the 1969 BBC play The Big Flame. The word shit also appears in the British film Cul-de-sac (1966), which might pre-date John Cleese's use.",
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"plaintext": "The word has become increasingly acceptable on American cable television and satellite radio, which are not subject to FCC regulation. In other English-speaking countries, such as Canada, the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, Australia, and New Zealand, the word is allowed to be used in broadcast television by the regulative councils of each area, as long as it is used in late hours when young people are not expected to be watching. It has appeared on ABC News' 20/20.",
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"plaintext": "\"Shit\" was one of the original \"Seven Words You Can Never Say On TV\", a comedy routine by the American comedian George Carlin. In the United States, although the use of the word is censored on broadcast network television (while its synonym crap is not usually subject to censorship), the FCC permitted some exceptions. For example:",
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"plaintext": " The 14 October 1999 episode of Chicago Hope is the first show (excluding documentaries) on U.S. network television to contain the word shit in uncensored form. ",
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"plaintext": " The word also is used in a later ER episode, \"On the Beach\" by Dr. Mark Greene, while experiencing the final stages of a deadly brain tumor. Although the episode was originally aired uncensored, the \"shit\" utterance has since been edited out in syndicated reruns.",
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"plaintext": "An episode of South Park, \"It Hits the Fan\" (original airdate 20 June 2001), parodied the hype over the Chicago Hope episode. In it, \"shit\" is used 162 times, and a counter in the corner of the screen tallies the repetitions (excluding the 38 instances of the word's use in written forms, the raising the total to an even 200). South Park airs on American cable networks, which are outside the FCC's regulatory jurisdiction and whose censorship of vulgar dialogue is at the discretion of the cable operators.",
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"plaintext": "Since that episode, the word (as well as many on-screen depictions of feces, as well as defecation) has become a mainstay of South Park. Various episodes also feature a character, Mr. Hankey, who is a sentient turd. Other Comedy Central series, along with programming on other cable networks including FX, TBS, and as of March 2014, Adult Swim, also regularly employ the word shit. Episodes of Graceland, on the USA Network, do also.",
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"plaintext": "Unlike satellite radio, American terrestrial radio stations must abide by FCC guidelines on obscenity to avoid punitive fines. These guidelines do not define exactly what constitutes obscenity, but it has been interpreted by some commissioners as including any form of words like shit and fuck, for whatever use.",
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"plaintext": "Despite this, the word has been featured in popular songs that have appeared on broadcast radio in cases where the usage of the word is not audibly clear to the casual listener, or on live television. For example:",
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"plaintext": "In the song \"Man in the Box\" by Alice in Chains, the line \"Buried in my shit\" was played unedited over most rock radio stations. ",
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"plaintext": "The 1973 Pink Floyd song \"Money\" from the album The Dark Side of the Moon contains the line \"Don't give me that do goody good bullshit\", and has frequently been broadcast unedited on US radio. ",
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"plaintext": "The 1980 hit album Hi Infidelity by REO Speedwagon contained the song \"Tough Guys\" which had the line \"she thinks they're full of shit\", that was played on broadcast radio.",
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"plaintext": "On 3 December 1994, Green Day performed \"Geek Stink Breath\", on Saturday Night Live, shit was not edited from tape delay live broadcast. The band did not appear on the show again until 9 April 2005.",
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"plaintext": "Some notable instances of censorship of the word from broadcast television and radio include:",
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"plaintext": " Steve Miller's \"Jet Airliner\". Although radio stations have sometimes played an unedited version containing the line \"funky shit going down in the city.\" The song was also released with a \"radio edit\" version, replacing the \"funky shit\" with \"funky kicks\". Another version of \"Jet Airliner\" exists in which the word \"shit\" is faded out. ",
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"plaintext": " Likewise, the Bob Dylan song \"Hurricane\" has a line about having no idea \"what kind of shit was about to go down,\" and has a radio edit version without the word.",
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"plaintext": " Gwen Stefani's \"Hollaback Girl\" video had the original album's use of the word censored in its video.",
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"plaintext": " The music video title \"...on the Radio (Remember the Days)\" by Nelly Furtado replaced the original title \"Shit on the Radio (Remember the Days)\".",
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"plaintext": " This also happened to \"That's That Shit\" by Snoop Dogg featuring R. Kelly, which became \"That's That\".",
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"plaintext": " In Avril Lavigne's song \"My Happy Ending\", the Radio Disney edit of the song replaces \"all the shit that you do\" with \"all the stuff that you do\".",
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"plaintext": "Likewise, in the song \"London Bridge\" by the Black Eyed Peas member Fergie, the phrase \"Oh Shit\" is repeatedly used as a background line. A radio edit of this song replaced \"Oh Shit\" with \"Oh Snap\".",
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"plaintext": "Likewise, Icona Pop's \"I Love It (I Don't Care)\" uses \"I threw your stuff into the bag...\" in place of \"I threw your shit into the bag...\"",
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"plaintext": "Using the term \"shit\" (or other locally used crude words) – rather than feces or excreta – during campaigns and triggering events is a deliberate aspect of the community-led total sanitation approach which aims to stop open defecation, a massive public health problem in developing countries.",
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"plaintext": " Bowel movement",
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"plaintext": " Outhouse also known as \"shithouse\" ",
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| [
"English_words",
"Feces",
"Interjections",
"English_profanity"
]
| 519 | 14,438 | 134 | 156 | 0 | 0 | shit | profane word referring to feces | [
"s**t",
"s***",
"sh*t",
"S word",
"shite",
"Sugar Honey Ice Tea",
"crap"
]
|
38,223 | 1,107,566,759 | Engineer | [
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"plaintext": "Engineers, as practitioners of engineering, are professionals who invent, design, analyze, build and test machines, complex systems, structures, gadgets and materials to fulfill functional objectives and requirements while considering the limitations imposed by practicality, regulation, safety and cost. The word engineer (Latin ingeniator) is derived from the Latin words ingeniare (\"to contrive, devise\") and ingenium (\"cleverness\"). The foundational qualifications of an engineer typically include a four-year bachelor's degree in an engineering discipline, or in some jurisdictions, a master's degree in an engineering discipline plus four to six years of peer-reviewed professional practice (culminating in a project report or thesis) and passage of engineering board examinations. A professional Engineer is typically, is a person registered under an Engineering Council which is widely accepted.",
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"plaintext": "In 1961, the Conference of Engineering Societies of Western Europe and the United States of America defined \"professional engineer\" as follows:",
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"plaintext": "Engineers develop new technological solutions. During the engineering design process, the responsibilities of the engineer may include defining problems, conducting and narrowing research, analyzing criteria, finding and analyzing solutions, and making decisions. Much of an engineer's time is spent on researching, locating, applying, and transferring information. Indeed, research suggests engineers spend 56% of their time engaged in various information behaviours, including 14% actively searching for information.",
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"plaintext": "Engineers must weigh different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best matches the requirements and needs. Their crucial and unique task is to identify, understand, and interpret the constraints on a design in order to produce a successful result.",
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"plaintext": "Engineers apply techniques of engineering analysis in testing, production, or maintenance. Analytical engineers may supervise production in factories and elsewhere, determine the causes of a process failure, and test output to maintain quality. They also estimate the time and cost required to complete projects. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or entire projects. Engineering analysis involves the application of scientific analytic principles and processes to reveal the properties and state of the system, device or mechanism under study. Engineering analysis proceeds by separating the engineering design into the mechanisms of operation or failure, analyzing or estimating each component of the operation or failure mechanism in isolation, and recombining the components. They may analyze risk.",
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"plaintext": "Many engineers use computers to produce and analyze designs, to simulate and test how a machine, structure, or system operates, to generate specifications for parts, to monitor the quality of products, and to control the efficiency of processes.",
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"plaintext": "Most engineers specialize in one or more engineering disciplines. Numerous specialties are recognized by professional societies, and each of the major branches of engineering has numerous subdivisions. Civil engineering, for example, includes structural and transportation engineering and materials engineering include ceramic, metallurgical, and polymer engineering. Mechanical engineering cuts across just about every discipline since its core essence is applied physics. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as motor vehicles, or in one type of technology, such as turbines or semiconductor materials.",
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"plaintext": "Several recent studies have investigated how engineers spend their time; that is, the work tasks they perform and how their time is distributed among these. Research suggests that there are several key themes present in engineers' work: technical work (i.e., the application of science to product development), social work (i.e., interactive communication between people), computer-based work and information behaviors. Among other more detailed findings, a recent work sampling study found that engineers spend 62.92% of their time engaged in technical work, 40.37% in social work, and 49.66% in computer-based work. Furthermore, there was considerable overlap between these different types of work, with engineers spending 24.96% of their time engaged in technical and social work, 37.97% in technical and non-social, 15.42% in non-technical and social, and 21.66% in non-technical and non-social.",
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"plaintext": "Engineering is also an information-intensive field, with research finding that engineers spend 55.8% of their time engaged in various different information behaviors, including 14.2% actively information from other people (7.8%) and information repositories such as documents and databases (6.4%).",
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"plaintext": "The time engineers spend engaged in such activities is also reflected in the competencies required in engineering roles. In addition to engineers’ core technical competence, research has also demonstrated the critical nature of their personal attributes, project management skills, and cognitive abilities to success in the role.",
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"plaintext": "There are many branches of engineering, each of which specializes in specific technologies and products. Typically, engineers will have deep knowledge in one area and basic knowledge in related areas. For example, mechanical engineering curricula typically include introductory courses in electrical engineering, computer science, materials science, metallurgy, mathematics, and software engineering.",
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"plaintext": "An engineer may either be hired for a firm that requires engineers on a continuous basis, or may belong to an engineering firm that provides engineering consulting services to other firms.",
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"plaintext": "When developing a product, engineers typically work in interdisciplinary teams. For example, when building robots an engineering team will typically have at least three types of engineers. A mechanical engineer would design the body and actuators. An electrical engineer would design the power systems, sensors, electronics, embedded software in electronics, and control circuitry. Finally, a software engineer would develop the software that makes the robot behave properly. Engineers that aspire to management engage in further study in business administration, project management and organizational or business psychology. Often engineers move up the management hierarchy from managing projects, functional departments, divisions and eventually CEOs of a multi-national corporation.",
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"plaintext": "Engineers have obligations to the public, their clients, employers, and the profession. Many engineering societies have established codes of practice and codes of ethics to guide members and inform the public at large. Each engineering discipline and professional society maintains a code of ethics, which the members pledge to uphold. Depending on their specializations, engineers may also be governed by specific statute, whistleblowing, product liability laws, and often the principles of business ethics.",
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"plaintext": "Some graduates of engineering programs in North America may be recognized by the iron ring or Engineer's Ring, a ring made of iron or stainless steel that is worn on the little finger of the dominant hand. This tradition began in 1925 in Canada with The Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer, where the ring serves as a symbol and reminder of the engineer's obligations to the engineering profession. In 1972, the practice was adopted by several colleges in the United States including members of the Order of the Engineer.",
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"plaintext": "Most engineering programs involve a concentration of study in an engineering specialty, along with courses in both mathematics and the physical and life sciences. Many programs also include courses in general engineering and applied accounting. A design course, often accompanied by a computer or laboratory class or both, is part of the curriculum of most programs. Often, general courses not directly related to engineering, such as those in the social sciences or humanities, also are required.",
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"plaintext": "Accreditation is the process by which engineering programs are evaluated by an external body to determine if applicable standards are met. The Washington Accord serves as an international accreditation agreement for academic engineering degrees, recognizing the substantial equivalency in the standards set by many major national engineering bodies. In the United States, post-secondary degree programs in engineering are accredited by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology.",
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"plaintext": "In many countries, engineering tasks such as the design of bridges, electric power plants, industrial equipment, machine design and chemical plants, must be approved by a licensed professional engineer. Most commonly titled professional engineer is a license to practice and is indicated with the use of post-nominal letters; PE or P.Eng. These are common in North America, as is European engineer (EUR ING) in Europe. The practice of engineering in the UK is not a regulated profession but the control of the titles of chartered engineer (CEng) and incorporated engineer (IEng) is regulated. These titles are protected by law and are subject to strict requirements defined by the Engineering Council UK. The title CEng is in use in much of the Commonwealth.",
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"plaintext": "Many skilled and semi-skilled trades and engineering technicians in the UK call themselves engineers. A growing movement in the UK is to legally protect the title 'Engineer' so that only professional engineers can use it; a petition was started to further this cause.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, engineering is a regulated profession whose practice and practitioners are licensed and governed by law. Licensure is generally attainable through combination of education, pre-examination (Fundamentals of Engineering exam), examination (professional engineering exam), and engineering experience (typically in the area of 5+ years). Each state tests and licenses professional engineers. Currently, most states do not license by specific engineering discipline, but rather provide generalized licensure, and trust engineers to use professional judgment regarding their individual competencies; this is the favoured approach of the professional societies. Despite this, at least one of the examinations required by most states is actually focused on a particular discipline; candidates for licensure typically choose the category of examination which comes closest to their respective expertise. In the United States, an \"industrial exemption\" allows businesses to employ employees and call them an \"engineer\", as long as such individuals are under the direct supervision and control of the business entity and function internally related to manufacturing (manufactured parts) related to the business entity, or work internally within an exempt organization. Such person does not have the final authority to approve, or the ultimate responsibility for, engineering designs, plans, or specifications that are to be incorporated into fixed works, systems, or facilities on the property of others or made available to the public. These individuals are prohibited from offering engineering services directly to the public or other businesses, or engage in practice of engineering unless the business entity is registered with the state's board of engineering, and the practice is carried on or supervised directly only by engineers licensed to engage in the practice of engineering. In some instances, some positions, such as a \"sanitation engineer\", does not have any basis in engineering sciences. Although some states require a BS degree in engineering accredited by the Engineering Accreditation Commission (EAC) of Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) with no exceptions, about two thirds of the states accept BS degrees in engineering technology accredited by the Engineering Technology Accreditation Commission (ETAC) of ABET to become licensed as professional engineers. Each state has different requirements on years of experience to take the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) and Professional Engineering (PE) exams. A few states require a graduate MS in engineering to sit for the exams as further learning. After seven years of working after graduation, two years of responsibility for significant engineering work, continuous professional development, some highly qualified PEs are able to become International Professional Engineers Int(PE). These engineers must meet the highest level of professional competencies and this is a peer reviewed process. Once the IntPE title is awarded, the engineer can gain easier admission to national registers of a number of members jurisdictions for international practice.",
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"plaintext": "In Canada, engineering is a self-regulated profession. The profession in each province is governed by its own engineering association. For instance, in the Province of British Columbia an engineering graduate with four or more years of post graduate experience in an engineering-related field and passing exams in ethics and law will need to be registered by the Association for Professional Engineers and Geoscientists (APEGBC) in order to become a Professional Engineer and be granted the professional designation of P.Eng allowing one to practice engineering.",
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"plaintext": "In Continental Europe, Latin America, Turkey, and elsewhere the title is limited by law to people with an engineering degree and the use of the title by others is illegal. In Italy, the title is limited to people who hold an engineering degree, have passed a professional qualification examination (Esame di Stato) and are enrolled in the register of the local branch of National Associations of Engineers (a public body). In Portugal, professional engineer titles and accredited engineering degrees are regulated and certified by the Ordem dos Engenheiros. In the Czech Republic, the title \"engineer\" (Ing.) is given to people with a (masters) degree in chemistry, technology or economics for historical and traditional reasons. In Greece, the academic title of \"Diploma Engineer\" is awarded after completion of the five-year engineering study course and the title of \"Certified Engineer\" is awarded after completion of the four-year course of engineering studies at a Technological Educational Institute (TEI).",
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"plaintext": "The perception and definition of the term 'engineer' varies across countries and continents.",
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"plaintext": "British school children in the 1950s were brought up with stirring tales of \"the Victorian Engineers\", chief among whom were Brunel, Stephenson, Telford, and their contemporaries. In the UK, \"engineering\" has more recently been erroneously styled as an industrial sector consisting of employers and employees loosely termed \"engineers\" who include tradespeople. However, knowledgeable practitioners reserve the term \"engineer\" to describe a university-educated professional of ingenuity represented by the Chartered (or Incorporated) Engineer qualifications. A large proportion of the UK public incorrectly thinks of \"engineers\" as skilled tradespeople or even semi-skilled tradespeople with a high school education. Also, many UK skilled and semi-skilled tradespeople falsely style themselves as \"engineers\". This has created confusion in the eyes of some members of the public in understanding what professional engineers actually do, from fixing car engines, television sets and refrigerators (technicians, handymen) to designing and managing the development of aircraft, spacecraft, power stations, infrastructure and other complex technological systems (engineers).",
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"plaintext": "In France, the term ingénieur (engineer) is not a protected title and can be used by anyone who practices this profession.",
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"plaintext": "However, the title ingénieur diplomé (graduate engineer) is an official academic title that is protected by the government and is associated with the Diplôme d'Ingénieur, which is a renowned academic degree in France. Anyone misusing this title in France can be fined a large sum and jailed, as it is usually reserved for graduates of French engineering grandes écoles. Engineering schools which were created during the French revolution have a special reputation among the French people, as they helped to make the transition from a mostly agricultural country of late 18th century to the industrially developed France of the 19th century. A great part of 19th-century France's economic wealth and industrial prowess was created by engineers that have graduated from Ecole Centrale Paris, Ecole des Mines de Paris, Ecole Polytechnique or Télécom Paris. This was also the case after WWII when France had to be rebuilt. Before the \"réforme René Haby\" in the 1970s, it was very difficult to be admitted to such schools, and the French ingénieurs were commonly perceived as the nation's elite. However, after the Haby reform and a string of further reforms (Modernization plans of French universities), several engineering schools were created which can be accessed with relatively lower competition.",
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"plaintext": "In France, engineering positions are now shared between the ingénieurs diplomés graduating from engineering grandes écoles; and the holders of a Master's degree in Science from public universities. Engineers are less highlighted in current French economy as industry provides less than a quarter of the GDP.",
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"plaintext": "In Italy, only people who hold a formal engineering qualification of at least a bachelor's degree are permitted to describe themselves as an engineer. So much so that people holding such qualifications are entitled to use the pre-nominal title of \"Ingegnere\" (or \"Ingegnera\" if female - in both cases often abbreviated to \"Ing.\") in lieu of \"Signore\", \"Signorina\" or \"Signora\" (Mr, Miss and Mrs respectively) in the same manner as someone holding a doctorate would use the pre-nominal title \"Doctor\".",
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"plaintext": "Certain Spanish-speaking countries follow the Italian convention of engineers using the pre-nominal title, in this case \"ingeniero\" (or \"ingeniera\" if female). Like in Italy, it is usually abbreviated to \"Ing.\" In Spain this practice is not followed.",
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"plaintext": "The engineering profession enjoys high prestige in Spain, ranking close to medical doctors, scientists and professors, and above judges, journalists or entrepreneurs.",
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"plaintext": ", thirty two countries in Europe (including nearly all 27 countries of the EU) now recognise the title of 'European Engineer' which permits the use of the pre-nominal title of \"EUR ING\" (always fully capitalised). Each country sets its own precise qualification requirement for the use of the title (though they are all broadly equivalent). Holding the requisite qualification does not afford automatic entitlement. The title has to be applied for (and the appropriate fee paid). The holder is entitled to use the title in their passport. EUR INGs are allowed to describe themselves as professionally qualified engineers and practise as such in any of the 32 participating countries including those where the title of engineer is regulated by law.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, the practice of professional engineering is highly regulated and the title \"professional engineer\" is legally protected, meaning that it is unlawful to use it to offer engineering services to the public unless permission, certification or other official endorsement is specifically granted by that state through a professional engineering license.",
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"plaintext": "In Canada, engineering is a regulated profession whose practice and practitioners are licensed and governed by law. Licensed professional engineers are referred to as P.Eng. A 2002 study by the Ontario Society of Professional Engineers revealed that engineers are the third most respected professionals behind doctors and pharmacists. Many Canadian engineers wear an Iron Ring.",
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"plaintext": "In all Canadian provinces, the title \"Engineer\" is protected by law and any non-licensed individual or company using the title is committing a legal offence and is subject to fines and restraining orders. Companies usually prefer not to use the title except for license holders because of liability reasons; for example, if the company filed a lawsuit and the judge, investigators, or lawyers found that the company is using the word engineer for non-licensed employees this could be used by opponents to hinder the company's efforts.",
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"plaintext": "In the Indian subcontinent, Russia, Middle East, Africa, and China, engineering is one of the most sought after undergraduate courses, inviting thousands of applicants to show their ability in highly competitive entrance examinations.",
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"plaintext": "In Egypt, the educational system makes engineering the second-most-respected profession in the country (after medicine); engineering colleges at Egyptian universities requires extremely high marks on the General Certificate of Secondary Education ( al-Thānawiyyah al-`Āmmah)—on the order of 97 or 98%—and are thus considered (along with the colleges of medicine, natural science, and pharmacy) to be among the \"pinnacle colleges\" ( kullīyāt al-qimmah).",
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"plaintext": "In the Philippines and Filipino communities overseas, engineers who are either Filipino or not, especially those who also profess other jobs at the same time, are addressed and introduced as Engineer, rather than Sir/Madam in speech or Mr./Mrs./Ms. (G./Gng./Bb. in Filipino) before surnames. That word is used either in itself or before the given name or surname.",
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"plaintext": "In companies and other organizations, there is sometimes a tendency to undervalue people with advanced technological and scientific skills compared to celebrities, fashion practitioners, entertainers, and managers. In his book, The Mythical Man-Month, Fred Brooks Jr says that managers think of senior people as \"too valuable\" for technical tasks and that management jobs carry higher prestige. He tells how some laboratories, such as Bell Labs, abolish all job titles to overcome this problem: a professional employee is a \"member of the technical staff.\" IBM maintains a dual ladder of advancement; the corresponding managerial and engineering or scientific rungs are equivalent. Brooks recommends that structures need to be changed; the boss must give a great deal of attention to keeping his managers and his technical people as interchangeable as their talents allow.",
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"plaintext": " Building engineer",
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"plaintext": " Engineer's degree",
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"plaintext": " Engineers Without Borders",
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"plaintext": " Greatest Engineering Achievements",
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"plaintext": " History of engineering",
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"plaintext": " List of fictional scientists and engineers",
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| [
"Engineering_occupations",
"Engineers",
"Science_occupations"
]
| 81,096 | 29,497 | 4,298 | 71 | 0 | 0 | engineer | professional practitioner of engineering and its subclasses | []
|
38,224 | 1,102,744,835 | Pitch | [
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"plaintext": "Pitch may refer to:",
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"plaintext": " Pitch (music), the perceived frequency of sound including \"definite pitch\" and \"indefinite pitch\"",
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"plaintext": " Absolute pitch or \"perfect pitch\"",
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"plaintext": " Pitch class, a set of all pitches that are a whole number of octaves apart",
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"plaintext": " Relative pitch, the ability to identify a given musical interval between two notes",
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"plaintext": " Pitch accent, a form of accentuation in speech",
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{
"plaintext": " Sales pitch, a line of talk that attempts to persuade someone or something",
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{
"plaintext": " Pitch (filmmaking), a proposal for a film",
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"plaintext": " Elevator pitch, a very short sales presentation, allegedly short enough to be made during an elevator ride",
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{
"plaintext": " Pitch angle (or pitch rotation), one of the angular degrees of freedom of any stiff body (for example a vehicle), describing rotation about the side-to-side axis",
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{
"plaintext": " Pitch (aviation), one of the aircraft principal axes of rotation (nose-up or nose-down angle measured from horizontal axis)",
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{
"plaintext": " Pitch (ship motion), one of the ship motions' principal axes of rotation (bow-up or bow-down angle measured from horizontal axis)",
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{
"plaintext": " Pitch or grade (slope), the steepness of a slope or an object confirming to a slope",
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"plaintext": " Roof pitch relates to the slope and inclination angle",
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"plaintext": " Pitch, or rake, in geology, the angle between a line and the strike of the plane on which it was found",
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{
"plaintext": " Pitch angle (particle motion), the angle between a charged particle's velocity vector and the local magnetic field",
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"plaintext": " Pitch angle (engineering), the angle between a bevel gears' element of a pitch cone and its axis",
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"plaintext": "\"Pitch\" is widely used to describe the distance between repeated elements in a structure possessing translational symmetry:",
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{
"plaintext": " Pitch (gear), the distance between a point on one tooth and the corresponding point on an adjacent tooth",
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"section_name": "Measurement",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Pitch (screw) the distance between turns of a screw thread",
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{
"plaintext": " Blade pitch the distance between the front edge and the rear edge of a propeller blade",
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{
"plaintext": " Pitch, the distance between passes in the helical scanning pattern of X-ray computed tomography",
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"section_name": "Measurement",
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{
"plaintext": " Pitch (typewriter), the number of characters and spaces in one inch (25.4mm) of running text",
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"section_name": "Measurement",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Pitch, the distance between bits in a parallel integrated circuit element such as a register file",
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"section_name": "Measurement",
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"plaintext": " Dot pitch in images",
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"plaintext": " Pin pitch, the distance between centers of pins in electronics packaging",
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{
"plaintext": " Seat pitch, the spacing between seat rows in an aircraft",
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"section_name": "Measurement",
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"plaintext": " Pitch (film)",
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"plaintext": " Pitch (TV series)",
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"plaintext": " Pitch Weekly, a free urban weekly newspaper in Kansas City",
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{
"plaintext": " Pitch (resin), a viscous substance produced by plants or formed from petroleum",
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"plaintext": " Pitch Pine (Pinus rigida), trees",
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"plaintext": " Pitch (ascent/descent), a term used in climbing and also caving",
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"plaintext": " Pitch (baseball), a throw of a baseball from a pitcher to the catcher(s)",
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"plaintext": " Pitch (card game) (or \"High, or Low Jack\"), an American trick-taking card game",
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"plaintext": " Pitch (sports field), a field of play and is usually outdoors",
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"plaintext": " Cricket pitch",
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"plaintext": " Rugby pitch",
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"plaintext": " Football pitch",
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"plaintext": " The bounce of a cricket ball",
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"plaintext": " Pitch, a lateral pass in gridiron football",
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"plaintext": " Pitching, the process of assembling a tent",
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"plaintext": " Pitch Black (disambiguation)",
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"plaintext": " Pitcher",
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"plaintext": " Pitchfork",
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"plaintext": " Pitchware",
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"plaintext": " \"Pitchy\", a song by Basshunter from his Calling Time album",
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"plaintext": " The Pitch (disambiguation)",
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| []
| 340,394 | 3,449 | 2 | 47 | 0 | 0 | Pitch | Wikimedia disambiguation page | []
|
38,226 | 1,102,234,356 | Transportation_in_Boston | [
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"plaintext": "The Boston transportation system includes roadway, subway, regional rail, air, and sea options for passenger and freight transit in Boston, Massachusetts. The Massachusetts Port Authority (Massport) operates the Port of Boston, which includes a container shipping facility in South Boston, and Logan International Airport, in East Boston. The Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) operates bus, subway, short-distance rail, and water ferry passenger services throughout the city and region. Amtrak operates passenger rail service to and from major northeastern cities. A major bus terminal at South Station is served by varied intercity bus companies. The city is bisected by major highways I-90 and I-93, the intersection of which has undergone a major renovation, nicknamed the Big Dig.",
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"plaintext": "Except for the Back Bay and part of the South Boston neighborhoods, Boston has no street grid. The City of Boston, composed of many smaller towns annexed over the years, retained most of the pre-existing street names, resulting in many duplicates throughout the city.",
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"plaintext": "Expressways and freeways in and around Greater Boston are laid out with two circumferential expressways: Interstate 495 and Route 128. The circumferential routes are bisected by several radial highways, including:",
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"plaintext": " Interstate 93 (the Northern/Southeast Expressway), which extends north of the city into New Hampshire, and southward to the Braintree Split,",
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"plaintext": " Interstate 90 (the Massachusetts Turnpike), connecting Boston with Worcester and Springfield,",
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"plaintext": " United States Route 1 (the Northeast Expressway/Newburyport Turnpike), crossing the Tobin Bridge and eventually serving Newburyport,",
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"plaintext": " Storrow Drive, an unnumbered high-speed parkway along the Charles River connecting downtown Boston with the Route 2 corridor,",
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"plaintext": " U.S. Route 20, a route running from Kenmore Square to Newport, Oregon — although it is not an expressway.",
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"plaintext": " Massachusetts Route 2 (the Concord Turnpike/Alewife Brook Parkway), serving the northwestern suburbs including Lexington, Concord and Fitchburg,",
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"plaintext": " Massachusetts Route 3 (the Pilgrims Highway), connecting Boston with Cape Cod,",
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"plaintext": " United States Route 3 (the Northwest Expressway), a functionally separate highway serving Lowell, Burlington and other suburbs in between Route 2 and I-93,",
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"plaintext": " Massachusetts Route 24, serving the interior southern suburbs, including Brockton, Taunton and Fall River ",
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"plaintext": " and Interstate 95, indirectly connecting Boston with Rhode Island via I-93.",
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"plaintext": "By the early 1990s, traffic on the elevated downtown portions of I-93 and Route 1 (the Central Artery) was 190,000 vehicles per day, with an accident rate four times the national average for urban interstates. Traffic was bumper-to-bumper for six to eight hours per day, with projections of traffic jams doubling by 2010. Also, the elevated structure itself was decaying, after more than a half century of continuous use. For most of the 1990s and early 2000s, driving in Boston was disrupted by the Big Dig, the most expensive (roughly $14 billion) road project in the history of the US.",
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"plaintext": "After more than 15 years of disruption, The Big Dig, along with other highway projects, provided less than 10 years of relief before congestion returned to the levels seen in \"prerecession 2005, when the Big Dig was almost complete and marketed as the solution to gridlock for commuters ... analyses would conclude that the added capacity attracted more drivers, and pushed the traffic bottlenecks farther into the suburbs.\" However even without the big dig the raised road was structurally deficient and needed rebuilding or replacement.",
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"plaintext": "Boston remains one of the most congested metropolitan areas in the US. The complex and still-changing road network, with many one-way streets and time-based traffic restrictions, has led many Boston travelers to consider an up-to-date GPS navigation map system a necessity.",
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"plaintext": "Boston is known to travel agents as \"America's Walking City\", has been rated as the third most walkable city in the US by Walk Score, and also has a high Transit Score.",
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"plaintext": "Boston is a compact city, sized right for walking or bicycling. According to a Prevention magazine report in 2003, the city has the highest percentage of on-foot commuters of any city in the United States. In 2000, 13.36% of Boston commuters walked to work according to the US Census. This was the highest of any major US city, bested only by college towns such as nearby Cambridge. Most of the area's cities and towns have standing committees devoted to improvements to the bicycle and pedestrian environment. The first pedestrian advocacy organization in the United States, WalkBoston, was started in Boston in 1990, and helped start the national pedestrian advocacy organization America Walks.",
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"plaintext": "Cycling is popular in Boston, for both recreation and commuting. Some bicycle paths are marked on some roadways, but very few completely separated paths are available to cyclists. The Minuteman Bikeway (which runs through several suburbs northwest of Boston) and the Charles River bike paths are popular with recreational cyclists and tourists. The Emerald Necklace system of parklands and parkways, pioneered by Frederick Law Olmsted and his sons, provides some more pleasant alternative routes for cyclists. The Southwest Corridor also provides cycling infrastructure, as does the East Boston Greenway. Many MBTA riders use a bicycle to get to a nearby station, and the number of bicycle racks and lockers has been increased.",
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"plaintext": "However Bicycling magazine, in its March 2006 issue, named the city as one of its three worst cities in the United States for cycling. The distinction was earned for \"lousy roads, scarce and unconnected bike lanes and bike-friendly gestures from City Hall that go nowhere—such as hiring a bike coordinator in 2001, only to cut the position two years later\". Neighboring Cambridge earned an honorable mention as one of the best cities for cycling with a population of 75,000-200,000.",
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"plaintext": "Since September 2007, when Mayor Thomas Menino started a bicycle program called Boston Bikes with a goal of improving bicycling conditions by adding bike lanes and racks and offering bikeshare programs, the city has improved accommodations for bicyclists in a number of ways. The least visible improvement is zoning and building code changes to encourage showering and locker facilities in major office buildings. Better signage and lane markings for bicyclists are starting to appear. More visible enforcement of traffic regulations on motorists, bicyclists, and pedestrians has commenced.",
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"plaintext": "Boston has an active Critical Mass ride group, and MassBike is a bike advocacy group active in supporting cyclists in the area. The LivableStreets Alliance, headquartered in Cambridge, is an advocacy group for bicyclists, pedestrians, and walkable neighborhoods.",
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"plaintext": "The Boston regional Metropolitan Area Planning Council (MAPC) publishes a large and detailed \"Greater Boston Cycling & Walking Map\", which it distributes free of charge. The map is also available online and in downloadable form, and revisions are solicited from the general public.",
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"plaintext": "In addition, a small private company called Rubel BikeMaps has for many years published and distributed an extensive lineup of books and maps covering Boston, the state of Massachusetts, and nearby areas of New England. These publications are for sale at many bicycle shops, and online. Because of recent expansion of bike lanes and other facilities, plus increased input from the public, it is important to use the most recent editions of these maps and guides.",
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"plaintext": "Rubel BikeMaps also publishes Car-Free in Boston:a Guide for Locals and Visitors, still in its 10th edition . Prepared by the Association for Public Transportation (APT), this book contains extensive information useful to bicyclists and pedestrians alike, including coverage of intermodal travel and handicapped accessibility. Although the general overview and travel tips are largely still relevant, this classic book has not been updated since 2003, and must be supplemented by current online information.",
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"plaintext": "With widespread use of smartphones and tablet computers, online mapping services such as Google Maps have become popular aids for pedestrians, cyclists, and motorists. The MBTA was one of the earliest large transit agencies to embrace the Open Data philosophy, making route, scheduling, and real-time vehicle location information publicly available in the standard GTFS format. As a result, many third-party apps are available on a number of hardware platforms, allowing riders a wide range of choices in obtaining travel information. Google Maps has started to present maps of the interiors of underground subway stations, and this information is available on Android and iOS smartphones, as well as web browsers.",
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"plaintext": "162 MBTA bus routes operate within the Greater Boston area, with a combined ridership of approximately 375,000 one-way trips per day, making it the seventh-busiest local bus agency in the country. Included within the MBTA system are four of the few remaining trackless trolley lines in the US (71, 72, 73 and 77A), although these principally operate in the adjoining city of Cambridge. The bus fare is $1.70 with a CharlieCard, or $2 with a CharlieTicket or cash; monthly commuter passes are available, as are reduced fare transfers between most bus lines and the subway.",
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"plaintext": "In an effort to provide service intermediate in speed and capacity between subways and buses, the MBTA has begun projects using bus rapid transit (BRT) technology. The MBTA has one BRT line, the Silver Line, although this operates in two discontinuous sections. The Silver Line operates in part via dedicated trolleybus tunnel, in part via on-street reserved bus lanes, and in part mixed with general street traffic. Service through the trolleybus tunnel is by dual-mode buses, which operate electrically in the tunnel and within a short section on the surface, and which use diesel power for the rest of the route.",
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"plaintext": "Massport operates the Logan Express, an express bus service between Logan International Airport and suburban park-and-ride lots.",
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"plaintext": "Several privately owned commuter bus services take passengers between the city and suburbs. Transportation Management Associations also run public shuttles to specific employment centers, such as the EZ Ride for Kendall Square; and the Route 128 Business Council shuttles around Alewife, Needham, and Waltham; Partners HealthCare runs public shuttles among its locations. The MASCO TMA operates six commuter shuttles for the use of Longwood Medical Area employees and students run by the MASCO TMA for the Longwood Medical Area. The MASCO M2 shuttle between Harvard Square and the LMA via Massachusetts Avenue is available for public use, though tickets or cash card must be purchased in advance. Many colleges and universities also run private shuttles for students and employees.",
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"plaintext": "In June 2014, the Cambridge-based startup Bridj began running \"data driven\" bus service in core neighborhoods. It uses a mixture of fixed and dynamic routes and pricing, depending on where and when registered members say they want to go.",
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"plaintext": "Since automobiles did not exist in 1630, when Boston was first settled, parking was not a consideration. The city that sprung up around and away from the original North End neighborhood accommodates cars only awkwardly; parking comes at a premium throughout the city. Off-street parking spaces have sold for more than $160,000 on Beacon Hill. On-street parking is the norm in many sections, and the city created a resident permit parking program to reserve street space for permanent residents in certain neighborhoods. The parking permits are free to Boston residents, however, and the program is overused; permitted spaces remain scarce. Meters citywide are priced at $1.25 per hour, and metered spaces are also often difficult to find.",
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"plaintext": "The number of public parking spaces downtown has been capped since the mid-1970s. The number of parking spaces in East and South Boston, and the hours that they may be used, also is restricted by state regulation. This is part of the state Department of Environmental Protection's plan, approved by the United States Environmental Protection Agency to address the non-compliance of the region with the mandatory National Ambient Air Quality Standards for ozone.",
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"plaintext": "The MBTA operates several large park and ride facilities on its subway and commuter rail lines, close to major highways, providing access to downtown. While most of these tend to fill up with commuters on weekday mornings, they provide a good place for visitors to leave their cars and see the city without parking hassles on evenings and weekends.",
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"plaintext": "Boston has two discrete rail networks. One of these, the MBTA, widely nicknamed \"the T\", includes elements of light rail/streetcar operation as well as traditional subway technology. (The Red, Orange, Blue, and Green Lines have no physical rail interconnections with each other, though they are all operated by the MBTA and exchange passengers in shared stations.) The second network forms the Boston area portion of the North American rail network, and provides commuter rail, intercity passenger rail and freight rail services.",
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"plaintext": "Although the two networks are essentially unconnected, they do in some places run alongside each other in the same right of way. Interchange stations allow interchange of passengers, but not trains, between subway and commuter rail services. Parts of the subway network also use former common user rail rights of way.",
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"plaintext": "Boston has the oldest subway system in North America, with the first underground streetcar traffic dating back to 1897. Today the whole subway network is owned and operated by the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA).",
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"plaintext": "In the early 1960s, the then-newly-formed MBTA hired Cambridge Seven Associates to help develop a new brand identity. Cambridge Seven came up with a circled T to represent such concepts as \"transit\", \"transportation\" and \"tunnel.\" Today, Bostonians call their rapid transit network \"the T\", and it is the fourth busiest in the country, with daily ridership of 549,000 trips excluding the Silver Line bus. This compares with the Washington Metro's 910,100, the Chicago 'L''s 596,300, and Los Angeles's 126,900, but is overshadowed by New York City's 6.0 million average daily weekday trips.",
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"plaintext": "The one-way fare is $2.40. Monthly commuter passes, and day and week visitor's passes are also available for purchase. There are four subway lines in the metropolitan Boston area: the Red Line, Green Line, Orange Line, and Blue Line. The colors of each line have a symbolic meaning: the Blue Line runs under Boston Harbor; the Red Line used to terminate at Harvard University (whose school color is crimson); the Orange Line used to run along Washington Street, which was once called Orange Street; and the Green Line runs along parts of the Emerald Necklace into the leafy suburbs of Brookline and Newton.",
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"plaintext": "The Green Line is actually four different lines; it starts as one trunk line but then splits into four different branches, the B (Boston College), C (Cleveland Circle), D (Riverside) and E (Heath Street) trains. Because the split is only relevant on the outbound direction of travel, one may take any train inbound, but when going outbound one must be careful to board the correct train. The Red Line splits as well, with southbound trains going either to Braintree or Ashmont.",
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"plaintext": "Though most of Boston's rapid transit network is powered via third rail, the outermost portions of the Blue Line, as well as all of the Green Line and Ashmont–Mattapan High Speed Line, are powered via overhead lines. The name \"subway\" is something of a misnomer; as with other systems, large segments run above ground when far from the city's downtown. Additionally, the Green and Ashmont–Mattapan High Speed Lines are technically light-rail services, using LRVs and streetcars rather than typical multiple unit heavy railcar equipment. The Ashmont–Mattapan line uses refurbished classic pre-war \"PCC\" trolleys on an exclusive right of way; the Green Line relies on modern high-capacity LRV cars from Japan and Italy.",
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"plaintext": "Like the New York City Subway, Boston's subway system in theory does keep to an exact fixed schedule. Starting around 2011, the MBTA introduced overhead displays at the train platform level which indicate estimated arrival times for the next two trains in each direction. In addition, real-time information about train location (and bus location) is available via an Open Data protocol on the Internet, enabling a large number of third-party smartphone apps and web sites to display expected arrival times throughout the MBTA system. The Green Line relies more on operators than its signal system compared to other lines, especially where trams are driven across or even in automobile lanes on surface rails. Due to a sparsity of data collected by the existing system, real-time Green Line arrival predictions are not expected until tracking infrastructure upgrades are completed in 2015.",
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"plaintext": "Despite the first rapid transit segment being built underground, many later parts were built as elevated railways. A century later, most of these elevated railway sections have been replaced by cut or tunnel routing. The only remaining classic elevated structures are the Green Line's Lechmere Viaduct, including the Science Park and Lechmere stations, and a short segment of the Red Line at Charles-MGH, connecting the tunnel under Beacon Hill to the Longfellow Bridge.",
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"plaintext": "The Boston Elevated Railway was the company that owned all the elevateds and subways. The following Els once existed:",
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"plaintext": "Causeway Street Elevated (closed 2004), from the Haymarket Incline to the Lechmere Viaduct",
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"plaintext": "Washington Street Elevated (closed 1987), from Forest Hills to an incline north of the Masspike",
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"plaintext": "Charlestown Elevated (closed April 4, 1975), from the Haymarket Incline to Everett",
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"plaintext": "Atlantic Avenue Elevated (closed 1938), from the Washington Street El at the Castle Street Wye at Herald Street (Tower 'D') to the Charlestown El and Causeway Street El at North Station (Tower 'C')",
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"plaintext": "Unlike the subway, which is owned and operated by the MBTA, the common user network is owned and operated by a mixture of various public and private sector bodies. In the Boston area, trackage is owned by a mixture of the MBTA and several freight railroads. Commuter rail services are operated by the Keolis Commuter Services (KCS) under contract to the MBTA, intercity passenger services are operated by Amtrak, and freight services are operated by the various freight railroads. Trackage rights allow trains of one operator to make use of tracks owned by another.",
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"plaintext": "The MBTA commuter rail system brings people from as far away as Worcester and Providence (Rhode Island) into Boston. There are approximately 125,000 one-way trips on the commuter rail each day, making it the fifth-busiest commuter rail system in the country, outranked only by the various systems serving New York and Chicago suburbs.",
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"plaintext": "There are two major rail terminals in Boston: North Station and South Station. Commuter rail lines from the North Shore and northwestern suburbs begin and terminate at North Station; lines from the South Shore and the west start and end at South Station. There is no direct rail connection between North Station and South Station, so that interchange between the two stations generally requires the use of two different subway lines (Red/Orange or Red/Green). However, passengers on commuter lines serving Back Bay Station can interchange directly from there to North Station using the Orange Line, and passengers on the Fitchburg Line can interchange directly from Porter to South Station using the Red Line.",
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"plaintext": "Boston is served by four intercity rail services, all operated by Amtrak. The Acela and Northeast Regional services both operate on the Northeast Corridor to and from Washington, D.C., with stops in places such as New York City and Philadelphia. A branch of the Lake Shore Limited service operates to and from Chicago. The Downeaster service operates to and from Portland, Maine.",
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"plaintext": "The Northeast Corridor services terminate at South Station, as does the Lake Shore Limited. The Downeaster service terminates at North Station, primarily because the Downeaster Amtrak line is intended for points north of downtown. The Northeast Corridor and Lake Shore Limited services also stop at Back Bay station. The lack of a direct rail connection between North Station and South Station means that passengers transferring to and from the Downeaster are faced with a transfer between stations. Although most such transfers can be achieved using the Orange Line between Back Bay and North Station, Amtrak recommends passengers with luggage to use a taxi.",
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"plaintext": "Within the Boston area, most Amtrak services operate over commuter rail track owned by the MBTA, who also own the Northeast Corridor track as far as the Rhode Island state line.",
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"plaintext": "CSX is the only class I railroad serving the Boston area, which it reaches by its Boston Subdivision line to Springfield, and by trackage rights over the Northeast Corridor. CSX also has trackage rights over much of the southern half of the MBTA's commuter rail network. In February 2013, CSX moved freight operations from its Beacon Park Yard in Allston to a newly refurbished double stack intermodal yard in Worcester and a new transload facility in Westborough.",
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"plaintext": "The other significant freight railroad in the Boston area is Pan Am Railways (PAR; formerly known as the Guilford Rail System). PAR is a class II railroad that operates lines to the north and west of Boston, reaching destinations in New Hampshire, Maine and New York as well as Massachusetts. It also has trackage rights over much of the northern half of the MBTA's commuter rail network. In May 2008, PAR announced a venture with Norfolk Southern Railway to create a jointly owned freight corridor, branded the Patriot Corridor, linking Boston to a newly refurbished intermodal yard in Mechanicville, New York, just north of Albany.",
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"plaintext": "Only a few rail freight customers remain in or near Boston, including a chemical packager in Allston, and food distribution facilities and a scrap metal processor in Everett. The Class III Fore River Railroad serves two major customers in Quincy. A plan to ship ethanol by rail to a gasoline mixing plant in Revere was reviewed in 2013. In the face of community opposition and pressure from the state legislature, the company withdrew its proposal on July 2, days before the Lac-Mégantic derailment.",
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"plaintext": "The Port of Boston is a major seaport and the largest port in Massachusetts. It was historically important for the growth of the city, and was originally located in what is now the downtown area of the city. Land reclamation and conversion to other uses means that downtown area no longer handles commercial traffic, although the US Coast Guard maintains a major base there, and there is still considerable ferry and leisure usage.",
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"plaintext": "Today the principal cargo handling facilities are located in the Boston neighborhoods of Charlestown, East Boston, and South Boston, and in the neighbouring city of Everett. In 2011, the port handled over 11.5 million metric tons of cargo, including 192,000 container TEUs. Other major forms of cargo processed at the port include petroleum, liquefied natural gas (LNG), automobiles, cement, gypsum, and salt.",
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"plaintext": "The Black Falcon Cruise Terminal situated in South Boston, was renovated and expanded in 2010. ",
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"plaintext": " During 2012, it served 117 ships and more than 380,000 passengers.",
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"plaintext": "The MBTA Boat system comprises several ferry routes on Boston Harbor. One of these is an inner harbor service, linking the downtown waterfront with Boston Navy Yard in Charlestown. The other routes are commuter routes, linking downtown to Hingham, Hull and Quincy. Some commuter services connect via Logan International Airport. All services are operated by private sector companies under contract to the MBTA.",
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"plaintext": "Outside the MBTA system, seasonal passenger ferry services operate to the Boston Harbor Islands, to the city of Salem north of Boston, and to the town of Provincetown on Cape Cod. Water taxis provide on-demand service from various points on the downtown waterfront and from Logan Airport, and in particular between the airport and downtown.",
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"plaintext": "Several companies operate tourist oriented cruise boats on the harbor and on the Charles River. Other companies operate duck tours that use amphibious vehicles (mostly derived from World War II era DUKWs), and encompass both the city's streets and its waterways. On a much smaller scale, but perhaps more iconic of Boston, are the human-powered Swan Boats on the lake of the city's Public Garden.",
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"plaintext": "The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Boston, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 83 min. 29% of public transit riders ride for more than two hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 15 minutes, while 24% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 7km, while 12% travel for over 12km in a single direction.",
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"plaintext": "Boston's principal airport is Logan International Airport (BOS), situated in East Boston just across inner Boston Harbor from downtown Boston. Logan Airport is operated by Massport and has extensive domestic and international airline service. Logan Airport is linked to downtown by several highway tunnels. The Silver Line bus rapid transit uses these to connect Logan air terminals with South Station. There are also shuttle buses between the terminals and the Blue Line Airport station.",
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"plaintext": "To help address overcrowding at Logan Airport, Massport operates two other airports in eastern Massachusetts:",
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"plaintext": " L.G. Hanscom Field",
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"plaintext": " Worcester Regional Airport: formerly owned by the city of Worcester until ownership transfer to Massport was mandated by law in 2009, and subsequently completed on June 22, 2010.",
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"plaintext": "In addition, MassPort has designated two out of state regional airports (which are administered independently) as reliever airports:",
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"plaintext": " T. F. Green Airport in Providence, Rhode Island",
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"plaintext": " Manchester-Boston Regional Airport in Manchester, New Hampshire",
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"plaintext": "Around 2010, the MBTA commuter rail initiated new train service from T.F. Green Airport to Boston.",
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"plaintext": "There are also several general aviation facilities for private planes in the Boston area, including Hanscom Field, Norwood Memorial Airport and Beverly Municipal Airport.",
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"plaintext": "Since the September 11, 2001 attacks, strict security has been implemented at all of Boston's airports. Because of this and its location as the closest American port to Europe, Boston is an emergency destination for airliners that experience security or mechanical problems while en route to the US, although they may also be diverted to Halifax (Nova Scotia), or other Canadian airports.",
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"plaintext": "In 2015, mayor Marty Walsh announced that the city of Boston would become part of a worldwide program known as Vision Zero. Vision Zero is a plan self described as “a new standard for safety on our streets.” The plan aims to eliminate deaths caused by transportation, whether that be pedestrians, personal vehicle riders, or cyclists.",
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"plaintext": "Since 2015, the city of Boston has adopted several different policies aimed to help bring down the number of fatalities caused by Transportation in Boston. These policies include the creation of a 25-mile per hour speed limit law citywide, and the implementation of Neighborhood Slow Streets, a tool of Traffic calming designed to make personal vehicles slow down in residential areas. Pedestrian deaths have fallen to 57 in 2019, down from the 2017 total of 82. Cyclist deaths have also fallen from 10 in 2017 to just 3 in 2019.",
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"plaintext": "His first plays at Circle Repertory, The Great Nebula in Orion, Ikke, Ikke, Nye, Nye, Nye, and The Family Continues, premiered in 1972. The Hot l Baltimore, about lowlifes who face eviction when the decaying hotel in which they live is to be demolished, opened in 1973 and was Circle Repertory's first commercial success. The play also won the New York Drama Critics' Circle Award and an Obie Award. It then transferred Off-Broadway to the Circle in the Square Theatre and ran for 1,166performances. The Hot l Baltimore was adapted into a short-lived television series by ABC in 1975, which Wilson pronounced \"a disaster\".",
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"plaintext": "Sexual identity is among the themes that Wilson explored in his plays. The theme appears in The Madness of Lady Bright, Lemon Sky, Fifth of July, and Burn This. In Fifth of July, a Broadway hit in 1980–1982, members of the Talley family decide whether to sell the family farmhouse in Missouri. The story centers on Ken Talley, a disabled Vietnam veteran, and his lover Jed, who are living in the house. Wilson was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Play for Fifth of July. After Fifth of July, Wilson wrote Talley's Folly (1979), a two-person play depicting the Midwesterner Sally Talley and Jewish Matt Friedman falling in love and become engaged despite the objections of Sally's narrow-minded family. Talley & Son premiered as A Tale Told in 1981 but was rewritten and renamed when it opened in 1985. Both are prequels set 30 years prior to Fifth of July. Talley's Folly was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Drama in 1980 and received a nomination for the Tony Award for Best Play. Around this time, Norman Mailer asked Wilson to adapt The Executioner's Song for a television movie, but Wilson declined.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to writing plays, Wilson wrote the libretti for several operas. He collaborated with composer Lee Hoiby for Summer and Smoke (1971) and adapted his own play, This is the Rill Speaking, in 1992. Summer and Smoke is an adaptation of Tennessee Williams' play of the same name. Williams gave Hoiby permission to compose an opera based on the play, and Hoiby asked Wilson to adapt the play into a libretto. This is the Rill Speaking is a one-act chamber opera that Wilson adapted from his own play of the same name. In 1984, Wilson wrote a new translation of Anton Chekhov's Three Sisters for the Hartford Stage Company. Wilson attempted to make his translation sound like everyday speech, as he believed that existing translations were linguistically accurate but not inherently theatrical. Reviews of the Hartford production and a subsequent production by the Steppenwolf Theater Company praised Wilson's idiomatic dialogue.",
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"plaintext": "He also became active with the Bay Street Theatre in Sag Harbor, where some of his new short plays were produced, including the 1996 world premiere of his comedy Virgil Is Still the Frogboy, commissioned by the Bay Street Theatre and underwritten by Vanity Fair magazine. The title refers to a famous graffiti spray-painted on a railroad bridge that had puzzled people in the Hamptons for years. Directed by Marshall W. Mason, the production starred Arija Bareiikis, Bobby Cannavale, Jennifer Dundas, Thomas McCarthy, and Josh Pais, running from August14 to September9, 1996.",
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"plaintext": "Wilson was openly gay. After moving to New York City in 1962, he settled in an apartment on Sheridan Square in Greenwich Village, where he lived for many years. In the 1970s, he bought a house in Sag Harbor, Long Island. He lived in both places, using his Manhattan apartment primarily when he had a play in production there. When living in Manhattan, he worked with Playwrights Laboratory at the Circle Repertory Company, often attending readings, rehearsals, and productions.",
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"plaintext": " Radavich, David. \"Rabe, Mamet, Shepard, and Wilson: Mid-American Male Dramatists of the 1970s and '80s.\" The Midwest Quarterly XLVIII: 3 (Spring 2007): 342–58.",
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| 503,635 | 1,135 | 243 | 131 | 0 | 0 | Lanford Wilson | American playwright (1937-2011) | []
|
38,233 | 1,091,511,761 | Tannhäuser | [
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"plaintext": "Tradition has it that he presumed familial lineage with the old Swabian nobles, the Lords of Thannhausen, residents in their castle at Tannhausen near Ellwangen and ministeriales of the Counts of Oettingen. More likely, however, is a descent from the Tanhusen family of Imperial ministeriales, documented in various 13th century sources, with their residence in the area of Neumarkt in the Bavarian Nordgau.",
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"plaintext": "The illustrated Codex Manesse manuscript (about 1300–1340) depicts him clad in the Teutonic Order habit, suggesting he might have fought in the Sixth Crusade led by Emperor Frederick II in 1228/29. ",
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"plaintext": "For a while, Tannhäuser was an active courtier at the court of the Austrian duke Frederick the Warlike, who ruled from 1230 to 1246. Frederick was the last of the Babenberg dukes; upon his death in the Battle of the Leitha River, Tannhäuser left the Vienna court.",
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"plaintext": "Tannhäuser was a proponent of the leich (lai) style of minnesang and dance-song poetry. As literature, his poems parody the traditional genre with irony and hyperbole, somewhat similar to later commercium songs. However, his Bußlied (Poem on Atonement) is unusual, given the eroticism of the remaining Codex Manesse.",
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"plaintext": "Based on his Bußlied, Tannhäuser became the subject of a legendary account. It makes Tannhäuser a knight and poet who found the Venusberg, the subterranean home of Venus, and spent a year there worshipping the goddess. After leaving the Venusberg, Tannhäuser is filled with remorse, and travels to Rome to ask Pope Urban IV (reigned 1261–1264) if it is possible to be absolved of his sins. Urban replies that forgiveness is impossible, as much as it would be for his papal staff to blossom. Three days after Tannhäuser's departure, Urban's staff bloomed with flowers; messengers are sent to retrieve the knight, but he has already returned to Venusberg, never to be seen again.",
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"plaintext": " James G. Nelson, Publisher to the Decadents: Leonard Smithers in the Careers of Beardsley, Wilde, Dowson. Rivendale Press, May 2000. ",
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"plaintext": "Jones was born in London, the daughter of Marjorie (née Jackson) and Richard Aneurin Jones, both of whom were teachers. When war was announced, shortly after her fifth birthday, she was evacuated to Wales, and thereafter moved several times, including periods in the Lake District, in York, and back in London. In 1943 her family finally settled in Thaxted, Essex, where her parents worked running an educational conference centre. There, Jones and her two younger sisters Isobel (later Professor Isobel Armstrong, the literary critic) and Ursula (later an actress and a children's writer) spent a childhood left chiefly to their own devices. ",
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"plaintext": "Jones started writing during the mid-1960s \"mostly to keep [her] sanity\", when the youngest of her three children was about two years old and the family lived in a house owned by an Oxford college. Besides the children, she felt harried by the crises of adults in the household: a sick husband, a mother-in-law, a sister, and a friend with daughter. Her first book was a novel for adults published by Macmillan in 1970, entitled Changeover. It originated as the British Empire was divesting colonies; she recalled in 2004 that it had \"seemed like every month, we would hear that yet another small island or tiny country had been granted independence.\" Changeover is set in a fictional African colony during transition, and what begins as a memo about the problem of how to \"mark changeover\" ceremonially is misunderstood to be about the threat of a terrorist named Mark Changeover. It is a farce with a large cast of characters, featuring government, police, and army bureaucracies; sex, politics, and news. In 1965, when Rhodesia declared independence unilaterally (one of the last colonies and not tiny), \"I felt as if the book were coming true as I wrote it.\"",
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"plaintext": "Jones's books range from amusing slapstick situations to sharp social observation (Changeover is both), to witty parody of literary forms. Foremost amongst the latter are The Tough Guide To Fantasyland and its fictional companion-piece Dark Lord of Derkholm, which provide a merciless (though not unaffectionate) critique of formulaic sword-and-sorcery epics.",
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"plaintext": "The Harry Potter books are frequently compared to the works of Diana Wynne Jones. Many of her earlier children's books were out of print in recent years, but have now been re-issued for the young audience whose interest in fantasy and reading was spurred by Harry Potter.",
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"plaintext": "Jones's works are also compared to those of Robin McKinley and Neil Gaiman. She was friends with both McKinley and Gaiman, and Jones and Gaiman were fans of each other's work; she dedicated her 1993 novel Hexwood to him after something he said in conversation inspired a key part of the plot. Gaiman had already dedicated his 1991 four-part comic book mini-series The Books of Magic to \"four witches\", of whom Jones was one.",
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"plaintext": "For Charmed Life, the first Chrestomanci novel, Jones won the 1978 Guardian Children's Fiction Prize, a once-in-a-lifetime award by The Guardian newspaper that is judged by a panel of children's writers. Three times she was a commended runner-up for the Carnegie Medal from the Library Association, recognising the year's best children's book: for Dogsbody (1975), Charmed Life (1977), and the fourth Chrestomanci book The Lives of Christopher Chant (1988). She won the Mythopoeic Fantasy Award, children's section, in 1996 for The Crown of Dalemark (concluding that series) and in 1999 for Dark Lord of Derkholm; in four other years she was a finalist for that annual literary award by the Mythopoeic Society.",
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"plaintext": "The 1986 novel Howl's Moving Castle was inspired by a boy at a school she was visiting, who asked her to write a book called The Moving Castle. It was published first by Greenwillow in the U.S., where it was a runner-up for the annual Boston Globe–Horn Book Award in children's fiction. In 2004, Hayao Miyazaki made the Japanese-language animated movie Howl's Moving Castle, which was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature. A version dubbed in English was released in the UK and US in 2005, with the voice of Howl performed by Christian Bale. Next year Jones and the novel won the annual Phoenix Award from the Children's Literature Association, recognising the best children's book published twenty years earlier that did not win a major award (named for mythical bird phoenix to suggest the book's rise from obscurity).",
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"plaintext": "Fire and Hemlock had been the 2005 Phoenix runner-up. It is a novel based on Scottish ballads, and was a Mythopoeic Fantasy finalist in its own time.",
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"plaintext": "Jones's book on clichés in fantasy fiction, The Tough Guide To Fantasyland (nonfiction), has a cult following among writers and critics, despite initially being difficult to find due to an erratic printing history. It was reissued in the UK, and has been reissued in the United States in 2006 by Firebird Books. The Firebird edition has additional material and a completely new design, including a new map.",
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"plaintext": "Jones was diagnosed with lung cancer in the early summer of 2009. She underwent surgery in July and reported to friends that the procedure had been successful. However, in June 2010 she announced that she would be discontinuing chemotherapy because it only made her feel ill. In mid-2010 she was halfway through a new book with plans for another to follow. She died on 26 March 2011 from the disease. She was surrounded by her husband, three sons, and five grandchildren as she was cremated at Canford Cemetery.",
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38,235 | 1,107,831,273 | Parsifal | [
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"plaintext": "Parsifal (WWV 111) is an opera in three acts by Richard Wagner, and his last composition. The libretto is loosely based on the 13th-century Middle High German epic poem Parzival of the Minnesänger Wolfram von Eschenbach, recounting the story of the Arthurian knight Parzival (Percival) and his quest for the Holy Grail. ",
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"plaintext": "Wagner conceived the work in April 1857, but did not finish it until 25 years later. In composing it he took advantage of the particular acoustics of his Bayreuth Festspielhaus. Parsifal was first produced at the second Bayreuth Festival in 1882. The Bayreuth Festival maintained a monopoly on Parsifal productions until 1903, when the opera was performed at the Metropolitan Opera in New York.",
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"plaintext": "Wagner described Parsifal not as an opera, but as (\"A Festival Play for the Consecration of the Stage\"). At Bayreuth a tradition has arisen that audiences do not applaud at the end of the first act.",
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"plaintext": "Wagner's spelling of Parsifal instead of the Parzival he had used up to 1877 is informed by one of the theories about the name Percival, according to which it is of Persian origin, Parsi (or Parseh) Fal meaning \"pure (or poor) fool\".",
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"plaintext": "Wagner read von Eschenbach's poem Parzival while taking the waters at Marienbad in 1845. After encountering Arthur Schopenhauer's writings in 1854, Wagner became interested in Asian philosophies, especially Buddhism. Out of this interest came Die Sieger (The Victors, 1856), a sketch Wagner wrote for an opera based on a story from the life of Buddha. The themes which were later explored in Parsifal of self-renunciation, reincarnation, compassion, and even exclusive social groups (castes in , the Knights of the Grail in Parsifal) were first introduced in .",
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"plaintext": "According to his autobiography , Wagner conceived Parsifal on Good Friday morning, April 1857, in the (German: \"Asylum\"), the small cottage on Otto Wesendonck's estate in the Zürich suburb of Enge, which Wesendonck – a wealthy silk merchant and generous patron of the arts – had placed at Wagner's disposal, through the good offices of his wife Mathilde Wesendonck. The composer and his wife Minna had moved into the cottage on 28 April:",
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"plaintext": "However, as his second wife Cosima Wagner later reported on 22 April 1879, this account had been colored by a certain amount of poetic licence:",
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"plaintext": "The work may indeed have been conceived at Wesendonck's cottage in the last week of April 1857, but Good Friday that year fell on 10 April, when the Wagners were still living at Zeltweg 13 in Zürich. If the prose sketch which Wagner mentions in was accurately dated (and most of Wagner's surviving papers are dated), it could settle the issue once and for all, but unfortunately it has not survived.",
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"plaintext": "Wagner did not resume work on Parsifal for eight years, during which time he completed Tristan und Isolde and began Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg. Then, between 27 and 30 August 1865, he took up Parsifal again and made a prose draft of the work; this contains a fairly brief outline of the plot and a considerable amount of detailed commentary on the characters and themes of the drama. But once again the work was dropped and set aside for another eleven and a half years. During this time most of Wagner's creative energy was devoted to the Ring cycle, which was finally completed in 1874 and given its first full performance at Bayreuth in August 1876. Only when this gargantuan task had been accomplished did Wagner find the time to concentrate on Parsifal. By 23 February 1877 he had completed a second and more extensive prose draft of the work, and by 19 April of the same year he had transformed this into a verse libretto (or \"poem\", as Wagner liked to call his libretti).",
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"plaintext": "In September 1877 he began the music by making two complete drafts of the score from beginning to end. The first of these (known in German as the and in English as either the Preliminary Draft or the First Complete Draft) was made in pencil on three staves, one for the voices and two for the instruments. The second complete draft (, Orchestral Draft, Short Score or Particell) was made in ink and on at least three, but sometimes as many as five, staves. This draft was much more detailed than the first and contained a considerable degree of instrumental elaboration.",
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"plaintext": "The second draft was begun on 25 September 1877, just a few days after the first; at this point in his career Wagner liked to work on both drafts simultaneously, switching back and forth between the two so as not to allow too much time to elapse between his initial setting of the text and the final elaboration of the music. The of Act III was completed on 16 April 1879 and the on the 26th of the same month.",
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"plaintext": "The full score () was the final stage in the compositional process. It was made in ink and consisted of a fair copy of the entire opera, with all the voices and instruments properly notated according to standard practice. Wagner composed Parsifal one act at a time, completing the and of each act before beginning the Gesamtentwurf of the next act; but because the already embodied all the compositional details of the full score, the actual drafting of the was regarded by Wagner as little more than a routine task which could be done whenever he found the time. The prelude of Act I was scored in August 1878. The rest of the opera was scored between August 1879 and 13 January 1882.",
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"plaintext": "On 12 November 1880, Wagner conducted a private performance of the prelude for his patron Ludwig II of Bavaria at the Court Theatre in Munich. The premiere of the entire work was given in the Bayreuth Festspielhaus on 26 July 1882 under the baton of the Jewish-German conductor Hermann Levi. Stage designs were by Max Brückner and Paul von Joukowsky, who took their lead from Wagner himself. The Grail hall was based on the interior of Siena Cathedral which Wagner had visited in 1880, while Klingsor's magic garden was modelled on those at the Palazzo Rufolo in Ravello. In July and August 1882 sixteen performances of the work were given in Bayreuth conducted by Levi and Franz Fischer. The production boasted an orchestra of 107, a chorus of 135 and 23 soloists (with the main parts being double cast). At the last of these performances, Wagner took the baton from Levi and conducted the final scene of Act III from the orchestral interlude to the end.",
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"plaintext": "At the first performances of Parsifal, problems with the moving scenery (the Wandeldekoration) during the transition from scene 1 to scene 2 in Act I meant that Wagner's existing orchestral interlude finished before Parsifal and Gurnemanz arrived at the Hall of the Grail. Engelbert Humperdinck, who was assisting the production, provided a few extra bars of music to cover this gap. In subsequent years this problem was solved and Humperdinck's additions were not used.",
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"plaintext": "For the first twenty years of its existence, the only staged performances of Parsifal took place in the Bayreuth Festspielhaus, the venue for which Wagner conceived the work (except eight private performances for Ludwig II at Munich in 1884 and 1885). Wagner had two reasons for wanting to keep Parsifal exclusively for the Bayreuth stage. First, he wanted to prevent it from degenerating into 'mere amusement' for an opera-going public. Only at Bayreuth could his last work be presented in the way envisaged by him—a tradition maintained by his wife, Cosima, long after his death. Second, he thought that the opera would provide an income for his family after his death if Bayreuth had the monopoly on its performance.",
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"plaintext": "The Bayreuth authorities allowed unstaged performances to take place in various countries after Wagner's death (London in 1884, New York City in 1886, and Amsterdam in 1894) but they maintained an embargo on stage performances outside Bayreuth. On 24 December 1903, after receiving a court ruling that performances in the United States could not be prevented by Bayreuth, the New York Metropolitan Opera staged the complete opera, using many Bayreuth-trained singers. Cosima barred anyone involved in the New York production from working at Bayreuth in future performances. Unauthorized stage performances were also undertaken in Amsterdam in 1905, 1906 and 1908. There was a performance in Buenos Aires, in the Teatro Coliseo, on June 20, 1913 under Gino Marinuzzi.",
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"plaintext": "Bayreuth lifted its monopoly on Parsifal on 1 January 1914 in the Teatro Comunale di Bologna in Bologna with Giuseppe Borgatti. Some opera houses began their performances at midnight between 31 December 1913 and 1 January. The first authorized performance was staged at the Gran Teatre del Liceu in Barcelona: it began at 10:30pm Barcelona time, which was an hour behind Bayreuth. Such was the demand for Parsifal that it was presented in more than 50 European opera houses between 1 January and 1 August 1914.",
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"plaintext": "At Bayreuth performances audiences do not applaud at the end of the first act. This tradition is the result of a misunderstanding arising from Wagner's desire at the premiere to maintain the serious mood of the opera. After much applause following the first and second acts, Wagner spoke to the audience and said that the cast would take no curtain calls until the end of the performance. This confused the audience, who remained silent at the end of the opera until Wagner addressed them again, saying that he did not mean that they could not applaud. After the performance Wagner complained, \"Now I don't know. Did the audience like it or not?\" At subsequent performances some believed that Wagner had wanted no applause until the very end, and there was silence after the first two acts. Eventually it became a Bayreuth tradition that no applause would be heard after the first act, but this was certainly not Wagner's idea. In fact, during the first Bayreuth performances, Wagner himself cried \"Bravo!\" as the Flowermaidens made their exit in the second act, only to be hissed by other members of the audience. At some theatres other than Bayreuth, applause and curtain calls are normal practice after every act. Program notes until 2013 at the Metropolitan Opera in New York asked the audience not to applaud after Act I.",
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"plaintext": "Parsifal is one of the Wagner operas regularly presented at the Bayreuth Festival to this day. Among the more significant post-war productions was that directed in 1951 by Wieland Wagner, the composer's grandson. At the first Bayreuth Festival after World War II he presented a radical move away from literal representation of the Hall of the Grail or the Flowermaiden's bower. Instead, lighting effects and the bare minimum of scenery were used to complement Wagner's music. This production was heavily influenced by the ideas of the Swiss stage designer Adolphe Appia. The reaction to this production was extreme: Ernest Newman, Richard Wagner's biographer described it as \"not only the best Parsifal I have ever seen and heard, but one of the three or four most moving spiritual experiences of my life\". Others were appalled that Wagner's stage directions were being flouted. The conductor of the 1951 production, Hans Knappertsbusch, on being asked how he could conduct such a disgraceful travesty, declared that right up until the dress rehearsal he imagined that the stage decorations were still to come. Knappertsbusch was particularly upset by the omission of the dove that appears over Parsifal's head at the end of the opera, which he claimed inspired him to give better performances. To placate his conductor Wieland arranged to reinstate the dove, which descended on a string. What Knappertsbusch did not realise was that Wieland had made the length of the string long enough for the conductor to see the dove, but not for the audience. Wieland continued to modify and refine his Bayreuth production of Parsifal until his death in 1966. Martha Mödl created a \"complex, tortured Kundry in Wieland Wagner's revolutionary production of Parsifal during the festival's first postwar season\", and would remain the company's exclusive Kundry for the remainder of the decade.",
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"plaintext": "Place: Near the seat of the Grail",
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"plaintext": "Prelude to Act I",
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"plaintext": "Musical introduction to the work with a duration of c. 12–15 minutes.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 1",
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"plaintext": "In a forest near the home of the Grail and its Knights, Gurnemanz, elder Knight of the Grail, wakes his young squires and leads them in prayer (\"He! Ho! Waldhüter ihr\"). He sees Amfortas, King of the Grail Knights, and his entourage approaching. Amfortas has been injured by his own Holy Spear, and the wound will not heal. Gurnemanz asks the lead Knight for news of the King's health. The Knight says the King has suffered during the night and is going early to bathe in the holy lake. The squires ask Gurnemanz to explain how the King's injury can be healed, but he evades their question and a wild woman – Kundry – bursts in. She gives Gurnemanz a vial of balsam, brought from Arabia, to ease the King's pain and then collapses, exhausted.",
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"plaintext": "Amfortas arrives, borne on a stretcher by Knights of the Grail. He calls out for the knight Gawain, whose attempt at relieving the King's pain had failed. He is told that Gawain has left again, seeking a better remedy. Raising himself somewhat, the King says going off without leave (\"Ohn' Urlaub?\") is the sort of impulsiveness which led himself into Klingsor's realm and to his downfall. He accepts the potion from Gurnemanz and tries to thank Kundry, but she answers abruptly that thanks will not help and urges him onward to his bath.",
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"plaintext": "The procession leaves. The squires eye Kundry with mistrust and question her. After a brief retort, she falls silent. Gurnemanz tells them Kundry has often helped the Grail Knights but that she comes and goes unpredictably. When he asks directly why she does not stay to help, she answers that she never helps. The squires think she is a witch and sneer that if she does so much, why will she not find the Holy Spear for them? Gurnemanz reveals that this deed is destined for someone else. He says Amfortas was given guardianship of the Spear, but lost it as he was seduced by an irresistibly attractive woman in Klingsor's domain. Klingsor grabbed the Spear and stabbed Amfortas. The wound causes Amfortas both suffering and shame, and will never heal on its own.",
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"plaintext": "Squires returning from the King's bath tell Gurnemanz that the balsam has eased the King's suffering. Gurnemanz's own squires ask how it is that he knew Klingsor. He solemnly tells them how both the Holy Spear, which pierced the side of the Redeemer on the Cross, and the Holy Grail, which caught the flowing blood, had come to Monsalvat to be guarded by the Knights of the Grail under the rule of Titurel, father of Amfortas (\"Titurel, der fromme Held\"). Klingsor had yearned to become one of the Knights but, unable to stifle sinful desires in his mind, resorted to self-mutilation, for which offense Titurel refused to allow him to join the Order. Klingsor then set himself up in opposition to the Knights, learning dark arts, claiming the valley domain to the south of the mountainous realm of the Grail and filling it with beautiful Flowermaidens to seduce and enthrall wayward Grail Knights. It was here that Amfortas lost the Holy Spear, kept by Klingsor as he schemes to get hold of the Grail. Gurnemanz tells how Amfortas later had a holy vision which told him to wait for a \"pure fool, enlightened by compassion\" (\"Durch Mitleid wissend, der reine Tor\") who will finally heal the wound.",
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"plaintext": "At this moment, cries are heard from the Knights: a flying swan has been shot, and a young man is brought forth, a bow in his hand and a quiver of matching arrows. Gurnemanz speaks sternly to the lad, saying this is a holy place. He asks him outright if he shot the swan, and the lad boasts that if it flies, he can hit it (\"Im Fluge treff' ich, was fliegt!\") Gurnemanz tells him that the swan is a holy animal, and asks what harm the swan had done him, and shows the youth its lifeless body. Now remorseful, the young man breaks his bow and casts it aside. Gurnemanz asks him why he is here, who his father is, how he found this place and, lastly, his name. To each question the lad replies that he doesn't know the answer. The elder Knight sends his squires away to help the King and now asks the boy to tell what he does know. The young man says he has a mother, Herzeleide (literally meaning Heart's Sorrow) and that he made the bow himself. Kundry has been listening and now tells them that this boy's father was Gamuret, a Knight killed in battle, and also how the lad's mother had forbidden her son to use a sword, fearing that he would meet the same fate as his father. The youth now recalls that upon seeing Knights pass through his forest, he had left his home and mother to follow them. Kundry laughs and tells the young man that, as she rode by, she saw Herzeleide die of grief. Hearing this, the lad first lunges at Kundry but then collapses in grief. Kundry herself is now weary for sleep, but cries out that she must not sleep and wishes that she might never again waken. She disappears into the undergrowth.",
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"plaintext": "Gurnemanz knows that the Grail draws only the pure of heart to Monsalvat and invites the boy to observe the Grail rite in the hope that perhaps he might be the pure fool of the prophecy revealed to Amfortas. The youth does not know what the Grail is, but remarks that as they approach the path to the Grail castle it seems to him he scarcely moves, yet feels as if he had already traveled far. Gurnemanz answers him mysteriously that here time becomes space (\"Zum Raum wird hier die Zeit\").",
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"plaintext": "Verwandlungsmusik (Transformation Music)",
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"plaintext": "orchestral interlude",
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"plaintext": "Scene 2",
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"plaintext": "They arrive at the Hall of the Grail, where the Knights are assembling to receive Holy Communion (\"Zum letzten Liebesmahle\"). The voice of Titurel is heard, telling his son, Amfortas, to uncover the Grail. Amfortas is wracked with shame and suffering (\"Wehvolles Erbe, dem ich verfallen\"). He is the guardian of these holy relics yet has succumbed to temptation and lost the Spear. He declares himself unworthy of his office. He cries out for forgiveness (\"Erbarmen! Erbarmen!\") but hears only the promise that he will one day be redeemed by the pure fool.",
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"plaintext": "On hearing Amfortas' cry, the youth appears to suffer with him, clutching at his heart. The Knights and Titurel urge Amfortas to reveal the Grail (\"Enthüllet dem Gral\"), and he finally does. The dark hall is now bathed in the light of the Grail as the Knights eat. Gurnemanz motions to the youth to participate, but he seems entranced and does not. Amfortas does not share in taking communion and, as the ceremony ends, collapses in pain and is carried away. Slowly the hall empties leaving only the young man and Gurnemanz, who asks him if he has understood what he has seen. When the lad cannot answer, Gurnemanz dismisses him as just a fool and angrilly sends him out with a warning to leave the swans in the Grail domain alone. A voice from high above repeats the promise: \"The pure fool, enlightened by compassion\".",
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"plaintext": "Prelude to Act II",
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"plaintext": "Scene 1",
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"plaintext": "Klingsor's magic castle. Klingsor conjures up Kundry, waking her from her sleep. He calls her by many names: First Sorceress (), Hell's Rose (), Herodias, Gundryggia and, lastly, Kundry. She is now transformed into an incredibly alluring woman, as when she once seduced Amfortas. She mocks Klingsor's mutilated condition by sarcastically inquiring if he is chaste (), but she cannot resist his power. Klingsor observes that Parsifal is approaching and summons his enchanted knights to fight the youth. Klingsor watches as Parsifal overcomes his knights, and they flee. Klingsor wishes destruction on their whole kin.",
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"plaintext": "Klingsor sees this young man stray into his Flowermaiden garden and calls to Kundry to seek the boy out and seduce him, but when he turns, he sees that Kundry has already left on her mission.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 2",
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"plaintext": "The triumphant youth finds himself in a wondrous garden, surrounded by beautiful and seductive Flowermaidens. They call to him and entwine themselves about him while chiding him for wounding their lovers (). They soon fight and bicker among themselves to win his devotion, to the point that he is about to flee, but then a voice calls out, \"Parsifal!\" He now recalls this name is what his mother called him when she appeared in his dreams. The Flowermaidens back away from him and call him a fool as they leave him and Kundry alone.",
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"plaintext": "Parsifal wonders if the Garden is a dream and asks how it is that Kundry knows his name. Kundry tells him she learned it from his mother (), who had loved him and tried to shield him from his father's fate, the mother he had abandoned and who had finally died of grief. She reveals many parts of Parsifal's history to him and he is stricken with remorse, blaming himself for his mother's death. He thinks himself very stupid to have forgotten her. Kundry says this realization is a first sign of understanding and that, with a kiss, she can help him understand his mother's love. As they kiss Parsifal suddenly recoils in pain and cries out Amfortas' name: he feels the wounded king's pain burning in his own side and now understands Amfortas' passion during the Grail Ceremony (). Filled with this compassion, Parsifal rejects Kundry's advances.",
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"plaintext": "Furious that her ploy has failed, Kundry tells Parsifal that if he can feel compassion for Amfortas, then he should also be able to feel it for her. She has been cursed for centuries, unable to rest, because she saw Christ on the cross and laughed at His pains. Now she can never weep, only jeer diabolically, and she is enslaved to Klingsor. Parsifal rejects her again but then asks her to lead him to Amfortas. She begs him to stay with her for just one hour, and then she will take him to Amfortas. When he still refuses, she curses him to wander without ever finding the Kingdom of the Grail, and finally calls on her master Klingsor to help her.",
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"plaintext": "Klingsor appears on the castle rampart and hurls the Spear at Parsifal to destroy him, but it miraculously stops in midair, above his head. Parsifal seizes the Spear in his hand and makes with it the sign of the Cross, banishing Klingsor's magic. The whole castle with Klingsor suddenly sinks as if by an earthquake and the enchanted garden withers. As Parsifal leaves, he tells Kundry that she knows where she can find him.",
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"plaintext": "Prelude to Act III",
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"plaintext": "Musical introduction of c. 4–6 minutes.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 1",
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"plaintext": "The scene is the same as that of the opening of the opera, in the domain of the Grail, but many years later. Gurnemanz is now aged and bent, living alone as a hermit. It is Good Friday. He hears moaning near his hut and finds Kundry lying unconscious in the brush, similarly as he had many years before (\"Sie! Wieder da!\"). He revives her using water from the Holy Spring, but she will only speak the word \"serve\" (\"Dienen\"). Gurnemanz wonders if there is any higher significance to her reappearance on this special day. Looking into the forest, he sees a figure approaching, armed and in full armour. The stranger wears a helmet and the hermit cannot see who he is. Gurnemanz admonishes him firmly for being armed on a sanctified ground and all the more so on a day when the Lord himself, bereft of all arms, had offered his own blood as a sacrifice to redeem the fallen world, but gets no response. Finally, the apparition removes the helmet and Gurnemanz recognizes the lad who shot the swan; to his amazement the returnee also bears the Holy Spear.",
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"plaintext": "Parsifal tells of his desire to bring healing to Amfortas (). He relates his seemingly unending arduous wandering, how he strayed again and again, unable to find a way back to the Grail. He was forced to resist and fight countless enemies to guard the Spear, suffering all manner of harms in the process, but has never desecrated the relic by wielding it in battle, preserving the purity of its holiness. Gurnemanz tells Parsifal that the evil curse preventing him from finding the right path has now been lifted, since he finds himself in the Grail's domain. However, in his absence Amfortas has never unveiled the Grail, and lack of its sustaining powers has caused the death of Titurel. Parsifal is overcome with pity, blaming himself for this state of affairs, and almost faints with exhaustion. Gurnemanz tells him that today is the day of Titurel's funeral, and that Parsifal has a great duty to perform. Kundry washes Parsifal's feet and Gurnemanz anoints him with water from the Holy Spring, recognizing him as the pure fool, now enlightened by compassion and freed from guilt, and proclaims him the foretold new King of the Knights of the Grail.",
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"plaintext": "Parsifal looks about and comments on the beauty of the meadow. Gurnemanz explains that today is Good Friday, when all the world is renewed. Kundry silently weeps with remorse and is baptised by Parsifal, who gently kisses her on the forehead and tells her to believe in the Redeemer. Tolling bells are heard in the distance. Gurnemanz says \"Midday: the hour has come. My lord, permit your servant to guide you!\" () – and all three set off for the castle of the Grail. A dark orchestral interlude leads into the solemn gathering of the Knights.",
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"plaintext": "Verwandlungsmusik (Transformation Music) - Titurels Totenfeier (Titurel's Funeral)",
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"plaintext": "Scene 2",
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"plaintext": "Within the castle of the Grail, Titurel's funeral is to take place. Mourning processions of Knights bring Titurel's coffin and the Grail shrine, as well as Amfortas on his litter, to the Grail hall (). Expected to perform the ritual, Amfortas begs his deceased father, whose demise he acknowledges as his further guilt, to plead by the Redeemer to grant him the unique mercy of death, which alone would finally deliver him from all his pain. (). The Knights desperately urge Amfortas to keep his promise and at least once more, for the very last time uncover the Grail again, but Amfortas, in a frenzy, says he will never again show the Grail, as doing so would only prolong his unbearable torment. Instead, he commands the Knights to kill him and end with his suffering also the shame he has brought on the Knighthood. At this moment, Parsifal appears and declares but one weapon can help: only the same Spear that inflicted the wound can now close it (). He touches Amfortas' side with the Holy Spear and both heals the wound and absolves him from sin. Extolling the virtue of compassion that made a pure fool knowing, Parsifal replaces Amfortas in his kingly office and orders to unveil the Grail. As the Grail glows ever brighter with light and a white dove descends from the top of the dome and hovers over Parsifal's head, all Knights praise the miracle of salvation (). Kundry, at last released from her curse and redeemed, slowly sinks lifeless to the ground with her gaze resting on Parsifal, who raises the Grail in blessing over the worshipping brotherhood.",
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"plaintext": "Since Parsifal could initially only be seen at the Bayreuth Festival, the first presentation in 1882 was attended by many notable figures. Reaction was varied. Some thought that Parsifal marked a weakening of Wagner's abilities, many others saw the work as a crowning achievement. The critic Eduard Hanslick gave his opinion that \"The Third act may be counted the most unified and the most atmospheric. It is not the richest musically,\" going on to note \"And Wagner's creative powers? For a man of his age and his method they are astounding ... [but] It would be foolishness to declare that Wagner's fantasy, and specifically his musical invention, has retained the freshness and facility of yore. One cannot help but discern sterility and prosaicism, together with increasing longwindedness.\"",
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"plaintext": "The conductor Felix Weingartner found that: \"The Flowermaidens' costumes showed extraordinary lack of taste, but the singing was incomparable... When the curtain had been rung down on the final scene and we were walking down the hill, I seemed to hear the words of Goethe 'and you can say you were present.' The Parsifal performances of 1882 were artistic events of supreme interest and it is my pride and joy that I participated in them.\"",
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"plaintext": "Hugo Wolf was a student at the time of the 1882 Festival, yet still managed to find money for tickets to see Parsifal twice. He emerged overwhelmed: \"Colossal – Wagner's most inspired, sublimest creation.\" He reiterated this view in a postcard from Bayreuth in 1883: \"Parsifal is without doubt by far the most beautiful and sublime work in the whole field of Art.\" Gustav Mahler was also present in 1883 and he wrote to a friend; \"I can hardly describe my present state to you. When I came out of the Festspielhaus, completely spellbound, I understood that the greatest and most painful revelation had just been made to me, and that I would carry it unspoiled for the rest of my life.\" Max Reger simply noted that \"When I first heard Parsifal at Bayreuth I was fifteen. I cried for two weeks and then became a musician.\" Alban Berg described Parsifal in 1909 as \"magnificent, overwhelming,\" and Jean Sibelius, visiting the Festival in 1894 said: \"Nothing in the world has made so overwhelming an impression on me. All my innermost heart-strings throbbed... I cannot begin to tell you how Parsifal has transported me. Everything I do seems so cold and feeble by its side. That is really something.\" Claude Debussy thought the characters and plot ludicrous, but nevertheless in 1903 wrote that musically it was: \"Incomparable and bewildering, splendid and strong. Parsifal is one of the loveliest monuments of sound ever raised to the serene glory of music.\" He was later to write to Ernest Chausson that he had deleted a scene he had just written for his own opera Pelléas et Melisande because he had discovered in the music for it \"the ghost of old Klingsor, alias R. Wagner\".",
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"plaintext": "Some took a more acerbic view of the experience. Mark Twain visited the Festival in 1891: \"I was not able to detect in the vocal parts of Parsifal anything that might with confidence be called rhythm or tune or melody... Singing! It does seem the wrong name to apply to it... In Parsifal there is a hermit named Gurnemanz who stands on the stage in one spot and practices by the hour, while first one and then another of the cast endures what he can of it and then retires to die.\"",
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"plaintext": "Performance standards may have contributed to such reactions; George Bernard Shaw commented in 1894 that: \"The opening performance of Parsifal this season was, from the purely musical point of view, as far as the principal singers were concerned, simply an abomination. The bass howled, the tenor bawled, the baritone sang flat and the soprano, when she condescended to sing at all and did not merely shout her words, screamed...\"",
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"plaintext": "During a break from composing The Rite of Spring, Igor Stravinsky traveled to the Bayreuth Festival (at the invitation of Sergei Diaghilev) to see the work. Stravinsky was repulsed by the \"quasi-religious atmosphere\" of the festival. Stravinsky's repulsion is speculated to be due to his agnosticism.",
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"plaintext": "Wagner's last work, Parsifal has been both influential and controversial. The use of Christian symbols in Parsifal (the Grail, the Spear, references to the Redeemer) together with its restriction to Bayreuth for almost 30 years sometimes led to performances being regarded almost as a religious rite. However, Wagner never actually refers to Jesus Christ by name in the opera, only to \"The Redeemer\". In his essay \"Religion and Art\" Wagner himself described the use of Christian imagery thus:",
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"plaintext": "The critic Eduard Hanslick objected to the religious air surrounding Parsifal even at the premiere: \"The question of whether Parsifal should really be withheld from all theatres and limited to... Bayreuth was naturally on all tongues... I must state here that the church scenes in Parsifal did not make the offensive impression on me that others and I had been led to expect from reading the libretto. They are religious situations – but for all their earnest dignity they are not in the style of the church, but completely in the style of the opera. Parsifal is an opera, call it a 'stage festival' or 'consecrational stage festival' if you will.\"",
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"plaintext": "Wagner had been greatly impressed with his reading of Arthur Schopenhauer in 1854, and this deeply affected his thoughts and practice on music and art. Most writers (e.g. Bryan Magee) see Parsifal as Wagner's last great espousal of Schopenhauerian philosophy. Parsifal can heal Amfortas and redeem Kundry because he shows compassion, which Schopenhauer saw as the highest form of human morality. Moreover, he displays compassion in the face of sexual temptation (Act II, Scene 2). Schopenhauerian philosophy also suggests that the only escape from the ever-present temptations of human life is through negation of the Will, and overcoming sexual temptation is in particular a strong form of negation of the Will. When viewed in this light, Parsifal, with its emphasis on Mitleid (\"compassion\") is a natural follow-on to Tristan und Isolde, where Schopenhauer's influence is perhaps more obvious, with its focus on Sehnen (\"yearning\"). Indeed, Wagner originally considered including Parsifal as a character in Act III of Tristan, but later rejected the idea.",
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"plaintext": "Friedrich Nietzsche, who was originally one of Wagner's champions, chose to use Parsifal as the grounds for his breach with Wagner; an extended critique of Parsifal opens the third essay (\"What Is the Meaning of Ascetic Ideals?\") of On the Genealogy of Morality. In Nietzsche contra Wagner he wrote: ",
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"plaintext": "Despite this attack on the subject matter, he also admitted that the music was sublime: \"Moreover, apart from all irrelevant questions (as to what the use of this music can or ought to be) and on purely aesthetic grounds; has Wagner ever done anything better?\" (Letter to Peter Gast, 1887).",
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"plaintext": "Some writers see in the opera a promotion of racism or anti-semitism. One line of argument suggests that Parsifal was written in support of the ideas of the French diplomat and racial theorist Count Arthur de Gobineau, expressed most extensively in his Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races. Parsifal is proposed as the \"pure-blooded\" (i.e. Aryan) hero who overcomes Klingsor, who is perceived as a Jewish stereotype, particularly since he opposes the quasi-Christian Knights of the Grail. Such claims remain heavily debated, since there is nothing explicit in the libretto to support them. Wagner never mentions such ideas in his many writings, and Cosima Wagner's diaries, which relate in great detail Wagner's thoughts over the last 14 years of his life (including the period covering the composition and first performance of Parsifal) never mention any such intention. Having met Gobineau for the first time very briefly in 1876, it was nonetheless only in 1880 that Wagner read Gobineau's essay. However, the libretto for Parsifal had already been completed by 1877, and the original drafts of the story even date back to 1857. Despite this chronological evidence, Gobineau is frequently cited as a major inspiration for Parsifal.",
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"plaintext": "The related question of whether the opera contains a specifically anti-Semitic message is also debated. Some of Wagner's contemporaries and commentators (e.g. Hans von Wolzogen and Ernest Newman) who analysed Parsifal at length, make no mention of any anti-Semitic interpretations. However the critics Paul Lindau and Max Nordbeck, present at the world premiere, noted in their reviews how the work accorded with Wagner's anti-Jewish sentiments. More recent commentators continue to highlight the perceived anti-Semitic nature of the opera, and find correspondences with anti-Semitic passages found in Wagner's writings and articles of the period.",
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"plaintext": "The conductor of the premiere was Hermann Levi, the court conductor at the Munich Opera. Since King Ludwig was sponsoring the production, much of the orchestra was drawn from the ranks of the Munich Opera, including the conductor. Wagner objected to Parsifal being conducted by a Jew (Levi's father was in fact a rabbi). Wagner first suggested that Levi should convert to Christianity, which Levi declined to do. Wagner then wrote to King Ludwig that he had decided to accept Levi despite the fact that (he alleged) he had received complaints that \"of all pieces, this most Christian of works\" should be conducted by a Jew. When the King expressed his satisfaction at this, replying that \"human beings are basically all brothers\", Wagner wrote to the King that he \"regard[ed] the Jewish race as the born enemy of pure humanity and everything noble about it\". Seventy-one years later, the Jewish bass-baritone George London performed in the role of Amfortas at Neu Bayreuth, causing some controversy. ",
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"plaintext": "It has been claimed that Parsifal was denounced as being \"ideologically unacceptable\" in Nazi Germany, and that the Nazis placed a de facto ban on Parsifal. In fact there were 26 performances at the Bayreuth Festival between 1934 and 1939 and 23 performances at the Deutsche Oper in Berlin between 1939 and 1942. However Parsifal was not performed at the Bayreuth Festival during World War II.",
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"plaintext": "A leitmotif is a recurring musical theme within a particular piece of music, associated with a particular character, object, event or emotion. Wagner is the composer most often associated with leitmotifs, and Parsifal makes liberal use of them. Wagner did not specifically identify or name leitmotifs in the score of Parsifal (any more than he did in any other of his scores), although his wife Cosima mentions statements he made about some of them in her diary. However, Wagner's followers (notably Hans von Wolzogen whose guide to Parsifal was published in 1882) named, wrote about and made references to these motifs, and they were highlighted in piano arrangements of the score. Wagner's own reaction to such naming of motifs in the score was one of disgust: \"In the end people believe that such nonsense happens by my suggestion.\"",
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"plaintext": "The opening prelude introduces two important leitmotifs, generally referred to as the Communion theme and the theme of the Grail. These two, and Parsifal's own motif, are repeated during the course of the opera. Other characters, especially Klingsor, Amfortas, and \"The Voice\", which sings the so-called Tormotif (\"Fool's motive\"), have their own particular leitmotifs. Wagner uses the Dresden amen to represent the Grail, this motif being a sequence of notes he would have known since his childhood in Dresden.",
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"plaintext": "Many music theorists have used Parsifal to explore difficulties in analyzing the chromaticism of late 19th century music. Theorists such as David Lewin and Richard Cohn have explored the importance of certain pitches and harmonic progressions both in structuring and symbolizing the work. The unusual harmonic progressions in the leitmotifs which structure the piece, as well as the heavy chromaticism of Act II, make it a difficult work to parse musically.",
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"plaintext": "As is common in mature Wagner operas, Parsifal was composed such that each act was a continuous flow of music; hence there are no free-standing arias in the work. However, a number of orchestral excerpts from the opera were arranged by Wagner himself, and remain in the concert repertory. The prelude to Act I is frequently performed either alone or in conjunction with an arrangement of the \"Good Friday\" music which accompanies the second half of Act III Scene 1. Kundry's long solo in Act II (\"\") is occasionally performed in concert, as is Amfortas' lament from Act I (\"\").",
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"plaintext": "The score for Parsifal calls for three flutes, three oboes, one English horn, three clarinets in B-flat and A, one bass clarinet in B-flat and A, three bassoons, one contrabassoon; four horns in F, three trumpets in F, three trombones, one tuba, 6 onstage trumpets in F, 6 onstage trombones; a percussion section that includes four timpani (requiring two players), tenor drums, 4 onstage church bells, one onstage thunder machine; two harps and strings. Parsifal is one of only two works by Wagner in which he used the contrabassoon. (The other is the Symphony in C.)",
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"plaintext": "Hans Knappertsbusch was the conductor most closely associated with Parsifal at Bayreuth in the post-war years, and the performances under his baton in 1951 marked the re-opening of the Bayreuth Festival after World War II. These historic performances were recorded and are available on the Teldec label in mono sound. Knappertsbusch recorded the opera again for Philips in 1962 in stereo, and this release is often considered to be the classic Parsifal recording. There are also many \"unofficial\" live recordings from Bayreuth, capturing virtually every Parsifal cast ever conducted by Knappertsbusch. Pierre Boulez (1971) and James Levine (1985) have also made recordings of the opera at Bayreuth that were released on Deutsche Grammophon and Philips. The Boulez recording is one of the fastest on record, and the Levine one of the slowest.",
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"plaintext": "Amongst other recordings, those conducted by Georg Solti, James Levine (with the Metropolitan Opera Orchestra), Herbert von Karajan, and Daniel Barenboim (the latter two both conducting the Berlin Philharmonic) have been widely praised. The Karajan recording was voted \"Record of the Year\" in the 1981 Gramophone Awards. Also highly regarded is a recording of Parsifal under the baton of Rafael Kubelík originally made for Deutsche Grammophon, now reissued on Arts & Archives.",
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"plaintext": "On the 14 December 2013 broadcast of BBC Radio 3's CD Review – Building a Library, music critic David Nice surveyed recordings of Parsifal and recommended the recording by the Symphonieorchester des Bayerischen Rundfunks, Rafael Kubelik (conductor), as the best available choice.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to a number of staged performances available on DVD, Parsifal was adapted for the screen by Daniel Mangrané in 1951 and Hans-Jürgen Syberberg in 1982. There is also a 1998 documentary directed by Tony Palmer titled: Parsifal – The Search for the Grail. It was recorded in various European theaters, including the Mariinsky Theatre, the Ravello Festival in Siena, and the Bayreuth Festival. It contains extracts from Palmer's stage production of Parsifal starring Plácido Domingo, Violeta Urmana, Matti Salminen, , and Anna Netrebko. In also includes interviews with Domingo, Wolfgang Wagner, writers Robert Gutman and Karen Armstrong. The film exists in two versions: (1) a complete version running 116 minutes and officially approved by Domingo, and (2) an 88-minute version, with cuts of passages regarded by the German distributor as being too \"political\", \"uncomfortable\", and \"irrelevant\".",
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"plaintext": "Gesamtkunstwerk",
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"plaintext": " (UK title: Wagner and Philosophy, Penguin Books, )",
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"plaintext": "Complete vocal score of Parsifal",
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"plaintext": "Complete German and English libretti and Wagner's own stage descriptions, excerpts of the score, rwagner.net",
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"plaintext": "Parsifal on TV: Met and Festspielhaus by Alunno Marco, mediamusic-journal.com, 26 March 2013",
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"plaintext": "Monsalvat, Derrick Everett's extensive website on all aspects of Parsifal",
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"plaintext": "Essay by Rolf May, a theosophical view of Parsifal, from Sunrise'', 1992/1993",
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"plaintext": "Summary of Wolfram von Eschenbach's ''Parzival",
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"plaintext": "Parsifal on Stage: a PDF by Katherine R. Syer",
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"plaintext": "Richard Wagner – Parsifal, gallery of historic postcards with visual motives from Richard Wagner's operas",
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"plaintext": "Reviews of Parsifal on record, by Geoffrey Riggs",
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"plaintext": "List of all Parsifal conductors at Bayreuth",
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"plaintext": "Parsifal Suite, constructed by Andrew Gourlay, published by Schott Music",
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| [
"Parsifal",
"1882_operas",
"Arthurian_operas",
"German-language_operas",
"Holy_Grail_in_fiction",
"Libretti_by_Richard_Wagner",
"Music_dramas",
"Operas_adapted_into_films",
"Operas_by_Richard_Wagner",
"Operas",
"Parzival",
"Works_based_on_Perceval,_the_Story_of_the_Grail",
"Race-related_controversies_in_opera"
]
| 220,340 | 9,277 | 947 | 182 | 1 | 0 | Parsifal | opera by Richard Wagner | []
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"plaintext": "The term uniform may be misleading because employees are not always fully uniform in appearance and may not always wear attire provided by the organization, while still representing the organization in their attire. Academic work on organizational dress by Rafaeli & Pratt (1993) referred to uniformity (homogeneity) of dress as one dimension, and conspicuousness as a second. Employees all wearing black, for example, may appear conspicuous and thus represent the organization even though their attire is uniform only in the color of their clothing, not in its features. Pratt & Rafaeli, (1997) described struggles between employees and management about organizational dress as struggles about deeper meanings and identities that dress represents. And Pratt & Rafaeli (2001) described dress as one of the larger set of symbols and artifacts in organizations, which coalesce into a communication grammar.",
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"plaintext": "The utilitarian necessities of war and economic frugality are now the dominant factors in uniform design. Most military forces, however, have developed several different uniform types.",
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"plaintext": "Countries where mandatory school uniforms are common include Japan, South Korea, Hong Kong, Thailand, India, Australia, UAE, Singapore, Albania, Philippines, some schools in Taiwan, New Zealand, South Africa, Indonesia and the United Kingdom, among many other places. In some countries, uniform types vary from school to school, in the United Kingdom, many pupils between 11 and 16 of age wear a blazer, tie and trousers for boys and blouse, tie and trousers, skirt, or culottes for girls. The ties tend to have a set pattern or a logo embroidered representing the school, and jackets will usually carry a badge on the breast pocket with the school's name, coat of arms, and motto or emblem. Children in many British state primary schools will have a uniform jumper and/or polo shirt with the school name and logo.",
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"plaintext": "The beauticians use uniforms to protect their skin from harmful chemicals and acid. These chemical resistant and water proof uniforms are not only safe to work in but also provide a professional, polished appearance throughout the day.",
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38,238 | 1,103,284,617 | Hepatitis | [
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"plaintext": "Hepatitis is inflammation of the liver tissue. Some people or animals with hepatitis have no symptoms, whereas others develop yellow discoloration of the skin and whites of the eyes (jaundice), poor appetite, vomiting, tiredness, abdominal pain, and diarrhea. Hepatitis is acute if it resolves within six months, and chronic if it lasts longer than six months. Acute hepatitis can resolve on its own, progress to chronic hepatitis, or (rarely) result in acute liver failure. Chronic hepatitis may progress to scarring of the liver (cirrhosis), liver failure, and liver cancer.",
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"plaintext": "Hepatitis is most commonly caused by the virus hepatovirus A, B, C, D, and E. Other viruses can also cause liver inflammation, including cytomegalovirus, Epstein–Barr virus, and yellow fever virus. Other common causes of hepatitis include heavy alcohol use, certain medications, toxins, other infections, autoimmune diseases, and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). Hepatitis A and E are mainly spread by contaminated food and water. Hepatitis B is mainly sexually transmitted, but may also be passed from mother to baby during pregnancy or childbirth and spread through infected blood. Hepatitis C is commonly spread through infected blood such as may occur during needle sharing by intravenous drug users. Hepatitis D can only infect people already infected with hepatitis B.",
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"plaintext": "Hepatitis A, B, and D are preventable with immunization. Medications may be used to treat chronic viral hepatitis. Antiviral medications are recommended in all with chronic hepatitis C, except those with conditions that limit their life expectancy. There is no specific treatment for NASH; physical activity, a healthy diet, and weight loss are recommended. Autoimmune hepatitis may be treated with medications to suppress the immune system. A liver transplant may be an option in both acute and chronic liver failure.",
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"plaintext": "Worldwide in 2015, hepatitis A occurred in about 114 million people, chronic hepatitis B affected about 343 million people and chronic hepatitis C about 142 million people. In the United States, NASH affects about 11 million people and alcoholic hepatitis affects about 5 million people. Hepatitis results in more than a million deaths a year, most of which occur indirectly from liver scarring or liver cancer. In the United States, hepatitis A is estimated to occur in about 2,500 people a year and results in about 75 deaths. The word is derived from the Greek hêpar (), meaning \"liver\", and -itis (), meaning \"inflammation\".",
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"plaintext": "Hepatitis has a broad spectrum of presentations that range from a complete lack of symptoms to severeliver failure. The acute form of hepatitis, generally caused by viral infection, is characterized byconstitutional symptomsthat are typically self-limiting. Chronic hepatitis presents similarly, but can manifest signs and symptoms specific to liver dysfunction with long-standing inflammation and damage to the organ.",
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"plaintext": "Acute viral hepatitis follows three distinct phases:",
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"plaintext": " The initial prodromal phase (preceding symptoms) involves non-specific and flu-like symptoms common to many acute viral infections. These include fatigue, nausea, vomiting, poor appetite, joint pain, and headaches. Fever, when present, is most common in cases of hepatitis A and E. Late in this phase, people can experience liver-specific symptoms, including choluria (dark urine) and clay-colored stools.",
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"plaintext": " Yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes follow the prodrome after about 1–2 weeks and can last for up to 4 weeks. The non-specific symptoms seen in the prodromal typically resolve by this time, but people will develop an enlarged liver and right upper abdominal pain or discomfort. 10–20% of people will also experience an enlarged spleen, while some people will also experience a mild unintentional weight loss.",
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"plaintext": " The recovery phase is characterized by resolution of the clinical symptoms of hepatitis with persistent elevations in liver lab values and potentially a persistently enlarged liver. All cases of hepatitis A and E are expected to fully resolve after 1–2 months. Most hepatitis B cases are also self-limiting and will resolve in 3–4 months. Few cases of hepatitis C will resolve completely.",
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"plaintext": "Both drug-induced hepatitis and autoimmune hepatitis can present very similarly to acute viral hepatitis, with slight variations in symptoms depending on the cause. Cases of drug-induced hepatitis can manifest with systemic signs of an allergic reaction including rash, fever, serositis (inflammation of membranes lining certain organs), elevated eosinophils (a type of white blood cell), and suppression of bone marrow activity.",
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"plaintext": "Fulminant hepatitis, or massive hepatic cell death, is a rare and life-threatening complication of acute hepatitis that can occur in cases of hepatitis B, D, and E, in addition to drug-induced and autoimmune hepatitis. The complication more frequently occurs in instances of hepatitis B and D co-infection at a rate of 2–20% and in pregnant women with hepatitis E at rate of 15–20% of cases. In addition to the signs of acute hepatitis, people can also demonstrate signs of coagulopathy (abnormal coagulation studies with easy bruising and bleeding) and encephalopathy (confusion, disorientation, and sleepiness). Mortality due to fulminant hepatitis is typically the result of various complications including cerebral edema, gastrointestinal bleeding, sepsis, respiratory failure, or kidney failure.",
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"plaintext": "Acute cases of hepatitis are seen to be resolved well within a six-month period. When hepatitis is continued for more than six months it is termed chronic hepatitis. Chronic hepatitis is often asymptomatic early in its course and is detected only by liver laboratory studies for screening purposes or to evaluate non-specific symptoms. As the inflammation progresses, patients can develop constitutional symptoms similar to acute hepatitis, including fatigue, nausea, vomiting, poor appetite, and joint pain. Jaundice can occur as well, but much later in the disease process and is typically a sign of advanced disease. Chronic hepatitis interferes with hormonal functions of the liver which can result in acne, hirsutism (abnormal hair growth), and amenorrhea (lack of menstrual period) in women. Extensive damage and scarring of the liver over time defines cirrhosis, a condition in which the liver's ability to function is permanently impeded. This results in jaundice, weight loss, coagulopathy, ascites (abdominal fluid collection), and peripheral edema (leg swelling). Cirrhosis can lead to other life-threatening complications such as hepatic encephalopathy, esophageal varices, hepatorenal syndrome, and liver cancer.",
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"plaintext": "Causes of hepatitis can be divided into the following major categories: infectious, metabolic, ischemic, autoimmune, genetic, and other. Infectious agents include viruses, bacteria, and parasites. Metabolic causes include prescription medications, toxins (most notably alcohol), and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Autoimmune and genetic causes of hepatitis involve genetic predispositions and tend to affect characteristic populations.",
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"plaintext": "Viral hepatitis is the most common type of hepatitis worldwide, especially in Asia and Africa. Viral hepatitis is caused by five different viruses (hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E). Hepatitis A and hepatitis E behave similarly: they are both transmitted by the fecal–oral route, are more common in developing countries, and are self-limiting illnesses that do not lead to chronic hepatitis.",
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"plaintext": "Hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and hepatitis D are transmitted when blood or mucous membranes are exposed to infected blood and body fluids, such as semen and vaginal secretions. Viral particles have also been found in saliva and breastmilk. Kissing, sharing utensils, and breastfeeding do not lead to transmission unless these fluids are introduced into open sores or cuts. Many families who do not have safe drinking water or live in unhygienic homes have contracted hepatitis because saliva and blood droplets are often carried through the water and blood-borne illnesses spread quickly in unsanitary settings.",
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"plaintext": "Hepatitis B and C can present either acutely or chronically. Hepatitis D is a defective virus that requires hepatitis B to replicate and is only found with hepatitis B co-infection. In adults, hepatitis B infection is most commonly self-limiting, with less than 5% progressing to chronic state, and 20 to 30% of those chronically infected developing cirrhosis or liver cancer. Infection in infants and children frequently leads to chronic infection.",
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"plaintext": "Unlike hepatitis B, most cases of hepatitis C lead to chronic infection. Hepatitis C is the second most common cause of cirrhosis in the US (second to alcoholic hepatitis). In the 1970s and 1980s, blood transfusions were a major factor in spreading hepatitis C virus. Since widespread screening of blood products for hepatitis C began in 1992, the risk of acquiring hepatitis C from a blood transfusion has decreased from approximately 10% in the 1970s to 1 in 2 million currently.",
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"plaintext": "Parasites can also infect the liver and activate the immune response, resulting in symptoms of acute hepatitis with increased serum IgE (though chronic hepatitis is possible with chronic infections). Of the protozoans, Trypanosoma cruzi, Leishmania species, and the malaria-causing Plasmodium species all can cause liver inflammation. Another protozoan, Entamoeba histolytica, causes hepatitis with distinct liver abscesses.",
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"plaintext": "Of the worms, the cestode Echinococcus granulosus, also known as the dog tapeworm, infects the liver and forms characteristic hepatic hydatid cysts. The liver flukes Fasciola hepatica and Clonorchis sinensis live in the bile ducts and cause progressive hepatitis and liver fibrosis.",
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"plaintext": "Bacterial infection of the liver commonly results in pyogenic liver abscesses, acute hepatitis, or granulomatous (or chronic) liver disease. Pyogenic abscesses commonly involve enteric bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae and are composed of multiple bacteria up to 50% of the time. Acute hepatitis is caused by Neisseria meningitidis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Bartonella henselae, Borrelia burgdorferi, salmonella species, brucella species and campylobacter species. Chronic or granulomatous hepatitis is seen with infection from mycobacteria species, Tropheryma whipplei, Treponema pallidum, Coxiella burnetii, and rickettsia species.",
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"plaintext": "Excessive alcohol consumption is a significant cause of hepatitis and is the most common cause of cirrhosis in the U.S. Alcoholic hepatitis is within the spectrum of alcoholic liver disease. This ranges in order of severity and reversibility from alcoholic steatosis (least severe, most reversible), alcoholic hepatitis, cirrhosis, and liver cancer (most severe, least reversible). Hepatitis usually develops over years-long exposure to alcohol, occurring in 10 to 20% of alcoholics. The most important risk factors for the development of alcoholic hepatitis are quantity and duration of alcohol intake. Long-term alcohol intake in excess of 80 grams of alcohol a day in men and 40 grams a day in women is associated with development of alcoholic hepatitis (1 beer or 4 ounces of wine is equivalent to 12g of alcohol). Alcoholic hepatitis can vary from asymptomatic hepatomegaly (enlarged liver) to symptoms of acute or chronic hepatitis to liver failure.",
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"plaintext": "Many chemical agents, including medications, industrial toxins, and herbal and dietary supplements, can cause hepatitis. The spectrum of drug-induced liver injury varies from acute hepatitis to chronic hepatitis to acute liver failure. Toxins and medications can cause liver injury through a variety of mechanisms, including direct cell damage, disruption of cell metabolism, and causing structural changes. Some drugs such as paracetamol exhibit predictable dose-dependent liver damage while others such as isoniazid cause idiosyncratic and unpredictable reactions that vary by person. There are wide variations in the mechanisms of liver injury and latency period from exposure to development of clinical illness.",
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"plaintext": "Many types of drugs can cause liver injury, including the analgesic paracetamol; antibiotics such as isoniazid, nitrofurantoin, amoxicillin-clavulanate, erythromycin, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole; anticonvulsants such as valproate and phenytoin; cholesterol-lowering statins; steroids such as oral contraceptives and anabolic steroids; and highly active anti-retroviral therapy used in the treatment of HIV/AIDS. Of these, amoxicillin-clavulanate is the most common cause of drug-induced liver injury, and paracetamol toxicity the most common cause of acute liver failure in the United States and Europe.",
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"plaintext": "Herbal remedies and dietary supplements are another important cause of hepatitis; these are the most common causes of drug-induced hepatitis in Korea. The United-States-based Drug Induced Liver Injury Network linked more than 16% of cases of hepatotoxicity to herbal and dietary supplements. In the United States, herbal and dietary supplements – unlike pharmaceutical drugs – are unregulated by the Food and Drug Administration. The National Institutes of Health maintains the LiverTox database for consumers to track all known prescription and non-prescription compounds associated with liver injury.",
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"plaintext": "Exposure to other hepatotoxins can occur accidentally or intentionally through ingestion, inhalation, and skin absorption. The industrial toxin carbon tetrachloride and the wild mushroom Amanita phalloides are other known hepatotoxins.",
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"plaintext": "Non-alcoholic hepatitis is within the spectrum of non-alcoholic liver disease (NALD), which ranges in severity and reversibility from non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) to cirrhosis to liver cancer, similar to the spectrum of alcoholic liver disease.",
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"plaintext": "Non-alcoholic liver disease occurs in people with little or no history of alcohol use, and is instead strongly associated with metabolic syndrome, obesity, insulin resistance and diabetes, and hypertriglyceridemia. Over time, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease can progress to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis, which additionally involves liver cell death, liver inflammation and possible fibrosis. Factors accelerating progression from NAFLD to NASH are obesity, older age, non-African American ethnicity, female gender, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, higher ALT or AST level, higher AST/ALT ratio, low platelet count, and an ultrasound steatosis score.",
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"plaintext": "In the early stages (as with NAFLD and early NASH), most patients are asymptomatic or have mild right upper quadrant pain, and diagnosis is suspected on the basis of abnormal liver function tests. As the disease progresses, symptoms typical of chronic hepatitis may develop. While imaging can show fatty liver, only liver biopsy can demonstrate inflammation and fibrosis characteristic of NASH. 9 to 25% of patients with NASH develop cirrhosis. NASH is recognized as the third most common cause of liver disease in the United States.",
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"plaintext": "Autoimmune hepatitis is a chronic disease caused by an abnormal immune response against liver cells. The disease is thought to have a genetic predisposition as it is associated with certain human leukocyte antigens involved in the immune response. As in other autoimmune diseases, circulating auto-antibodies may be present and are helpful in diagnosis. Auto-antibodies found in patients with autoimmune hepatitis include the sensitive but less specific anti-nuclear antibody (ANA), smooth muscle antibody (SMA), and atypical perinuclear antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (p-ANCA). Other autoantibodies that are less common but more specific to autoimmune hepatitis are the antibodies against liver kidney microsome 1 (LKM1) and soluble liver antigen (SLA). Autoimmune hepatitis can also be triggered by drugs (such as nitrofurantoin, hydralazine, and methyldopa), after liver transplant, or by viruses (such as hepatitis A, Epstein-Barr virus, or measles).",
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"plaintext": "Autoimmune hepatitis can present anywhere within the spectrum from asymptomatic to acute or chronic hepatitis to fulminant liver failure. Patients are asymptomatic 25–34% of the time, and the diagnosis is suspected on the basis of abnormal liver function tests. Some studies show between 25% and 75% of cases present with signs and symptoms of acute hepatitis. As with other autoimmune diseases, autoimmune hepatitis usually affects young females (though it can affect patients of either sex of any age), and patients can exhibit classic signs and symptoms of autoimmunity such as fatigue, anemia, anorexia, amenorrhea, acne, arthritis, pleurisy, thyroiditis, ulcerative colitis, nephritis, and maculopapular rash. Autoimmune hepatitis increases the risk for cirrhosis, and the risk for liver cancer is increased by about 1% for each year of the disease.",
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"plaintext": "Many people with autoimmune hepatitis have other autoimmune diseases. Autoimmune hepatitis is distinct from the other autoimmune diseases of the liver, primary biliary cirrhosis and primary sclerosing cholangitis, both of which can also lead to scarring, fibrosis, and cirrhosis of the liver.",
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"plaintext": "Genetic causes of hepatitis include alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency, hemochromatosis, and Wilson's disease. In alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency, a co-dominant mutation in the gene for alpha-1-antitrypsin results in the abnormal accumulation of the mutant AAT protein within liver cells, leading to liver disease. Hemochromatosis and Wilson's disease are both autosomal recessive diseases involving abnormal storage of minerals. In hemochromatosis, excess amounts of iron accumulate in multiple body sites, including the liver, which can lead to cirrhosis. In Wilson's disease, excess amounts of copper accumulate in the liver and brain, causing cirrhosis and dementia.",
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"plaintext": "When the liver is involved, alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency and Wilson's disease tend to present as hepatitis in the neonatal period or in childhood. Hemochromatosis typically presents in adulthood, with the onset of clinical disease usually after age 50.",
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"plaintext": "Ischemic hepatitis (also known as shock liver) results from reduced blood flow to the liver as in shock, heart failure, or vascular insufficiency. The condition is most often associated with heart failure but can also be caused by shock or sepsis. Blood testing of a person with ischemic hepatitis will show very high levels of transaminase enzymes (AST and ALT). The condition usually resolves if the underlying cause is treated successfully. Ischemic hepatitis rarely causes permanent liver damage.",
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"plaintext": "Hepatitis can also occur in neonates and is attributable to a variety of causes, some of which are not typically seen in adults. Congenital or perinatal infection with the hepatitis viruses, toxoplasma, rubella, cytomegalovirus, and syphilis can cause neonatal hepatitis. Structural abnormalities such as biliary atresia and choledochal cysts can lead to cholestatic liver injury leading to neonatal hepatitis. Metabolic diseases such as glycogen storage disorders and lysosomal storage disorders are also implicated. Neonatal hepatitis can be idiopathic, and in such cases, biopsy often shows large multinucleated cells in the liver tissue. This disease is termed giant cell hepatitis and may be associated with viral infection, autoimmune disorders, and drug toxicity.",
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"plaintext": "The specific mechanism varies and depends on the underlying cause of the hepatitis. Generally, there is an initial insult that causes liver injury and activation of an inflammatory response, which can become chronic, leading to progressive fibrosis and cirrhosis.",
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"plaintext": "The pathway by which hepatic viruses cause viral hepatitis is best understood in the case of hepatitis B and C. The viruses do not directly activate apoptosis (cell death). Rather, infection of liver cells activates the innate and adaptive arms of the immune system leading to an inflammatory response which causes cellular damage and death, including viral-induced apoptosis via the induction of the death receptor-mediated signaling pathway. Depending on the strength of the immune response, the types of immune cells involved and the ability of the virus to evade the body's defense, infection can either lead to clearance (acute disease) or persistence (chronic disease) of the virus. The chronic presence of the virus within liver cells results in multiple waves of inflammation, injury and wound healing that over time lead to scarring or fibrosis and culminate in hepatocellular carcinoma. People with impaired immune response are at greater risk of developing chronic infection. Natural killer cells are the primary drivers of the initial innate response and create a cytokine environment that results in the recruitment of CD4 T-helper and CD8 cytotoxic T-cells. Type I interferons are the cytokines that drive the antiviral response. In chronic Hepatitis B and C, natural killer cell function is impaired.",
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"plaintext": "Steatohepatitis is seen in both alcoholic and non-alcoholic liver disease and is the culmination of a cascade of events that began with injury. In the case of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis, this cascade is initiated by changes in metabolism associated with obesity, insulin resistance, and lipid dysregulation. In alcoholic hepatitis, chronic excess alcohol use is the culprit. Though the inciting event may differ, the progression of events is similar and begins with accumulation of free fatty acids (FFA) and their breakdown products in the liver cells in a process called steatosis. This initially reversible process overwhelms the hepatocyte's ability to maintain lipid homeostasis leading to a toxic effect as fat molecules accumulate and are broken down in the setting of an oxidative stress response. Over time, this abnormal lipid deposition triggers the immune system via toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) resulting in the production of inflammatory cytokines such as TNF that cause liver cell injury and death. These events mark the transition to steatohepatitis and in the setting of chronic injury, fibrosis eventually develops setting up events that lead to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Microscopically, changes that can be seen include steatosis with large and swollen hepatocytes (ballooning), evidence of cellular injury and cell death (apoptosis, necrosis), evidence of inflammation in particular in zone 3 of the liver, variable degrees of fibrosis and Mallory bodies.",
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"plaintext": "Diagnosis of hepatitis is made on the basis of some or all of the following: a person's signs and symptoms, medical history including sexual and substance use history, blood tests, imaging, and liver biopsy. In general, for viral hepatitis and other acute causes of hepatitis, the person's blood tests and clinical picture are sufficient for diagnosis. For other causes of hepatitis, especially chronic causes, blood tests may not be useful. In this case, liver biopsy is the gold standard for establishing the diagnosis: histopathologic analysis is able to reveal the precise extent and pattern of inflammation and fibrosis. Biopsy is typically not the initial diagnostic test because it is invasive and is associated with a small but significant risk of bleeding that is increased in people with liver injury and cirrhosis.",
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"plaintext": "Blood testing includes liver enzymes, serology (i.e. for autoantibodies), nucleic acid testing (i.e. for hepatitis virus DNA/RNA), blood chemistry, and complete blood count. Characteristic patterns of liver enzyme abnormalities can point to certain causes or stages of hepatitis. Generally, AST and ALT are elevated in most cases of hepatitis regardless of whether the person shows any symptoms. The degree of elevation (i.e. levels in the hundreds vs. in the thousands), the predominance for AST vs. ALT elevation, and the ratio between AST and ALT are informative of the diagnosis.",
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"plaintext": "Ultrasound, CT, and MRI can all identify steatosis (fatty changes) of the liver tissue and nodularity of the liver surface suggestive of cirrhosis. CT and especially MRI are able to provide a higher level of detail, allowing visualization and characterize such structures as vessels and tumors within the liver. Unlike steatosis and cirrhosis, no imaging test is able to detect liver inflammation (i.e. hepatitis) or fibrosis. Liver biopsy is the only definitive diagnostic test that is able to assess inflammation and fibrosis of the liver.",
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"plaintext": "Viral hepatitis is primarily diagnosed through blood tests for levels of viral antigens (such as the hepatitis B surface or core antigen), anti-viral antibodies (such as the anti-hepatitis B surface antibody or anti-hepatitis A antibody), or viral DNA/RNA. In early infection (i.e. within 1 week), IgM antibodies are found in the blood. In late infection and after recovery, IgG antibodies are present and remain in the body for up to years. Therefore, when a patient is positive for IgG antibody but negative for IgM antibody, he is considered immune from the virus via either prior infection and recovery or prior vaccination.",
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"plaintext": "In the case of hepatitis B, blood tests exist for multiple virus antigens (which are different components of the virion particle) and antibodies. The combination of antigen and antibody positivity can provide information about the stage of infection (acute or chronic), the degree of viral replication, and the infectivity of the virus.",
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"plaintext": "The most apparent distinguishing factor between alcoholic steatohepatitis (ASH) and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is a history of excessive alcohol use. Thus, in patients who have no or negligible alcohol use, the diagnosis is unlikely to be alcoholic hepatitis. In those who drink alcohol, the diagnosis may just as likely be alcoholic or nonalcoholic hepatitis especially if there is concurrent obesity, diabetes, and metabolic syndrome. In this case, alcoholic and nonalcoholic hepatitis can be distinguished by the pattern of liver enzyme abnormalities; specifically, in alcoholic steatohepatitis AST>ALT with ratio of AST:ALT>2:1 while in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis ALT>AST with ratio of ALT:AST>1.5:1.",
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"plaintext": "Liver biopsies show identical findings in patients with ASH and NASH, specifically, the presence of polymorphonuclear infiltration, hepatocyte necrosis and apoptosis in the form of ballooning degeneration, Mallory bodies, and fibrosis around veins and sinuses.",
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"plaintext": "The purpose of screening for viral hepatitis is to identify people infected with the disease as early as possible, even before symptoms and transaminase elevations may be present. This allows for early treatment, which can both prevent disease progression and decrease the likelihood of transmission to others.",
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"plaintext": "Hepatitis A causes an acute illness that does not progress to chronic liver disease. Therefore, the role of screening is to assess immune status in people who are at high risk of contracting the virus, as well as in people with known liver disease for whom hepatitis A infection could lead to liver failure. People in these groups who are not already immune can receive the hepatitis A vaccine.",
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"plaintext": "Those at high risk and in need of screening include:",
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"plaintext": " People with poor sanitary habits such as not washing hands after using the restroom or changing diapers",
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"plaintext": " People who do not have access to clean water",
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"plaintext": " People in close contact (either living with or having sexual contact) with someone who has hepatitis A",
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"plaintext": " People who use illicit drugs",
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"plaintext": " People with liver disease",
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"plaintext": " People traveling to an area with endemic hepatitis A",
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"plaintext": "The presence of anti-hepatitis A IgG in the blood indicates past infection with the virus or prior vaccination.",
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"plaintext": "The CDC, WHO, USPSTF, and ACOG recommend routine hepatitis B screening for certain high-risk populations. Specifically, these populations include people who are:",
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"plaintext": " Born in countries where the prevalence of hepatitis B is high (defined as ≥2% of the population), whether or not they have been vaccinated",
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"plaintext": " Born in the United States whose parents are from countries where the prevalence of hepatitis B is very high (defined as ≥8% of the population), and who were not vaccinated",
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"plaintext": " HIV positive",
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"plaintext": " Intravenous drug users",
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"plaintext": " Men who have sex with men",
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"plaintext": " In close contact with (i.e. live or have sex with) people known to have hepatitis B",
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"plaintext": " Pregnant",
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"plaintext": " Beginning immunosuppressive or cytotoxic therapy",
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"plaintext": " Found to have elevated liver enzymes without a known cause",
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"plaintext": " Blood, organ, or tissue donors",
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"plaintext": " Incarcerated",
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"plaintext": " On hemodialysis",
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"plaintext": "Screening consists of a blood test that detects hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg). If HBsAg is present, a second test – usually done on the same blood sample – that detects the antibody for the hepatitis B core antigen (anti-HBcAg) can differentiate between acute and chronic infection. People who are high-risk whose blood tests negative for HBsAg can receive the hepatitis B vaccine to prevent future infection.",
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"plaintext": "The CDC, WHO, USPSTF, AASLD, and ACOG recommend screening people at high risk for hepatitis C infection. These populations include people who are:",
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"plaintext": " Intranasal illicit drug users",
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"plaintext": " HIV-positive",
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"plaintext": " Incarcerated, or who have been in the past",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Virus screening",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " On long-term hemodialysis, or who have been in the past",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Virus screening",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Recipients of tattoos in an \"unregulated setting\"",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Virus screening",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Recipients of blood products or organs prior to 1992 in the United States",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Virus screening",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Adults in the United States born between 1945 and 1965",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Virus screening",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Born to HCV-positive mothers",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Virus screening",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Pregnant, and engaging in high-risk behaviors",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Virus screening",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Workers in a healthcare setting who have had a needlestick injury",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Virus screening",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Blood or organ donors.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Virus screening",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Sex workers",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Virus screening",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "For people in the groups above whose exposure is ongoing, screening should be periodic, though there is no set optimal screening interval. The AASLD recommends screening men who have sex with men who are HIV-positive annually. People born in the US between 1945 and 1965 should be screened once (unless they have other exposure risks).",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Virus screening",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Screening consists of a blood test that detects anti-hepatitis C virus antibody. If anti-hepatitis C virus antibody is present, a confirmatory test to detect HCV RNA indicates chronic disease.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Virus screening",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "The CDC, WHO, USPSTF, AASLD, and ACOG recommend screening people at high risk for hepatitis D infection. These populations include people who are:",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Virus screening",
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9,
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14,
20
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22,
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33,
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{
"plaintext": " Intravenous drug users (past or current)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Virus screening",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Intranasal illicit drug users",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Virus screening",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Incarcerated, or who have been in the past",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Virus screening",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Workers in a healthcare setting who have had a needlestick injury",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Virus screening",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Blood or organ donors.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Virus screening",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Sex workers",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Virus screening",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Hepatitis D is extremely rare. Symptoms include chronic diarrhea, anal and intestinal blisters, purple urine, and burnt popcorn scented breath. ",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Virus screening",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Screening consits of a blood test that detects the anti-hepitits D virus antibbody. If anti-hepitits D virus antibody is present, a confirmatory test to detect HDV RNA DNA inidicates chronic disease. ",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Virus screening",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "The CDC recommends the hepatitis A vaccine for all children beginning at age one, as well as for those who have not been previously immunized and are at high risk for contracting the disease.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Prevention",
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"plaintext": "For children 12 months of age or older, the vaccination is given as a shot into the muscle in two doses 6–18 months apart and should be started before the age 24 months. The dosing is slightly different for adults depending on the type of the vaccine. If the vaccine is for hepatitis A only, two doses are given 6–18 months apart depending on the manufacturer. If the vaccine is combined hepatitis A and hepatitis B, up to 4 doses may be required.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Prevention",
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"plaintext": "The CDC recommends the routine vaccination of all children under the age of 19 with the hepatitis B vaccine. They also recommend it for those who desire it or are at high risk.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Prevention",
"target_page_ids": [
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{
"plaintext": "Routine vaccination for hepatitis B starts with the first dose administered as a shot into the muscle before the newborn is discharged from the hospital. An additional two doses should be administered before the child is 18 months.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Prevention",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "For babies born to a mother with hepatitis B surface antigen positivity, the first dose is unique – in addition to the vaccine, the hepatitis immune globulin should also be administered, both within 12 hours of birth. These newborns should also be regularly tested for infection for at least the first year of life.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Prevention",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "There is also a combination formulation that includes both hepatitis A and B vaccines.",
"section_idx": 6,
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"plaintext": "There are currently no vaccines available in the United States for hepatitis C or E. In 2015, a group in China published an article regarding the development of a vaccine for hepatitis E. As of March 2016, the United States government was in the process of recruiting participants for the phase IV trial of the hepatitis E vaccine.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Prevention",
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{
"plaintext": "Because hepatitis A is transmitted primarily through the oral-fecal route, the mainstay of prevention aside from vaccination is good hygiene, access to clean water and proper handling of sewage.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Prevention",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "As hepatitis B and C are transmitted through blood and multiple bodily fluids, prevention is aimed at screening blood prior to transfusion, abstaining from the use of injection drugs, safe needle and sharps practices in healthcare settings, and safe sex practices.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Prevention",
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},
{
"plaintext": "The hepatitis D virus requires that a person first be infected with hepatitis B virus, so prevention efforts should focus on limiting the spread of hepatitis B. In people who have chronic hepatitis B infection and are at risk for superinfection with the hepatitis D virus, the preventive strategies are the same as for hepatitis B.",
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"section_name": "Prevention",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Hepatitis E is spread primarily through the oral-fecal route but may also be spread by blood and from mother to fetus. The mainstay of hepatitis E prevention is similar to that for hepatitis A (namely, good hygiene and clean water practices).",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Prevention",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "As excessive alcohol consumption can lead to hepatitis and cirrhosis, the following are maximal recommendations for alcohol consumption:",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Prevention",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Women – ≤ 3 drinks on any given day and ≤ 7 drinks per week",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Prevention",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Men – ≤ 4 drinks on any given day and ≤ 14 drinks per week",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Prevention",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "In the United States, universal immunization has led to a two-thirds decrease in hospital admissions and medical expenses due to hepatitis A.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Prevention",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "In the United States new cases of hepatitis B decreased 75% from 1990 to 2004. The group that saw the greatest decrease was children and adolescents, likely reflecting the implementation of the 1999 guidelines.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Prevention",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Hepatitis C infections each year had been declining since the 1980s, but began to increase again in 2006. The data are unclear as to whether the decline can be attributed to needle exchange programmes.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Prevention",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": "Because people with alcoholic hepatitis may have no symptoms, it can be difficult to diagnose and the number of people with the disease is probably higher than many estimates. Programs such as Alcoholics Anonymous have been successful in decreasing death due to cirrhosis, but it is difficult to evaluate their success in decreasing the incidence of alcoholic hepatitis.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Prevention",
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{
"plaintext": "The treatment of hepatitis varies according to the type, whether it is acute or chronic, and the severity of the disease.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Treatment",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Activity: Many people with hepatitis prefer bed rest, though it is not necessary to avoid all physical activity while recovering.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Diet: A high-calorie diet is recommended. Many people develop nausea and cannot tolerate food later in the day, so the bulk of intake may be concentrated in the earlier part of the day. In the acute phase of the disease, intravenous feeding may be needed if patients cannot tolerate food and have poor oral intake subsequent to nausea and vomiting.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Treatment",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Drugs: People with hepatitis should avoid taking drugs metabolized by the liver. Glucocorticoids are not recommended as a treatment option for acute viral hepatitis and may even cause harm, such as development of chronic hepatitis.",
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"section_name": "Treatment",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Precautions: Universal precautions should be observed. Isolation is usually not needed, except in cases of hepatitis A and E who have fecal incontinence, and in cases of hepatitis B and C who have uncontrolled bleeding.",
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"section_name": "Treatment",
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": "Hepatitis A usually does not progress to a chronic state, and rarely requires hospitalization. Treatment is supportive and includes such measures as providing intravenous (IV) hydration and maintaining adequate nutrition.",
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"section_name": "Treatment",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Rarely, people with the hepatitis A virus can rapidly develop liver failure, termed fulminant hepatic failure, especially the elderly and those who had a pre-existing liver disease, especially hepatitis C. Mortality risk factors include greater age and chronic hepatitis C. In these cases, more aggressive supportive therapy and liver transplant may be necessary.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Treatment",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "In healthy patients, 95–99% recover with no long-lasting effects, and antiviral treatment is not warranted. Age and comorbid conditions can result in a more prolonged and severe illness. Certain patients warrant hospitalization, especially those who present with clinical signs of ascites, peripheral edema, and hepatic encephalopathy, and laboratory signs of hypoglycemia, prolonged prothrombin time, low serum albumin, and very high serum bilirubin.",
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"plaintext": "In these rare, more severe acute cases, patients have been successfully treated with antiviral therapy similar to that used in cases of chronic hepatitis B, with nucleoside analogues such as entecavir or tenofovir. As there is a dearth of clinical trial data and the drugs used to treat are prone to developing resistance, experts recommend reserving treatment for severe acute cases, not mild to moderate.",
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"section_name": "Treatment",
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{
"plaintext": "Chronic hepatitis B management aims to control viral replication, which is correlated with progression of disease. Seven drugs are approved in the United States:",
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"section_name": "Treatment",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Injectable interferon alpha was the first therapy approved for chronic hepatitis B. It has several side effects, most of which are reversible with removal of therapy, but it has been supplanted by newer treatments for this indication. These include long-acting interferon bound to polyethylene glycol (pegylated interferon) and the oral nucleoside analogues.",
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"section_name": "Treatment",
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"plaintext": " Pegylated interferon (PEG IFN) is dosed just once a week as a subcutaneous injection and is both more convenient and effective than standard interferon. Although it does not develop resistance as do many of the oral antivirals, it is poorly tolerated and requires close monitoring. PEG IFN is estimated to cost about $18,000 per year in the United States, compared to $2,500–8,700 for the oral medications. Its treatment duration is 48 weeks, unlike oral antivirals which require indefinite treatment for most patients (minimum one year). PEG IFN is not effective in patients with high levels of viral activity and cannot be used in immunosuppressed patients or those with cirrhosis.",
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"section_name": "Treatment",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Lamivudine was the first approved oral nucleoside analogue. While effective and potent, lamivudine has been replaced by newer, more potent treatments in the Western world and is no longer recommended as first-line treatment. It is still used in areas where newer agents either have not been approved or are too costly. Generally, the course of treatment is a minimum of one year with a minimum of six additional months of \"consolidation therapy.\" Based on viral response, longer therapy may be required, and certain patients require indefinite long-term therapy. Due to a less robust response in Asian patients, consolidation therapy is recommended to be extended to at least a year. All patients should be monitored for viral reactivation, which if identified, requires restarting treatment. Lamivudine is generally safe and well tolerated. Many patients develop resistance, which is correlated with longer treatment duration. If this occurs, an additional antiviral is added. Lamivudine as a single treatment is contraindicated in patients coinfected with HIV, as resistance develops rapidly, but it can be used as part of a multidrug regimen.",
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"section_name": "Treatment",
"target_page_ids": [
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1,
11
],
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{
"plaintext": " Adefovir dipivoxil, a nucleotide analogue, has been used to supplement lamivudine in patients who develop resistance, but is no longer recommended as first-line therapy.",
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"section_name": "Treatment",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
19
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Entecavir is safe, well tolerated, less prone to developing resistance, and the most potent of the existing hepatitis B antivirals; it is thus a first-line treatment choice. It is not recommended for lamivudine-resistant patients or as monotherapy in patients who are HIV positive.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Treatment",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Telbivudine is effective but not recommended as first-line treatment; as compared to entecavir, it is both less potent and more resistance prone.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Treatment",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tenofovir is a nucleotide analogue and an antiretroviral drug that is also used to treat HIV infection. It is preferred to adefovir both in lamivudine-resistant patients and as initial treatment since it is both more potent and less likely to develop resistance.",
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"section_name": "Treatment",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
10
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},
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"plaintext": "First-line treatments currently used include PEG IFN, entecavir, and tenofovir, subject to patient and physician preference. Treatment initiation is guided by recommendations issued by The American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases (AASLD) and the European Association for the Study of the Liver (EASL) and is based on detectable viral levels, HBeAg positive or negative status, ALT levels, and in certain cases, family history of HCC and liver biopsy. In patients with compensated cirrhosis, treatment is recommended regardless of HBeAg status or ALT level, but recommendations differ regarding HBV DNA levels; AASLD recommends treating at DNA levels detectable above 2x103 IU/mL; EASL and WHO recommend treating when HBV DNA levels are detectable at any level. In patients with decompensated cirrhosis, treatment and evaluation for liver transplantation are recommended in all cases if HBV DNA is detectable. Currently, multidrug treatment is not recommended in treatment of chronic HBV as it is no more effective in the long term than individual treatment with entecavir or tenofovir.",
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"section_name": "Treatment",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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354,
359
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392
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},
{
"plaintext": "The American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases and the Infectious Diseases Society of America (AASLD-IDSA) recommend antiviral treatment for all patients with chronic hepatitis C infection except for those with additional chronic medical conditions that limit their life expectancy.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Treatment",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Once it is acquired, persistence of the hepatitis C virus is the rule, resulting in chronic hepatitis C. The goal of treatment is prevention of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The best way to reduce the long-term risk of HCC is to achieve sustained virological response (SVR). SVR is defined as an undetectable viral load at 12 weeks after treatment completion and indicates a cure. Currently available treatments include indirect and direct acting antiviral drugs. The indirect acting antivirals include pegylated interferon (PEG IFN) and ribavirin (RBV), which in combination have historically been the basis of therapy for HCV. Duration of and response to these treatments varies based on genotype. These agents are poorly tolerated but are still used in some resource-poor areas. In high-resource countries, they have been supplanted by direct acting antiviral agents, which first appeared in 2011; these agents target proteins responsible for viral replication and include the following three classes:",
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"anchor_spans": [
[
505,
525
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[
540,
549
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " NS3/4A protease inhibitors, including telaprevir, boceprevir, simeprevir, and others",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Treatment",
"target_page_ids": [
653278,
17382042,
17145945,
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8,
26
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39,
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51,
61
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73
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " NS5A inhibitors, including ledipasvir, daclatasvir, and others",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Treatment",
"target_page_ids": [
38749538,
36008851
],
"anchor_spans": [
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28,
38
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40,
51
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " NS5B polymerase inhibitors, including sofosbuvir, dasabuvir, and others",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Treatment",
"target_page_ids": [
33832492,
45263023
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"anchor_spans": [
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"plaintext": "These drugs are used in various combinations, sometimes combined with ribavirin, based on the patient's genotype, delineated as genotypes 1–6. Genotype 1 (GT1), which is the most prevalent genotype in the United States and around the world, can now be cured with a direct acting antiviral regimen. First-line therapy for GT1 is a combination of sofosbuvir and ledipasvir (SOF/LDV) for 12 weeks for most patients, including those with advanced fibrosis or cirrhosis. Certain patients with early disease need only 8 weeks of treatment while those with advanced fibrosis or cirrhosis who have not responded to prior treatment require 24 weeks. Cost remains a major factor limiting access to these drugs, particularly in low-resource nations; the cost of the 12-week GT1 regimen (SOF/LDV) has been estimated at US$94,500.",
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"section_name": "Treatment",
"target_page_ids": [
12796
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"anchor_spans": [
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104,
112
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"plaintext": "Hepatitis D is difficult to treat, and effective treatments are lacking. Interferon alpha has proven effective at inhibiting viral activity but only on a temporary basis.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Treatment",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Similar to hepatitis A, treatment of hepatitis E is supportive and includes rest and ensuring adequate nutrition and hydration. Hospitalization may be required for particularly severe cases or for pregnant women.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Treatment",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "First-line treatment of alcoholic hepatitis is treatment of alcoholism. For those who abstain completely from alcohol, reversal of liver disease and a longer life are possible; patients at every disease stage have been shown to benefit by prevention of additional liver injury. In addition to referral to psychotherapy and other treatment programs, treatment should include nutritional and psychosocial evaluation and treatment. Patients should also be treated appropriately for related signs and symptoms, such as ascites, hepatic encephalopathy, and infection.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Treatment",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Severe alcoholic hepatitis has a poor prognosis and is notoriously difficult to treat. Without any treatment, 20-50% of patients may die within a month, but evidence shows treatment may extend life beyond one month (i.e., reduce short-term mortality). Available treatment options include pentoxifylline (PTX), which is a nonspecific TNF inhibitor, corticosteroids, such as prednisone or prednisolone (CS), corticosteroids with N-acetylcysteine (CS with NAC), and corticosteroids with pentoxifylline (CS with PTX). Data suggest that CS alone or CS with NAC are most effective at reducing short-term mortality. Unfortunately, corticosteroids are contraindicated in some patients, such as those who have active gastrointestinal bleeding, infection, kidney failure, or pancreatitis. In these cases PTX may be considered on a case-by-case basis in lieu of CS; some evidence shows PTX is better than no treatment at all and may be comparable to CS while other data show no evidence of benefit over placebo. Unfortunately, there are currently no drug treatments that decrease these patients' risk of dying in the longer term, at 3–12 months and beyond.",
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{
"plaintext": "Weak evidence suggests milk thistle extracts may improve survival in alcoholic liver disease and improve certain liver tests (serum bilirubin and GGT) without causing side effects, but a firm recommendation cannot be made for or against milk thistle without further study.",
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"plaintext": "The modified Maddrey's discriminant function may be used to evaluate the severity and prognosis in alcoholic hepatitis and evaluates the efficacy of using alcoholic hepatitis corticosteroid treatment.",
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"plaintext": "Autoimmune hepatitis is commonly treated by immunosuppressants such as the corticosteroids prednisone or prednisolone, the active version of prednisolone that does not require liver synthesis, either alone or in combination with azathioprine, and some have suggested the combination therapy is preferred to allow for lower doses of corticosteroids to reduce associated side effects, although the result of treatment efficacy is comparative.",
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"plaintext": "Treatment of autoimmune hepatitis consists of two phases; an initial and maintenance phase. The initial phase consists of higher doses of corticosteroids which are tapered down over a number of weeks to a lower dose. If used in combination, azathioprine is given during the initial phase as well. Once the initial phase has been completed, a maintenance phase that consists of lower dose corticosteroids, and in combination therapy, azathioprine until liver blood markers are normalized. Treatment results in 66-91% of patients achieving normal liver test values in two years, with the average being 22 months.",
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"plaintext": "Nearly all patients with hepatitis A infections recover completely without complications if they were healthy prior to the infection. Similarly, acute hepatitis B infections have a favorable course towards complete recovery in 95–99% of patients. Certain factors may portend a poorer outcome, such as co-morbid medical conditions or initial presenting symptoms of ascites, edema, or encephalopathy. Overall, the mortality rate for acute hepatitis is low: ~0.1% in total for cases of hepatitis A and B, but rates can be higher in certain populations (super infection with both hepatitis B and D, pregnant women, etc.).",
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"plaintext": "In contrast to hepatitis A & B, hepatitis C carries a much higher risk of progressing to chronic hepatitis, approaching 85–90%. Cirrhosis has been reported to develop in 20–50% of patients with chronic hepatitis C.",
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"plaintext": "Other rare complications of acute hepatitis include pancreatitis, aplastic anemia, peripheral neuropathy, and myocarditis.",
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"plaintext": "Despite the relatively benign course of most viral cases of hepatitis, fulminant hepatitis represents a rare but feared complication. Fulminant hepatitis most commonly occurs in hepatitis B, D, and E. About 1–2% of cases of hepatitis E can lead to fulminant hepatitis, but pregnant women are particularly susceptible, occurring in up to 20% of cases. Mortality rates in cases of fulminant hepatitis rise over 80%, but those patients that do survive often make a complete recovery. Liver transplantation can be life-saving in patients with fulminant liver failure.",
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"plaintext": "Hepatitis D infections can transform benign cases of hepatitis B into severe, progressive hepatitis, a phenomenon known as superinfection.",
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"plaintext": "Acute hepatitis B infections become less likely to progress to chronic forms as the age of the patient increases, with rates of progression approaching 90% in vertically transmitted cases of infants compared to 1% risk in young adults. Overall, the five-year survival rate for chronic hepatitis B ranges from 97% in mild cases to 55% in severe cases with cirrhosis.",
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"plaintext": "Most patients who acquire hepatitis D at the same time as hepatitis B (co-infection) recover without developing a chronic infection. In people with hepatitis B who later acquire hepatitis D (superinfection), chronic infection is much more common at 80-90%, and liver disease progression is accelerated.",
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"plaintext": "Chronic hepatitis C progresses towards cirrhosis, with estimates of cirrhosis prevalence of 16% at 20 years after infection. While the major causes of mortality in hepatitis C is end stage liver disease, hepatocellular carcinoma is an important additional long term complication and cause of death in chronic hepatitis.",
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"plaintext": "Rates of mortality increase with progression of the underlying liver disease. Series of patients with compensated cirrhosis due to HCV have shown 3,5, and 10-year survival rates of 96, 91, and 79% respectively. The 5-year survival rate drops to 50% upon if the cirrhosis becomes decompensated.",
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"plaintext": "Hepatitis A is found throughout the world and manifests as large outbreaks and epidemics associated with fecal contamination of water and food sources. Hepatitis A viral infection is predominant in children ages 5–14 with rare infection of infants. Infected children have little to no apparent clinical illness, in contrast to adults in whom greater than 80% are symptomatic if infected. Infection rates are highest in low resource countries with inadequate public sanitation and large concentrated populations. In such regions, as much as 90% of children younger than 10 years old have been infected and are immune, corresponding both to lower rates of clinically symptomatic disease and outbreaks. The availability of a childhood vaccine has significantly reduced infections in the United States, with incidence declining by more than 95% as of 2013. Paradoxically, the highest rates of new infection now occur in young adults and adults who present with worse clinical illness. Specific populations at greatest risk include: travelers to endemic regions, men who have sex with men, those with occupational exposure to non-human primates, people with clotting disorders who have received clotting factors, people with history of chronic liver disease in whom co-infection with hepatitis A can lead to fulminant hepatitis, and intravenous drug users (rare).",
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"plaintext": "Hepatitis B is the most common cause of viral hepatitis in the world with more than 240 million chronic carriers of the virus, 1 million of whom are in the United States. In approximately two-thirds of patients who develop acute hepatitis B infection, no identifiable exposure is evident. Of those acutely infected, 25% become lifetime carriers of the virus. Risk of infection is highest among intravenous drug users, people with high-risk sexual behaviors, healthcare workers, people who had multiple transfusions, organ transplant patients, dialysis patients and newborns infected during the birthing process. Close to 780,000 deaths in the world are attributed to hepatitis B. The most endemic regions are in sub-Saharan Africa and East Asia, where as many as 10% of adults are chronic carriers. Carrier rates in developed nations are significantly lower, encompassing less than 1% of the population. In endemic regions, transmission is thought to be associated with exposure during birth and close contact between young infants.",
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"plaintext": "Chronic hepatitis C is a major cause of liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. It is a common medical reason for liver transplantation due to its severe complications. It is estimated that 130–180 million people in the world are affected by this disease representing a little more than 3% of the world population. In the developing regions of Africa, Asia and South America, prevalence can be as high as 10% of the population. In Egypt, rates of hepatitis C infection as high as 20% have been documented and are associated with iatrogenic contamination related to schistosomiasis treatment in the 1950s–1980s. Currently in the United States, approximately 3.5 million adults are estimated to be infected. Hepatitis C is particularly prevalent among people born between 1945 and 1965, a group of about 800,000 people, with prevalence as high as 3.2% versus 1.6% in the general U.S. population. Most chronic carriers of hepatitis C are unaware of their infection status. The most common mode of transmission of hepatitis C virus is exposure to blood products via blood transfusions (prior to 1992) and intravenous drug injection. A history of intravenous drug injection is the most important risk factor for chronic hepatitis C. Other susceptible populations include those engaged in high-risk sexual behavior, infants of infected mothers, and healthcare workers.",
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"plaintext": "The hepatitis D virus causes chronic and fulminant hepatitis in the context of co-infection with the hepatitis B virus. It is primarily transmitted via non-sexual contact and via needles. Susceptibility to hepatitis D differs by geographic region. In the United States and Northern Europe, populations at risk are intravenous drug users and people who receive multiple transfusions. In the Mediterranean, hepatitis D is predominant among hepatitis B virus co-infected people.",
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"plaintext": "Similar to Hepatitis A, hepatitis E manifests as large outbreaks and epidemics associated with fecal contamination of water sources. It accounts for more than 55,000 deaths annually with approximately 20 million people worldwide thought to be infected with the virus. It affects predominantly young adults, causing acute hepatitis. In infected pregnant women, Hepatitis E infection can lead to fulminant hepatitis with third trimester mortality rates as high as 30%. Those with weakened immune systems, such as organ transplant recipients, are also susceptible. Infection is rare in the United States but rates are high in the developing world (Africa, Asia, Central America, Middle East). Many genotypes exist and are differentially distributed around the world. There is some evidence of hepatitis E infection of animals, serving as a reservoir for human infection.",
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"plaintext": "Alcoholic hepatitis (AH) in its severe form has a one-month mortality as high as 50%. Most people who develop AH are men but women are at higher risk of developing AH and its complications likely secondary to high body fat and differences in alcohol metabolism. Other contributing factors include younger age <60, binge pattern drinking, poor nutritional status, obesity and hepatitis C co-infection. It is estimated that as much as 20% of people with AH are also infected with hepatitis C. In this population, the presence of hepatitis C virus leads to more severe disease with faster progression to cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma and increased mortality. Obesity increases the likelihood of progression to cirrhosis in cases of alcoholic hepatitis. It is estimated that 70% of people who have AH will progress to cirrhosis.",
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"plaintext": "Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is projected to become the top reason for liver transplantation in the United States by 2020, supplanting chronic liver disease due to hepatitis C. About 20–45% of the U.S. population have NAFLD and 6% have NASH. The estimated prevalence of NASH in the world is 3–5%. Of NASH patients who develop cirrhosis, about 2% per year will likely progress to hepatocellular carcinoma. Worldwide, the estimated prevalence of hepatocellular carcinoma related to NAFLD is 15–30%. NASH is thought to be the primary cause of cirrhosis in approximately 25% of patients in the United States, representing 1–2% of the general population.",
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"plaintext": "Initial accounts of a syndrome that we now think is likely to be hepatitis begin to occur around 3000 B.C. Clay tablets that served as medical handbooks for the ancient Sumerians described the first observations of jaundice. The Sumerians believed that the liver was the home of the soul, and attributed the findings of jaundice to the attack of the liver by a devil named Ahhazu.",
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"plaintext": "Around 400 B.C., Hippocrates recorded the first documentation of an epidemic jaundice, in particular noting the uniquely fulminant course of a cohort of patients who all died within two weeks. He wrote, \"The bile contained in the liver is full of phlegm and blood, and erupts...After such an eruption, the patient soon raves, becomes angry, talks nonsense and barks like a dog.\"",
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"plaintext": "Given the poor sanitary conditions of war, infectious jaundice played a large role as a major cause of mortality among troops in the Napoleonic Wars, the American Revolutionary War, and both World Wars. During World War II, estimates of soldiers affected by hepatitis were upwards of 10 million.",
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"plaintext": "During World War II, soldiers received vaccines against diseases such as yellow fever, but these vaccines were stabilized with human serum, presumably contaminated with hepatitis viruses, which often created epidemics of hepatitis. It was suspected these epidemics were due to a separate infectious agent, and not due to the yellow fever virus itself, after noting 89 cases of jaundice in the months after vaccination out of a total 3,100 patients that were vaccinated. After changing the seed virus strain, no cases of jaundice were observed in the subsequent 8,000 vaccinations.",
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"plaintext": "A New York University researcher named Saul Krugman continued this research into the 1950s and 1960s, most infamously with his experiments on mentally disabled children at the Willowbrook State School in New York, a crowded urban facility where hepatitis infections were highly endemic to the student body. Krugman injected students with gamma globulin, a type of antibody. After observing the temporary protection against infection this antibody provided, he then tried injected live hepatitis virus into students. Krugman also controversially took feces from infected students, blended it into milkshakes, and fed it to newly admitted children.",
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"plaintext": "His research was received with much controversy, as people protested the questionable ethics surrounding the chosen target population. Henry Beecher was one of the foremost critics in an article in the New England Journal of Medicine in 1966, arguing that parents were unaware to the risks of consent and that the research was done to benefit others at the expense of children. Moreover, he argued that poor families with mentally disabled children often felt pressured to join the research project to gain admission to the school, with all of the educational and support resources that would come along with it. Others in the medical community spoke out in support of Krugman's research in terms of its widespread benefits and understanding of the hepatitis virus, and Willowbrook continues to be a commonly cited example in debates about medical ethics.",
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"plaintext": "The next insight regarding hepatitis B was a serendipitous one by Dr. Baruch Blumberg, a researcher at the NIH who did not set out to research hepatitis, but rather studied lipoprotein genetics. He travelled across the globe collecting blood samples, investigating the interplay between disease, environment, and genetics with the goal of designing targeted interventions for at-risk people that could prevent them from getting sick. He noticed an unexpected interaction between the blood of a patient with hemophilia that had received multiple transfusions and a protein found in the blood of an indigenous Australian person. He named the protein the \"Australia antigen\" and made it the focus of his research. He found a higher prevalence of the protein in the blood of patients from developing countries, compared to those from developed ones, and noted associations of the antigen with other diseases like leukemia and Down Syndrome. Eventually, he came to the unifying conclusion that the Australia antigen was associated with viral hepatitis.",
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"plaintext": "In 1970, David Dane first isolated the hepatitis B virion at London's Middlesex Hospital, and named the virion the 42-nm \"Dane particle\". Based on its association with the surface of the hepatitis B virus, the Australia antigen was renamed to \"hepatitis B surface antigen\" or HBsAg.",
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"plaintext": "Blumberg continued to study the antigen, and eventually developed the first hepatitis B vaccine using plasma rich in HBsAg, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1976.",
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"plaintext": "Overall, hepatitis accounts for a significant portion of healthcare expenditures in both developing and developed nations, and is expected to rise in several developing countries. While hepatitis A infections are self-limited events, they are associated with significant costs in the United States. It has been estimated that direct and indirect costs are approximately $1817 and $2459 respectively per case, and that an average of 27 work days is lost per infected adult. A 1997 report demonstrated that a single hospitalization related to hepatitis A cost an average of $6,900 and resulted in around $500 million in total annual healthcare costs. Cost effectiveness studies have found widespread vaccination of adults to not be feasible, but have stated that a combination hepatitis A and B vaccination of children and at risk groups (people from endemic areas, healthcare workers) may be.",
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"plaintext": "Hepatitis B accounts for a much larger percentage of health care spending in endemic regions like Asia. In 1997 it accounted for 3.2% of South Korea's total health care expenditures and resulted in $696 million in direct costs. A large majority of that sum was spent on treating disease symptoms and complications. Chronic hepatitis B infections are not as endemic in the United States, but accounted for $357 million in hospitalization costs in the year 1990. That number grew to $1.5 billion in 2003, but remained stable as of 2006, which may be attributable to the introduction of effective drug therapies and vaccination campaigns.",
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"plaintext": "People infected with chronic hepatitis C tend to be frequent users of the health care system globally. It has been estimated that a person infected with hepatitis C in the United States will result in a monthly cost of $691. That number nearly doubles to $1,227 for people with compensated (stable) cirrhosis, while the monthly cost of people with decompensated (worsening) cirrhosis is almost five times as large at $3,682. The wide-ranging effects of hepatitis make it difficult to estimate indirect costs, but studies have speculated that the total cost is $6.5 billion annually in the United States. In Canada, 56% of HCV related costs are attributable to cirrhosis and total expenditures related to the virus are expected to peak at CAD$396 million in the year 2032.",
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"plaintext": "The largest outbreak of hepatitis A virus in United States history occurred among people who ate at a now-defunct Mexican food restaurant located in Monaca, Pennsylvania in late 2003. Over 550 people who visited the restaurant between September and October 2003 were infected with the virus, three of whom died as a direct result. The outbreak was brought to the attention of health officials when local emergency medicine physicians noticed a significant increase in cases of hepatitis A in the county. After conducting its investigation, the CDC attributed the source of the outbreak to the use of contaminated raw green onion. The restaurant was purchasing its green onion stock from farms in Mexico at the time. It is believed that the green onions may have been contaminated through the use of contaminated water for crop irrigation, rinsing, or icing or by handling of the vegetables by infected people. Green onion had caused similar outbreaks of hepatitis A in the southern United States prior to this, but not to the same magnitude. The CDC believes that the restaurant's use of a large communal bucket for chopped raw green onion allowed non-contaminated plants to be mixed with contaminated ones, increasing the number of vectors of infection and amplifying the outbreak. The restaurant was closed once it was discovered to be the source, and over 9,000 people were given hepatitis A immune globulin because they had either eaten at the restaurant or had been in close contact with someone who had.",
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"plaintext": "Persons infected with HIV have a particularly high burden of HIV-HCV co-infection. In a recent study by the WHO, the likelihood of being infected with hepatitis C virus was six times greater in those who also had HIV. The prevalence of HIV-HCV co-infection worldwide was estimated to be 6.2% representing more than 2.2 million people. Intravenous drug use was an independent risk factor for HCV infection. In the WHO study, the prevalence of HIV-HCV co-infection was markedly higher at 82.4% in those who injected drugs compared to the general population (2.4%). In a study of HIV-HCV co-infection among HIV positive men who have sex with men (MSM), the overall prevalence of anti-hepatitis C antibodies was estimated to be 8.1% and increased to 40% among HIV positive MSM who also injected drugs.",
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"plaintext": "Vertical transmission is a significant contributor of new HBV cases each year, with 35–50% of transmission from mother to neonate in endemic countries. Vertical transmission occurs largely via a neonate's exposure to maternal blood and vaginal secretions during birth. While the risk of progression to chronic infection is approximately 5% among adults who contract the virus, it is as high as 95% among neonates subject to vertical transmission. The risk of viral transmission is approximately 10–20% when maternal blood is positive for HBsAg, and up to 90% when also positive for HBeAg.",
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"plaintext": "Given the high risk of perinatal transmission, the CDC recommends screening all pregnant women for HBV at their first prenatal visit. It is safe for non-immune pregnant women to receive the HBV vaccine. Based on the limited available evidence, the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases (AASLD) recommends antiviral therapy in pregnant women whose viral load exceeds 200,000 IU/mL. A growing body of evidence shows that antiviral therapy initiated in the third trimester significantly reduces transmission to the neonate. A systematic review of the Antiretroviral Pregnancy Registry database found that there was no increased risk of congenital anomalies with Tenofovir; for this reason, along with its potency and low risk of resistance, the AASLD recommends this drug. A 2010 systematic review and meta-analysis found that Lamivudine initiated early in the third trimester also significantly reduced mother-to-child transmission of HBV, without any known adverse effects.",
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"plaintext": "The ACOG states that the evidence available does not suggest any particular mode of delivery (i.e. vaginal vs. cesarean) is better at reducing vertical transmission in mothers with HBV.",
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"plaintext": "The WHO and CDC recommend that neonates born to mothers with HBV should receive hepatitis B immune globulin (HBIG) as well as the HBV vaccine within 12 hours of birth. For infants who have received HBIG and the HBV vaccine, breastfeeding is safe.",
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"plaintext": "Estimates of the rate of HCV vertical transmission range from 2–8%; a 2014 systematic review and meta-analysis found the risk to be 5.8% in HCV-positive, HIV-negative women. The same study found the risk of vertical transmission to be 10.8% in HCV-positive, HIV-positive women. Other studies have found the risk of vertical transmission to be as high as 44% among HIV-positive women. The risk of vertical transmission is higher when the virus is detectable in the mother's blood.",
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"plaintext": "Evidence does not indicate that mode of delivery (i.e. vaginal vs. cesarean) has an effect on vertical transmission.",
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"plaintext": "For women who are HCV-positive and HIV-negative, breastfeeding is safe. CDC guidelines suggest avoiding it if a woman's nipples are cracked or bleeding to reduce the risk of transmission.",
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"plaintext": "Pregnant women who contract HEV are at significant risk of developing fulminant hepatitis with maternal mortality rates as high as 20–30%, most commonly in the third trimester . A 2016 systematic review and meta-analysis of 47 studies that included 3968 people found maternal case-fatality rates (CFR) of 20.8% and fetal CFR of 34.2%; among women who developed fulminant hepatic failure, CFR was 61.2%.",
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"plaintext": " World Hepatitis Day",
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"plaintext": " WHO fact sheet of hepatitis",
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},
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"plaintext": " Viral Hepatitis at the Centers for Disease Control",
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]
| [
"Hepatitis",
"Inflammations",
"Healthcare-associated_infections",
"Wikipedia_medicine_articles_ready_to_translate",
"Wikipedia_infectious_disease_articles_ready_to_translate",
"Viral_diseases",
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38,239 | 1,099,173,988 | Hugh_Lofting | [
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"plaintext": "Hugh John Lofting (14 January 1886 – 26 September 1947) was an English author trained as a civil engineer, who created the classic children's literature character of Doctor Dolittle. It first appeared in illustrated letters to his children written by Lofting from the British Army trenches in the First World War.",
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"plaintext": "Lofting, born in January 1886 in Maidenhead, Berkshire, to Elizabeth Agnes (Gannon) and John Brien Lofting, was of English and Irish ancestry. His eldest brother, Hilary Lofting, later became a novelist in Australia, having emigrated there in 1915.",
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"plaintext": "Lofting travelled widely as a civil engineer before enlisting in the Irish Guards regiment of the British Army in the First World War. Not wishing to write to his children about the brutal war, he wrote imaginative letters, which later became the foundation of the successful Doctor Dolittle novels for children. Seriously wounded in the war, in 1919 Lofting moved with his family to Killingworth, Connecticut. He was married three times and had three children, one of whom, his son Christopher, became the executor of his literary estate.",
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"plaintext": "Hugh Lofting's character, Doctor John Dolittle, an English physician from \"Puddleby-on-the-Marsh\" in the West Country, who could speak to animals, first saw light in illustrated letters written to his children from the trenches, when actual news, he later said, was too horrible or too dull. The stories are set in early Victorian England in the 1820s–1840s – The Voyages of Doctor Dolittle gives a date of 1839.",
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"plaintext": "The Story of Doctor Dolittle: Being the History of His Peculiar Life at Home and Astonishing Adventures in Foreign Parts Never Before Printed (1920) began the series and won him a posthumous Lewis Carroll Shelf Award in 1958. The sequel The Voyages of Doctor Dolittle (1922) won a Newbery Medal. Eight more books followed, and after Lofting's death, two more appeared, composed of short, previously unpublished pieces.",
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"plaintext": "Porridge Poetry (1924) is the only non-Dolittle work by Lofting still in print. It is a lighthearted, colourfully illustrated book of poems for children. Noisy Nora (1929) is a cautionary tale about a girl who is a noisy eater. The book is printed as if hand-written, and the many illustrations often merge with the text.",
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"plaintext": "The Twilight of Magic (1930) is aimed at older readers. It is set in an age when magic is dying and science beginning. This work is the only one of Lofting's books to be illustrated by another person: Lois Lenski.",
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"plaintext": "Victory for the Slain (1942), Lofting's only work for adults, consists of a single long poem in seven parts about the futility of war, permeated by the refrain \"In war the only victors are the slain.\" It appeared only in the United Kingdom.",
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"plaintext": "Lofting commented, \"For years it was a constant source of shock to me to find my writings amongst 'juveniles'. It does not bother me any more now, but I still feel there should be a category of 'seniles' to offset the epithet.\"",
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"plaintext": "Gub Gub's Book: An Encyclopedia of Food (1932)",
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38,241 | 1,097,392,102 | Tristan_und_Isolde | [
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"plaintext": "Tristan und Isolde (Tristan and Isolde), WWV 90, is an opera in three acts by Richard Wagner to a German libretto by the composer, based largely on the 12th-century romance Tristan and Iseult by Gottfried von Strassburg. It was composed between 1857 and 1859 and premiered at the Königliches Hoftheater und Nationaltheater in Munich on 10June 1865 with Hans von Bülow conducting. Wagner referred to the work not as an opera, but called it \"\" (literally a drama, a plot, or an action).",
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"plaintext": "Wagner's composition of Tristan und Isolde was inspired by the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer (particularly The World as Will and Representation), as well as by Wagner's affair with Mathilde Wesendonck. Widely acknowledged as a pinnacle of the operatic repertoire, Tristan was notable for Wagner's unprecedented use of chromaticism, tonal ambiguity, orchestral colour, and harmonic suspension.",
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"plaintext": "The opera was enormously influential among Western classical composers and provided direct inspiration to composers such as Gustav Mahler, Richard Strauss, Alban Berg, Arnold Schoenberg, and Benjamin Britten. Other composers like Claude Debussy, Maurice Ravel, and Igor Stravinsky formulated their styles in contrast to Wagner's musical legacy. Many see Tristan as a milestone on the move away from common practice harmony and tonality and consider that it lays the groundwork for the direction of classical music in the 20th century. Both Wagner's libretto style and music were also profoundly influential on the symbolist poets of the late 19th century and early 20th century.",
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"plaintext": "Wagner was forced to abandon his position as conductor of the Dresden Opera in 1849, as there was a warrant posted for his arrest for his participation in the unsuccessful May Revolution. He left his wife, Minna, in Dresden, and fled to Zürich. There, in 1852, he met the wealthy silk trader Otto Wesendonck. Wesendonck became a supporter of Wagner and bankrolled the composer for several years. Wesendonck's wife, Mathilde, became enamoured of the composer. Though Wagner was working on his epic Der Ring des Nibelungen, he found himself intrigued by the legend of Tristan and Isolde.",
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"plaintext": "The re-discovery of medieval Germanic poetry, including Gottfried von Strassburg's version of , the Nibelungenlied and Wolfram von Eschenbach's Parzival, left a large impact on the German Romantic movements during the mid-19th century. The story of Tristan and Isolde is a quintessential romance of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Several versions of the story exist, the earliest dating to the middle of the 12th century. Gottfried's version, part of the \"courtly\" branch of the legend, had a huge influence on later German literature.",
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"plaintext": "This influence, together with his discovery of the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer in October 1854, led Wagner to find himself in a \"serious mood created by Schopenhauer, which was trying to find ecstatic expression. It was some such mood that inspired the conception of a Tristan und Isolde.\"",
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"plaintext": "Wagner wrote of his preoccupations with Schopenhauer and Tristan in a letter to Franz Liszt (16 December 1854): Never in my life having enjoyed the true happiness of love I shall erect a memorial to this loveliest of all dreams in which, from the first to the last, love shall, for once, find utter repletion. I have devised in my mind a Tristan und Isolde, the simplest, yet most full-blooded musical conception imaginable, and with the ‘black flag’ that waves at the end I shall cover myself over – to die.",
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"plaintext": "By the end of 1854, Wagner had sketched out all three acts of an opera on the Tristan theme, based on Gottfried von Strassburg's telling of the story. While the earliest extant sketches date from December 1856, it was not until August 1857 that Wagner began devoting his attention entirely to the opera, putting aside the composition of Siegfried to do so. On 20 August he began the prose sketch for the opera, and the libretto (or poem, as Wagner preferred to call it) was completed by 18 September. Wagner, at this time, had moved into a cottage built in the grounds of Wesendonck's villa, where, during his work on Tristan und Isolde, he became passionately involved with Mathilde Wesendonck. Whether or not this relationship was platonic remains uncertain. One evening in September of that year, Wagner read the finished poem of \"Tristan\" to an audience including his wife, Minna, his current muse, Mathilde, and his future mistress (and later wife), Cosima von Bülow.",
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"plaintext": "By October 1857, Wagner had begun the composition sketch of the first act. During November, however, he set five of Mathilde's poems to music known today as the Wesendonck Lieder. This was an unusual move by Wagner, who almost never set to music poetic texts other than his own. Wagner described two of the songs – \"Im Treibhaus\" and \"Träume\" – as \"Studies for Tristan und Isolde\": \"Träume\" uses a motif that forms the love duet in act 2 of Tristan, while \"Im Treibhaus\" introduces a theme that later became the prelude to act 3. But Wagner resolved to write Tristan only after he had secured a publishing deal with the Leipzig-based firm Breitkopf & Härtel, in January 1858. From this point on, Wagner finished each act and sent it off for engraving before he started on the next – a remarkable feat given the unprecedented length and complexity of the score.",
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"plaintext": "In April 1858 Wagner's wife Minna intercepted a note from Wagner to Mathilde and, despite Wagner's protests that she was putting a \"vulgar interpretation\" on the note, she accused first Wagner and then Mathilde of unfaithfulness. After enduring much misery, Wagner persuaded Minna, who had a heart condition, to rest at a spa while Otto Wesendonck took Mathilde to Italy. It was during the absence of the two women that Wagner began the composition sketch of the second act of Tristan. However, Minna's return in July 1858 did not clear the air, and on 17 August, Wagner was forced to leave both Minna and Mathilde and move to Venice.",
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"plaintext": "Wagner would later describe his last days in Zurich as \"a veritable Hell\". Minna wrote to Mathilde before departing for Dresden: I must tell you with a bleeding heart that you have succeeded in separating my husband from me after nearly twenty-two years of marriage. May this noble deed contribute to your peace of mind, to your happiness.",
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"plaintext": "Wagner finished the second act of Tristan during his eight-month exile in Venice, where he lived in the Palazzo Giustinian. In March 1859, fearing extradition to Saxony, where he was still considered a fugitive, Wagner moved to Lucerne where he composed the last act, completing it in August 1859.",
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"plaintext": "Tristan und Isolde proved to be a difficult opera to stage, and Wagner considered various possibilities for the venue. In 1857 he was invited by a representative of Pedro II, Emperor of Brazil, to stage his operas in Rio de Janeiro (in Italian, the language of the Imperial Opera); he told Liszt he was considering settling in Rio, and that that city would be given the honour of premiering Tristan. Wagner sent the Emperor bound copies of his earlier operas in expression of his interest, but nothing more came of the plan. He then proposed that the premiere take place in Strasbourg, following interest in the project shown by the Grand Duchess of Baden. Again, the project failed to eventuate. His thoughts then turned to Paris, the centre of the operatic world in the middle of the 19th century. However, after a disastrous staging of Tannhäuser at the Paris Opéra, Wagner offered the work to the Karlsruhe opera in 1861.",
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"plaintext": "When Wagner visited the Vienna Court Opera to rehearse possible singers for this production, the management at Vienna suggested staging the opera there. Originally, the tenor Alois Ander was employed to sing the part of Tristan, but later proved incapable of learning the role. Parallel attempts to stage the opera in Dresden, Weimar and Prague failed. Despite over 70 rehearsals between 1862 and 1864, Tristan und Isolde was unable to be staged in Vienna, winning the opera a reputation as unperformable.",
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"plaintext": "It was only after King Ludwig II of Bavaria became a sponsor of Wagner (he granted the composer a generous stipend, and supported Wagner's artistic endeavours in other ways) that enough resources could be found to mount the premiere of Tristan und Isolde. Hans von Bülow was chosen to conduct the production at the Nationaltheater in Munich, despite the fact that Wagner was having an affair with his wife, Cosima von Bülow. Even then, the planned premiere on 15 May 1865 had to be postponed until the Isolde, Malvina Schnorr von Carolsfeld, had recovered from hoarseness. The work finally premiered on 10 June 1865, with Malvina's husband Ludwig partnering her as Tristan.",
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"plaintext": "On 21 July 1865, having sung the role only four times, Ludwig died suddenly – prompting speculation that the exertion involved in singing the part of Tristan had killed him. (The stress of performing Tristan has also claimed the lives of conductors Felix Mottl in 1911 and Joseph Keilberth in 1968. Both men died after collapsing while conducting the second act of the opera.) Malvina sank into a deep depression over her husband's death, and never sang again, although she lived for another 38 years.",
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"plaintext": "For some years thereafter, the only performers of the roles were another husband–wife team, Heinrich Vogl and Therese Vogl.",
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"plaintext": "The next production of Tristan was in Weimar in 1874. Wagner himself supervised another production of Tristan in Berlin in March 1876, but the opera was only performed in his own theatre at the Bayreuth Festival after his death; Cosima Wagner, his widow, oversaw this in 1886, a production that was widely acclaimed.",
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"plaintext": "The first production outside of Germany was given at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, London in 1882; Tristan was performed by Hermann Winkelmann, who later that year sang the title role of Parsifal at Bayreuth. It was conducted by Hans Richter, who also conducted the first Covent Garden production two years later. Winkelmann was also the first Vienna Tristan, in 1883. The first American performance was held at the Metropolitan Opera in December 1886, conducted by Anton Seidl.",
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"plaintext": "The score of Tristan und Isolde has often been cited as a landmark in the development of Western music. Throughout the opera, Wagner uses a remarkable range of orchestral colour, harmony, and polyphony, doing so with a freedom rarely found in his earlier operas. The very first chord in the piece, the Tristan chord, is of great significance in the move away from traditional tonal harmony as it resolves to another dissonant chord:",
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"plaintext": "The opera is noted for its numerous expansions of harmonic practice; for instance, one significant innovation is the frequent use of two consecutive chords containing tritones (diminished fifth or augmented fourth), neither of which is a diminished seventh chord (F–B, bar 2; E–A-sharp, bar 3). Tristan und Isolde is also notable for its use of harmonic suspension – a device used by a composer to create musical tension by exposing the listener to a series of prolonged unfinished cadences, thereby inspiring a desire and expectation on the part of the listener for musical resolution. While suspension is a common compositional device (in use since before the Renaissance), Wagner was one of the first composers to employ harmonic suspension over the course of an entire work. The cadences first introduced in the prelude are not resolved until the finale of act 3, and, on a number of occasions throughout the opera, Wagner primes the audience for a musical climax with a series of chords building in tension – only to deliberately defer the anticipated resolution. One particular example of this technique occurs at the end of the love duet in act 2 (\"Wie sie fassen, wie sie lassen...\") where Tristan and Isolde gradually build up to a musical climax, only to have the expected resolution destroyed by the dissonant interruption of Kurwenal (\"Rette Dich, Tristan!\"). The deferred resolution is frequently interpreted as symbolising both physical sexual release and spiritual release via suicide – the long-awaited completion of this cadence series arrives only in the final \"Liebestod\" (\"Love-Death\"), during which the musical resolution (at \"In des Welt-Atems wehendem All\") coincides with the moment of Isolde's death.",
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"plaintext": "The tonality of Tristan was to prove immensely influential in western Classical music. Wagner's use of musical colour also influenced the development of film music. Bernard Herrmann's score for Alfred Hitchcock's classic, Vertigo, is heavily reminiscent of the Liebestod, most evidently in the resurrection scene. The Liebestod was incorporated in Luis Buñuel's Surrealist film L'Age d'Or. Not all composers, however, reacted favourably: Claude Debussy's piano piece \"Golliwog's Cakewalk\" mockingly quotes the opening of the opera in a distorted form, instructing the passage to be played ''. However, Debussy was highly influenced by Wagner and was particularly fond of Tristan. Frequent moments of Tristan-inspired tonality mark Debussy's early compositions.",
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"plaintext": "Tristan und Isolde is scored for the following instruments:",
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"plaintext": " 3 flutes (one doubles piccolo), 2 oboes, cor anglais, 2 clarinets, bass clarinet, 3 bassoons",
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"plaintext": " 4 horns, 3 trumpets, 3 trombones, bass tuba",
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"plaintext": " timpani, cymbals, triangle",
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"plaintext": " 1st and 2nd violins, violas, violoncellos, and double basses (Die Streichinstrumente sind vorzüglich gut und stark zu besetzen. [The string instruments are to be exquisitely cast in quantity and quality.])",
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"plaintext": "on-stage",
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"plaintext": " cor anglais, 6 horns, 3 trumpets, 3 trombones",
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"plaintext": "Isolde, promised to King Marke in marriage, and her handmaid, Brangäne, are quartered aboard Tristan's ship being transported to the king's lands in Cornwall. The opera opens with the voice of a young sailor singing of a \"wild Irish maid\" (\"Westwärts schweift der Blick\"), which Isolde construes to be a mocking reference to herself. In a furious outburst, she wishes the seas to rise up and sink the ship, killing herself and all on board (\"Erwache mir wieder, kühne Gewalt\"). Her scorn and rage are directed particularly at Tristan, the knight responsible for taking her to Marke, and Isolde sends Brangäne to command Tristan to appear before her (\"Befehlen liess' dem Eigenholde\"). Tristan, however, refuses Brangäne's request, claiming that his place is at the helm. His henchman, Kurwenal, answers more brusquely, saying that Isolde is in no position to command Tristan and reminds Brangäne that Isolde's previous fiancé, Morold, was killed by Tristan (\"Herr Morold zog zu Meere her\").",
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"plaintext": "Brangäne returns to Isolde to relate these events, and Isolde, in what is termed the \"narrative and curse\", sadly tells her of how, following the death of Morold, she happened upon a stranger who called himself Tantris. Tantris was found mortally wounded in a barge (\"von einem Kahn, der klein und arm\") and Isolde used her healing powers to restore him to health. She discovered during Tantris' recovery, however, that he was actually Tristan, the murderer of her fiancé. Isolde attempted to kill the man with his own sword as he lay helpless before her. However, Tristan looked not at the sword that would kill him or the hand that wielded the sword, but into her eyes (\"Er sah' mir in die Augen\"). His action pierced her heart and she was unable to slay him. Tristan was allowed to leave with the promise never to come back, but he later returned with the intention of marrying Isolde to his uncle, King Marke. Isolde, furious at Tristan's betrayal, insists that he drink atonement to her, and from her medicine chest produces a vial to make the drink. Brangäne is shocked to see that it is a lethal poison.",
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"plaintext": "Kurwenal appears in the women's quarters (\"Auf auf! Ihr Frauen!\") and announces that the voyage is coming to an end. Isolde warns Kurwenal that she will not appear before the King if Tristan does not come before her as she had previously ordered and drink atonement to her. When Tristan arrives, Isolde reproaches him about his conduct and tells him that he owes her his life and how his actions have undermined her honour, since she blessed Morold's weapons before battle and therefore she swore revenge. Tristan first offers his sword but Isolde refuses; they must drink atonement. Brangäne brings in the potion that will seal their pardon; Tristan knows that it may kill him, since he knows Isolde's magic powers (\"Wohl kenn' ich Irlands Königin\"). The journey almost at its end, Tristan drinks and Isolde takes half the potion for herself. The potion seems to work, but instead of death, it brings relentless love (\"Tristan!\" \"Isolde!\"). Kurwenal, who announces the imminent arrival on board of King Marke, interrupts their rapture. Isolde asks Brangäne which potion she prepared and Brangäne replies, as the sailors hail the arrival of King Marke, that it was not poison, but rather a love potion.",
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"plaintext": "King Marke leads a hunting party out into the night, leaving Isolde and Brangäne alone in the castle, who both stand beside a burning brazier. Isolde, listening to the hunting horns, believes several times that the hunting party is far enough away to warrant the extinguishing of the brazier – the prearranged signal for Tristan to join her (\"Nicht Hörnerschall tönt so hold\"). Brangäne warns Isolde that Melot, one of King Marke's knights, has seen the amorous looks exchanged between Tristan and Isolde and suspects their passion (\"Ein Einz'ger war's, ich achtet' es wohl\"). Isolde, however, believes Melot to be Tristan's most loyal friend, and, in a frenzy of desire, extinguishes the flames. Brangäne retires to the ramparts to keep watch as Tristan arrives.",
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"plaintext": "The lovers, at last alone and freed from the constraints of courtly life, declare their passion for each other. Tristan decries the realm of daylight which is false, unreal, and keeps them apart. It is only in night, he claims, that they can truly be together and only in the long night of death can they be eternally united (\"O sink' hernieder, Nacht der Liebe\"). During their long tryst, Brangäne calls a warning several times that the night is ending (\"Einsam wachend in der Nacht\"), but her cries fall upon deaf ears. The day breaks in on the lovers as Melot leads King Marke and his men to find Tristan and Isolde in each other's arms. Marke is heartbroken, not only because of his nephew's betrayal but also because Melot chose to betray his friend Tristan to Marke and because of Isolde's betrayal as well (\"Mir – dies? Dies, Tristan – mir?\").",
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"plaintext": "When questioned, Tristan says he cannot answer to the King the reason of his betrayal since he would not understand. He turns to Isolde, who agrees to follow him again into the realm of night. Tristan announces that Melot has fallen in love with Isolde too. Melot and Tristan fight, but, at the crucial moment, Tristan throws his sword aside and allows Melot to stab him.",
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"plaintext": "Kurwenal has brought Tristan home to his castle at Kareol in Brittany. A shepherd pipes a mournful tune and asks if Tristan is awake. Kurwenal replies that only Isolde's arrival can save Tristan, and the shepherd offers to keep watch and claims that he will pipe a joyful tune to mark the arrival of any ship. Tristan awakes (\"Die alte Weise – was weckt sie mich?\") and laments his fate – to be, once again, in the false realm of daylight, once more driven by unceasing unquenchable yearning (\"Wo ich erwacht' weilt ich nicht\"). Tristan's sorrow ends when Kurwenal tells him that Isolde is on her way. Tristan, overjoyed, asks if her ship is in sight, but only a sorrowful tune from the shepherd's pipe is heard.",
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"plaintext": "Tristan relapses and recalls that the shepherd's mournful tune is the same as was played when he was told of the deaths of his father and mother (\"Muss ich dich so versteh'n, du alte, ernst Weise\"). He rails once again against his desires and against the fateful love potion (\"verflucht sei, furchtbarer Trank!\") until, exhausted, he collapses in delirium. After his collapse, the shepherd is heard piping the arrival of Isolde's ship, and, as Kurwenal rushes to meet her, Tristan tears the bandages from his wounds in his excitement (\"Hahei! Mein Blut, lustig nun fliesse!\"). As Isolde arrives at his side, Tristan dies with her name on his lips.",
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"plaintext": "Isolde collapses beside her deceased lover just as the appearance of another ship is announced. Kurwenal spies Melot, Marke and Brangäne arriving (\"Tod und Hölle! Alles zur Hand!\"). He believes they have come to kill Tristan and, in an attempt to avenge him, furiously attacks Melot. Marke tries to stop the fight to no avail. Both Melot and Kurwenal are killed in the fight. Marke and Brangäne finally reach Tristan and Isolde. Marke, grieving over the body of his \"truest friend\" (\"Tot denn alles!\"), explains that Brangäne revealed the secret of the love potion and that he had come not to part the lovers, but to unite them (\"Warum Isolde, warum mir das?\"). Isolde appears to wake at this and in a final aria describing her vision of Tristan risen again (the \"Liebestod\", \"love death\"), dies (\"Mild und leise wie er lächelt\").",
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"plaintext": "Wagner's friend the poet Georg Herwegh introduced him in late 1854 to the work of the philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer. The composer was immediately struck by the philosophical ideas to be found in The World as Will and Representation (Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung), and the similarities between the two men's world-views became clear.",
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"plaintext": "Man, according to Schopenhauer, is driven by continued, unachievable desires, and the gulf between our desires and the possibility of achieving them leads to misery while the world is a representation of an unknowable reality. Our representation of the world is Phenomenon, while the unknowable reality is Noumenon: concepts originally posited by Kant. Schopenhauer's influence on Tristan und Isolde is most evident in the second and third acts. The second act, in which the lovers meet, and the third act, during which Tristan longs for release from the passions that torment him, have often proved puzzling to opera-goers unfamiliar with Schopenhauer's work.",
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"plaintext": "Wagner uses the metaphor of Day and Night in the second act to designate the realms inhabited by Tristan and Isolde. The world of Day is one in which the lovers are bound by the dictates of King Marke's court and in which the lovers must smother their mutual love and pretend as if they do not care for each other: it is a realm of falsehood and unreality. Under the dictates of the realm of Day, Tristan was forced to remove Isolde from Ireland and to marry her to his Uncle Marke – actions against Tristan's secret desires. The realm of Night, in contrast, is the representation of intrinsic reality, in which the lovers can be together and their desires can be openly expressed and reach fulfilment: it is the realm of oneness, truth and reality and can only be achieved fully upon the deaths of the lovers. The realm of Night, therefore, becomes also the realm of death: the only world in which Tristan and Isolde can be as one forever, and it is this realm that Tristan speaks of at the end of act 2 (\"Dem Land das Tristan meint, der Sonne Licht nicht scheint\"). In act 3, Tristan rages against the daylight and frequently cries out for release from his desires (Sehnen). In this way, Wagner implicitly equates the realm of Day with Schopenhauer's concept of Phenomenon and the realm of Night with Schopenhauer's concept of Noumenon. While none of this is explicitly stated in the libretto, Tristan's comments on Day and Night in acts 2 and 3, as well as musical allusions to Tristan in Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg and Parsifal make it very clear that this was, in fact, Wagner's intention. ",
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"plaintext": "The world-view of Schopenhauer dictates that the only way for man to achieve inner peace is to renounce his desires: a theme that Wagner explored fully in his last opera, Parsifal. In fact Wagner even considered having the character of Parsifal meet Tristan during his sufferings in act 3, but later rejected the idea.",
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"plaintext": "Klaas A. Posthuma argues that neither Tristan nor Isolde tries for one moment to ignore feelings of love for the other or to overcome them. On the contrary, they yield to their feelings with all their hearts – but secretly. Such behavior has nothing whatever to do with Schopenhauer's claim. Another important point in Schopenhauer's philosophy is his view that happiness cannot be found with one woman only – his reason for never marrying. But for Tristan there is only one woman, Isolde, with Death as alternative. And this leads to the inevitable conclusion that it was not Schopenhauer and his doctrine that were responsible for creating of Wagner's sublime music drama but his own unfulfilled longing for the woman he met and loved during these years, Mathilde Wesendonck.",
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"plaintext": "Although Tristan und Isolde is now widely performed in major opera houses around the world, critical opinion of the opera was initially unfavourable. The 5 July 1865 edition of the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung reported:",
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"plaintext": "Eduard Hanslick's reaction in 1868 to the prelude to Tristan was that it \"reminds one of the old Italian painting of a martyr whose intestines are slowly unwound from his body on a reel.\" The first performance in London's Drury Lane Theatre drew the following response from The Era in 1882:",
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"plaintext": "Mark Twain, on a visit to Germany, heard Tristan at Bayreuth and commented: \"I know of some, and have heard of many, who could not sleep after it, but cried the night away. I feel strongly out of place here. Sometimes I feel like the one sane person in the community of the mad; sometimes I feel like the one blind man where all others see; the one groping savage in the college of the learned, and always, during service, I feel like a heretic in heaven.\"",
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"plaintext": "Clara Schumann wrote that Tristan und Isolde was \"the most repugnant thing I have ever seen or heard in all my life\".",
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"plaintext": "With the passage of time, Tristan became more favourably regarded. In an interview shortly before his death, Giuseppe Verdi said that he \"stood in wonder and terror\" before Wagner's Tristan. In The Perfect Wagnerite, writer and satirist George Bernard Shaw writes that Tristan was \"an astonishingly intense and faithful translation into music of the emotions which accompany the union of a pair of lovers\" and described it as \"a poem of destruction and death\". Richard Strauss, initially dismissive of Tristan, claimed that Wagner's music \"would kill a cat and would turn rocks into scrambled eggs from fear of [its] hideous discords.\" Later, however, Strauss became part of the Bayreuth coterie and writing to Cosima Wagner in 1892 declared: \"I have conducted my first Tristan. It was the most wonderful day of my life.\" In 1935 he wrote to Joseph Gregor, one of his librettists, that Tristan und Isolde was \"the end of all romanticism, as it brings into focus the longing of the entire 19th century.\"",
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"plaintext": "The conductor Bruno Walter heard his first Tristan und Isolde in 1889 as a student:",
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"plaintext": "Arnold Schoenberg referred to Wagner's technique of shifting chords in Tristan as \"phenomena of incredible adaptability and nonindependence roaming, homeless, among the spheres of keys; spies reconnoitering weaknesses; to exploit them in order to create confusion, deserters for whom surrender of their own personality is an end in itself\".",
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"plaintext": "Friedrich Nietzsche, who in his younger years was one of Wagner's staunchest allies, wrote that, for him, \"Tristan and Isolde is the real opus metaphysicum of all art... insatiable and sweet craving for the secrets of night and death... it is overpowering in its simple grandeur\". In a letter to his friend Erwin Rohde in October 1868, Nietzsche described his reaction to Tristan's prelude: \"I simply cannot bring myself to remain critically aloof from this music; every nerve in me is atwitch, and it has been a long time since I had such a lasting sense of ecstasy as with this overture\". Even after his break with Wagner, Nietzsche continued to consider Tristan a masterpiece: \"Even now I am still in search of a work which exercises such a dangerous fascination, such a spine-tingling and blissful infinity as Tristan – I have sought in vain, in every art.\"",
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"plaintext": "Marcel Proust, greatly influenced by Wagner, refers to Tristan und Isolde and its \"inexhaustible repetitions\" throughout his novel In Search of Lost Time. He describes the prelude theme as \"linked to the future, to the reality of the human soul, of which it was one of the most special and distinctive ornaments.\"",
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"plaintext": "Tristan und Isolde has a long recorded history and most of the major Wagner conductors since the end of the First World War have had their interpretations captured on disc. The limitations of recording technology meant that until the 1930s it was difficult to record the entire opera, however recordings of excerpts or single acts exist going back to 1901, when excerpts of Tristan were captured on the Mapleson Cylinders recorded during performances at the Metropolitan Opera.",
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"plaintext": "In the years before World War II, Kirsten Flagstad and Lauritz Melchior were considered to be the prime interpreters of the lead roles, and mono recordings exist of this pair in a number of live performances led by conductors such as Thomas Beecham, Fritz Reiner, Artur Bodanzky and Erich Leinsdorf. Flagstad recorded the part commercially only near the end of her career in 1952, under Wilhelm Furtwängler for EMI, producing a set which is considered a classic recording.",
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"plaintext": "Following the war, another classic recording is the 1952 performance at the Bayreuth Festival with Martha Mödl and Ramón Vinay under Herbert von Karajan, which is noted for its strong, vivid characterizations and is now available as a live recording. In the 1960s, the soprano Birgit Nilsson was considered the major Isolde interpreter, and she was often partnered with the Tristan of Wolfgang Windgassen. Their performance at Bayreuth in 1966 under the baton of Karl Böhm was captured by Deutsche Grammophon – a performance often hailed as one of the best Tristan recordings.",
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"plaintext": "Karajan did not record the opera officially until 1971–72. Karajan's selection of a lighter soprano voice (Helga Dernesch) as Isolde, paired with an extremely intense Jon Vickers and the unusual balance between orchestra and singers favoured by Karajan was controversial. In the 1980s recordings by conductors such as Carlos Kleiber, Reginald Goodall, and Leonard Bernstein were mostly considered to be important for the interpretation of the conductor, rather than that of the lead performers. The set by Kleiber is notable as Isolde was sung by the famous Mozartian soprano Margaret Price, who never sang the role of Isolde on stage. The same is true for Plácido Domingo, who sang the role of Tristan to critical acclaim in the 2005 EMI release under the baton of Antonio Pappano despite never having sung the role on stage. In the last ten years acclaimed sets include a studio recording with the Berlin Philharmonic by Daniel Barenboim and a live set from the Vienna Staatsoper led by Christian Thielemann.",
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"plaintext": "There are several DVD productions of the opera including Götz Friedrich's production at the Deutsche Oper in Berlin featuring the seasoned Wagnerians René Kollo and Dame Gwyneth Jones in the title roles. Deutsche Grammophon released a DVD of a Metropolitan Opera performance featuring Jane Eaglen and Ben Heppner, conducted by James Levine, in a production staged by Dieter Dorn and a DVD of the 1993 Bayreuth Festival production with conductor Daniel Barenboim and featuring Waltraud Meier as Isolde and Siegfried Jerusalem as Tristan, staged by Heiner Müller. More recently Barenboim's production at La Scala, Milan, in the production by Patrice Chéreau has also been issued on DVD. There is also a technically flawed, but historically important video recording with Birgit Nilsson and Jon Vickers from a 1973 live performance at the Théâtre antique d'Orange, conducted by Karl Böhm.",
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"plaintext": "In a world first, the British opera house Glyndebourne made a full digital video download of the opera available for purchase online in 2009. The performance stars Robert Gambill as Tristan, Nina Stemme as Isolde, Katarina Karnéus as Brangäne, Bo Skovhus as Kurwenal, René Pape as King Marke, and Stephen Gadd as Melot, with Jiří Bělohlávek as the conductor, and was recorded on 1 and 6 August 2007.",
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"plaintext": "The Prelude and Liebestod is a concert version of the overture and Isolde's act 3 aria, \"Mild und leise\". The arrangement was by Wagner himself, and it was first performed in 1862, several years before the premiere of the complete opera in 1865. The Liebestod can be performed either in a purely orchestral version, or with a soprano singing Isolde's vision of Tristan resurrected.",
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"plaintext": "However, the very first time the prelude and its opening \"Tristan chord\" was heard publicly was on 12 March 1859, when it was performed at the Sophieninselsaal in Prague, in a charity concert in aid of poor medical students, conducted by Hans von Bülow, who provided his own concert ending for the occasion. Wagner had authorised such an ending, but did not like what Bülow had done with it and later wrote his own. Wagner then included the prelude in his own three concerts at the Paris Théâtre-Italien in January–February 1860.",
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"plaintext": "Wagner called the prelude the \"Liebestod\" (Love-death) while Isolde's final aria \"Mild und leise\" he called the \"Verklärung\" (Transfiguration). In 1867 his father-in-law Franz Liszt made a piano transcription of \"Mild und leise\", which he called \"Liebestod\" (S.447); he prefaced his score with a four-bar motto from the love duet from act 2, which in the opera is sung to the words \"sehnend verlangter Liebestod\". Liszt's transcription became well known throughout Europe well before Wagner's opera reached most places, and it is Liszt's title for the final scene that persists. The transcription was revised in 1875.",
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"plaintext": "Wagner wrote a concert ending for the act 2 Love Duet for a planned 1862 concert performance that did not eventuate. The music was lost until 1950, then passed into private hands, before coming to the attention of Daniel Barenboim, who passed it on to Sir Antonio Pappano. The first recording of the Love Duet with the concert ending was made in 2000, with Plácido Domingo, Deborah Voigt and the Orchestra of the Royal Opera House under Pappano.",
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"plaintext": "Another composer to rework material from Tristan was Emmanuel Chabrier in his humorous Souvenirs de Munich – quadrilles on themes from Wagner's Tristan und Isolde. These were augmented and orchestrated by Markus Lehmann in 1988. Leopold Stokowski made a series of purely orchestral \"Symphonic Syntheses\" of Wagner's operas during his time as conductor of the Philadelphia Orchestra, bringing to concert audiences of the 1920s and '30s music they might not otherwise have heard. He made a 'long version' of music from Tristan and Isolde which consisted mainly of the act 1 prelude, the from act 2 and the from act 3. A shorter version of music from the 2nd and 3rd acts was called \"Love Music from Tristan and Isolde\". He made recordings of both versions on 78s and again on LP.",
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"plaintext": "The British composer Ronald Stevenson has made two arrangements based on the opera. The first is The Fugue on the Shepherd's Air from Tristan und Isolde from 1999. Its composition was inspired by a lecture given by the Wagner biographer and chair of the Wagner Society of Scotland, Derek Watson, to whom the piece is dedicated. In a contrapuntal climax, Stevenson combines both the Shepherd's Air and Isolde's Liebestod. The second is a setting, for voices and organ, of lines from Tom Hubbard's 1998 narrative poem in Scots, 'Isolde's Luve-Daith', the premiere of which took place in Greyfriars Kirk, Edinburgh in March 2003.",
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"plaintext": "Other works based on the opera include:",
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"plaintext": " Luis Buñuel, Un Chien Andalou, 1929 film score, Opera Frankfurt, director Carl Bamberger",
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"plaintext": " Clément Doucet's piano rags Isoldina and Wagneria.",
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"plaintext": " Hans Werner Henze's Tristan: Préludes für Klavier, Tonbänder und Orchester (1973);",
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"plaintext": " a 'symphonic compilation' Tristan und Isolde: an orchestral passion (1994) by Henk de Vlieger;",
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"plaintext": " a six-minute paraphrase by Enjott Schneider, Der Minuten-Tristan (1996), originally written for 12 pianists at six pianos;",
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"plaintext": " the Nachtstück (1980–83) for viola and chamber orchestra by Volker David Kirchner",
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"plaintext": " Franz Waxman, Fantasy based on themes from the opera, for violin and orchestra",
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"plaintext": "Aubrey Beardsley's pen and ink drawing The Wagnerites shows highly coiffured men and women attending a performance of Tristan und Isolde. The drawing was first published in the Yellow Book, vol III [October 1894]. According to Stephen Calloway, 'Beardsley had an obsessive interest in Wagner, and avidly attended the London performances of the works. This depiction of the Wagnerian audience rather than the action of the opera identified by the fallen programme as Tristan and Isolde, is one of the greatest masterpieces of Beardsley's manière noire. Sickert claimed to have warned him that the drawings in which the area of black exceeded that of white paper were bound to fail artistically, and to have 'convinced him' of the truth of this aesthetic rule. Fortunately Beardsley seems to have ignored the advice.' The drawing is in the collection of The Victoria and Albert Museum.",
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"plaintext": "The following year Beardsley produced a print depicting a stylised image of a woman, standing in front of a half length yellow curtain, wearing an ornate flowered hat and holding a large drinking vessel to her mouth. In the bottom right-hand corner is the word ISOLDE. Isolde was first reproduced in colour lithography (red, green, grey and black) as a supplement to The Studio, October 1895. The drawing (in yellow, black and white) is in the collection of The Victoria and Albert Museum.",
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"plaintext": "The opera forms the backdrop of Horacio Quiroga's tale of love lost, (The Death of Isolde) from his collection (1917).",
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"plaintext": "In Alfred Hitchcock's 1963 film The Birds, a recording of Tristan is prominently displayed in the scene in which Annie (Suzanne Pleshette) resignedly reveals to Melanie (Tippi Hedren) her unrequited love for Mitch. For Camille Paglia, the visual inclusion of the LP cover, with the opera's 'theme of self-immolation through doomed love' signifies that Annie is a forlorn romantic.",
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"plaintext": "Lars von Trier's 2011 film Melancholia prominently features music from the prelude.",
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"plaintext": " (Volume 1 and 2 at Google Books)",
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"plaintext": " (Includes libretto, English translation by Andrew Porter, introduction by John Luke Rose, and commentaries.)",
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"plaintext": " Borchmeyer, Dieter (2003). Drama and the World of Richard Wagner. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ",
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"plaintext": " Chafe, Eric (2005). The Tragic and the Ecstatic: The Musical Revolution of Wagner's Tristan und Isolde. Oxford: Oxford University Press. .",
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"plaintext": " Fabinger, Carollina (2009). Tristano e Isotta. Una piccola storia sul destino e sull'amore eterno (illustrated version, in Italian). Milan: Nuages. .",
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"plaintext": " Gut, Serge (2014), Tristan et Isolde. Paris: Fayard. .",
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"plaintext": " May, Thomas (2004). Decoding Wagner. Pompton Plains, New Jersey: Amadeus Press. .",
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"plaintext": " Scruton, Roger (2004). Death-Devoted Heart: Sex and the Sacred in Wagner's Tristan and Isolde. Oxford: Oxford University Press. .",
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"plaintext": " Wagner, Richard; Mottl, Felix, editor (1911 or slightly later). Tristan und Isolde (full score). Leipzig: C. F. Peters. Reprint by Dover (1973): .",
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"plaintext": " Bilingual side by side German English Libretto Also available in Italian",
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"plaintext": " Richard Wagner – Tristan und Isolde. A gallery of historic postcards with motifs from Richard Wagner's operas.",
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"plaintext": " Recordings of Tristan and Isolde rated. Recordings reviewed by Geoffrey Riggs.",
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"plaintext": " Wagner's Tristan and Isolde BBC / Metropolitan Opera synopsis",
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"plaintext": " Tristan und Isolde resource site Comprehensive website containing source material and musical motives",
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"plaintext": " Seattle Opera Performance Seattle Opera link",
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| 1,324,254 | 12,627 | 1,032 | 262 | 0 | 0 | Tristan und Isolde | opera by Richard Wagner | []
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38,243 | 1,106,709,172 | Suspension_of_disbelief | [
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"plaintext": "Suspension of disbelief, sometimes called willing suspension of disbelief, is the intentional avoidance of critical thinking or logic in examining something unreal or impossible in reality, such as a work of speculative fiction, in order to believe it for the sake of enjoyment. Aristotle first explored the idea of the concept in its relation to the principles of theater; the audience ignores the unreality of fiction in order to experience catharsis.",
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"plaintext": "The poet and aesthetic philosopher Samuel Taylor Coleridge introduced the English-language term \"suspension of disbelief\" in 1817 and suggested that if a writer could infuse a \"human interest and a semblance of truth\" into a fantastic tale, the reader would suspend judgement concerning the implausibility of the narrative. Coleridge sought to revive the use of fantastic elements in poetry and developed a concept to support how a modern, enlightened audience might continue to enjoy such types of literature. The term resulted from a philosophical experiment, which Coleridge conducted with William Wordsworth within the context of the creation and reading of poetry. It involved an attempt to explain the supernatural persons or characters so that these creatures of imagination constitute some semblance of truth. In his Biographia Literaria, published in 1817, Chapter XIV describes this collaboration called Lyrical Ballads (first edition 1798), for which Coleridge had contributed the more romantic, Gothic pieces including The Rime of the Ancient Mariner. Here, Coleridge also referred to his concept as \"poetic faith\", citing the concept as a feeling analogous to the supernatural, which awakens the mind.",
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"plaintext": "The notion of such an action by an audience was, however, recognized in antiquity, as seen particularly in the Roman theoretical concerns of Horace, who also lived in an age of increasing skepticism about the supernatural, in his Ars Poetica (with the quotation Ut pictura poesis). According to David Chandler, Coleridge drew his notion from Johann Jakob Brucker's Historia Critica Philosophiae, which cited the phrase \"assensus suspensione\" (\"suspension of assent\"). Brucker's phrase was itself a modernization of the phrase \"adsensionis retentio\" (\"a holding back of assent\") used by Marcus Tullius Cicero in his Academica.",
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"plaintext": "The traditional concept of the suspension of disbelief as proposed by Coleridge is not about suspending disbelief in the reality of fictional characters or events but the suspension of disbelief in the supernatural. This can be demonstrated in the way the reader suspends his disbelief in ghosts rather than the non-fictionality of the ghosts in a story. According to Coleridge's theory, suspension of disbelief is an essential ingredient for any kind of storytelling.",
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"plaintext": "The phrase \"suspension of disbelief\" came to be used more loosely in the later 20th century, often used to imply that the burden was on the reader, rather than the writer, to achieve it. This might be used to refer to the willingness of the audience to overlook the limitations of a medium, so that these do not interfere with the acceptance of those premises. These premises may also lend to the engagement of the mind and perhaps proposition of thoughts, ideas, art and theories. With a film, for instance, the viewer has to ignore the reality that they are viewing a staged performance and temporarily accept it as their reality in order to be entertained. Early black-and-white films are an example of visual media that require the audience to suspend their disbelief for this reason.",
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"plaintext": "Suspension of disbelief often applies to fictional works of the action, comedy, fantasy, and horror genres in written literature and visual arts. Cognitive estrangement in fiction involves using a person's ignorance to promote suspension of disbelief.",
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"plaintext": "Suspension of disbelief is sometimes said to be an essential component of live theater, where it was recognized by Shakespeare, who refers to it in the Prologue to Henry V: \"make imaginary puissance […] 'tis your thoughts that now must deck our kings […] turning the accomplishment of many years into an hourglass\". Poetry and fiction involving the supernatural had gone out of fashion to a large extent in the 18th century, in part due to the declining belief in witches and other supernatural agents among the educated classes, who embraced the rational approach to the world offered by the new science. Alexander Pope, notably, felt the need to explain and justify his use of elemental spirits in The Rape of the Lock, one of the few English poems of the century that invoked the supernatural.",
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"plaintext": "Psychological critic Norman Holland points to a neuroscientific explanation. When we hear or watch any narrative, our brains go wholly into perceiving mode, turning off the systems for acting or planning to act, and with them go our systems for assessing reality. We have, in Coleridge's second, more accurate phrase, \"poetic faith\" and so humans have such trouble recognizing lies: they first believe, then have to make a conscious effort to disbelieve.",
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"plaintext": "Only when we stop perceiving to think about what we have seen or heard, only then do we assess its truth-value. If we are really \"into\" the fiction – \"transported\", in the psychologists' term – we are, as Immanuel Kant pointed out long ago, \"disinterested\". We respond aesthetically, without purpose. We do not judge the truth of what we perceive even though if we stop being transported and think about it, we know quite well that it is a fiction.",
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"plaintext": "Suspension of disbelief has also been used within a mental health context by Frank DeFulgentis in his book Flux. It is an attempt to describe the phenomenon of forgetting irrational thoughts associated with cases of OCD. In the book, the author suggests 'suspending disbelief' as opposed to forcing ourselves to forget; similar to how one would put a virus in quarantine. We can thereby allow ourselves to be absorbed in the activities around us until these irrationalities vanish of their own accord.",
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"plaintext": "Aesthetic philosophers generally reject claims that \"suspension of disbelief\" accurately characterizes the relationship between people and \"fictions\". Kendall Walton notes that if viewers were to truly suspend disbelief at a horror movie and accept its images as absolute fact, they would have a true-to-life set of reactions. For instance, audience members would cry out, \"Look behind you!\" to an endangered on-screen character, or they might call the police when they witness an on-screen murder.",
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"plaintext": "Not all authors believe that \"suspension of disbelief\" adequately characterizes the audience's relationship to imaginative works of art. J. R. R. Tolkien challenges this concept in his essay \"On Fairy-Stories\", choosing instead the paradigm of secondary belief based on inner consistency of reality. Tolkien says that, in order for the narrative to work, the reader must believe that what they read is true within the secondary reality of the fictional world. By focusing on creating an internally consistent fictional world, the author makes secondary belief possible. Tolkien argues that suspension of disbelief is only necessary when the work has failed to create secondary belief, saying that from that point on, the spell is broken, and the reader ceases to be immersed in the story, and so must make a conscious effort to suspend their disbelief or else give up on it entirely.",
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"plaintext": " Coleridge's Biographia Literaria, Chapter XIV, containing the term",
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38,245 | 1,105,022,217 | Tosca | [
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"plaintext": "Tosca is an opera in three acts by Giacomo Puccini to an Italian libretto by Luigi Illica and Giuseppe Giacosa. It premiered at the Teatro Costanzi in Rome on 14 January 1900. The work, based on Victorien Sardou's 1887 French-language dramatic play, La Tosca, is a melodramatic piece set in Rome in June 1800, with the Kingdom of Naples's control of Rome threatened by Napoleon's invasion of Italy. It contains depictions of torture, murder, and suicide, as well as some of Puccini's best-known lyrical arias.",
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"plaintext": "Puccini saw Sardou's play when it was touring Italy in 1889 and, after some vacillation, obtained the rights to turn the work into an opera in 1895. Turning the wordy French play into a succinct Italian opera took four years, during which the composer repeatedly argued with his librettists and publisher. Tosca premiered at a time of unrest in Rome, and its first performance was delayed for a day for fear of disturbances. Despite indifferent reviews from the critics, the opera was an immediate success with the public.",
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"plaintext": "Musically, Tosca is structured as a through-composed work, with arias, recitative, choruses and other elements musically woven into a seamless whole. Puccini used Wagnerian leitmotifs to identify characters, objects and ideas. While critics have often dismissed the opera as a facile melodrama with confusions of plot—musicologist Joseph Kerman famously called it a \"shabby little shocker\"—the power of its score and the inventiveness of its orchestration have been widely acknowledged. The dramatic force of Tosca and its characters continues to fascinate both performers and audiences, and the work remains one of the most frequently performed operas. Many recordings of the work have been issued, both of studio and live performances.",
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"plaintext": "The French playwright Victorien Sardou wrote more than 70 plays, almost all of them successful, and none of them performed today. In the early 1880s Sardou began a collaboration with actress Sarah Bernhardt, whom he provided with a series of historical melodramas. His third Bernhardt play, La Tosca, which premiered in Paris on 24November 1887, and in which she starred throughout Europe, was an outstanding success, with more than 3,000 performances in France alone.",
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"plaintext": "Puccini had seen La Tosca at least twice, in Milan and Turin. On 7May 1889 he wrote to his publisher, Giulio Ricordi, begging him to get Sardou's permission for the work to be made into an opera: \"I see in this Tosca the opera I need, with no overblown proportions, no elaborate spectacle, nor will it call for the usual excessive amount of music.\"",
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"plaintext": "Ricordi sent his agent in Paris, Emanuele Muzio, to negotiate with Sardou, who preferred that his play be adapted by a French composer. He complained about the reception La Tosca had received in Italy, particularly in Milan, and warned that other composers were interested in the piece. Nonetheless, Ricordi reached terms with Sardou and assigned the librettist Luigi Illica to write a scenario for an adaptation.",
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"plaintext": "In 1891, Illica advised Puccini against the project, most likely because he felt the play could not be successfully adapted to a musical form. When Sardou expressed his unease at entrusting his most successful work to a relatively new composer whose music he did not like, Puccini took offence. He withdrew from the agreement, which Ricordi then assigned to the composer Alberto Franchetti. Illica wrote a libretto for Franchetti, who was never at ease with the assignment.",
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"plaintext": "When Puccini once again became interested in Tosca, Ricordi was able to get Franchetti to surrender the rights so he could recommission Puccini. One story relates that Ricordi convinced Franchetti that the work was too violent to be successfully staged. A Franchetti family tradition holds that Franchetti gave the work back as a grand gesture, saying, \"He has more talent than I do.\" American scholar Deborah Burton contends that Franchetti gave it up simply because he saw little merit in it and could not feel the music in the play. Whatever the reason, Franchetti surrendered the rights in May 1895, and in August Puccini signed a contract to resume control of the project.",
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"plaintext": "Italy had long been divided into a number of small states, with the Pope in Rome ruling the Papal States in Central Italy. Following the French Revolution, a French army under Napoleon invaded Italy in 1796, entering Rome almost unopposed on 11February 1798 and establishing a republic there. Pope Pius VI was taken prisoner, and was sent into exile on February 20, 1798. (Pius VI would die in exile in 1799, and his successor, Pius VII, who was elected in Venice on 14 March 1800, would not enter Rome until July 3. There is thus neither a Pope nor papal government in Rome during the days depicted in the opera.) The new republic was ruled by seven consuls; in the opera this is the office formerly held by Angelotti, whose character may be based on the real-life consul Liborio Angelucci. In September 1799 the French, who had protected the republic, withdrew from Rome. As they left, troops of the Kingdom of Naples occupied the city.",
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"plaintext": "In May 1800 Napoleon, by then the undisputed leader of France, brought his troops across the Alps to Italy once again. On 14June his army met the Austrian forces at the Battle of Marengo (near Alessandria). Austrian troops were initially successful; by mid-morning they were in control of the field of battle. Their commander, Michael von Melas, sent this news south towards Rome. However, fresh French troops arrived in late afternoon, and Napoleon attacked the tired Austrians. As Melas retreated in disarray with the remains of his army, he sent a second courier south with the revised message. The Neapolitans abandoned Rome, and the city spent the next fourteen years under French domination.",
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"plaintext": "Inside the church of Sant'Andrea della Valle",
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"plaintext": "Cesare Angelotti, former consul of the Roman Republic and now an escaped political prisoner, runs into the church and hides in the Attavanti private chapel – his sister, the Marchesa Attavanti, has left a key to the chapel hidden at the feet of the statue of the Madonna. The elderly Sacristan enters and begins cleaning. The Sacristan kneels in prayer as the Angelus sounds.",
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"plaintext": "The painter Mario Cavaradossi arrives to continue work on his picture of Mary Magdalene. The Sacristan identifies a likeness between the portrait and a blonde-haired woman who has been visiting the church recently (unknown to him, it is Angelotti's sister the Marchesa). Cavaradossi describes the \"hidden harmony\" (\"Recondita armonia\") in the contrast between the blonde beauty of his painting and his dark-haired lover, the singer Floria Tosca. The Sacristan mumbles his disapproval before leaving.",
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"plaintext": "Angelotti emerges and tells Cavaradossi, an old friend who has republican sympathies, that he is being pursued by the Chief of Police, Baron Scarpia. Cavaradossi promises to assist him after nightfall. Tosca's voice is heard, calling to Cavaradossi. Cavaradossi gives Angelotti his basket of food and Angelotti hurriedly returns to his hiding place.",
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"plaintext": "Tosca enters and suspiciously asks Cavaradossi what he has been doing – she thinks that he has been talking to another woman. After Cavaradossi reassures her, Tosca tries to persuade him to take her to his villa that evening: \"Non la sospiri, la nostra casetta\" (\"Do you not long for our little cottage\"). She then expresses jealousy over the woman in the painting, whom she recognises as the Marchesa Attavanti. Cavaradossi explains the likeness; he has merely observed the Marchesa at prayer in the church. He reassures Tosca of his fidelity and asks her what eyes could be more beautiful than her own: \"Qual'occhio al mondo\" (\"What eyes in the world\").",
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"plaintext": "After Tosca has left, Angelotti reappears and discusses with the painter his plan to flee disguised as a woman, using clothes left in the chapel by his sister. Cavaradossi gives Angelotti a key to his villa, suggesting that he hide in a disused well in the garden. The sound of a cannon signals that Angelotti's escape has been discovered. He and Cavaradossi hasten out of the church.",
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"plaintext": "The Sacristan re-enters with choristers, celebrating the news that Napoleon has apparently been defeated at Marengo. The celebrations cease abruptly with the entry of Scarpia, his henchman Spoletta and several police agents. They have heard that Angelotti has sought refuge in the church. Scarpia orders a search, and the empty food basket and a fan bearing the Attavanti coat of arms are found in the chapel. Scarpia questions the Sacristan, and his suspicions are aroused further when he learns that Cavaradossi has been in the church; Scarpia mistrusts the painter, and believes him complicit in Angelotti's escape.",
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"plaintext": "When Tosca arrives looking for her lover, Scarpia artfully arouses her jealous instincts by implying a relationship between the painter and the Marchesa Attavanti. He draws Tosca's attention to the fan and suggests that someone must have surprised the lovers in the chapel. Tosca falls for his deceit; enraged, she rushes off to confront Cavaradossi. Scarpia orders Spoletta and his agents to follow her, assuming she will lead them to Cavaradossi and Angelotti. He privately gloats as he reveals his intentions to possess Tosca and execute Cavaradossi. A procession enters the church singing the Te Deum; exclaiming 'Tosca, you make me forget even God!', Scarpia joins the chorus in the prayer.",
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"plaintext": "Scarpia's apartment in the Palazzo Farnese, that evening",
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"plaintext": "Scarpia, at supper, sends a note to Tosca asking her to come to his apartment, anticipating that two of his goals will soon be fulfilled at once. His agent, Spoletta, arrives to report that Angelotti remains at large, but Cavaradossi has been arrested for questioning. He is brought in, and an interrogation ensues. As the painter steadfastly denies knowing anything about Angelotti's escape, Tosca's voice is heard singing a celebratory cantata elsewhere in the Palace.",
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"plaintext": "She enters the apartment in time to see Cavaradossi being escorted to an antechamber. All he has time to say is that she mustn't tell them anything. Scarpia then claims she can save her lover from indescribable pain if she reveals Angelotti's hiding place. She resists, but the sound of screams coming through the door eventually breaks her down, and she tells Scarpia to search the well in the garden of Cavaradossi's villa.",
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"plaintext": "Scarpia orders his torturers to cease, and the bloodied painter is dragged back in. He is devastated to discover that Tosca has betrayed his friend. Sciarrone, another agent, then enters with news: there was an upset on the battlefield at Marengo, and the French are marching on Rome. Cavaradossi, unable to contain himself, gloats to Scarpia that his rule of terror will soon be at an end. This is enough for the police to consider him guilty, and they haul him away to be executed.",
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"plaintext": "Scarpia, now alone with Tosca, proposes a bargain: if she gives herself to him, Cavaradossi will be freed. She is revolted, and repeatedly rejects his advances, but she hears the drums outside announcing an execution. As Scarpia awaits her decision, she prays, asking why God has abandoned her in her hour of need: \"Vissi d'arte\" (\"I lived for art\"). She tries to offer money, but Scarpia is not interested in that kind of bribe: he wants Tosca herself.",
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"plaintext": "Spoletta returns with the news that Angelotti has killed himself upon discovery, and that everything is in place for Cavaradossi's execution. Scarpia hesitates to give the order, looking to Tosca, and despairingly she agrees to submit to him. He tells Spoletta to arrange a mock execution, both men repeating that it will be \"as we did with Count Palmieri\", and Spoletta exits.",
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"plaintext": "Tosca insists that Scarpia must provide safe-conduct out of Rome for herself and Cavaradossi. He easily agrees to this and heads to his desk. While he's drafting the document, she quietly takes a knife from the supper table. Scarpia triumphantly strides toward Tosca. When he begins to embrace her, she stabs him, crying \"this is Tosca's kiss!\" Once she's certain he's dead, she ruefully says \"now I forgive him.\" She removes the safe-conduct from his pocket, lights candles in a gesture of piety, and places a crucifix on the body before leaving.",
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"plaintext": "The upper parts of the Castel Sant'Angelo, early the following morning",
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"plaintext": "A shepherd boy is heard offstage singing (in Romanesco dialect) \"Io de' sospiri\" (\"I give you sighs\") as church bells sound for matins. The guards lead Cavaradossi in and a jailer informs him that he has one hour to live. He declines to see a priest, but asks permission to write a letter to Tosca. He begins to write, but is soon overwhelmed by memories: \"E lucevan le stelle\" (\"And the stars shone\").",
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"plaintext": "Tosca enters and shows him the safe-conduct pass she has obtained, adding that she has killed Scarpia and that the imminent execution is a sham. Cavaradossi must feign death, after which they can flee together before Scarpia's body is discovered. Cavaradossi is awestruck by his gentle lover's courage: \"O dolci mani\" (\"Oh sweet hands\"). The pair ecstatically imagine the life they will share, far from Rome. Tosca then anxiously coaches Cavaradossi on how to play dead when the firing squad shoots at him with blanks. He promises he will fall \"like Tosca in the theatre\".",
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"plaintext": "Cavaradossi is led away, and Tosca watches with increasing impatience as the firing squad prepares. The men fire, and Tosca praises the realism of his fall, \"Ecco un artista!\" (\"What an actor!\"). Once the soldiers have left, she hurries towards Cavaradossi, urging him, \"Mario, su presto!\" (\"Mario, up quickly!\"), only to find that Scarpia betrayed her: the bullets were real. Heartbroken, she clasps her lover's lifeless body and weeps.",
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"plaintext": "The voices of Spoletta, Sciarrone, and the soldiers are heard, shouting that Scarpia is dead and Tosca has killed him. As the men rush in, Tosca rises, evades their clutches, and runs to the parapet. Crying \"O Scarpia, avanti a Dio!\" (\"O Scarpia, we meet before God!\"), she flings herself over the edge to her death.",
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"plaintext": "Sardou's five-act play La Tosca contains a large amount of dialogue and exposition. While the broad details of the play are present in the opera's plot, the original work contains many more characters and much detail not present in the opera. In the play the lovers are portrayed as though they were French: the character Floria Tosca is closely modelled on Bernhardt's personality, while her lover Cavaradossi, of Roman descent, is born in Paris. Illica and Giuseppe Giacosa, the playwright who joined the project to polish the verses, needed not only to cut back the play drastically, but to make the characters' motivations and actions suitable for Italian opera. Giacosa and Puccini repeatedly clashed over the condensation, with Giacosa feeling that Puccini did not really want to complete the project.",
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"plaintext": "The first draft libretto that Illica produced for Puccini resurfaced in 2000 after being lost for many years. It contains considerable differences from the final libretto, relatively minor in the first two acts but much more appreciable in the third, where the description of the Roman dawn that opens the third act is much longer, and Cavaradossi's tragic aria, the eventual \"E lucevan le stelle\", has different words. The 1896 libretto also offers a different ending, in which Tosca does not die but instead goes mad. In the final scene, she cradles her lover's head in her lap and hallucinates that she and her Mario are on a gondola, and that she is asking the gondolier for silence. Sardou refused to consider this change, insisting that as in the play, Tosca must throw herself from the parapet to her death. Puccini agreed with Sardou, telling him that the mad scene would have the audiences anticipate the ending and start moving towards the cloakrooms. Puccini pressed his librettists hard, and Giacosa issued a series of melodramatic threats to abandon the work. The two librettists were finally able to give Puccini what they hoped was a final version of the libretto in 1898.",
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"plaintext": "Little work was done on the score during 1897, which Puccini devoted mostly to performances of La bohème. The opening page of the autograph Tosca score, containing the motif that would be associated with Scarpia, is dated January 1898. At Puccini's request, Giacosa irritably provided new lyrics for the act 1 love duet. In August, Puccini removed several numbers from the opera, according to his biographer, Mary Jane Phillips-Matz, \"cut[ting] Tosca to the bone, leaving three strong characters trapped in an airless, violent, tightly wound melodrama that had little room for lyricism\". At the end of the year, Puccini wrote that he was \"busting his balls\" on the opera.",
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"plaintext": "Puccini asked clerical friends for words for the congregation to mutter at the start of the act 1 Te Deum; when nothing they provided satisfied him, he supplied the words himself. For the Te Deum music, he investigated the melodies to which the hymn was set in Roman churches, and sought to reproduce the cardinal's procession authentically, even to the uniforms of the Swiss Guards. He adapted the music to the exact pitch of the great bell of St. Peter's Basilica, and was equally diligent when writing the music that opens act 3, in which Rome awakens to the sounds of church bells. He journeyed to Rome and went to the Castel Sant'Angelo to measure the sound of matins bells there, as they would be heard from its ramparts. Puccini had bells for the Roman dawn cast to order by four different foundries. This apparently did not have its desired effect, as Illica wrote to Ricordi on the day after the premiere, \"the great fuss and the large amount of money for the bells have constituted an additional folly, because it passes completely unnoticed\". Nevertheless, the bells provide a source of trouble and expense to opera companies performing Tosca to this day.",
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"plaintext": "In act 2, when Tosca sings offstage the cantata that celebrates the supposed defeat of Napoleon, Puccini was tempted to follow the text of Sardou's play and use the music of Giovanni Paisiello, before finally writing his own imitation of Paisello's style. It was not until 29September 1899 that Puccini was able to mark the final page of the score as completed. Despite the notation, there was additional work to be done, such as the shepherd boy's song at the start of act 3. Puccini, who always sought to put local colour in his works, wanted that song to be in Roman dialect. The composer asked a friend to have a \"good romanesco poet\" write some words; eventually the poet and folklorist wrote the verse which, after slight modification, was placed in the opera.",
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"plaintext": "In October 1899, Ricordi realized that some of the music for Cavaradossi's act 3 aria, \"O dolci mani\" was borrowed from music Puccini had cut from his early opera, Edgar and demanded changes. Puccini defended his music as expressive of what Cavaradossi must be feeling at that point, and offered to come to Milan to play and sing act 3 for the publisher. Ricordi was overwhelmed by the completed act 3 prelude, which he received in early November, and softened his views, though he was still not completely happy with the music for \"O dolci mani\". In any event time was too short before the scheduled January 1900 premiere to make any further changes.",
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"plaintext": "By December 1899, Tosca was in rehearsal at the Teatro Costanzi. Because of the Roman setting, Ricordi arranged a Roman premiere for the opera, even though this meant that Arturo Toscanini could not conduct it as Puccini had planned—Toscanini was fully engaged at La Scala in Milan. Leopoldo Mugnone was appointed to conduct. The accomplished (but temperamental) soprano Hariclea Darclée was selected for the title role; Eugenio Giraldoni, whose father had originated many Verdi roles, became the first Scarpia. The young Enrico Caruso had hoped to create the role of Cavaradossi, but was passed over in favour of the more experienced Emilio De Marchi. The performance was to be directed by Nino Vignuzzi, with stage designs by Adolfo Hohenstein.",
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"plaintext": "At the time of the premiere, Italy had experienced political and social unrest for several years. The start of the Holy Year in December 1899 attracted the religious to the city, but also brought threats from anarchists and other anticlericals. Police received warnings of an anarchist bombing of the theatre, and instructed Mugnone (who had survived a theatre bombing in Barcelona), that in an emergency he was to strike up the royal march. The unrest caused the premiere to be postponed by one day, to 14January.",
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"plaintext": "By 1900, the premiere of a Puccini opera was a national event. Many Roman dignitaries attended, as did Queen Margherita, though she arrived late, after the first act. The Prime Minister of Italy, Luigi Pelloux was present, with several members of his cabinet. A number of Puccini's operatic rivals were there, including Franchetti, Pietro Mascagni, Francesco Cilea and Ildebrando Pizzetti. Shortly after the curtain was raised there was a disturbance in the back of the theatre, caused by latecomers attempting to enter the auditorium, and a shout of \"Bring down the curtain!\", at which Mugnone stopped the orchestra. A few moments later the opera began again, and proceeded without further disruption.",
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"plaintext": "The performance, while not quite the triumph that Puccini had hoped for, was generally successful, with numerous encores. Much of the critical and press reaction was lukewarm, often blaming Illica's libretto. In response, Illica condemned Puccini for treating his librettists \"like stagehands\" and reducing the text to a shadow of its original form. Nevertheless, any public doubts about Tosca soon vanished; the premiere was followed by twenty performances, all given to packed houses.",
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"plaintext": "The Milan premiere at La Scala took place under Toscanini on 17March 1900. Darclée and Giraldoni reprised their roles; the prominent tenor Giuseppe Borgatti replaced De Marchi as Cavaradossi. The opera was a great success at La Scala, and played to full houses. Puccini travelled to London for the British premiere at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, on 12July, with Milka Ternina and Fernando De Lucia as the doomed lovers and Antonio Scotti as Scarpia. Puccini wrote that Tosca was \" complete triumph\", and Ricordi's London representative quickly signed a contract to take Tosca to New York. The premiere at the Metropolitan Opera was on 4February 1901, with De Lucia's replacement by Giuseppe Cremonini the only change from the London cast. For its French premiere at the Opéra-Comique on 13October 1903, the 72-year-old Sardou took charge of all the action on the stage. Puccini was delighted with the public's reception of the work in Paris, despite adverse comments from critics. The opera was subsequently premiered at venues throughout Europe, the Americas, Australia and the Far East; by the outbreak of war in 1914 it had been performed in more than 50 cities worldwide.",
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"plaintext": "Among the prominent early Toscas was Emmy Destinn, who sang the role regularly in a long-standing partnership with the tenor Enrico Caruso. Maria Jeritza, over many years at the Met and in Vienna, brought her own distinctive style to the role, and was said to be Puccini's favorite Tosca. Jeritza was the first to deliver \"Vissi d'arte\" from a prone position, having fallen to the stage while eluding the grasp of Scarpia. This was a great success, and Jeritza sang the aria while on the floor thereafter. Of her successors, opera enthusiasts tend to consider Maria Callas as the supreme interpreter of the role, largely on the basis of her performances at the Royal Opera House in 1964, with Tito Gobbi as Scarpia. This production, by Franco Zeffirelli, remained in continuous use at Covent Garden for more than 40 years until replaced in 2006 by a new staging, which premiered with Angela Gheorghiu. Callas had first sung Tosca at age18 in a performance given in Greek, in the Greek National Opera in Athens on 27August 1942. Tosca was also her last on-stage operatic role, in a special charity performance at the Royal Opera House on 7May 1965.",
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"plaintext": "Among non-traditional productions, Luca Ronconi, in 1996 at La Scala, used distorted and fractured scenery to represent the twists of fate reflected in the plot. Jonathan Miller, in a 1986 production for the 49th Maggio Musicale Fiorentino, transferred the action to Nazi-occupied Rome in 1944, with Scarpia as head of the fascist police. In production on the Lake Stage at the Bregenz Festival in 2007 the act 1 set, designed by Johannes Leiacker, was dominated by a huge Orwellian \"Big Brother\" eye. The iris opens and closes to reveal surreal scenes beyond the action. This production updates the story to a modern Mafia scenario, with special effects \"worthy of a Bond film\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1992 a television version of the opera was filmed at the locations prescribed by Puccini, at the times of day at which each act takes place. Featuring Catherine Malfitano, Plácido Domingo and Ruggero Raimondi, the performance was broadcast live throughout Europe.",
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"plaintext": "Luciano Pavarotti, who sang Cavaradossi from the late 1970s, appeared in a special performance in Rome, with Plácido Domingo as conductor, on 14January 2000, to celebrate the opera's centenary. Pavarotti's last stage performance was as Cavaradossi at the Met, on 13March 2004.",
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"plaintext": "Early Cavaradossis played the part as if the painter believed that he was reprieved, and would survive the \"mock\" execution. Beniamino Gigli, who performed the role many times in his forty-year operatic career, was one of the first to assume that the painter knows, or strongly suspects, that he will be shot. Gigli wrote in his autobiography: \"he is certain that these are their last moments together on earth, and that he is about to die\". Domingo, the dominant Cavaradossi of the 1970s and 1980s, concurred, stating in a 1985 interview that he had long played the part that way. Gobbi, who in his later years often directed the opera, commented, \"Unlike Floria, Cavaradossi knows that Scarpia never yields, though he pretends to believe in order to delay the pain for Tosca.\"",
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"plaintext": "The enduring popularity of Tosca has not been matched by consistent critical enthusiasm. After the premiere, Ippolito Valetta of Nuova antologia wrote, \" finds in his palette all colours, all shades; in his hands, the instrumental texture becomes completely supple, the gradations of sonority are innumerable, the blend unfailingly grateful to the ear.\" However, one critic described act2 as overly long and wordy; another echoed Illica and Giacosa in stating that the rush of action did not permit enough lyricism, to the great detriment of the music. A third called the opera \"three hours of noise\".",
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"plaintext": "The critics gave the work a generally kinder reception in London, where The Times called Puccini \"a master in the art of poignant expression\", and praised the \"wonderful skill and sustained power\" of the music. In The Musical Times, Puccini's score was admired for its sincerity and \"strength of utterance.\" After the 1903 Paris opening, the composer Paul Dukas thought the work lacked cohesion and style, while Gabriel Fauré was offended by \"disconcerting vulgarities\". In the 1950s, the young musicologist Joseph Kerman described Tosca as a \"shabby little shocker.\"; in response the conductor Thomas Beecham remarked that anything Kerman says about Puccini \"can safely be ignored\". Writing half a century after the premiere, the veteran critic Ernest Newman, while acknowledging the \"enormously difficult business of boiling [Sardou's] play down for operatic purposes\", thought that the subtleties of Sardou's original plot are handled \"very lamely\", so that \"much of what happens, and why, is unintelligible to the spectator\". Overall, however, Newman delivered a more positive judgement: \"[Puccini's] operas are to some extent a mere bundle of tricks, but no one else has performed the same tricks nearly as well\". Opera scholar Julian Budden remarks on Puccini's \"inept handling of the political element\", but still hails the work as \"a triumph of pure theatre\". Music critic Charles Osborne ascribes Toscas immense popularity with audiences to the taut effectiveness of its melodramatic plot, the opportunities given to its three leading characters to shine vocally and dramatically, and the presence of two great arias in \"Vissi d'arte\" and \"E lucevan le stelle\". The work remains popular today: according to Operabase, it ranks as fifth in the world with 540 performances given in the five seasons 2009–10 to 2013–14.",
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"plaintext": "By the end of the 19th century the classic form of opera structure, in which arias, duets and other set-piece vocal numbers are interspersed with passages of recitative or dialogue, had been largely abandoned, even in Italy. Operas were \"through-composed\", with a continuous stream of music which in some cases eliminated all identifiable set-pieces. In what critic Edward Greenfield calls the \"Grand Tune\" concept, Puccini retains a limited number of set-pieces, distinguished from their musical surroundings by their memorable melodies. Even in the passages linking these \"Grand Tunes\", Puccini maintains a strong degree of lyricism and only rarely resorts to recitative.",
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"plaintext": "Budden describes Tosca as the most Wagnerian of Puccini's scores, in its use of musical leitmotifs. Unlike Wagner, Puccini does not develop or modify his motifs, nor weave them into the music symphonically, but uses them to refer to characters, objects and ideas, and as reminders within the narrative. The most potent of these motifs is the sequence of three very loud and strident chords which open the opera and which represent the evil character of Scarpia—or perhaps, Charles Osborne proposes, the violent atmosphere that pervades the entire opera. Budden has suggested that Scarpia's tyranny, lechery and lust form \"the dynamic engine that ignites the drama\". Other motifs identify Tosca herself, the love of Tosca and Cavaradossi, the fugitive Angelotti, the semi-comical character of the sacristan in act 1 and the theme of torture in act 2.",
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"plaintext": "The opera begins without any prelude; the opening chords of the Scarpia motif lead immediately to the agitated appearance of Angelotti and the enunciation of the \"fugitive\" motif. The sacristan's entry, accompanied by his sprightly buffo theme, lifts the mood, as does the generally light-hearted colloquy with Cavaradossi which follows after the latter's entrance. This leads to the first of the \"Grand Tunes\", Cavaradossi's \"Recondita armonia\" with its sustained high B flat, accompanied by the sacristan's grumbling counter-melody. The domination, in that aria, of themes which will be repeated in the love duet make it clear that though the painting may incorporate the Marchesa's features, Tosca is the ultimate inspiration of his work. Cavaradossi's dialogue with Angelotti is interrupted by Tosca's arrival, signalled by her motif which incorporates, in Newman's words, \"the feline, caressing cadence so characteristic of her.\" Though Tosca enters violently and suspiciously, the music paints her devotion and serenity. According to Budden, there is no contradiction: Tosca's jealousy is largely a matter of habit, which her lover does not take too seriously.",
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"plaintext": "After Tosca's \"Non la sospiri\" and the subsequent argument inspired by her jealousy, the sensuous character of the love duet \"Qual'occhio\" provides what opera writer Burton Fisher describes as \"an almost erotic lyricism that has been called pornophony\". The brief scene in which the sacristan returns with the choristers to celebrate Napoleon's supposed defeat provides almost the last carefree moments in the opera; after the entrance of Scarpia to his menacing theme, the mood becomes sombre, then steadily darker. As the police chief interrogates the sacristan, the \"fugitive\" motif recurs three more times, each time more emphatically, signalling Scarpia's success in his investigation. In Scarpia's exchanges with Tosca the sound of tolling bells, interwoven with the orchestra, creates an almost religious atmosphere, for which Puccini draws on music from his then unpublished Mass of 1880. The final scene in the act is a juxtaposition of the sacred and the profane, as Scarpia's lustful reverie is sung alongside the swelling Te Deum chorus. He joins with the chorus in the final statement \"Te aeternum Patrem omnis terra veneratur\" (\"Everlasting Father, all the earth worships thee\"), before the act ends with a thunderous restatement of the Scarpia motif.",
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"plaintext": "In the second act of Tosca, according to Newman, Puccini rises to his greatest height as a master of the musical macabre. The act begins quietly, with Scarpia musing on the forthcoming downfall of Angelotti and Cavaradossi, while in the background a gavotte is played in a distant quarter of the Farnese Palace. For this music Puccini adapted a fifteen-year-old student exercise by his late brother, Michele, stating that in this way his brother could live again through him. In the dialogue with Spoletta, the \"torture\" motif—an \"ideogram of suffering\", according to Budden—is heard for the first time as a foretaste of what is to come. As Cavaradossi is brought in for interrogation, Tosca's voice is heard with the offstage chorus singing a cantata, \"[its] suave strains contrast[ing] dramatically with the increasing tension and ever-darkening colour of the stage action\". The cantata is most likely the Cantata a Giove, in the literature referred to as a lost work of Puccini's from 1897.",
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"plaintext": "Osborne describes the scenes that follow—Cavaradossi's interrogation, his torture, Scarpia's sadistic tormenting of Tosca—as Puccini's musical equivalent of grand guignol to which Cavaradossi's brief \"Vittoria! Vittoria!\" on the news of Napoleon's victory gives only partial relief. Scarpia's aria \"Già, mi dicon venal\" (\"Yes, they say I am venal\") is closely followed by Tosca's \"Vissi d'arte\". A lyrical andante based on Tosca's act 1 motif, this is perhaps the opera's best-known aria, yet was regarded by Puccini as a mistake; he considered eliminating it since it held up the action. Fisher calls it \"a Job-like prayer questioning God for punishing a woman who has lived unselfishly and righteously\". In the act's finale, Newman likens the orchestral turmoil which follows Tosca's stabbing of Scarpia to the sudden outburst after the slow movement of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony. After Tosca's contemptuous \"E avanti a lui tremava tutta Roma!\" (\"All Rome trembled before him\"), sung on a middle C monotone (sometimes spoken), the music gradually fades, ending what Newman calls \"the most impressively macabre scene in all opera.\" The final notes in the act are those of the Scarpia motif, softly, in a minor key.",
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"plaintext": "The third act's tranquil beginning provides a brief respite from the drama. An introductory 16-bar theme for the horns will later be sung by Cavaradossi and Tosca in their final duet. The orchestral prelude which follows portrays the Roman dawn; the pastoral aura is accentuated by the shepherd boy's song, and the sounds of sheep bells and church bells, the authenticity of the latter validated by Puccini's early morning visits to Rome. Themes reminiscent of Scarpia, Tosca and Cavaradossi emerge in the music, which changes tone as the drama resumes with Cavaradossi's entrance, to an orchestral statement of what becomes the melody of his aria \"E lucevan le stelle\".",
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"plaintext": "This is a farewell to love and life, \"an anguished lament and grief built around the words 'muoio disperato' (I die in despair)\". Puccini insisted on the inclusion of these words, and later stated that admirers of the aria had treble cause to be grateful to him: for composing the music, for having the lyrics written, and \"for declining expert advice to throw the result in the waste-paper basket\". The lovers' final duet \"Amaro sol per te\", which concludes with the act's opening horn music, did not equate with Ricordi's idea of a transcendental love duet which would be a fitting climax to the opera. Puccini justified his musical treatment by citing Tosca's preoccupation with teaching Cavaradossi to feign death.",
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"plaintext": "In the execution scene which follows, a theme emerges, the incessant repetition of which reminded Newman of the Transformation Music which separates the two parts of act1 in Wagner's Parsifal. In the final bars, as Tosca evades Spoletta and leaps to her death, the theme of \"E lucevan le stelle\" is played tutta forze (as loudly as possible). This choice of ending has been strongly criticised by analysts, mainly because of its specific association with Cavaradossi rather than Tosca. Kerman mocked the final music, \"Tosca leaps, and the orchestra screams the first thing that comes into its head.\" Budden, however, argues that it is entirely logical to end this dark opera on its blackest theme. According to historian and former opera singer Susan Vandiver Nicassio: \"The conflict between the verbal and the musical clues gives the end of the opera a twist of controversy that, barring some unexpected discovery among Puccini's papers, can never truly be resolved.\"",
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"plaintext": "Tosca is scored for three flutes (the second and third doubling piccolo); two oboes; one English horn; two clarinets in B-flat; one bass clarinet in B-flat; two bassoons; one contrabassoon; four French horns in F; three trumpets in F; three tenor trombones; one bass trombone; a percussion section with timpani, cymbals, cannon, one triangle, one bass drum, one glockenspiel, and six church bells; one celesta, one pipe organ; one harp; and strings.",
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"plaintext": "The first complete Tosca recording was made in 1918, using the acoustic process. The conductor, Carlo Sabajno, had been the Gramophone Company's house conductor since 1904; he had made early complete recordings of several operas, including Verdi's La traviata and Rigoletto, before tackling Tosca with a largely unknown cast, featuring the Italian soprano Lya Remondini in the title role. The next year, in 1919, Sabajno recorded Tosca again, this time with more well-known singers, including Valentina Bartolomasi and Attilio Salvaneschi as Tosca and Cavaradossi. Ten years later, in 1929, Sabajno returned to the opera for the third time, recording it, by the electrical process, with the orchestra and chorus of the Teatro alla Scala and with stars Carmen Melis and Apollo Granforte in the roles of Tosca and Scarpia. In 1938 HMV secured the services of the renowned tenor Beniamino Gigli, together with the soprano Maria Caniglia as Tosca and conductor Oliviero De Fabritiis, for a \"practically complete\" recording that extended over 14 double-sided shellac discs.",
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"plaintext": "In the post-war period, following the invention of long-playing records, Tosca recordings were dominated by Maria Callas. In 1953, with conductor Victor de Sabata and the La Scala forces, she made the recording for EMI which for decades has been considered the best of all the recorded performances of the opera. She recorded the role again for EMI in stereo in 1964. A number of Callas's live stage performances of Tosca were also preserved. The earliest were two performances in Mexico City, in 1950 and 1952, and the last was in London in 1965. The first stereo recording of the opera was made in 1957 by RCA Victor. Erich Leinsdorf conducted the Rome Opera House orchestra and chorus with Zinka Milanov as Tosca, Jussi Björling as Cavaradossi and Leonard Warren as Scarpia. Herbert von Karajan's acclaimed performance with the Vienna State Opera was in 1963, with Leontyne Price, Giuseppe Di Stefano and Giuseppe Taddei in the leading roles.",
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"plaintext": "The 1970s and 1980s saw a proliferation of Tosca recordings of both studio and live performances. Plácido Domingo made his first recording of Cavaradossi for RCA in 1972, and he continued to record other versions at regular intervals until 1994. In 1976, he was joined by his son, Plácido Domingo Jr., who sang the shepherd boy's song in a filmed version with the New Philharmonia Orchestra. More recent commended recordings have included Antonio Pappano's 2000 Royal Opera House version with Angela Gheorghiu, Roberto Alagna and Ruggero Raimondi. Recordings of Tosca in languages other than Italian are rare but not unknown; over the years versions in French, German, Spanish, Hungarian and Russian have been issued. An admired English language version was released in 1995 in which David Parry led the Philharmonia Orchestra and a largely British cast. Since the late 1990s numerous video recordings of the opera have been issued on DVD and Blu-ray disc (BD). These include recent productions and remastered versions of historic performances.",
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"plaintext": "The orchestral score of Tosca was published in late 1899 by Casa Ricordi. Despite some dissatisfaction expressed by Ricordi concerning the final act, the score remained relatively unchanged in the 1909 edition. An unamended edition was published by Dover Press in 1991.",
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"plaintext": "The 1909 score contains a number of minor changes from the autograph score. Some are changes of phrase: Cavaradossi's reply to the sacristan when he asks if the painter is doing penance is changed from \"Pranzai\" (\"I have eaten.\") to \"Fame non ho\" (\"I am not hungry.\"), which William Ashbrook states, in his study of Puccini's operas, accentuates the class distinction between the two. When Tosca comforts Cavaradossi after the torture scene, she now tells him, \"Ma il giusto Iddio lo punirá\" (\"But a just God will punish him\" ); formerly she stated, \"Ma il sozzo sbirro lo pagherà\" (\"But the filthy cop will pay for it.\"). Other changes are in the music; when Tosca demands the price for Cavaradossi's freedom (\"Il prezzo!\"), her music is changed to eliminate an octave leap, allowing her more opportunity to express her contempt and loathing of Scarpia in a passage which is now near the middle of the soprano vocal range. A remnant of a \"Latin Hymn\" sung by Tosca and Cavaradossi in act 3 survived into the first published score and libretto, but is not in later versions. According to Ashbrook, the most surprising change is where, after Tosca discovers the truth about the \"mock\" execution and exclaims \"Finire così? Finire così?\" (\"To end like this? To end like this?\"), she was to sing a five-bar fragment to the melody of \"E lucevan le stelle\". Ashbrook applauds Puccini for deleting the section from a point in the work where delay is almost unendurable as events rush to their conclusion, but points out that the orchestra's recalling \"E lucevan le stelle\" in the final notes would seem less incongruous if it was meant to underscore Tosca's and Cavaradossi's love for each other, rather than being simply a melody which Tosca never hears.",
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"plaintext": "Notes",
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"plaintext": "Sources'''",
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"plaintext": " (Note: this book was first published by Alfred A. Knopf in 1956)",
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"plaintext": " Franco Zeffirelli; John Tooley (interviews by Anna Tims), \"How we made: Franco Zeffirelli and John Tooley on Tosca (1964)\". The Guardian'' (London), 23 July 2012. Retrieved 22 November 2018.",
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"plaintext": " Libretto",
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"plaintext": " Full piano score with notes",
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"plaintext": " Susan Vandiver Nicassio: \"Ten Things You Didn't Know about Tosca\", University of Chicago Press",
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| [
"Operas_by_Giacomo_Puccini",
"Verismo_operas",
"Italian-language_operas",
"1900_operas",
"Operas_set_in_Italy",
"Operas_based_on_plays",
"Operas",
"Operas_based_on_works_by_Victorien_Sardou",
"Fiction_set_in_1800",
"Fiction_about_suicide",
"Fictional_singers",
"Operas_adapted_into_films",
"Rome_in_fiction",
"Roman_Republic_(18th_century)"
]
| 192,941 | 16,485 | 1,418 | 227 | 0 | 1 | Tosca | opera in three acts, composed by Giacomo Puccini | []
|
38,246 | 1,104,691,838 | Madama_Butterfly | [
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"plaintext": "Madama Butterfly (; Madame Butterfly) is an opera in three acts (originally two) by Giacomo Puccini, with an Italian libretto by Luigi Illica and Giuseppe Giacosa.",
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"plaintext": "It is based on the short story \"Madame Butterfly\" (1898) by John Luther Long, which in turn was based on stories told to Long by his sister Jennie Correll and on the semi-autobiographical 1887 French novel Madame Chrysanthème by Pierre Loti. Long's version was dramatized by David Belasco as the one-act play A Tragedy of Japan, which, after premiering in New York in 1900, moved to London, where Puccini saw it in the summer of that year.",
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"plaintext": "The original version of the opera, in two acts, had its premiere on 17 February 1904 at La Scala in Milan. It was poorly received, despite having such notable singers as soprano Rosina Storchio, tenor Giovanni Zenatello and baritone Giuseppe De Luca in lead roles. This was due in part to a late completion by Puccini, which gave inadequate time for rehearsals. Puccini revised the opera, splitting the second act in two, with the Humming Chorus as a bridge to what became Act III, and making other changes. Success ensued, starting with the first performance on 28 May 1904 in Brescia.",
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"plaintext": "Puccini wrote five versions of the opera. The original two-act version, which was presented at the world premiere at La Scala on 17 February 1904, was withdrawn after the disastrous premiere. Puccini then substantially rewrote it, this time in three acts. This second version was performed on 28 May 1904 in Brescia, where it was a great success, with Solomiya Krushelnytska as Cio-Cio-san. It was this second version that premiered in the United States in 1906, first in Washington, D.C., in October, and then in New York in November, performed by Henry Savage's New English Opera Company (so named because it performed in English-language translations).",
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"plaintext": "In 1906, Puccini wrote a third version, which was performed at the Metropolitan Opera in New York on 11 February 1907. Later that year, Puccini made several changes in the orchestral and vocal scores, and this became the fourth version, which was performed in Paris.",
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"plaintext": "Again in 1907, Puccini made his final revisions to the opera in a fifth version, which has become known as the \"Standard Version\" and is the one which is most often performed around the world. However, the original 1904 version is occasionally performed, such as for the opening of La Scala's season on 7 December 2016, with Riccardo Chailly conducting.",
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"plaintext": "Premieres of versions of Madam Butterfly in major opera houses throughout the world include the Teatro de la Opera de Buenos Aires on 2 July 1904, under Arturo Toscanini, this being the first performance in the world outside Italy. Its first performance in Britain was in London on 10 July 1905 at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, while the first US performance was presented in English on 15 October 1906, in Washington, D.C., at the Columbia Theater. The first performance in New York took place on 12 November of the same year at the Garden Theatre. The Metropolitan Opera first performed the opera on 11 February 1907 under the supervision of the composer with Geraldine Farrar as Cio-Cio-San, Enrico Caruso as Pinkerton, Louise Homer as Suzuki, Antonio Scotti as Sharpless, with Arturo Vigna conducting; Farrar would sing 95 performances as Cio-Cio-San at the Met between 1907 and her retirement in 1922. Madama Butterfly has since been heard virtually every season at the Met except for a hiatus during World War II from 1942 through 1945 due to the hostilities between the United States and Japan. The first Australian performance was presented at the Theatre Royal in Sydney on 26 March 1910, starring Amy Eliza Castles.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1915 and 1920, Japan's best-known opera singer Tamaki Miura won international fame for her performances as Cio-Cio-San. A memorial to this singer, along with one to Puccini, can be found in the Glover Garden in the port city of Nagasaki, where the opera is set.",
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"plaintext": "Time: 1904.",
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"plaintext": "Place: Nagasaki, Japan.",
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"plaintext": "In 1904, a U.S. naval officer named Pinkerton rents a house on a hill in Nagasaki, Japan, for himself and his soon-to-be wife, \"Butterfly\". Her real name is Cio-Cio-San (from the Japanese word for ; -san is a plain honorific). She is a 15-year-old Japanese girl whom he is marrying for convenience, and he intends to leave her once he finds a proper American wife, since Japanese divorce laws are very lax. The wedding is to take place at the house. Butterfly had been so excited to marry an American that she had earlier secretly converted to Christianity. After the wedding ceremony, her uninvited uncle, a bonze, who has found out about her conversion, comes to the house, curses her and orders all the guests to leave, which they do while renouncing her. Pinkerton and Butterfly sing a love duet and prepare to spend their first night together.",
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"plaintext": "Three years later, Butterfly is still waiting for Pinkerton to return, as he had left shortly after their wedding. Her maid Suzuki keeps trying to convince her that he is not coming back, but Butterfly will not listen to her. Goro, the marriage broker who arranged her marriage, keeps trying to marry her off again, but she does not listen to him either. The American consul, Sharpless, comes to the house with a letter which he has received from Pinkerton which asks him to break some news to Butterfly: that Pinkerton is coming back to Japan, but Sharpless cannot bring himself to finish it because Butterfly becomes very excited to hear that Pinkerton is coming back. Sharpless asks Butterfly what she would do if Pinkerton were not to return. She then reveals that she gave birth to Pinkerton's son after he had left and asks Sharpless to tell him.",
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"plaintext": "From the hill house, Butterfly sees Pinkerton's ship arriving in the harbour. She and Suzuki prepare for his arrival, and then they wait. Suzuki and the child fall asleep, but Butterfly stays up all night waiting for him to arrive.",
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"plaintext": "Suzuki wakes up in the morning and Butterfly finally falls asleep. Sharpless and Pinkerton arrive at the house, along with Pinkerton's new American wife, Kate. They have come because Kate has agreed to raise the child. But, as Pinkerton sees how Butterfly has decorated the house for his return, he realizes he has made a huge mistake. He admits that he is a coward and cannot face her, leaving Suzuki, Sharpless and Kate to break the news to Butterfly. Agreeing to give up her child if Pinkerton comes himself to see her, she then prays to statues of her ancestral gods, says goodbye to her son, and blindfolds him. She places a small American flag in his hands and goes behind a screen, killing herself with her father's seppuku knife. Pinkerton rushes in, but he is too late, and Butterfly dies.",
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"plaintext": "This is a synopsis of the standard version of the opera, with its arias, duets, trios, choruses, etc. The synopsis is organized into the 34 tracks that constitute most recordings.",
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"plaintext": "1. A short orchestral prelude with a busy, fugal opening theme, followed by a second theme of more overtly Japanese character, leads straight into the opening scene.",
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"plaintext": "2. E soffitto e pareti (\"And ceiling and walls\"). Pinkerton and Goro are inspecting a small house which sits on a hill and overlooks the bay. Goro has found the house for Pinkerton and his bride, and is showing him the house, with its sliding doors and small garden. The butler, the cook and the bride's maid, Suzuki, enter the garden and are introduced to Pinkerton. After they leave, Goro tells Pinkerton that everything is now ready and that his intended bride, Butterfly, will arrive soon, as will the American consul, the marriage registrar and all the bride's relatives, except her uncle. Her uncle is a priest and refuses to attend the wedding ceremony. Sharpless, the American consul, has climbed up the hill from the city. He enters the garden, greets Pinkerton and Goro, and admires the view that overlooks Nagasaki's harbor and the sea. Pinkerton tells Sharpless that he has just purchased the little house for 999 years, with the right every month to cancel the agreement. Pinkerton explains that, in Japan, the law is very loose.",
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"plaintext": "3. Dovunque al mondo (\"Throughout the world\"). As the orchestra plays the opening flourish to \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" (a musical theme which will characterize Pinkerton throughout the opera), Pinkerton tells Sharpless that, throughout the world, the Yankee wanderer is not satisfied until he captures the flowers of every shore and the love of every beautiful woman. \"So I am marrying in the Japanese style: for 999 years, but with the right to cancel the marriage each month\". Sharpless is critical of Pinkerton's beliefs, but they stand and agree, \"America forever\". Pinkerton tells Goro to bring Butterfly to him. When Goro leaves, Sharpless asks Pinkerton if he is really in love.",
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"plaintext": "4. Amore o grillo (\"Love or fancy\"). Pinkerton admits to Sharpless that he does not know whether he is really in love or just infatuated, but he is bewitched with Butterfly's innocence, charm and beauty; she is like a butterfly fluttering around and then landing with silent grace, so beautiful \"that I must have her, even though I injure her butterfly wings\". Sharpless tells Pinkerton that he heard Butterfly speak, when she visited the consulate, and he asks Pinkerton not to pluck off her delicate wings. However, Pinkerton tells Sharpless that he will do \"no great harm, even if Butterfly falls in love.\" Sharpless takes his glass of whisky and offers a toast to Pinkerton's family at home, to which Pinkerton adds, \"and to the day when I will have a real wedding and marry a real American bride.\" Goro re-enters to tell Pinkerton and Sharpless that Butterfly's friends are coming.",
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"plaintext": "5. Ancora un passo (\"One step more\"). Butterfly can be heard guiding her friends to the top of the hill, jubilantly telling them that \"Over land and sea, there floats the joyful breath of spring. I am the happiest girl in Japan, or rather in the world.\" Butterfly and her friends enter the garden. She recognizes Pinkerton and points him out to her friends, and all bow down before him.",
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"plaintext": "6. Gran ventura (\"May good fortune attend you\"). Butterfly greets Pinkerton, who asks about her difficult climb up the hill. Butterfly says that, for a happy bride, the wait is even more difficult. Pinkerton thanks her for the compliment but cuts her off as she continues to compliment him further. Butterfly tells Pinkerton and Sharpless that her family is from Nagasaki and was once very wealthy.",
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"plaintext": "7. L'Imperial Commissario (\"The Imperial Commissioner\"). Goro announces the arrival of both the Grand Commissioner and the Registrar of marriages. Butterfly greets her relatives, who have arrived for the wedding. Pinkerton laughs at the sight and whispers to Sharpless, \"This is a farce: all these will be my new relatives for only a month.\" Sharpless tells him that, even though he considers the marriage contract a farce, she considers it very real. Meanwhile, Butterfly tells her relatives how much she loves Pinkerton. One of her cousins says that Goro first offered Pinkerton to her, but she refused. Butterfly's relatives say that he is like a king, so rich and so handsome, and then, at a sign from Butterfly, all her friends and relatives bow to Pinkerton and walk out to the garden. Pinkerton takes Butterfly's hand and leads her into the house.",
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"plaintext": "8. Vieni, amor mio! (\"Come, my love!\"). From her sleeve, Butterfly brings out to show Pinkerton all of her treasures, which include only a few handkerchiefs, a mirror, a sash, and other trinkets. Then she shows him a long, narrow case, which she tells him holds her only sacred treasure, but she cannot open it, because there are too many people around. Goro whispers to Pinkerton that the case contains a \"gift\" from the Mikado to Butterfly's father, inviting him to commit seppuku. Butterfly continues to show Pinkerton her other little treasures, including several little statues: \"They are the spirits of my ancestors.\"",
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"plaintext": "9. Ieri son salita tutta sola (\"Yesterday, I went all alone\"). Butterfly tells Pinkerton that yesterday, in secret and without telling her uncle, who is a Buddhist priest, the Bonze, she went to the consulate, where she abandoned her ancestral religion and converted to Pinkerton's religion. \"I am following my destiny and, full of humility, bow to Mr. Pinkerton's God.\"",
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"plaintext": "10. Tutti zitti (\"Quiet everyone\"). Everything is ready, and Goro tells everyone to be quiet. The Commissioner conducts the brief ceremony and witnesses Pinkerton and Butterfly sign the official papers.",
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"plaintext": "11. Madama Butterfly. The wedding celebration begins, and everyone wishes happiness to the new couple. After a short while, Sharpless pleads with Pinkerton not to be cruel, and he leaves with the Commissioner and the Registrar. Pinkerton, Butterfly and their guests continue the celebration with many toasts.",
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"plaintext": "12. Cio-Cio-san!. The toasts are interrupted by an angry voice offstage, saying \"Cio-Cio-San! Cio-Cio-San! You are damned.\" Butterfly's uncle, the Bonze, has discovered that Butterfly has renounced her ancestral religion, and he has arrived to deliver his curse. He stands over Butterfly, shouting his curses at her, when Pinkerton intervenes to stop him. The Bonze is shocked at the American, and he orders all the guests to leave with him, saying to Butterfly, \"You have renounced us, and we renounce you.\" All the guests shout their renunciation as they rush away. The night is falling. Butterfly is weeping. Pinkerton consoles her.",
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"plaintext": "13. Bimba, Bimba, non piangere (\"Sweetheart, sweetheart, do not weep\"). (This begins the famous long love duet, which ends act 1.) Pinkerton tells Butterfly that \"All your relatives and all the priests in Japan are not worth the tears from your loving, beautiful eyes.\" Butterfly smiles through her tears, \"You mean that? I will not cry any more. And I do not worry about their curses, because your words sound so sweet.\" They hear Suzuki offstage, saying her evening prayers.",
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"plaintext": "13A. Viene la sera (\"Night is falling\"). (The long duet continues.) Pinkerton tells Butterfly that the \"Night is falling\", and Butterfly answers that \"with it comes darkness and peace.\" Pinkerton claps his hands, and the three servants enter and close up the house. Then Suzuki helps Butterfly dress for her wedding night. Pinkerton watches Butterfly, as she watches him, but her happiness is tempered, as \"still the angry voice curses me. Butterfly is renounced – renounced but happy\".",
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"plaintext": "14. Bimba dagli occhi (\"Sweetheart, with eyes...\"). (The long duet continues.) Pinkerton admires the beautiful Butterfly and tells her, \"you have not yet told me that you love me.\" Butterfly replies that she does not want to say the words, \"for fear of dying at hearing them!\" She tells him that now she is happy.",
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"plaintext": "15. Vogliatemi bene (\"Love me, please.\"). (The long duet concludes.) Butterfly pleads with Pinkerton to \"Love me, please.\" She asks whether it is true that, in foreign lands, a man will catch a butterfly and pin its wings to a table. Pinkerton admits that it is true but explains, \"Do you know why? So that she will not fly away.\" He embraces her and says, \"I have caught you. You are mine.\" She replies, \"Yes, for life.\"",
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"plaintext": "16. E Izaghi ed Izanami (\"And Izanagi and Izanami\"). As the curtain opens, three years have passed. Suzuki kneels in front of a Buddha, praying that Butterfly will stop crying. Butterfly hears and tells her that the Japanese gods are fat and lazy, and that the American God will answer quickly, if only He knows where they are living. Suzuki tells Butterfly that their money has almost run out and, if Pinkerton does not return quickly, they will suffer in a bad way. Butterfly assures Suzuki that Pinkerton will return, because he took care to arrange for the consul to pay the rent and to fit the house with locks to keep out the mosquitoes, relatives and troubles. Suzuki tells Butterfly that foreign husbands never return to their Japanese wives, but Butterfly replies furiously that Pinkerton had assured her, on the last morning they were together, \"Oh, Butterfly, my little wife, I shall return with the roses, when the earth is full of joy, when the robin makes his nest.\" Suzuki begins quietly to weep.",
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"plaintext": "17. Un bel dì vedremo (\"One fine day we shall see\"). In this, the opera's most famous aria (and one of the most popular works in the soprano repertoire), Butterfly says that, \"one fine day\", they will see a puff of smoke on the far horizon. Then a ship will appear and enter the harbor. She will not go down to meet him but will wait on the hill for him to come. After a long time, she will see in the far distance a man beginning the walk out of the city and up the hill. When he arrives, he will call \"Butterfly\" from a distance, but she will not answer, partly for fun and partly not to die from the excitement of the first meeting. Then he will speak the names he used to call her: \"Little one. Dear wife. Orange blossom.\" Butterfly promises Suzuki that this will happen. Suzuki departs, as Sharpless and Goro arrive in the garden.",
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"plaintext": "18. C'e. Entrate. (\"She is there. Go in.\"). Sharpless greets her, \"Excuse me, Madam Butterfly.\" Without looking to see who is speaking, Butterfly corrects him, \"Madam Pinkerton, please.\" As she turns and sees that it is Sharpless who has spoken, she exclaims in happiness, \"My very dear consul. Welcome to this American home.\" Sharpless draws a letter from his pocket and tells her, \"Benjamin Franklin Pinkerton has written to me.\" Sharpless tells her that Pinkerton is perfectly well, and she says, \"I am the happiest woman in Japan.\" Butterfly asks him, \"When do the robins make their nests in America?\" The question confuses Sharpless, so Butterfly explains that Pinkerton promised to return to her \"when the robin builds his nest again.\" She says that, in Japan, the robin has already built his nest three times, and she asks if \"over there he nests less frequently.\" Sharpless, mortified, tells her that he does not know because he has not studied ornithology. At this, Butterfly hears Goro laugh, and she whispers to Sharpless that Goro is a bad man. She tells him that, after Pinkerton left, Goro came to her many times \"with presents to palm off this or that husband on me.\" She says that Goro now wants her to agree to marry the wealthy man Yamadori, who then is arriving with his entourage to a musical accompaniment that quotes the same Japanese folk tune (Miyasan) that Gilbert and Sullivan set as \"Mi-ya sama\" in The Mikado.",
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"plaintext": "19. Yamadori, ancor le pene (\"Yamadori, are you not yet…\"). Butterfly sees Yamadori and asks him if he is not going to give up pursuing her, because \"You have already had many different wives.\" Yamadori admits that he married all of them, but says that he divorced them too. In the meantime, Sharpless gives up trying to read Pinkerton's letter to Butterfly, and he puts the letter back in his pocket. Goro tells Sharpless that Butterfly thinks that she is still married. Butterfly hears this and says, \"I do not I am; I am.\" When Goro tries to tell her about the Japanese law of marriage, Butterfly interrupts and tells him that the Japanese law is not the law of her country, the United States. She tells Goro that she understands how easy divorce is under Japanese law, \"but in America, you cannot do that.\" She turns sharply and asks Sharpless, \"Am I correct?\" Sharpless is embarrassed and must admit that she is correct. Butterfly turns triumphantly to Suzuki and asks that she serve tea. Yamadori, Sharpless and Goro quietly discuss Butterfly's blindness. Goro whispers that Pinkerton's ship is expected to arrive soon, and Sharpless explains that Pinkerton is too embarrassed to meet Butterfly and has asked Sharpless to handle it. Yamadori, offended, departs with his grand entourage and Goro. Sharpless remains, sits next to Butterfly, and takes the letter out of his pocket once more.",
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"plaintext": "20. Ora a noi. (\"Now for us.\"). Sharpless begins to read Pinkerton's letter to Butterfly: \"My friend, will you find that lovely flower of a girl…\" Butterfly cannot control her happiness, as he continues, \"since that happy times, three years have passed, and Butterfly perhaps does not remember me anymore.\" Butterfly looks at Suzuki and says, \"I do not remember him? Suzuki, you tell him!\" Sharpless continues, \"If she still loves me, if she awaits me, I place myself in your hands so that you may carefully and considerately prepare her …\" Butterfly exclaims, \"He is coming! When? Soon! Soon!\" Sharpless cannot bear to continue. He puts the letter away, muttering to himself, \"that devil Pinkerton!\" Sharpless asks her gently, \"Butterfly, what would you do if he never returned?\" Butterfly is shocked.",
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"plaintext": "21. Due cose potrei far (\"Two things I could do\"). Butterfly cries that, if Pinkerton never returned, she would go back to entertaining people with her songs, or, better, die. Sharpless pleads with her to accept the rich offer from Yamadori. Butterfly is upset with Sharpless and instructs Suzuki to show him out. As he begins to leave, Butterfly stops him, apologizes for her anger, and explains that his questions have hurt her \"so very, very much!\" Then she goes into another room and returns, bringing with her the blonde-haired two-year-old boy who is her constant reminder of her American husband.",
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"plaintext": "22. Ah! M'ha scordata? (\"Ah! He has forgotten me?\"). Butterfly shows Sharpless her child, and Sharpless asks if Pinkerton knows. Butterfly replies, \"No. The child was born when he was away in his big country.\" She asks Sharpless to write and tell him that his son waits for him. \"And then we shall see if he does not hurry over land and sea!\" Butterfly kneels in front of her son and asks him, \"Do you know that that gentleman had dared to think that your mother would take you in her arms and walk to town, through the wind and rain, to earn your bread and clothes. And she would stretch out her arms to the pitying crowd, crying ‘Listen! Listen to my sad song, For an unhappy mother, your charity. Take pity! And Butterfly – oh, horrible destiny – will dance for you! And as she used to do, the Geisha will sing for you. And her joyful, happy song will end in a sob!\" She kneels in front of Sharpless and says that she will never do that, \"that trade which leads to dishonor. Death! Death! Never more to dance! Rather would I cut short my life! Ah! Death!\"",
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"plaintext": "23. Io scendo al piano. (\"I will go now.\") Sharpless finally says, \"I will go now.\" Butterfly gives him her hand and this her child's. Sharpless asks the child his name, and Butterfly answers for him, \"Today my name is Sorrow. But write and tell Daddy that, the day he returns, my name will be Joy.\" Sharpless promises to tell Pinkerton. Offstage, Suzuki can be heard shouting, \"Snake. Damned toad!\" Suzuki enters, pulling Goro with her, and she tells Butterfly, \"He buzzes around, the snake. Every day he tells the four winds that no one knows who is the child's father!\" Goro explains that, in America, when a child is born with a curse, he will always be rejected by everyone. In a rage, Butterfly runs to the shrine, seizes the dagger and threatens to stab him, \"You are lying! You are lying! Say that again, and I will kill you!\" Goro flees. Suzuki takes the child to the other room. Butterfly replaces the dagger, goes to her son and says, \"You will see, my darling, my Sorrow. You will see, your savior will take us far, far away to his land.\"",
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"plaintext": "24. Il cannone del porto! (\"The cannon at the harbor!\", often known as The Flower Duet). Just then a cannon shot is heard. Suzuki and Butterfly watch from the hill as the ship enters the harbor and drops anchor. Then Butterfly sees that the ship is the Abraham Lincoln, and she tells Suzuki, \"They were all lying! All of them! I alone knew. Only I, who love him.\" She continues, \"My love, my faith, triumphs completely! He has returned, and he loves me!\" She tells Suzuki to prepare a fragrant bath and asks how long she will have to wait for him. \"An hour? Two hours, perhaps? The house must be filled with flowers. Everywhere. As the night is full of stars!\" Butterfly tells Suzuki to gather all the flowers.",
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"plaintext": "25. Tutti i fior? (\"All the flowers?\"). Suzuki asks, \"All the flowers?\" Butterfly says yes, all the flowers from all the bushes and plants and trees. \"I want the whole fragrance of Spring in here.\" They continue to gather flowers and place them everywhere.",
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"plaintext": "26. Or vienmi ad adornar (\"Now come to adorn me\"). Finally, Butterfly sits at her dressing table and tells Suzuki, \"Now, come and adorn me. No, first bring me the child.\" She puts a touch of rouge on her own and on her child's cheeks and then, as Suzuki does her hair, asks her, \"What will they say? My uncle, the priest? All so happy at my misery! And Yamadori, with his pursuit? Ridiculed, disgraced, made foolish, the hateful things!\" Butterfly dons the same dress that she wore as a bride, while Suzuki dresses her child. Butterfly tells Suzuki that she wants Pinkerton to see her dressed as she was on the first day \"and a red poppy in my hair.\"",
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"plaintext": "27. Coro a bocca chiusa (\"Humming Chorus\"). As the off-stage chorus hums a wordless, melancholy tune, Butterfly, her child and Suzuki begin the long wait for Pinkerton to come. Night falls. Suzuki and the baby are soon asleep, but Butterfly keeps her vigil.",
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"plaintext": "There is no intermission between acts 2 and 3. The action continues without interruption as the \"Humming Chorus\" ends and morning light appears.",
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"plaintext": "28. Oh eh! Oh eh! (\"Heave-ho! Heave-ho!\"). Suzuki and the baby are asleep, but Butterfly remains standing and waiting. Distant voices are heard from the bay. Sailors are singing, \"Heave-ho! Heave-ho!\" The sun rises and fills Butterfly's house with light.",
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"plaintext": "29. Già il sole! (\"The Sun's come up!\"). Suzuki awakes and is very sad. Butterfly tells her that \"He will come.\" Then she carries her sleeping child into the other room and tells him to sleep, while she too falls asleep. Suzuki waits in the front room and hears a knock at the door. Pinkerton and Sharpless have arrived, but Pinkerton tells Suzuki not to wake Butterfly and asks how Butterfly knew that he had arrived. Suzuki tells him that, for the last three years, Butterfly has studied every ship that entered the port. Sharpless tells Pinkerton, \"Did I not tell you so?\" Suzuki sees a strange woman in the garden, learns from Sharpless that she is Pinkerton's American wife and collapses to her knees in shock.",
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"plaintext": "30. Io so che alle sue pene (\"I know that her pain\"). While Pinkerton looks at the flowers, the picture of himself and the room that has remained unchanged for three years, Sharpless tells Suzuki that they can do nothing for Butterfly but that they must help her child. Sharpless tells her that Pinkerton's new wife, Kate, wants to care for the child. Suzuki goes into the garden to meet Pinkerton's new wife, while Sharpless reminds Pinkerton, \"I told you, did I not? Do you remember? When she gave you her hand: 'Take care', I said, 'she believes in you'. She has been waiting for you.\" Pinkerton admits his wrong and leaves Sharpless to tell Butterfly the shameful news.",
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"plaintext": "31. Addio, fiorito asil (\"Farewell, flowery refuge\"). Pinkerton says \"Farewell, flowery refuge of happiness and of love, her gentle face will always haunt me, torturing me endlessly.\" He admits that he is a coward and cannot face her, and quickly leaves as Suzuki and Kate enter from the garden. Kate is telling Suzuki to assure Butterfly that Kate will look after her child like her own son.",
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"plaintext": "32. Suzuki! Suzuki! (\"Suzuki! Suzuki!\"). From offstage, Butterfly calls for Suzuki and then enters the room. As she enters, Kate retreats to the garden, so that she will not be seen. She asks Suzuki why she is crying, and then she sees Sharpless and the woman in the garden. She tells Suzuki, \"Suzuki, you are so kind. Do not cry. You love me so much. Tell me softly, just 'yes' or 'no' … Is he alive?\" When Suzuki answers, \"yes\", Butterfly understands that Pinkerton is not coming for her and that Kate is his new wife. Butterfly realizes that she must give up her son, and Kate asks her forgiveness. Finally, Butterfly tells Kate, \"I will give my child to her only if he comes himself. In half an hour, come up the hill again.\" Suzuki escorts Kate and Sharpless out, and Butterfly falls weeping.",
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"plaintext": "33. Come una mosca (\"Like a little fly\"). Butterfly stands, sees Suzuki and tells her to close up the house, because it is too light and springlike. Then she orders her to go to the other room where the child is playing. Butterfly then kneels before the statue of Buddha and prays to her ancestral gods. She rises, takes down her father's knife, kisses the blade, and reads the inscription.",
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"plaintext": "34. Con onor muore (\"To die with honor\"). Butterfly reads the inscription on her father's knife: \"Who cannot live with honor must die with honor.\"",
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"plaintext": "35. Tu? Tu? Piccolo iddio! (\"You? You? My little god!\"). Butterfly's child enters, but Suzuki does not. Butterfly tells her child not to feel sorrow for his mother's desertion but to keep a faint memory of his mother's face. She bids him farewell, seats him on the floor and blindfolds him gently. She gives him a miniature American flag to wave in greeting to his father, which he does, blindfolded, throughout the following action. Butterfly takes the knife and walks behind the screen. The knife clatters to the floor as Butterfly staggers from behind the screen with a scarf around her neck. She kisses her child and collapses. From outside, Pinkerton cries, \"Butterfly!\" and rushes in – but it is too late: Butterfly is dead.",
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"plaintext": "Madama Butterfly is scored for three flutes (the third doubling piccolo); two oboes, one English horn; two clarinets in B-flat; one bass clarinet in B-flat, two bassoons; four French horns in F; three trumpets in F; three tenor trombones; one bass trombone; a percussion section with timpani, cymbals, one triangle, one snare drum, one bass drum, bells, one tam-tam, one Japanese gong, and one set of 4 \"Japanese Bells\"; one keyboard glockenspiel; one onstage \"little bell\"; onstage tubular bells; one onstage viola d'amore; onstage bird whistles; one onstage tam-tam; one onstage bass tam-tam; a harp; and strings.",
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"plaintext": "In its initial form, the opera was not well received. The premier in Milan was a fiasco, as Puccini's sister, Ramelde, wrote in a letter to her husband:\"At two o'clock we went to bed and I can't sleep one bit; and to say that we were all so sure! Giacomo, poor thing, we never saw him because we couldn't go on the stage. We got to the end of it and I don't know how. The second act I didn't hear at all, and before the opera was over, we ran out of the theater.\"It is very difficult to judge why the version which premiered in Milan left the audience in such disappointment, since it is not that different from the version that triumphed in Brescia just a few months later.",
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"plaintext": "Madama Butterfly has been criticized by some American intellectuals for orientalism. Despite these opinions, Madama Butterfly has been successfully performed in Japan in various adaptions from 1914, Puccini's music going relatively unnoticed in respect to the racy libretto.",
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"plaintext": "Today Madama Butterfly is the sixth most performed opera in the world and considered a masterpiece, with Puccini's orchestration praised as limpid, fluent and refined. \"Un bel dì, vedremo\" is the most famous aria from Madama Butterfly and one of the most recognizable soprano arias in the world of opera.",
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"plaintext": " 1915: A silent film version was directed by Sidney Olcott and starred Mary Pickford.",
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"plaintext": " 1919: A silent (tinted) film version (titled Harakiri) directed by Fritz Lang and starring Paul Biensfeldt, Lil Dagover, Georg John and Niels Prien.",
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"plaintext": " 1922: A silent color film, The Toll of the Sea, based on the opera/play was released. This movie, which starred Anna May Wong in her first leading role, moved the storyline to China. It was the second two-color Technicolor motion picture ever released and the first film made using Technicolor Process 2.",
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"plaintext": " 1931: Concise Chōchō-san by the Takarazuka Revue",
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"plaintext": " 1932: Madame Butterfly, a non-singing drama (with ample portions of Puccini's score in the musical underscoring) made by Paramount starring Sylvia Sidney and Cary Grant in black & white.",
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"plaintext": " 1940: \"Madame Butterfly's Illusion\", a 12-minute Japanese silhouette animation film.",
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"plaintext": " 1954: Madame Butterfly, a screen adaptation of the opera, directed by Carmine Gallone jointly produced by Italy's Cineriz and Japan's Toho. The film was shot in Technicolor at Cinecittà in Rome, Italy. Starring Japanese actress Kaoru Yachigusa as Cio-Cio San and Italian tenor Nicola Filacuridi as Pinkerton, and with Japanese actors and Italian actors, dubbed by Italian opera singers.",
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"plaintext": " 1965: Sao Krua Fah, a 16 mm Thai film starred by Mitr Chaibancha and Pisamai Wilaisak. ",
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"plaintext": " 1974: Madama Butterfly, a German television adaptation of the opera starring Mirella Freni and Plácido Domingo, directed by Jean-Pierre Ponnelle.",
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"plaintext": " 1989: The West End and Broadway musical Miss Saigon was, in part, based on Madama Butterfly. The story was moved to Vietnam and Thailand and set against the backdrop of the Vietnam War and the Fall of Saigon, but the central themes are largely unchanged.",
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"plaintext": " 1995: Frédéric Mitterrand directed a film version of the opera, Madame Butterfly, in Tunisia, North Africa, starring Richard Troxell and Chinese singer Ying Huang in the lead roles.",
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"plaintext": " 1995: Australian choreographer Stanton Welch created a ballet, inspired by the opera, for The Australian Ballet.",
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"plaintext": " 1996: The album Pinkerton by the rock band Weezer was based loosely on the opera.",
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"plaintext": " 2004: On the 100th anniversary of Madama Butterfly, Shigeaki Saegusa composed Jr. Butterfly to a libretto by Masahiko Shimada.",
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"plaintext": " 2011: Cho cho san, Japanese novel, and TV drama series based on the novel, written by Shinichi Ichikawa. Based on the original opera, the story depicts the sorrowful love and turbulent life of a samurai's daughter who loses her parents at a young age and becomes the apprentice of a geisha, set in the early Meiji era in Nagasaki, Japan. Starring Japanese actress Aoi Miyazaki as Cho Ito (Cho cho san).",
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"plaintext": " 2013: Cho Cho, musical drama by Daniel Keene, music by Cheng Jin, set in 1930s Shanghai.",
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"plaintext": " Burke-Gaffney, Brian, Starcrossed: A Biography of Madame Butterfly, EastBridge, 2004 .",
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"plaintext": " Groos, Arthur, \"Madame Butterfly: The Story\", Cambridge Opera Journal, vol. 3, no. 2 (July 1991)",
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"plaintext": " Melitz, Leo, The Opera Goer's Complete Guide, 1921 version, source of the plot.",
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"plaintext": " Mezzanotte, Riccardo (ed.), The Simon & Schuster Book of the Opera: A Complete Reference Guide – 1597 to the Present, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1977. .",
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"plaintext": " Osborne, Charles, The Complete Operas of Puccini, New York: Da Capo Press, 1983.",
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"plaintext": " Weaver, William, Simonetta Puccini, (eds.), The Puccini Companion, New York: W. W. Norton, 1994. .",
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"plaintext": " Detailed synopsis",
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"plaintext": " New York City Opera Project: Madama Butterfly – Columbia University",
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"plaintext": " \"Madame Butterfly Turns 100; A Century Ago, Puccini's Tragic Heroine First Took the Stage\". NPR",
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"plaintext": " Libretto, Stanford University",
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"plaintext": " John Luther Long, Madame Butterfly, the original book",
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"plaintext": " Full piano vocal score, William and Gayle Cook Music Library, Indiana University School of Music",
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"plaintext": " , Renata Tebaldi sings \"Un bel dì, vedremo\"",
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| [
"1904_operas",
"Fiction_set_in_1904",
"Operas_set_in_the_20th_century",
"Italian-language_operas",
"Nagasaki_in_fiction",
"Japan_in_non-Japanese_culture",
"Opera_world_premieres_at_La_Scala",
"Operas_based_on_novels",
"Operas_based_on_plays",
"Operas_by_Giacomo_Puccini",
"Operas_set_in_Japan",
"Operas",
"Fiction_about_suicide",
"Operas_adapted_into_films",
"Fiction_about_interracial_romance"
]
| 19,005 | 27,551 | 1,458 | 131 | 0 | 0 | Madama Butterfly | opera by Giacomo Puccini | []
|
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"plaintext": "Most of the time, large powerful fans suck air through the tube. The object being tested is held securely inside the tunnel so that it remains stationary. The object can be an aerodynamic test object such as a cylinder or an airfoil, an individual component, a small model of the vehicle, or a full-sized vehicle. The air moving around the stationary object shows what would happen if the object was moving through the air. The motion of the air can be studied in different ways; smoke or dye can be placed in the air and can be seen as it moves around the object. Coloured threads can also be attached to the object to show how the air moves around it. Special instruments can often be used to measure the force of the air exerted against the object.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest wind tunnels were invented towards the end of the 19th century, in the early days of aeronautic research,",
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"plaintext": "when many attempted to develop successful heavier-than-air flying machines. The wind tunnel was envisioned as a means of reversing the usual paradigm: instead of the air standing still and an object moving at speed through it, the same effect would be obtained if the object stood still and the air moved at speed past it. In that way a stationary observer could study the flying object in action, and could measure the aerodynamic forces being imposed on it.",
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"plaintext": "The development of wind tunnels accompanied the development of the airplane. Large wind tunnels were built during World War II. Wind tunnel testing was considered of strategic importance during the Cold War development of supersonic aircraft and missiles.",
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"plaintext": "Later, wind tunnel study came into its own: the effects of wind on man-made structures or objects needed to be studied when buildings became tall enough to present large surfaces to the wind, and the resulting forces had to be resisted by the building's internal structure. Determining such forces was required before building codes could specify the required strength of such buildings and such tests continue to be used for large or unusual buildings.",
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"plaintext": "Circa the 1960s, wind tunnel testing was applied to automobiles, not so much to determine aerodynamic forces per se but more to determine ways to reduce the power required to move the vehicle on roadways at a given speed. In these studies, the interaction between the road and the vehicle plays a significant role, and this interaction must be taken into consideration when interpreting the test results. In an actual situation the roadway is moving relative to the vehicle but the air is stationary relative to the roadway, but in the wind tunnel the air is moving relative to the roadway, while the roadway is stationary relative to the test vehicle. Some automotive-test wind tunnels have incorporated moving belts under the test vehicle in an effort to approximate the actual condition, and very similar devices are used in wind tunnel testing of aircraft take-off and landing configurations.",
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"plaintext": "Wind tunnel testing of sporting equipment has also been prevalent over the years, including golf clubs, golf balls, Olympic bobsleds, Olympic cyclists, and race car helmets. Helmet aerodynamics is particularly important in open cockpit race cars (Indycar, Formula One). Excessive lift forces on the helmet can cause considerable neck strain on the driver, and flow separation on the back side of the helmet can cause turbulent buffeting and thus blurred vision for the driver at high speeds.",
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"plaintext": "The advances in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modelling on high-speed digital computers has reduced the demand for wind tunnel testing.",
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"plaintext": "Air velocity and pressures are measured in several ways in wind tunnels.",
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"plaintext": "Air velocity through the test section is determined by Bernoulli's principle. Measurement of the dynamic pressure, the static pressure, and (for compressible flow only) the temperature rise in the airflow.",
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"plaintext": "The direction of airflow around a model can be determined by tufts of yarn attached to the aerodynamic surfaces. The direction of airflow approaching a surface can be visualized by mounting threads in the airflow ahead of and aft of the test model. Smoke or bubbles of liquid can be introduced into the airflow upstream of the test model, and their path around the model can be photographed (see particle image velocimetry).",
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"plaintext": "Aerodynamic forces on the test model are usually measured with beam balances, connected to the test model with beams, strings, or cables.",
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"plaintext": "The pressure distributions across the test model have historically been measured by drilling many small holes along the airflow path, and using multi-tube manometers to measure the pressure at each hole. Pressure distributions can more conveniently be measured by the use of pressure-sensitive paint, in which higher local pressure is indicated by lowered fluorescence of the paint at that point. Pressure distributions can also be conveniently measured by the use of pressure-sensitive pressure belts, a recent development in which multiple ultra-miniaturized pressure sensor modules are integrated into a flexible strip. The strip is attached to the aerodynamic surface with tape, and it sends signals depicting the pressure distribution along its surface.",
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"plaintext": "Pressure distributions on a test model can also be determined by performing a wake survey, in which either a single pitot tube is used to obtain multiple readings downstream of the test model, or a multiple-tube manometer is mounted downstream and all its readings are taken.",
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"plaintext": "The aerodynamic properties of an object can not all remain the same for a scaled model. However, by observing certain similarity rules, a very satisfactory correspondence between the aerodynamic properties of a scaled model and a full-size object can be achieved. The choice of similarity parameters depends on the purpose of the test, but the most important conditions to satisfy are usually:",
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"plaintext": " Geometric similarity: all dimensions of the object must be proportionally scaled;",
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"plaintext": " Mach number: the ratio of the airspeed to the speed of sound should be identical for the scaled model and the actual object (having identical Mach number in a wind tunnel and around the actual object is -not- equal to having identical airspeeds) ",
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"plaintext": " Reynolds number: the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces should be kept. This parameter is difficult to satisfy with a scaled model and has led to development of pressurized and cryogenic wind tunnels in which the viscosity of the working fluid can be greatly changed to compensate for the reduced scale of the model.",
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"plaintext": "In certain particular test cases, other similarity parameters must be satisfied, such as e.g. Froude number.",
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"plaintext": "English military engineer and mathematician Benjamin Robins (17071751) invented a whirling arm apparatus to determine drag and did some of the first experiments in aviation theory.",
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"plaintext": "Sir George Cayley (1773–1857) also used a whirling arm to measure the drag and lift of various airfoils. His whirling arm was long and attained top speeds between 10 and 20 feet per second (3 to 6m/s).",
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"plaintext": "Otto Lilienthal used a rotating arm to accurately measure wing airfoils with varying angles of attack, establishing their lift-to-drag ratio polar diagrams, but was lacking the notions of induced drag and Reynolds numbers.",
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"plaintext": "However, the whirling arm does not produce a reliable flow of air impacting the test shape at a normal incidence. Centrifugal forces and the fact that the object is moving in its own wake mean that detailed examination of the airflow is difficult. Francis Herbert Wenham (1824–1908), a Council Member of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, addressed these issues by inventing, designing and operating the first enclosed wind tunnel in 1871. Once this breakthrough had been achieved, detailed technical data was rapidly extracted by the use of this tool. Wenham and his colleague John Browning are credited with many fundamental discoveries, including the measurement of l/d ratios, and the revelation of the beneficial effects of a high aspect ratio.",
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"plaintext": "Konstantin Tsiolkovsky built an open-section wind tunnel with a centrifugal blower in 1897, and determined the drag coefficients of flat plates, cylinders and spheres.",
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"plaintext": "Danish inventor Poul la Cour applied wind tunnels in his process of developing and refining the technology of wind turbines in the early 1890s.",
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"plaintext": "Carl Rickard Nyberg used a wind tunnel when designing his Flugan from 1897 and onwards.",
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"plaintext": "In a classic set of experiments, the Englishman Osborne Reynolds (1842–1912) of the University of Manchester demonstrated that the airflow pattern over a scale model would be the same for the full-scale vehicle if a certain flow parameter were the same in both cases. This factor, now known as the Reynolds number, is a basic parameter in the description of all fluid-flow situations, including the shapes of flow patterns, the ease of heat transfer, and the onset of turbulence. This comprises the central scientific justification for the use of models in wind tunnels to simulate real-life phenomena. However, there are limitations on conditions in which dynamic similarity is based upon the Reynolds number alone.",
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"plaintext": "The Wright brothers' use of a simple wind tunnel in 1901 to study the effects of airflow over various shapes while developing their Wright Flyer was in some ways revolutionary. It can be seen from the above, however, that they were simply using the accepted technology of the day, though this was not yet a common technology in America.",
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"plaintext": "In France, Gustave Eiffel (1832–1923) built his first open-return wind tunnel in 1909, powered by a 50kW electric motor, at Champs-de-Mars, near the foot of the tower that bears his name.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1909 and 1912 Eiffel ran about 4,000 tests in his wind tunnel, and his systematic experimentation set new standards for aeronautical research.",
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"plaintext": "In 1912 Eiffel's laboratory was moved to Auteuil, a suburb of Paris, where his wind tunnel with a two-metre test section is still operational today. Eiffel significantly improved the efficiency of the open-return wind tunnel by enclosing the test section in a chamber, designing a flared inlet with a honeycomb flow straightener and adding a diffuser between the test section and the fan located at the downstream end of the diffuser; this was an arrangement followed by a number of wind tunnels later built; in fact the open-return low-speed wind tunnel is often called the Eiffel-type wind tunnel.",
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"plaintext": "Subsequent use of wind tunnels proliferated as the science of aerodynamics and discipline of aeronautical engineering were established and air travel and power were developed.",
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"plaintext": "The US Navy in 1916 built one of the largest wind tunnels in the world at that time at the Washington Navy Yard. The inlet was almost in diameter and the discharge part was in diameter. A 500hp electric motor drove the paddle type fan blades.",
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"plaintext": "In 1931 the NACA built a 30-foot-by-60-foot full-scale wind tunnel at Langley Research Center in Langley, Virginia. The tunnel was powered by a pair of fans driven by 4,000hp electric motors. The layout was a double-return, closed-loop format and could accommodate many full-size real aircraft as well as scale models. The tunnel was eventually closed and, even though it was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1995, demolition began in 2010.",
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"plaintext": "Until World War II, the world's largest wind tunnel, built in 1932–1934, was located in a suburb of Paris, Chalais-Meudon, France. It was designed to test full-size aircraft and had six large fans driven by high powered electric motors. The Chalais-Meudon wind tunnel was used by ONERA under the name S1Ch until 1976 in the development of, e.g., the Caravelle and Concorde airplanes. Today, this wind tunnel is preserved as a national monument.",
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"plaintext": "Ludwig Prandtl was Theodore von Kármán’s teacher at Göttingen University and suggested the construction of a wind tunnel for tests of airships they were designing. The vortex street of turbulence downstream of a cylinder was tested in the tunnel. When he later moved to Aachen University he recalled use of this facility:",
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"plaintext": "I remembered the wind tunnel in Göttingen was started as a tool for studies of Zeppelin behavior, but that it had proven to be valuable for everything else from determining the direction of smoke from a ship’s stack, to whether a given airplane would fly. Progress at Aachen, I felt, would be virtually impossible without a good wind tunnel.",
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"plaintext": "When von Kármán began to consult with Caltech he worked with Clark Millikan and Arthur L. Klein. He objected to their design and insisted on a return flow making the device \"independent of the fluctuations of the outside atmosphere\". It was completed in 1930 and used for Northrop Alpha testing.",
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"plaintext": "In 1939 General Arnold asked what was required to advance the USAF, and von Kármán answered, \"The first step is to build the right wind tunnel.\" On the other hand, after the successes of the Bell X-2 and prospect of more advanced research, he wrote, \"I was in favor of constructing such a plane because I have never believed that you can get all the answers out of a wind tunnel.\"",
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"plaintext": "In 1941 the US constructed one of the largest wind tunnels at that time at Wright Field in Dayton, Ohio. This wind tunnel starts at and narrows to in diameter. Two fans were driven by a 40,000hp electric motor. Large scale aircraft models could be tested at air speeds of .",
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"plaintext": "The wind tunnel used by German scientists at Peenemünde prior to and during WWII is an interesting example of the difficulties associated with extending the useful range of large wind tunnels. It used some large natural caves which were increased in size by excavation and then sealed to store large volumes of air which could then be routed through the wind tunnels. This innovative approach allowed lab research in high-speed regimes and greatly accelerated the rate of advance of Germany's aeronautical engineering efforts. By the end of the war, Germany had at least three different supersonic wind tunnels, with one capable of Mach 4.4 (heated) airflows.",
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"plaintext": "A large wind tunnel under construction near Oetztal, Austria would have had two fans directly driven by two 50,000 horsepower hydraulic turbines. The installation was not completed by the end of the war and the dismantled equipment was shipped to Modane, France in 1946 where it was re-erected and is still operated there by the ONERA. With its 8m test section and airspeed up to Mach 1 it is the largest transonic wind tunnel facility in the world.",
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"plaintext": "On 22 June 1942, Curtiss-Wright financed construction of one of the nation's largest subsonic wind tunnels in Buffalo, N.Y. The first concrete for building was poured on 22 June 1942 on a site that eventually would become Calspan, where the largest independently owned wind tunnel in the United States still operates.",
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"plaintext": "By the end of World War II, the US had built eight new wind tunnels, including the largest one in the world at Moffett Field near Sunnyvale, California, which was designed to test full size aircraft at speeds of less than 250mph and a vertical wind tunnel at Wright Field, Ohio, where the wind stream is upwards for the testing of models in spin situations and the concepts and engineering designs for the first primitive helicopters flown in the US.",
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"plaintext": "Later research into airflows near or above the speed of sound used a related approach. Metal pressure chambers were used to store high-pressure air which was then accelerated through a nozzle designed to provide supersonic flow. The observation or instrumentation chamber (\"test section\") was then placed at the proper location in the throat or nozzle for the desired airspeed.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, concern over the lagging of American research facilities compared to those built by the Germans led to the Unitary Wind Tunnel Plan Act of 1949, which authorized expenditure to construct new wind tunnels at universities and at military sites. Some German war-time wind tunnels were dismantled for shipment to the United States as part of the plan to exploit German technology developments.",
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"plaintext": "For limited applications, Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) can supplement or possibly replace the use of wind tunnels. For example, the experimental rocket plane SpaceShipOne was designed without any use of wind tunnels. However, on one test, flight threads were attached to the surface of the wings, performing a wind tunnel type of test during an actual flight in order to refine the computational model. Where external turbulent flow is present, CFD is not practical due to limitations in present-day computing resources. For example, an area that is still much too complex for the use of CFD is determining the effects of flow on and around structures, bridges, terrain, etc.",
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"plaintext": "The most effective way to simulative external turbulent flow is through the use of a boundary layer wind tunnel.",
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"plaintext": "There are many applications for boundary layer wind tunnel modeling. For example, understanding the impact of wind on high-rise buildings, factories, bridges, etc. can help building designers construct a structure that stands up to wind effects in the most efficient manner possible. Another significant application for boundary layer wind tunnel modeling is for understanding exhaust gas dispersion patterns for hospitals, laboratories, and other emitting sources. Other examples of boundary layer wind tunnel applications are assessments of pedestrian comfort and snow drifting. Wind tunnel modeling is accepted as a method for aiding in Green building design. For instance, the use of boundary layer wind tunnel modeling can be used as a credit for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certification through the U.S. Green Building Council.",
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"plaintext": "Wind tunnel tests in a boundary layer wind tunnel allow for the natural drag of the Earth's surface to be simulated. For accuracy, it is important to simulate the mean wind speed profile and turbulence effects within the atmospheric boundary layer. Most codes and standards recognize that wind tunnel testing can produce reliable information for designers, especially when their projects are in complex terrain or on exposed sites.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, many wind tunnels have been decommissioned in the last 20 years, including some historic facilities. Pressure is brought to bear on remaining wind tunnels due to declining or erratic usage, high electricity costs, and in some cases the high value of the real estate upon which the facility sits. On the other hand, CFD validation still requires wind-tunnel data, and this is likely to be the case for the foreseeable future. Studies have been done and others are underway to assess future military and commercial wind tunnel needs, but the outcome remains uncertain. More recently an increasing use of jet-powered, instrumented unmanned vehicles [\"research drones\"] have replaced some of the traditional uses of wind tunnels. The world's fastest wind tunnel as of 2019 is the LENS-X wind tunnel, located in Buffalo, New York.",
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"plaintext": "Air is blown or sucked through a duct equipped with a viewing port and instrumentation where models or geometrical shapes are mounted for study. Typically the air is moved through the tunnel using a series of fans. For very large wind tunnels several meters in diameter, a single large fan is not practical, and so instead an array of multiple fans are used in parallel to provide sufficient airflow. Due to the sheer volume and speed of air movement required, the fans may be powered by stationary turbofan engines rather than electric motors.",
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"plaintext": "The airflow created by the fans that is entering the tunnel is itself highly turbulent due to the fan blade motion (when the fan is blowing air into the test section – when it is sucking air out of the test section downstream, the fan-blade turbulence is not a factor), and so is not directly useful for accurate measurements. The air moving through the tunnel needs to be relatively turbulence-free and laminar. To correct this problem, closely spaced vertical and horizontal air vanes are used to smooth out the turbulent airflow before reaching the subject of the testing.",
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"plaintext": "Due to the effects of viscosity, the cross-section of a wind tunnel is typically circular rather than square, because there will be greater flow constriction in the corners of a square tunnel that can make the flow turbulent. A circular tunnel provides a smoother flow.",
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"plaintext": "The inside facing of the tunnel is typically as smooth as possible, to reduce surface drag and turbulence that could impact the accuracy of the testing. Even smooth walls induce some drag into the airflow, and so the object being tested is usually kept near the center of the tunnel, with an empty buffer zone between the object and the tunnel walls. There are correction factors to relate wind tunnel test results to open-air results.",
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"plaintext": "The lighting is usually embedded into the circular walls of the tunnel and shines in through windows. If the light were mounted on the inside surface of the tunnel in a conventional manner, the light bulb would generate turbulence as the air blows around it. Similarly, observation is usually done through transparent portholes into the tunnel. Rather than simply being flat discs, these lighting and observation windows may be curved to match the cross-section of the tunnel and further reduce turbulence around the window.",
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"plaintext": "Various techniques are used to study the actual airflow around the geometry and compare it with theoretical results, which must also take into account the Reynolds number and Mach number for the regime of operation.",
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"plaintext": "Pressure across the surfaces of the model can be measured if the model includes pressure taps. This can be useful for pressure-dominated phenomena, but this only accounts for normal forces on the body.",
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"plaintext": "With the model mounted on a force balance, one can measure lift, drag, lateral forces, yaw, roll, and pitching moments over a range of angle of attack. This allows one to produce common curves such as lift coefficient versus angle of attack (shown).",
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"plaintext": "Note that the force balance itself creates drag and potential turbulence that will affect the model and introduce errors into the measurements. The supporting structures are therefore typically smoothly shaped to minimize turbulence.",
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"plaintext": "Because air is transparent it is difficult to directly observe the air movement itself. Instead, multiple methods of both quantitative and qualitative flow visualization methods have been developed for testing in a wind tunnel.",
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"plaintext": " Smoke",
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"plaintext": " Carbon Dioxide Injection",
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"plaintext": " Tufts, mini-tufts, or flow cones can be applied to a model and remain attached during testing. Tufts can be used to gauge air flow patterns and flow separation. Tufts are sometimes made of fluorescent material and are illuminated under black light to aid in visualization.",
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"plaintext": "Evaporating suspensions are simply a mixture of some sort or fine powder, talc, or clay mixed into a liquid with a low latent heat of evaporation. When the wind is turned on the liquid quickly evaporates, leaving behind the clay in a pattern characteristic of the air flow.",
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"plaintext": " Oil: When oil is applied to the model surface it can clearly show the transition from laminar to turbulent flow as well as flow separation.",
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"plaintext": " Tempera Paint: Similar to oil, tempera paint can be applied to the surface of the model by initially applying the paint in spaced out dots. After running the wind tunnel, the flow direction and separation can be identified. An additional strategy in the use of tempera paint is to use blacklights to create a luminous flow pattern with the tempera paint.",
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"plaintext": " Fog (usually from water particles) is created with an ultrasonic piezoelectric nebulizer. The fog is transported inside the wind tunnel (preferably of the closed circuit and closed test section type). An electrically heated grid is inserted before the test section, which evaporates the water particles at its vicinity, thus forming fog sheets. The fog sheets function as streamlines over the test model when illuminated by a light sheet.",
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"plaintext": " Sublimation: If the air movement in the tunnel is sufficiently non-turbulent, a particle stream released into the airflow will not break up as the air moves along, but stay together as a sharp thin line. Multiple particle streams released from a grid of many nozzles can provide a dynamic three-dimensional shape of the airflow around a body. As with the force balance, these injection pipes and nozzles need to be shaped in a manner that minimizes the introduction of turbulent airflow into the airstream.",
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"plaintext": " Sublimation (alternate definition): A flow visualization technique is to coat the model in a sublimatable material where once the wind is turned on in regions where the airflow is laminar, the material will remain attached to the model, while conversely in turbulent areas the material will evaporate off of the model. This technique is primarily employed to verify that trip dots placed at the leading edge in order to force a transition are successfully achieving the intended goal.",
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"plaintext": "High-speed turbulence and vortices can be difficult to see directly, but strobe lights and film cameras or high-speed digital cameras can help to capture events that are a blur to the naked eye.",
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"plaintext": "High-speed cameras are also required when the subject of the test is itself moving at high speed, such as an airplane propeller. The camera can capture stop-motion images of how the blade cuts through the particulate streams and how vortices are generated along the trailing edges of the moving blade.",
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"plaintext": " Pressure Sensitive Paint (PSP): PSP is a technique whereby a model is spray coated with a paint that reacts to variations in pressure by changing color. In conjunction with this technique, cameras are usually positioned at strategic viewing angles through the walls, ceiling, and floor of the wind tunnel to photograph the model while the wind is on. The photographic results can be digitized to create a full distribution of the external pressures acting on the model, and subsequently mapped onto a computational geometric mesh for direct comparison with CFD results. PSP measurements can be effective at capturing pressure variations across the model however often require supplemental pressure taps on the surface of the model to verify the absolute magnitude of the pressure coefficients. An important property of well behaved PSP paints is they also should be insensitive to temperature effects since the temperature inside the wind tunnel could vary considerably after continuously running. Common difficulties encountered when using PSP include the inability to accurately measure the leading and trailing edge effects in areas where there is high curvature due to limitations in the cameras ability to gain an advantageous viewing angle. Additionally application of PSP on the leading edge is sometimes avoided because it introduces a finite thickness that could cause early flow separation thus corrupting results. Since the pressure variations at the leading edge is typically of primary interest, the lack of accurate results in that region is very problematic. Once a model is painted with pressure sensitive paint, certain paints have been known to adhere and continue to perform for a matter of months after initially applied. Finally PSP paints have been known to have certain frequency characteristics where some require a few moments to stabilize before achieving accurate results while others converge rapidly. In the latter instance paints that have ability to reflect rapid changes in pressure can be used for Dynamic PSP applications where the intent is to measure unsteady flow characteristics.",
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"plaintext": " Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV): PIV is a technique in which a laser sheet is emitted through a slit in the wall of the tunnel where an imaging device is able to track the local velocity direction of particles in the plane of the laser sheet. Sometimes this technique involves seeding the airflow with observable material. This technique allows for the quantitative measurement of the velocity and direction of the flow across the areas captured in the plane of the laser.",
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"plaintext": " Model Deformation Measurement (MDM): MDM works by placing markers at known geometric locations on the wind tunnel model and taking photographs of the change in the marker's location as the wind in the tunnel is applied. By analyzing the change in marker positions from different camera viewing angles, the translational change in location of the marker can be calculated. By collecting results from a few markers, the degree to which the model is flexibly yielding due to the air load can be calculated.",
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"plaintext": "There are many different kinds of wind tunnels. They are typically classified by the range of speeds that are achieved in the test section, as follows:",
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"plaintext": " Low-speed wind tunnel",
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"plaintext": " High speed wind tunnel",
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"plaintext": " Subsonic and transonic wind tunnel",
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"plaintext": " Supersonic wind tunnel",
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"plaintext": " Hypersonic wind tunnel",
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"plaintext": " High enthalpy wind tunnel",
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"plaintext": "Wind tunnels are also classified by the orientation of air flow in the test section with respect to gravity. Typically they are oriented horizontally, as happens during level flight. A different class of wind tunnels are oriented vertically so that gravity can be balanced by drag instead of lift, and these have become a popular form of recreation for simulating sky-diving:",
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"plaintext": " Vertical wind tunnel",
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"plaintext": "Wind tunnels are also classified based on their main use. For those used with land vehicles such as cars and trucks the type of floor aerodynamics is also important. These vary from stationary floors through to full moving floors, with smaller moving floors and some attempt at boundary level control also being important.",
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"plaintext": "The main subcategories in the aeronautical wind tunnels are:",
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"plaintext": "Reynolds number is one of the governing similarity parameters for the simulation of flow in a wind tunnel. For mach number less than 0.3, it is the primary parameter that governs the flow characteristics. There are three main ways to simulate high Reynolds number, since it is not practical to obtain full scale Reynolds number by use of a full scale vehicle.",
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"plaintext": " Pressurised tunnels: Here test gases are pressurised to increase the Reynolds number.",
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"plaintext": " Heavy gas tunnels: Heavier gases like freon and R-134a are used as test gases. The transonic dynamics tunnel at NASA Langley is an example of such a tunnel.",
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"plaintext": " Cryogenic tunnels: Here test gas is cooled down to increase the Reynolds number. The European transonic wind tunnel uses this technique.",
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"plaintext": " High-altitude tunnels: These are designed to test the effects of shock waves against various aircraft shapes in near vacuum. In 1952 the University of California constructed the first two high-altitude wind tunnels: one for testing objects at 50 to 70 miles above the earth and the second for tests at 80 to 200 miles above the earth.",
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"plaintext": "V/STOL tunnels require large cross section area, but only small velocities. Since power varies with the cube of velocity, the power required for the operation is also less. An example of a V/STOL tunnel is the NASA Langley 14' x 22' tunnel.",
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"plaintext": "Aircraft have a tendency to go to spin when they stall. These tunnels are used to study that phenomenon.",
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"plaintext": "Automotive wind tunnels fall into two categories:",
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"plaintext": " External flow tunnels are used to study the external flow through the chassis",
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"plaintext": " Climatic tunnels are used to evaluate the performance of door systems, braking systems, etc. under various climatic conditions. Most of the leading automobile manufacturers have their own climatic wind tunnels",
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"plaintext": "Wunibald Kamm built the first full-scale wind tunnel for motor vehicles.",
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"plaintext": "For external flow tunnels various systems are used to compensate for the effect of the boundary layer on the road surface, including systems of moving belts under each wheel and the body of the car (5 or 7 belt systems) or one large belt under the entire car, or other methods of boundary layer control such as scoops or perforations to suck it away.",
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"plaintext": "These tunnels are used in the studies of noise generated by flow and its suppression.",
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"plaintext": "A high enthalpy wind tunnel is intended to study flow of air around objects moving at speeds much faster than the local speed of sound (hypersonic speeds). \"Enthalpy\" is the total energy of a gas stream, composed of internal energy due to temperature, the product of pressure and volume, and the velocity of flow. Duplication of the conditions of hypersonic flight requires large volumes of high-pressure, heated air; large pressurized hot reservoirs, and electric arcs, are two techniques used.",
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"plaintext": "The aerodynamic principles of the wind tunnel work equally on watercraft, except the water is more viscous and so sets greater forces on the object being tested. A looping flume is typically used for underwater aquadynamic testing. The interaction between two different types of fluids means that pure wind tunnel testing is only partly relevant. However, a similar sort of research is done in a towing tank.",
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"plaintext": "Air is not always the best test medium for studying small-scale aerodynamic principles, due to the speed of the air flow and airfoil movement. A study of fruit fly wings designed to understand how the wings produce lift was performed using a large tank of mineral oil and wings 100 times larger than actual size, in order to slow down the wing beats and make the vortices generated by the insect wings easier to see and understand.",
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"plaintext": "Wind tunnel tests are also performed to precisely measure the air movement of fans at a specific pressure. By determining the environmental circumstances during measurement, and by revising the air-tightness afterwards, the standardization of the data is ensured.",
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"plaintext": "There are two possible ways of measurement: a complete fan, or an impeller on a hydraulic installation. Two measuring tubes enable measurements of lower air currents (< 30,000 m3/h) as well as higher air currents (< 60,000 m3/h). The determination of the Q/h curve of the fan is one of the main objectives. To determine this curve (and to define other parameters) air technical, mechanical as well as electro technical data are measured:",
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"plaintext": "Air technical:",
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"plaintext": " Static pressure difference (Pa)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Amount of moved air (m3/h)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Average air speed (m/s)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Specific efficiency (W/1000m3/h)",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Efficiency",
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},
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"plaintext": "Electro technical:",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Tension (V)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Current (A)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Cos φ",
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"plaintext": " Admitted power (W) fan / impeller",
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"plaintext": " Rotations per minute (RPM)",
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"plaintext": "The measurement can take place on the fan or in the application in which the fan is used.",
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"plaintext": "In wind engineering, wind tunnel tests are used to measure the velocity around, and forces or pressures upon structures. Very tall buildings, buildings with unusual or complicated shapes (such as a tall building with a parabolic or a hyperbolic shape), cable suspension bridges or cable stayed bridges are analyzed in specialized atmospheric boundary layer wind tunnels. These feature a long upwind section to accurately represent the wind speed and turbulence profile acting on the structure. Wind tunnel tests provide the necessary design pressure measurements in use of the dynamic analysis and control of tall buildings.",
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"plaintext": " Arsenal (Vienna), climatic wind tunnel centre used by the rail industry",
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"plaintext": " Automobile design",
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"plaintext": " Doriot Climatic Chambers, climatic wind tunnel centre operated by the United States military",
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{
"plaintext": " Frank Wattendorf",
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"plaintext": " Sting (fixture)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Water tunnel, the hydrodynamics-oriented version of a wind tunnel",
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"target_page_ids": [
3573161
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},
{
"plaintext": " List of wind tunnels",
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{
"plaintext": "Jewel B. Barlow, William H. Rae, Jr., Allan Pope: Low speed wind tunnels testing (3rd ed.) ",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Video of a wind tunnel fog visualization",
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"plaintext": "Turandot (; ) is an opera in three acts by Giacomo Puccini, posthumously completed by Franco Alfano in 1926, and set to a libretto in Italian by Giuseppe Adami and Renato Simoni. Turandot best-known aria is \"Nessun dorma\", which became globally popular in the 1990s following Luciano Pavarotti's performance of it for the 1990 FIFA World Cup.",
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"plaintext": "Though Puccini first became interested in the subject matter when reading Friedrich Schiller's 1801 adaptation, he based his work more closely on the earlier play Turandot (1762) by Count Carlo Gozzi. The original story is one of the seven stories in the epic Haft Peykar—a work by twelfth-century Persian poet Nizami ( 1141–1209). Nizami aligned his seven stories with the seven days of the week, the seven colors, and the seven planets known in his era. This particular narrative is the story of Tuesday, as told to the king of Iran, Bahram V (), by his companion of the red dome, associated with Mars. In the first line of the story, the protagonist is identified as a Russian princess. The name of the opera is based on Turan-Dokht (daughter of Turan), which is a name frequently used in Persian poetry for Central Asian princesses.",
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"plaintext": "The opera's version of the story is set in China. It involves Prince Calaf, who falls in love with the cold Princess Turandot. In order to obtain permission to marry her, a suitor must solve three riddles. Any single wrong answer will result in the suitor's execution. Calaf passes the test, but Turandot refuses to marry him. He offers her a way out: if she is able to guess his name before dawn the next day, he will accept death. In the original story by Nizami, the princess sets four conditions: firstly \"a good name and good deeds\", and then the three challenges. As with Madama Butterfly, Puccini strove for a semblance of authenticity (at least to Western ears) by integrating music from the region. Up to eight of the musical themes in Turandot appear to be based on traditional Chinese music and anthems, and the melody of a Chinese song \"Mò Li Hūa (茉莉花)\", or \"Jasmine\", became a motif for the princess.",
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"plaintext": "Puccini left the opera unfinished at the time of his death in 1924; Franco Alfano completed it in 1926. The first performance took place at the Teatro alla Scala in Milan on 25 April 1926, conducted by Arturo Toscanini. The performance included only Puccini's music without Alfano's additions. The first performance of the opera as completed by Alfano was performed on the next evening, 26 April, although it is disputed whether the second performance was conducted by Toscanini or by Ettore Panizza.",
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"plaintext": "Turandot is a Persian word and name that means \"daughter of Turan\", Turan being a region of Central Asia, formerly part of the Persian Empire. The name of the opera is taken from Persian Turandokht (), with dokht being a contraction of dokhtar (daughter); the kh and t are both pronounced. However, the original protagonist in Nizami's story is identified in the first line of the Persian poem as being from Russia. The story is known as the story of the Red Dome among the Seven Domes (Haft Ghonbad) stories in Nizami's Haft Peykar (i.e., the seven figures or beauties).",
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"plaintext": "According to Puccini scholar Patrick Vincent Casali, the final t is silent in the opera's and title character's name, making it sound . Soprano Rosa Raisa, who created the title role, said that neither Puccini nor Arturo Toscanini, who conducted the first performances, ever pronounced the final t. Eva Turner, a prominent Turandot, did not pronounce the final t, as television interviews with her attest. Casali also maintains that the musical setting of many of Calaf's utterances of the name makes sounding the final t all but impossible. On the other hand, Simonetta Puccini, the composer's granddaughter and keeper of the Villa Puccini and Mausoleum, has said that the final t must be pronounced. Italo Marchini questioned her about this in 2002. Ms. Puccini said that in Italian the name would be Turandotta. In the Venetian dialect of Carlo Gozzi the final syllables are usually dropped and words end in a consonant, ergo Turandott, as the name has been made Venetian.",
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"plaintext": "The story of Turandot was taken from a Persian collection of stories called The Book of One Thousand and One Days (1722 French translation Les Mille et un jours by François Pétis de la Croix – not to be confused with its sister work The Book of One Thousand and One Nights) – in which the character of \"Turandokht\" as a cold princess is found. The story of Turandokht is one of the best-known tales from de la Croix's translation. The plot respects the classical unities of time, space, and action.",
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"plaintext": "Puccini began working on Turandot in March 1920 after meeting with librettists Giuseppe Adami and Renato Simoni. In his impatience, he began composition in January 1921, before Adami and Simoni had produced the text for the libretto. Baron Edoardo Fassini-Camossi, the former Italian diplomat to China, gave Puccini a music box that he got from the Boxer Rebellion that played 4 Chinese melodies. Puccini used three of these in the opera, and most memorably, the folk melody \"Mo Li Hua\" (Jasmine Flower) which is first sung by the children's chorus after the invocation to the moon in Act1, and becomes a sort of 'leitmotif' for the princess throughout the opera. Puccini commissioned a set of thirteen gongs constructed by the Tronci family specifically for Turandot. Decades later, percussionist Howard Van Hyning of the New York City Opera had been searching for a proper set of gongs and obtained the original set from the Stivanello Costume Company, which had acquired the gongs as the result of winning a bet. In 1987, he bought the gongs for his collection, paying thousands of dollars for the set, which he described as having \"colorful, intense, centered, and perfumed\" sound qualities.",
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"plaintext": "As with Madama Butterfly, Puccini strove for a semblance of Asian authenticity (at least to Western ears) by using music from the region. Up to eight of the themes used in Turandot appear to be based on traditional Chinese music and anthems, and the melody of a Chinese song named \"Mò Li Hūa (茉莉花)\", or \"Jasmine\", is included as a motif for the princess.",
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"plaintext": "By March 1924, Puccini had completed the opera up to the final duet. However, he was dissatisfied with the text of the final duet, and did not continue until 8 October, when he chose Adami's fourth version of the duet text. On 10 October he was diagnosed with throat cancer, and on 24 November he went to Brussels, Belgium for treatment. There he underwent a new and experimental radiation therapy. Puccini and his wife never knew how serious the cancer was, as the prognosis was revealed only to his son. Puccini, however, seems to have had some inkling of the seriousness of his condition since, before leaving for Brussels, he visited Toscanini and begged him, \"Don't let my Turandot die\". He died of a heart attack on 29 November 1924, when it had seemed that the radium treatment was succeeding. His step-daughter Fosca was in fact joyfully writing a letter to an English friend of the family, Sibyl Seligman, telling her that the cancer was shrinking when she was called to her father's bedside because of the heart attack.",
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"plaintext": "When Puccini died, the first two of the three acts were fully composed, including the orchestration. Puccini had composed and fully orchestrated Act Three up until Liù's death and funeral cortege. In the sense of finished music, this was the last music composed by Puccini. He left behind 36 pages of sketches on 23 sheets for the end of Turandot. Some sketches were in the form of \"piano-vocal\" or \"short score\", including vocal lines with \"two to four staves of accompaniment with occasional notes on orchestration.\" These sketches provided music for some, but not all, of the final portion of the libretto.",
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"plaintext": "Puccini left instructions that Riccardo Zandonai should finish the opera. Puccini's son Tonio objected, and eventually Franco Alfano was chosen to flesh out the sketches after Vincenzo Tommasini (who had completed Boito's Nerone after the composer's death) and Pietro Mascagni were rejected. Puccini's publisher Tito Ricordi II decided on Alfano because his opera La leggenda di Sakùntala resembled Turandot in its setting and heavy orchestration. Alfano provided a first version of the ending with a few passages of his own, and even a few sentences added to the libretto, which was not considered complete even by Puccini. After the severe criticisms by Ricordi and the conductor Arturo Toscanini, he was forced to write a second, strictly censored version that followed Puccini's sketches more closely, to the point where he did not set some of Adami's text to music because Puccini had not indicated how he wanted it to sound. Ricordi's real concern was not the quality of Alfano's work, but that he wanted the end of Turandot to sound as if it had been written by Puccini, and Alfano's editing had to be seamless. Of this version, about three minutes were cut for performance by Toscanini, and it is this shortened version that is usually performed today.",
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"plaintext": "The premiere of Turandot was at La Scala, Milan, on Sunday 25 April 1926, one year and five months after Puccini's death. Rosa Raisa held the title role. Tenors Miguel Fleta and Franco Lo Giudice alternated in the role of Prince Calaf in the original production with Fleta singing the role on opening night. It was conducted by Arturo Toscanini. In the middle of act 3, two measures after the words \"Liù, poesia!\", the orchestra rested. Toscanini stopped and laid down his baton. He turned to the audience and announced: \"Qui finisce l'opera, perché a questo punto il maestro è morto\" (\"Here the opera ends, because at this point the maestro died\"). The curtain was lowered slowly. These are the words reported by , who was present at the premiere. A reporter for La Stampa recorded the words slightly differently: \"Qui finisce l'opera, rimasta incompiuta per la morte del povero Puccini/Here the opera ends, left incomplete by the death of the late Puccini.\" It is also frequently reported that Toscanini said, more poetically, \"Here the Maestro laid down his pen\".",
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"plaintext": "A newspaper report published the day before the premiere states that Puccini himself gave Toscanini the suggestion to stop the opera performance at the final notes composed by Puccini:",
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"plaintext": "(A few weeks before his death, after having made Toscanini listen to the opera, Puccini exclaimed: \"If I don't succeed in finishing it, at this point someone will come to the footlights and will say: 'The author composed until here, and then he died.'\" Arturo Toscanini related Puccini's words with great emotion, and, with the swift agreement of Puccini's family and the publishers, decided that the evening of the first performance, the opera would appear as the author left it, with the anguish of being unable to finish).",
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"plaintext": "Two authors believe that the second and subsequent performances of the 1926 La Scala season, which included the Alfano ending, were conducted by Ettore Panizza and Toscanini never conducted the opera again after the first performance. However, in his biography of Toscanini, Harvey Sachs claims that Toscanini did conduct the second and third performances before withdrawing from the production due to nervous exhaustion. A contemporary review of the second performance states that Toscanini was the conductor, taking five curtain calls at the end of the performance.",
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"plaintext": "Turandot quickly spread to other venues: Rome (Teatro Costanzi, 29 April, four days after the Milan premiere), Buenos Aires (Teatro Colón, Claudia Muzio as Turandot Giacomo Lauri Volpi as Calaf, 23 June, less than two months after opening in Milan), Dresden (4 July, in German, with Anne Roselle as Turandot, and Richard Tauber as Calaf, conducted by Fritz Busch), Venice (La Fenice, 9 September), Vienna (14 October; Mafalda Salvatini in the title role), Berlin (8 November), New York (Metropolitan Opera, 16 November), Brussels (La Monnaie, 17 December, in French), Naples (Teatro di San Carlo, 17 January 1927), Parma (12 February), Turin (17 March), London (Covent Garden, 7 June), San Francisco (19 September), Bologna (October 1927), Paris (29 March 1928), Australia 1928, Moscow (Bolshoi Theatre, 1931). Turandot is a staple of the standard operatic repertoire and it appears as number 17 on the Operabase list of the most-performed operas worldwide. ",
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"plaintext": "For many years, the government of the People's Republic of China forbade performance of Turandot because they said it portrayed China and the Chinese unfavourably. Instead of a single nationwide decree against it, any attempts to produce it were not approved. In the late 1990s they relented, and in September 1998 the opera was performed for eight nights as Turandot at the Forbidden City, complete with opulent sets and soldiers from the People's Liberation Army as extras. It was an international collaboration, with director Zhang Yimou as choreographer and Zubin Mehta as conductor. The singing roles saw Giovanna Casolla, Audrey Stottler, and Sharon Sweet as Princess Turandot; Sergej Larin and Lando Bartolini as Calaf; and Barbara Frittoli, Cristina Gallardo-Domâs, and Barbara Hendricks as Liù.",
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"plaintext": "\"Nessun dorma\", the opera's most famous aria, has long been a staple of operatic recitals. Luciano Pavarotti popularized the piece beyond the opera world in the 1990s following his performance of it for the 1990 World Cup, which captivated a global audience. Both Pavarotti and Plácido Domingo released singles of the aria, with Pavarotti's reaching number 2 in the UK. The Three Tenors performed the aria at three subsequent World Cup Finals, in 1994 in Los Angeles, 1998 in Paris, and 2002 in Yokohama. Many crossover and pop artists have performed and recorded it and the aria has been used in the soundtracks of numerous films.",
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"plaintext": "The debate over which version of the ending is better is still open. Alfano's original ending to the opera was first recorded (as part of an album with Josephine Barstow singing final scenes of several operas) by John Mauceri and Scottish Opera (with Josephine Barstow and Lando Bartolini as soloists) for Decca Records in 1990 to great acclaim. However, it may have been staged in Germany in the early years, since Ricordi had commissioned a German translation of the text and a number of scores were printed in Germany with the full final scene included. Alfano's second ending has been further redacted as well: Turandot's aria \"Del primo pianto\" was performed at the premiere but cut from the first complete recording; it was eventually restored to most performances of the opera.",
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"plaintext": "From 1976 to 1988 the American composer Janet Maguire, convinced that the whole ending is coded in the sketches left by Puccini, composed a new ending, but this has never been performed. In 2001 Luciano Berio made a new completion sanctioned by Casa Ricordi and the Puccini estate, using Puccini's sketches but also expanding the musical language. It was subsequently performed in the Canary Islands and Amsterdam conducted by Riccardo Chailly, Los Angeles conducted by Kent Nagano, at the Salzburg Festival conducted by Valery Gergiev in August 2002. However, its reception has been mixed.",
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"plaintext": "In late 2007, Chinese composer Hao Weiya made another completion before the opening of National Centre for the Performing Arts, also resulting in a mixed reception.",
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"plaintext": "In front of the imperial palace",
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"plaintext": "In China, beautiful Princess Turandot will marry only a suitor who can answer three secret riddles. A Mandarin announces the law of the land (Aria – \"Popolo di Pechino!\" – \"People of Peking!\"). The Prince of Persia has failed to answer the three riddles, and he is to be beheaded at the next rising moon. As the crowd surges towards the gates of the palace, the imperial guards brutally repulse them, causing a blind old man to be knocked to the ground. The old man's slave-girl, Liù, cries out for help. A young man hears her cry and recognizes that the old man is his long-lost father, Timur, the deposed king of Tartary. The young Prince of Tartary is overjoyed at seeing Timur alive, but still urges Timur to not speak his name because he is afraid that the Chinese rulers, who have conquered Tartary, may kill or harm them. Timur then tells his son that, of all his servants, only Liù has remained faithful to him. When the Prince asks her why, she tells him that once, long ago in the palace, the Prince had smiled at her (Trio with chorus – The crowd, Liù, Prince of Tartary, Timur: \"Indietro, cani!\" – \"Back, dogs!\").",
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"plaintext": "The moon rises, and the crowd's cries for blood dissolve into silence. The doomed Prince of Persia, who is on his way to be executed, is led before the crowd. The young Prince is so handsome and kind that the crowd and the Prince of Tartary decide that they want Turandot to act compassionately, and they beg Turandot to appear and spare his life (Aria – The crowd, Prince of Tartary: \"O giovinetto!\" – \"O youth!\"). She then appears, and with a single imperious gesture, orders the execution to continue. The Prince of Tartary, who has never seen Turandot before, falls immediately in love with her, and joyfully cries out Turandot's name three times, foreshadowing the riddles to come. Then the Prince of Persia cries out Turandot's name one final time, mirroring the Prince of Tartary. The crowd, horrified, screams out one final time and the Prince of Persia is beheaded.",
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"plaintext": "The Prince of Tartary is dazzled by Turandot's beauty. He is about to rush towards the gong and to strike it three times – the symbolic gesture of whoever wishes to attempt to solve the riddles so that he can marry Turandot – when the ministers Ping, Pang, and Pong appear. They urge him cynically to not lose his head for Turandot and to instead go back to his own country (\"Fermo, che fai?\" \"Stop, what are you doing?\"). Timur urges his son to desist, and Liù, who is secretly in love with the Prince, pleads with him not to attempt to solve the riddles (\"Signore, ascolta!\" – \"Lord, hear!\"). Liù's words touch the Prince's heart. He begs Liù to make Timur's exile more bearable by not abandoning Timur if the Prince fails to answer the riddles (\"Non piangere, Liù\" – \"Do not cry, Liù\"). The three ministers, Timur, and Liù then try one last time to stop the Prince (\"Ah! Per l'ultima volta!\" – \"Ah! For the last time!\") from attempting to answer the riddles, but he refuses to heed their advice.",
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"plaintext": "He calls Turandot's name three times, and each time Liù, Timur, and the ministers reply, \"Death!\" and the crowd declares, \"We're already digging your grave!\" Rushing to the gong that hangs in front of the palace, the Prince strikes it three times, declaring himself to be a suitor. From the palace balcony, Turandot accepts his challenge, as Ping, Pang, and Pong laugh at the Prince's foolishness.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 1: A pavilion in the imperial palace. Before sunrise",
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"plaintext": "Ping, Pang, and Pong lament their place as ministers, poring over palace documents and presiding over endless rituals. They prepare themselves for either a wedding or a funeral (Trio – Ping, Pang, Pong: \"Ola, Pang!\"). Ping suddenly longs for his country house in Honan, with its small lake surrounded by bamboo. Pong remembers his grove of forests near Tsiang, and Pang recalls his gardens near Kiu. The three share their fond memories of their lives away from the palace (Trio – Ping, Pang, Pong: \"Ho una casa nell'Honan\" – \"I have a house in Honan\"). They turn their thoughts back to how they have been accompanying young princes to their deaths. As the palace trumpet sounds, the ministers ready themselves for another spectacle as they await the entrance of their Emperor.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 2: The courtyard of the palace. Sunrise",
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"plaintext": "The Emperor Altoum, father of Turandot, sits on his grand throne in his palace. Weary of having to judge his isolated daughter's sport, he urges the Prince to withdraw his challenge, but the Prince refuses (Aria – Altoum, the Prince: \"Un giuramento atroce\" – \"An atrocious oath\"). Turandot enters and explains (\"In questa reggia\" – \"In this palace\") that her ancestress of millennia past, Princess Lo-u-Ling, reigned over her kingdom \"in silence and joy, resisting the harsh domination of men\" until she was raped and murdered by an invading foreign prince. Turandot claims that Lo-u-Ling now lives in her, and out of revenge, Turandot has sworn to never let any man wed her. She warns the Prince to withdraw but again he refuses. The Princess presents her first riddle: \"Straniero, ascolta!\" – \"What is born each night and dies each dawn?\" The Prince correctly replies, Speranza – \"Hope.\" The Princess, unnerved, presents her second riddle (\"Guizza al pari di fiamma\" – \"What flickers red and warm like a flame, but is not fire?\") The Prince thinks for a moment before replying, Sangue – \"Blood\". Turandot is shaken. The crowd shouts at the Prince, provoking Turandot's anger. She presents her third riddle (\"Gelo che ti da foco\" – \"What is ice which gives you fire and which your fire freezes still more?\"). He proclaims, \"It is Turandot! Turandot!\"",
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"plaintext": "The crowd roars for the triumphant Prince. Turandot throws herself at her father's feet and pleads with him not to leave her to the Prince's mercy. The Emperor insists that an oath is sacred and that it is Turandot's duty to wed the Prince (Duet – Turandot, Altoum, the Prince: \"Figlio del cielo\"). She cries out in despair, \"Will you take me by force? (Mi porterai con la forza?) The Prince stops her, saying that he has a riddle for her: \"You do not know my name. Tell me my name before sunrise, and at dawn, I will die.\" Turandot accepts. The Emperor then declares that he hopes that he will be able to call the Prince his son when the sun next rises.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 1: The palace gardens. Night",
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"plaintext": "In the distance, heralds call out Turandot's command: \"Cosi comanda Turandot\" – \"This night, none shall sleep in Peking! The penalty for all will be death if the Prince's name is not discovered by morning\". The Prince waits for dawn and anticipates his victory: \"Nessun dorma\" – \"Let no one sleep!\"",
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"plaintext": "Ping, Pong, and Pang appear and offer the Prince women and riches if he will only give up Turandot (\"Tu che guardi le stelle\"), but he refuses. A group of soldiers then drag in Timur and Liù. They have been seen speaking to the Prince, so they must know his name. Turandot enters and orders Timur and Liù to speak. The Prince feigns ignorance, saying they know nothing. But when the guards begin to treat Timur harshly, Liù declares that she alone knows the Prince's name, but she will not reveal it.",
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"plaintext": "Ping demands the Prince's name, and when Liù refuses to say it, she is tortured. Turandot is clearly taken aback by Liù's resolve and asks Liù who or what gave her such a strong resolve. Liù answers, \"Princess, love!\" (\"Principessa, amore!\"). Turandot demands that Ping tear the Prince's name from Liù, and Ping orders Liù to be tortured even more. Liù counters Turandot (\"Tu che di gel sei cinta\" – \"You who are encircled by ice\"), saying that Turandot too will learn the exquisite joy of being guided by caring and compassionate love. Having spoken, Liù seizes a dagger from a soldier's belt and stabs herself. As she staggers towards the Prince and falls dead, the crowd screams for her to speak the Prince's name. Since Timur is blind, he must be told about Liù's death, and he cries out in anguish.",
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"plaintext": "When Timur warns that the gods will be offended by Liù's death, the crowd becomes subdued, very afraid and ashamed. The grieving Timur and the crowd follow Liù's body as it is carried away. Everybody departs, leaving the Prince and Turandot alone. He reproaches Turandot for her cruelty (Duet – The Prince, Turandot: \"Principessa di morte\" – \"Princess of death\"), then takes her in his arms and kisses her in spite of her resistance.",
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"plaintext": "The Prince tries to persuade Turandot to love him. At first, she feels disgusted, but after he kisses her, she feels herself becoming more ardently desiring to be held and compassionately loved by him. She admits that ever since she met the Prince, she realized she both hated and loved him. She asks him to ask for nothing more and to leave, taking his mystery with him. The Prince, however, then reveals his name: \"Calaf, son of Timur – Calaf, figlio di Timur\", thereby placing his life in Turandot's hands. She can now destroy him if she wants (Duet – Turandot, Calaf: \"Del primo pianto\").",
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"plaintext": "Turandot and Calaf approach the Emperor's throne. She declares that she knows the Prince's name: (\"Diecimila anni al nostro Imperatore!\") – \"It is ... love!\" The crowd sings and acclaims the two lovers (\"O sole! Vita! Eternità\").",
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"plaintext": "While long recognised as the most tonally adventurous of Puccini's operas, Turandot has also been considered a flawed masterpiece, and some critics have been hostile. Joseph Kerman states that \"Nobody would deny that dramatic potential can be found in this tale. Puccini, however, did not find it; his music does nothing to rationalize the legend or illuminate the characters.\" Kerman also wrote that while Turandot is more \"suave\" musically than Puccini's earlier opera, Tosca, \"dramatically it is a good deal more depraved.\" However, Sir Thomas Beecham once remarked that anything that Joseph Kerman said about Puccini \"can safely be ignored\".",
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"plaintext": "Some of this criticism is possibly due to the standard Alfano ending (Alfano II), in which Liù's death is followed almost immediately by Calaf's \"rough wooing\" of Turandot, and the \"bombastic\" end to the opera. A later attempt at completing the opera was made, with the co-operation of the publishers, Ricordi, in 2002 by Luciano Berio. The Berio version is considered to overcome some of these criticisms, but critics such as Michael Tanner have failed to be wholly convinced by the new ending, noting that the criticism by the Puccini advocate Julian Budden still applies: \"Nothing in the text of the final duet suggests that Calaf's love for Turandot amounts to anything more than a physical obsession: nor can the ingenuities of Simoni and Adami's text for 'Del primo pianto' convince us that the Princess's submission is any less hormonal.\"",
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"plaintext": "Ashbrook and Powers consider it was an awareness of this problem – an inadequate buildup for Turandot's change of heart, combined with an overly successful treatment of the secondary character (Liù) – which contributed to Puccini's inability to complete the opera. Another alternative ending, written by Chinese composer Hao Wei Ya, has Calaf pursue Turandot but kiss her tenderly, not forcefully; and the lines beginning \"Del primo pianto\" (Of the first tears) are expanded into an aria where Turandot tells Calaf more fully about her change of heart.",
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"plaintext": "Concerning the compelling believability of the self-sacrificial Liù character in contrast to the two mythic protagonists, biographers note echoes in Puccini's own life. He had had a servant named Doria, whom his wife accused of sexual relations with Puccini. The accusations escalated until Doria killed herself. In Turandot, Puccini lavished his attention on the familiar sufferings of Liù, as he had on his many previous suffering heroines. However, in the opinion of Father Owen Lee, Puccini was out of his element when it came to resolving the tale of his two allegorical protagonists. Finding himself completely outside his normal genre of verismo, he was incapable of completely grasping and resolving the necessary elements of the mythic, unable to \"feel his way into the new, forbidding areas the myth opened up to him\" – and thus unable to finish the opera in the two years before his unexpected death.",
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"plaintext": "Turandot is scored for three flutes (the third doubling piccolo); two oboes; one English horn; two clarinets in B-flat; one bass clarinet in B-flat, two bassoons; one contrabassoon; two onstage Alto saxophones in E-flat; four French horns in F; three trumpets in F; three tenor trombones; one contrabass trombone; six onstage trumpets in B-flat, three onstage trombones; and one onstage bass trombone; a percussion section with timpani, cymbals, gong, one triangle, one snare drum, one bass drum, one tam-tam, one glockenspiel, one xylophone, one bass xylophone, tubular bells, and tuned Chinese gongs; one onstage wood block; one onstage large gong; one celesta; one pipe organ; two harps; and strings.",
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"plaintext": " Lo, Kii-Ming, »Turandot« auf der Opernbühne, Frankfurt/Bern/New York (Peter Lang) 1996, .",
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"plaintext": " Maehder, Jürgen, \"Puccini's Turandot – A Fragment\", in Nicholas John (ed.), Turandot, London: John Calder / New York: Riverrun, 1984, pp.35–53.",
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"plaintext": " Maehder, Jürgen, \"La trasformazione interrotta della principessa. Studi sul contributo di Franco Alfano alla partitura di Turandot\", in Jürgen Maehder (ed.), Esotismo e colore locale nell'opera di Puccini, Pisa (Giardini) 1985, pp.143–170.",
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"plaintext": " Maehder, Jürgen, \"Studi sul carattere di frammento della Turandot di Giacomo Puccini\", in Quaderni Pucciniani 2/1985, Milano: Istituto di Studi Pucciniani, 1986, pp.79–163.",
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"plaintext": " Maehder, Jürgen, Turandot-Studien, Deutsche Oper Berlin, Beiträge zum Musiktheater VI, season 1986/87, pp.157–187.",
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"plaintext": " Maehder, Jürgen (with Lo, Kii-Ming), Puccini's Turandot – Tong hua, xi ju, ge ju, Taipei (Gao Tan Publishing) 1998, 287 pp.",
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"Operas_by_Giacomo_Puccini",
"1926_operas",
"Classical_musical_works_published_posthumously",
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"Music_for_orchestra_and_organ",
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"Operas_completed_by_others",
"Operas_set_in_China",
"Operas",
"Unfinished_operas",
"Operas_adapted_into_films",
"Operas_based_on_works_by_Carlo_Gozzi",
"Works_based_on_Turandot_(Gozzi)"
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| 207,990 | 25,699 | 874 | 163 | 0 | 0 | Turandot | opera by Giacomo Puccini | []
|
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"plaintext": "The story, set in France and Louisiana in the early 18th century, follows the hero, the Chevalier des Grieux, and his lover, Manon Lescaut. Controversial in its time, the work was banned in France upon publication. Despite this, it became very popular and pirated editions were widely distributed. In a subsequent 1753 edition, the Abbé Prévost toned down some scandalous details and injected more moralizing disclaimers. The work was to become the most reprinted book in French Literature, with over 250 editions published between 1731 and 1981. ",
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"plaintext": "Seventeen-year-old Des Grieux, studying philosophy at Amiens, comes from a noble and landed family, but forfeits his hereditary wealth and incurs the disappointment of his father by running away with Manon on her way to a convent. In Paris, the young lovers enjoy a blissful cohabitation, while Des Grieux struggles to satisfy Manon's taste for luxury. He acquires money by borrowing from his unwaveringly loyal friend Tiberge and by cheating gamblers. On several occasions, Des Grieux's wealth evaporates (by theft, in a house fire, etc.), prompting Manon to leave him for a richer man because she cannot stand the thought of living in penury.",
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"plaintext": "The two lovers finally end up in New Orleans, to which Manon has been deported as a prostitute, where they pretend to be married and live in idyllic peace for a while. But when Des Grieux reveals their unmarried state to the Governor, Étienne Perier, and asks to be wed to Manon, Perier's nephew, Synnelet sets his sights on winning Manon's hand. In despair, Des Grieux challenges Synnelet, to a duel and knocks him unconscious. Thinking he had killed the man and fearing retribution, the couple flee New Orleans and venture into the wilderness of Louisiana, hoping to reach an English settlement. Manon dies of exposure and exhaustion the following morning and, after burying his beloved, Des Grieux is eventually taken back to France by Tiberge.",
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"plaintext": " Naomi Segal, The Unintended Reader : feminism and Manon Lescaut, Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986 .",
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"plaintext": " Alan Singerman, L'Abbé Prévost : L'amour et la morale, Geneva: Droz, 1987.",
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"plaintext": " Jean Sgard, L'Abbé Prévost : labyrinthes de la mémoire, Paris: PUF, 1986 .",
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"plaintext": " Jean Sgard, Prévost romancier, Paris: José Corti, 1968 .",
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"plaintext": " Loïc Thommeret, La Mémoire créatrice. Essai sur l'écriture de soi au XVIIIe siècle, Paris: L'Harmattan, 2006, .",
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"plaintext": "Radiohead began work on their second album in 1994 with veteran Abbey Road Studios producer John Leckie. Tensions were high, with mounting expectations to match the success of \"Creep\". Recording felt unnatural in the studio, with the band having over-rehearsed the material. Seeking a change of scenery, they toured the Far East, Australasia and Mexico and found greater confidence performing their new music live. However, troubled by his new fame, Yorke became disillusioned with being \"at the sharp end of the sexy, sassy, MTV eye-candy lifestyle\" he felt he was helping to sell to the world. The My Iron Lung EP and single, released in 1994, was Radiohead's reaction, marking a transition towards the greater depth they aimed for on their second album. It was Radiohead's first collaboration with their future producer Nigel Godrich, then working under Leckie as an audio engineer, and artist Stanley Donwood, who has produced all of Radiohead's artwork since. Promoted through alternative radio stations, sales of My Iron Lung were better than expected, and suggested that the band had built a fanbase and were not one-hit wonders.",
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"plaintext": "Having introduced more new songs on tour, Radiohead finished recording their second album by the end of 1994, and released The Bends in March 1995. The album was driven by dense riffs and ethereal atmospheres from the three guitarists, with greater use of keyboards than their debut. It received stronger reviews for its songwriting and performances. While Radiohead were seen as outsiders to the Britpop scene that dominated music media at the time, they were finally successful in their home country with The Bends, as singles \"Fake Plastic Trees\", \"High and Dry\", \"Just\", and \"Street Spirit (Fade Out)\" made their way to chart success. \"High and Dry\" became a modest hit, but Radiohead's growing fanbase was insufficient to repeat the worldwide success of \"Creep\". The Bends peaked at No. 88 on the US album charts, which remains Radiohead's lowest showing there. Jonny Greenwood said The Bends had been a \"turning point\" for Radiohead: \"It started appearing in people's [best-of] polls for the end of the year. That's when it started to feel like we made the right choice about being a band.\" In later years, The Bends appeared in many publications' lists of the best albums of all time, including Rolling Stone's 2012 edition of the \"500 Greatest Albums of All Time\" at No. 111.",
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"plaintext": "In 1995, Radiohead again toured North America and Europe, this time in support of R.E.M., one of their formative influences and at the time one of the biggest rock bands in the world. The buzz generated by such famous fans as R.E.M. singer Michael Stipe, along with distinctive music videos for \"Just\" and \"Street Spirit\", helped to sustain Radiohead's popularity outside the UK. The night before a performance in Denver, Colorado, Radiohead's tour van was stolen, and with it their musical equipment. Yorke and Jonny Greenwood performed a stripped-down acoustic set with rented instruments and several shows were cancelled. Their first live video, Live at the Astoria, was released in 1995.",
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"plaintext": "By late 1995, Radiohead had already recorded one song that would appear on their next record. \"Lucky\", released as a single to promote the War Child charity's The Help Album, was recorded in a brief session with Nigel Godrich, the young audio engineer who had assisted on The Bends and produced a 1996 B-side, \"Talk Show Host\", the song being featured in Baz Luhrmann's 1996 Romeo + Juliet. Radiohead decided to self-produce their next album with Godrich, and began work in early 1996. By July they had recorded four songs at their rehearsal studio, Canned Applause, a converted apple shed in the countryside near Didcot, Oxfordshire. In August 1996, Radiohead toured as the opening act for Alanis Morissette. They resumed recording not at a studio but at St. Catherine's Court, a 15th-century mansion near Bath. The sessions were relaxed, with the band playing at all hours of the day, recording in different rooms, and listening to the Beatles, DJ Shadow, Ennio Morricone and Miles Davis for inspiration.",
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"plaintext": "Radiohead released their third album, OK Computer, in May 1997. It found the band experimenting with song structures and incorporating ambient, avant-garde and electronic influences, prompting Rolling Stone to call the album a \"stunning art-rock tour de force\". Radiohead denied being part of the progressive rock genre, but critics began to compare their work to Pink Floyd, whose early 1970s work influenced Jonny Greenwood's guitar parts at the time. Some compared OK Computer thematically to Floyd's bestseller The Dark Side of the Moon (1973), although Yorke said the album's lyrics were inspired by observing the \"speed\" of the world in the 1990s. Yorke's lyrics, embodying different characters, had expressed what one magazine called \"end-of-the-millennium blues\" in contrast to the more personal songs of The Bends. According to journalist Alex Ross, Radiohead had become \"the poster boys for a certain kind of knowing alienation—as the Talking Heads and R.E.M. had been before\". OK Computer received critical acclaim. Yorke said he was \"amazed it got the reaction it did. None of us fucking knew any more whether it was good or bad. What really blew my head off was the fact that people got all the things, all the textures and the sounds and the atmospheres we were trying to create.\"",
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"plaintext": "OK Computer was Radiohead's first number-one UK chart debut, and brought them commercial success around the world. Despite peaking at number 21 in the US charts, the album eventually met with mainstream recognition there, earning Radiohead their first Grammy Awards recognition, winning Best Alternative Album and a nomination for Album of the Year. \"Paranoid Android\", \"Karma Police\" and \"No Surprises\" were released as singles, of which \"Karma Police\" was most successful internationally. OK Computer went on to become a staple of \"best-of\" British album lists. In the same year, Radiohead became one of the first bands in the world to have a website, and developed a devoted online following; within a few years, there were dozens of fansites devoted to them.",
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"plaintext": "OK Computer was followed by the year-long Against Demons world tour, including Radiohead's first headline Glastonbury Festival performance in 1997. Despite technical problems that almost caused Yorke to abandon the stage, the performance was acclaimed and cemented Radiohead as a major live act. Grant Gee, the director of the \"No Surprises\" video, filmed the band on tour for the 1999 documentary Meeting People Is Easy. The film portrays the band's disaffection with the music industry and press, showing their burnout over the course of the tour. Since its release, OK Computer is often acclaimed as a landmark record of the 1990s and the Generation X era, and one of the greatest albums in recording history.",
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"plaintext": "In 1998, Radiohead performed at a Paris Amnesty International concert and the Tibetan Freedom Concert. In March, they and Godrich entered Abbey Road Studios to record a song for the 1998 film The Avengers, \"Man of War\", but were unsatisfied with the results and the song went unreleased. Yorke described the period as a \"real low point\"; he and O'Brien developed depression, and the band came close to splitting up.",
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"plaintext": "In early 1999, Radiohead began work on their next album. Although the success of OK Computer meant there was no longer pressure from their record label, tensions were high. Band members had different visions for Radiohead's future, and Yorke suffered from writer's block, influencing him toward more abstract, fragmented songwriting. Radiohead secluded themselves with Godrich in studios in Paris, Copenhagen, and Gloucester, and in their new studio in Oxford. O'Brien kept an online diary, reporting their progress. After nearly 18 months, Radiohead's recording sessions were completed in April 2000.",
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"plaintext": "Radiohead's fourth album, Kid A, was released in October 2000. A departure from OK Computer, Kid A featured a minimalist and textured style with more diverse instrumentation, including the ondes Martenot, programmed electronic beats, strings, and jazz horns. It debuted at number one in many countries, including the US, where it became the first Radiohead album to debut atop the Billboard chart and the first US number-one album by any UK act since the Spice Girls in 1996. This success was attributed variously to marketing, to the album's leak on the file-sharing network Napster a few months before its release, and to advance anticipation based, in part, on the success of OK Computer. Although Radiohead released no singles from Kid A, promos of \"Optimistic\" and \"Idioteque\" received radio play, and a series of \"blips\", short videos set to portions of tracks, were played on music channels and released free online. Inspired by Naomi Klein's anti-globalisation book No Logo, Radiohead continued a 2000 tour of Europe in a custom-built tent free of advertising; they also promoted Kid A with three sold-out North American theatre concerts.",
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"plaintext": "Kid A received a Grammy Award for Best Alternative Album and a nomination for Album of the Year in early 2001. It won both praise and criticism in independent music circles for appropriating underground styles of music; some British critics saw Kid A as a \"commercial suicide note\" and \"intentionally difficult\", and longed for a return to Radiohead's earlier style. Fans were similarly divided; along with those who were appalled or mystified, many saw it as the band's best work. Yorke denied that Radiohead had set out to eschew expectations, saying: \"We're not trying to be difficult... We're actually trying to communicate but somewhere along the line, we just seemed to piss off a lot of people... What we're doing isn't that radical.\" The album was ranked one of the best of all time by publications including Time and Rolling Stone; Rolling Stone, Pitchfork and the Times named it the best album of the decade.",
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"plaintext": "Radiohead's fifth album, Amnesiac, was released in May 2001. It comprised additional tracks from the Kid A sessions, including \"Life in a Glasshouse\", featuring the Humphrey Lyttelton Band. Radiohead stressed that they saw Amnesiac not as a collection of B-sides or outtakes from Kid A but an album in its own right. It topped the UK Albums Chart and reached number two in the US, and was nominated for a Grammy Award and the Mercury Music Prize. Radiohead embarked on a world tour, visiting North America, Europe and Japan. \"Pyramid Song\" and \"Knives Out\", Radiohead's first singles since 1998, were modestly successful. Live Recordings, released in November 2001, features performances of seven songs from Kid A and Amnesiac, plus a performance of the unreleased track \"True Love Waits\".",
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"plaintext": "In July and August 2002, Radiohead toured Portugal and Spain, playing a number of new songs. For their next album, they sought to explore the tension between human and machine-generated music and capture a more immediate, live sound. They and Godrich recorded most of the material in two weeks at Ocean Way Recording in Los Angeles. The band described the recording process as relaxed, in contrast to the tense sessions for Kid A and Amnesiac. Radiohead also composed music for \"Split Sides\", a dance piece by the Merce Cunningham Dance Company, which debuted in October 2003 at the Brooklyn Academy of Music.",
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"plaintext": "Radiohead's sixth album, Hail to the Thief, was released in June 2003. Its lyrics were influenced by what Yorke called \"the general sense of ignorance and intolerance and panic and stupidity\" following the 2000 election of US President George W. Bush. The album was promoted with a website, radiohead.tv, where short films, music videos, and studio webcasts were streamed. Hail to the Thief debuted at number one in the UK and number three on the Billboard chart, and was eventually certified platinum in the UK and gold in the US. The singles \"There There\", \"Go to Sleep\" and \"2 + 2 = 5\" achieved heavy circulation on modern rock radio. At the 2004 Grammy Awards, Radiohead were again nominated for Best Alternative Album, and producer Godrich and engineer Darrell Thorp received the Grammy Award for Best Engineered Album. In May 2003, Radiohead embarked on a world tour and headlined Glastonbury Festival for the second time. The tour finished in May 2004 with a performance at the Coachella Festival in California. A compilation of Hail to the Thief B-sides, remixes and live performances, Com Lag (2plus2isfive), was released in April 2004.",
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"plaintext": "Hail to the Thief was Radiohead's final album with EMI; in 2006, The New York Times described Radiohead as \"by far the world's most popular unsigned band\". Following the Hail to the Thief tour, Radiohead went on hiatus to spend time with their families and work on solo projects. Yorke and Jonny Greenwood contributed to the Band Aid 20 charity single \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\", produced by Godrich. Greenwood composed soundtracks for the films Bodysong (2004) and There Will Be Blood (2007); the latter was the first of several collaborations with director Paul Thomas Anderson. In July 2006, Yorke released his debut solo album, The Eraser, comprising mainly electronic music. He stressed it was made with the band's blessing, and that Radiohead were not breaking up. Jonny Greenwood said: \"He had to get this stuff out, and everyone was happy [for Yorke to make it] ... He'd go mad if every time he wrote a song it had to go through the Radiohead consensus.\"",
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"plaintext": "Radiohead began work on their seventh album in February 2005. Instead of involving Godrich, Radiohead hired producer Spike Stent, but the collaboration was unsuccessful. In September 2005, Radiohead contributed \"I Want None of This\", a piano dirge, for the War Child charity album A Day in the Life. The album was sold online, with \"I Want None of This\" the most downloaded track, though it was not released as a single. In late 2006, after touring Europe and North America with new material, Radiohead re-enlisted Godrich and resumed work in London, Oxford and rural Somerset, England. Recording ended in June 2007 and the recordings were mastered the following month.",
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"plaintext": "Radiohead self-released their seventh album, In Rainbows, on their website on 10 October 2007 as a download for any amount users wanted, including £0. The landmark pay-what-you-want release, the first for a major act, made headlines worldwide and created debate about the implications for the music industry. Media reaction was positive, and Radiohead were praised for finding new ways to connect with fans. However, it drew criticism from musicians such as Lily Allen and Kim Gordon, who felt it undercut less successful acts.",
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"plaintext": "In Rainbows was downloaded an estimated 1.2million times on the day of release. Colin Greenwood explained the internet release as a way of avoiding the \"regulated playlists\" and \"straitened formats\" of radio and TV, ensuring fans around the world could experience the music at the same time, and preventing leaks in advance of a physical release. A special \"discbox\" edition of In Rainbows, containing the record on vinyl, a book of artwork, and a CD of extra songs, was also sold from Radiohead's website.",
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"plaintext": "The retail version of In Rainbows was released in the UK in late December 2007 on XL Recordings and in North America in January 2008 on TBD Records, reaching number one in the UK and in the US. The success was Radiohead's highest chart placement in the US since Kid A. It became their fifth UK number-one album and sold more than three million copies in one year. The album received acclaim for its more accessible sound and personal lyrics. It was nominated for the Mercury Music Prize and won the 2009 Grammy awards for Best Alternative Music Album and Best Boxed or Special Limited Edition Package. It was nominated for five other Grammy awards, including Radiohead's third nomination for Album of the Year. Yorke and Jonny Greenwood performed \"15 Step\" with the University of Southern California Marching Band at the televised award show.",
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"plaintext": "The first single from In Rainbows, \"Jigsaw Falling into Place\", was released in January 2008, followed by \"Nude\" in March, which debuted at number 37 in the Billboard Hot 100; it was Radiohead's first song to enter the chart since \"High and Dry\" (1995) and their first US top 40 since \"Creep\". In July, Radiohead released a digitally shot video for \"House of Cards\". Radiohead held remix competitions for \"Nude\" and \"Reckoner\", releasing the separated stems for fans to remix. In April 2008, Radiohead launched W.A.S.T.E. Central, a social networking service for Radiohead fans. In May, VH1 broadcast In Rainbows – From the Basement, a special episode of the music television show From the Basement in which Radiohead performed songs from In Rainbows. It was released on iTunes in June. From mid-2008 to early 2009, Radiohead toured North America, Europe, Japan and South America to promote In Rainbows, and headlined the Reading and Leeds Festivals in August 2009.",
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"plaintext": "Days after Radiohead signed to XL, EMI announced a box set of Radiohead material recorded before In Rainbows, released in the same week as the In Rainbows special edition. Commentators including the Guardian saw the move as retaliation for the band choosing not to re-sign with EMI. In June 2008, EMI released a greatest hits album, The Best Of. It was made without Radiohead's involvement and contains only songs recorded under their contract with EMI. Yorke was critical of the release, calling it a \"wasted opportunity\". In August 2008, EMI reissued Radiohead's back catalogue as expanded \"Collectors' Editions\".",
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"plaintext": "To perform the rhythmically complex King of Limbs material live, Radiohead enlisted a second drummer, Clive Deamer, who had worked with Portishead and Get the Blessing. Deamer has joined Radiohead on subsequent tours. In June, Radiohead played a surprise performance on the Park stage at the 2011 Glastonbury Festival, performing songs from The King of Limbs for the first time. With Deamer, Radiohead recorded Live from the Basement, released online in August 2011. It was also broadcast by international BBC channels and released on DVD and Blu-ray in January 2012. The performance included two new songs, \"The Daily Mail\" and \"Staircase\", released as a double A-side download single in December 2011. In February 2012, Radiohead began their first extended North American tour in four years, including dates in the United States, Canada and Mexico. On tour, they recorded material at Jack White's studio Third Man Records, but discarded the recordings.",
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"plaintext": "Radiohead's ninth studio album, A Moon Shaped Pool, was released in May 2016 on Radiohead's website and online music stores, followed by retail versions in June via XL Recordings. It was promoted with music videos for the singles \"Burn the Witch\" and \"Daydreaming\", the latter directed by Anderson. The album includes several songs written years earlier, including \"True Love Waits\", and strings and choral vocals performed by the London Contemporary Orchestra. It was Radiohead's sixth UK number-one album and reached number three in the US. It was the fifth Radiohead album nominated for the Mercury Prize, making Radiohead the most shortlisted act in the award's history, and was also nominated for Best Alternative Music Album and Best Rock Song (for \"Burn the Witch\") at the 59th Annual Grammy Awards. It appeared on several publications' lists of the best albums of the year.",
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"plaintext": "In 2017, Selway released his third solo work, the soundtrack to the film Let Me Go. Jonny Greenwood was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Score for his fifth collaboration with Anderson, Phantom Thread (2017), and scored his second film by Lynne Ramsay, You Were Never Really Here (2018). Yorke released his first feature film soundtrack, Suspiria (2018), and his third solo album, Anima (2019), backed by a short film directed by Anderson. O'Brien released his debut solo album, Earth, in 2020. He had been writing songs for years, but felt they had a \"distinct energy\" that would be lost with Radiohead.",
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"plaintext": " Andromaque (1989)",
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"plaintext": " Montserrat (1991)",
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"plaintext": " Les Grandes Occasions (2006)",
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"plaintext": " Nos femmes (2015)",
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"plaintext": "Jean Reno: Cannes, Codes, and... Bouillabaisse (MPM interview)",
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38,254 | 1,058,735,686 | Abyssinian | [
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38,257 | 1,102,371,701 | Electrolysis | [
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"plaintext": "In the early nineteenth century, William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle sought to further Volta's experiments. They attached two wires to either side of a voltaic pile and placed the other ends in a tube filled with water. They noticed when the wires were brought together that each wire produced bubbles. One type was hydrogen, the other was oxygen.",
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"plaintext": "In 1791 Luigi Galvani experimented with frog legs. He claimed that placing animal muscle between two dissimilar metal sheets resulted in electricity. Responding to these claims, Alessandro Volta conducted his own tests. This would give insight to Humphry Davy's ideas on electrolysis. During preliminary experiments, Humphry Davy hypothesized that when two elements combine together to form a compound, electrical energy is released. Humphry Davy would go on to create Decomposition Tables from his preliminary experiments on Electrolysis. The Decomposition Tables would give insight on the energies needed to break apart certain compounds.",
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"plaintext": "In 1817 Johan August Arfwedson determined there was another element, lithium, in some of his samples; however, he could not isolate the component. It was not until 1821 when William Thomas Brande used electrolysis to single it out. Two years later, he streamlined the process using lithium chloride and potassium chloride with electrolysis to produce lithium and lithium hydroxide.",
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"plaintext": "In November 1875, Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran discovered gallium using electrolysis of gallium hydroxide, producing 3.4mg of gallium. The following December, he presented his discovery of gallium to the Académie des sciences in Paris.",
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"plaintext": "For example, the electrolysis of brine produces hydrogen and chlorine gases which bubble from the electrolyte and are collected. The initial overall reaction is thus:",
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"plaintext": "2 NaCl + 2 H2O → 2 NaOH + H2 + Cl2",
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"plaintext": "The reaction at the anode results in chlorine gas from chlorine ions:",
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"plaintext": "2 Cl− → Cl2 + 2 e−",
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"plaintext": "The reaction at the cathode results in hydrogen gas and hydroxide ions:",
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"plaintext": "2 H2O + 2 e− → H2 + 2 OH−",
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"plaintext": "Without a partition between the electrodes, the OH− ions produced at the cathode are free to diffuse throughout the electrolyte to the anode. As the electrolyte becomes more basic due to the production of OH−, less Cl2 emerges from the solution as it begins to react with the hydroxide producing hypochlorite (ClO-) at the anode:",
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"plaintext": "The more opportunity the Cl2 has to interact with NaOH in the solution, the less Cl2 emerges at the surface of the solution and the faster the production of hypochlorite progresses. This depends on factors such as solution temperature, the amount of time the Cl2 molecule is in contact with the solution, and concentration of NaOH.",
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"plaintext": "Likewise, as hypochlorite increases in concentration, chlorates are produced from them:",
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"plaintext": " 3 NaClO → NaClO3 + 2 NaCl",
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"plaintext": "Other reactions occur, such as the self-ionization of water and the decomposition of hypochlorite at the cathode, the rate of the latter depends on factors such as diffusion and the surface area of the cathode in contact with the electrolyte.",
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"plaintext": "Decomposition potential or decomposition voltage refers to the minimum voltage (difference in electrode potential) between anode and cathode of an electrolytic cell that is needed for electrolysis to occur.",
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"plaintext": "The voltage at which electrolysis is thermodynamically preferred is the difference of the electrode potentials as calculated using the Nernst equation. Applying additional voltage, referred to as overpotential, can increase the rate of reaction and is often needed above the thermodynamic value. It is especially necessary for electrolysis reactions involving gases, such as oxygen, hydrogen or chlorine.",
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"plaintext": "Oxidation of ions or neutral molecules occurs at the anode. For example, it is possible to oxidize ferrous ions to ferric ions at the anode:",
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"plaintext": " Fe(aq) → Fe(aq) + e− ",
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"plaintext": "Reduction of ions or neutral molecules occurs at the cathode. It is possible to reduce ferricyanide ions to ferrocyanide ions at the cathode:",
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"plaintext": "Neutral molecules can also react at either of the electrodes. For example: p-benzoquinone can be reduced to hydroquinone at the cathode:",
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"plaintext": " + 2 e− + 2 H+ → ",
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"plaintext": "In the last example, H+ ions (hydrogen ions) also take part in the reaction and are provided by the acid in the solution, or by the solvent itself (water, methanol, etc.). Electrolysis reactions involving H+ ions are fairly common in acidic solutions. In aqueous alkaline solutions, reactions involving OH− (hydroxide ions) are common.",
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"plaintext": "Sometimes the solvents themselves (usually water) are oxidized or reduced at the electrodes. It is even possible to have electrolysis involving gases, e.g. by using a gas diffusion electrode.",
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"plaintext": "The amount of electrical energy that must be added equals the change in Gibbs free energy of the reaction plus the losses in the system. The losses can (in theory) be arbitrarily close to zero, so the maximum thermodynamic efficiency equals the enthalpy change divided by the free energy change of the reaction. In most cases, the electric input is larger than the enthalpy change of the reaction, so some energy is released in the form of heat. In some cases, for instance, in the electrolysis of steam into hydrogen and oxygen at high temperature, the opposite is true and heat energy is absorbed. This heat is absorbed from the surroundings, and the heating value of the produced hydrogen is higher than the electric input.",
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"plaintext": "Pulsating current results in products different from DC. For example, pulsing increases the ratio of ozone to oxygen produced at the anode in the electrolysis of an aqueous acidic solution such as dilute sulphuric acid. Electrolysis of ethanol with pulsed current evolves an aldehyde instead of primarily an acid.",
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"plaintext": "Galvanic cells and batteries use spontaneous, energy-releasing redox reactions to generate an electrical potential that provides useful power. When a secondary battery is charged, its redox reaction is run in reverse and the system can be considered as an electrolytic cell.",
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"plaintext": " Electrometallurgy of aluminium, lithium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, and in some cases copper.",
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"plaintext": " Production of chlorine and sodium hydroxide, called the Chloralkali process.",
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"plaintext": " Purifying copper from refined copper.",
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"plaintext": " Rust removal and cleaning of old coins and other metallic objects.",
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"plaintext": "In manufacturing, electrolysis can be used for:",
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"plaintext": " Electroplating, where a thin film of metal is deposited over a substrate material. Electroplating is used in many industries for either functional or decorative purposes, as in-vehicle bodies and nickel coins.",
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"plaintext": " Electrochemical machining (ECM), where an electrolytic cathode is used as a shaped tool for removing material by anodic oxidation from a workpiece. ECM is often used as a technique for deburring or for etching metal surfaces like tools or knives with a permanent mark or logo.",
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"plaintext": "Using a cell containing inert platinum electrodes, electrolysis of aqueous solutions of some salts leads to the reduction of the cations (such as metal deposition with, for example, zinc salts) and oxidation of the anions (such as the evolution of bromine with bromides). However, with salts of some metals (such as sodium) hydrogen is evolved at the cathode, and for salts containing some anions (such as sulfate ) oxygen is evolved at the anode. In both cases, this is due to water being reduced to form hydrogen or oxidized to form oxygen.",
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"plaintext": "In principle, the voltage required to electrolyze a salt solution can be derived from the standard electrode potential for the reactions at the anode and cathode. The standard electrode potential is directly related to the Gibbs free energy, ΔG, for the reactions at each electrode and refers to an electrode with no current flowing. An extract from the table of standard electrode potentials is shown below.",
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"plaintext": "{| class=\"wikitable\"",
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"plaintext": "|-",
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"plaintext": "! Half-reaction",
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"plaintext": "! E° (V)",
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"plaintext": "! Ref.",
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"plaintext": "|-",
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"plaintext": "| Na+ + e− Na",
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"plaintext": "| −2.71 ||",
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"plaintext": "|-",
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"plaintext": "| Zn2+ + 2 e− Zn",
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"plaintext": "| −0.7618 ||",
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"plaintext": "|-",
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"plaintext": "| 2 H+ + 2 e− H2",
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"plaintext": "| ≡ 0||",
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"plaintext": "|-",
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"plaintext": "| Br2 + 2 e− 2 Br−",
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"plaintext": "| +1.0873 ||",
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"plaintext": "|-",
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"plaintext": "| O2 + 4 H+ + 4 e− 2 H2O",
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"plaintext": "| +1.23 ||",
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"plaintext": "|-",
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"plaintext": "| Cl2 + 2 e− 2 Cl−",
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"plaintext": "| +1.36 ||",
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"plaintext": "|-",
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"plaintext": "| + 2 e− 2 ",
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"plaintext": "| +2.07 ||",
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"plaintext": "|}",
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"plaintext": "In terms of electrolysis, this table should be interpreted as follows:",
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"plaintext": " Moving down the table, E° becomes more positive, and species on the left are more likely to be reduced: for example, zinc ions are more likely to be reduced to zinc metal than sodium ions are to be reduced to sodium metal.",
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"plaintext": " Moving up the table, E° becomes more negative, and species on the right are more likely to be oxidized: for example, sodium metal is more likely to be oxidized to sodium ions than zinc metal is to be oxidized to zinc ions.",
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"plaintext": "Using the Nernst equation the electrode potential can be calculated for a specific concentration of ions, temperature and the number of electrons involved. For pure water (pH7):",
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"plaintext": " the electrode potential for the reduction producing hydrogen is −0.41V,",
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"plaintext": " the electrode potential for the oxidation producing oxygen is +0.82V.",
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"plaintext": "Comparable figures calculated in a similar way, for 1M zinc bromide, ZnBr2, are −0.76V for the reduction to Zn metal and +1.10V for the oxidation producing bromine.",
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"plaintext": "The conclusion from these figures is that hydrogen should be produced at the cathode and oxygen at the anode from the electrolysis of water—which is at variance with the experimental observation that zinc metal is deposited and bromine is produced.",
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"plaintext": "The explanation is that these calculated potentials only indicate the thermodynamically preferred reaction. In practice, many other factors have to be taken into account such as the kinetics of some of the reaction steps involved. These factors together mean that a higher potential is required for the reduction and oxidation of water than predicted, and these are termed overpotentials. Experimentally it is known that overpotentials depend on the design of the cell and the nature of the electrodes.",
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"plaintext": "For the electrolysis of a neutral (pH7) sodium chloride solution, the reduction of sodium ion is thermodynamically very difficult and water is reduced evolving hydrogen leaving hydroxide ions in solution. At the anode the oxidation of chlorine is observed rather than the oxidation of water since the overpotential for the oxidation of chloride to chlorine is lower than the overpotential for the oxidation of water to oxygen. The hydroxide ions and dissolved chlorine gas react further to form hypochlorous acid. The aqueous solutions resulting from this process is called electrolyzed water and is used as a disinfectant and cleaning agent.",
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"plaintext": "Electrolysis of water produces hydrogen and oxygen in a ratio of 2 to 1 respectively.",
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"plaintext": "2 H2O → 2 H2 + O2 E° = +1.229V",
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"plaintext": "The energy efficiency of water electrolysis varies widely. The efficiency of an electrolyzer is a measure of the enthalpy contained in the hydrogen (to undergo combustion with oxygen or some other later reaction), compared with the input electrical energy. Heat/enthalpy values for hydrogen are well published in science and engineering texts, as 144MJ/kg. Note that fuel cells (not electrolyzers) cannot use this full amount of heat/enthalpy, which has led to some confusion when calculating efficiency values for both types of technology. In the reaction, some energy is lost as heat. Some reports quote efficiencies between 50% and 70% for alkaline electrolyzers; however, much higher practical efficiencies are available with the use of polymer electrolyte membrane electrolysis and catalytic technology, such as 95% efficiency.",
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"plaintext": "The National Renewable Energy Laboratory estimated in 2006 that 1kg of hydrogen (roughly equivalent to 3kg, or 4 liters, of petroleum in energy terms) could be produced by wind powered electrolysis for between US$5.55 in the near term and US$2.27 in the longer term.",
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"plaintext": "About 4% of hydrogen gas produced worldwide is generated by electrolysis, and normally used onsite. Hydrogen is used for the creation of ammonia for fertilizer via the Haber process, and converting heavy petroleum sources to lighter fractions via hydrocracking. Recently, onsite electrolysis has been utilized to capture hydrogen for hydrogen fuel-cells in hydrogen vehicles.",
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"plaintext": "Recently, to reduce the energy input, the utilization of carbon (coal), alcohols (hydrocarbon solution), and organic solution (glycerol, formic acid, ethylene glycol, etc.) with co-electrolysis of water has been proposed as a viable option. The carbon/hydrocarbon assisted water electrolysis (so-called CAWE) process for hydrogen generation would perform this operation in a single electrochemical reactor. This system energy balance can be required only around 40% electric input with 60% coming from the chemical energy of carbon or hydrocarbon. This process utilizes solid coal/carbon particles or powder as fuels dispersed in acid/alkaline electrolyte in the form of slurry and the carbon contained source co-assist in the electrolysis process as following theoretical overall reactions:",
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"plaintext": "Carbon/Coal slurry (C + 2H2O) → CO2 + 2H2 E′ = 0.21V (reversible voltage) / E′ = 0.46V (thermo-neutral voltage)",
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"plaintext": "or",
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"plaintext": "Carbon/Coal slurry (C + H2O) → CO + H2 E′ = 0.52V (reversible voltage) / E′ = 0.91V (thermo-neutral voltage)",
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"plaintext": "Thus, this CAWE approach is that the actual cell overpotential can be significantly reduced to below 1.0V as compared to 1.5V for conventional water electrolysis.",
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"plaintext": "A specialized application of electrolysis involves the growth of conductive crystals on one of the electrodes from oxidized or reduced species that are generated in situ. The technique has been used to obtain single crystals of low-dimensional electrical conductors, such as charge-transfer salts and linear chain compounds",
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"plaintext": " Alkaline water electrolysis",
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"plaintext": " Castner–Kellner process",
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"plaintext": " Electrolytic cell",
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"plaintext": " Electrochemical engineering",
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"plaintext": " Faraday's law of electrolysis",
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"plaintext": " Faraday constant",
"section_idx": 7,
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},
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"plaintext": " Faraday efficiency",
"section_idx": 7,
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},
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"plaintext": " Galvanic corrosion",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
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1,
19
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Galvanoluminescence",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1650455
],
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1,
20
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gas cracker",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1156742
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1,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hall–Héroult process",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
174009
],
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1,
21
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " High-pressure electrolysis",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
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1,
27
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Overpotential",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
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[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Patterson Power Cell",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
8861618
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Thermochemical cycle",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
27636080
],
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1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Timeline of hydrogen technologies",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
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[
1,
34
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " PEM electrolysis",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
17
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]
}
]
| [
"Electrolysis",
"Chemical_processes",
"Electrochemistry",
"Hydrogen_production",
"Industrial_processes",
"Industrial_gases"
]
| 64,403 | 19,293 | 608 | 206 | 0 | 0 | electrolysis | technique that uses a direct electric current to drive an otherwise non-spontaneous chemical reaction | []
|
38,260 | 1,107,713,412 | Epirus | [
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"plaintext": "Epirus () is a geographical and historical region in southeastern Europe, now shared between Greece and Albania. It lies between the Pindus Mountains and the Ionian Sea, stretching from the Bay of Vlorë and the Acroceraunian Mountains in the north to the Ambracian Gulf and the ruined Roman city of Nicopolis in the south. It is currently divided between the region of Epirus in northwestern Greece and the counties of Gjirokastër and Vlorë in southern Albania. The largest city in Epirus is Ioannina, seat of the region of Epirus, with Gjirokastër the largest city in the Albanian part of Epirus.",
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"plaintext": "A rugged and mountainous region, Epirus was the north-west area of ancient Greece. It was inhabited by the Greek tribes of the Chaonians, Molossians, and Thesprotians. It was home to the sanctuary of Dodona, the oldest oracle in ancient Greece, and the second most prestigious after Delphi. Unified into a single state in 370 BC by the Aeacidae dynasty, Epirus achieved fame during the reign of Pyrrhus of Epirus who fought the Roman Republic in a series of campaigns. Epirus subsequently became part of the Roman Republic along with the rest of Greece in 146 BC, which was followed by the Roman Empire and Eastern Roman Empire.",
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"plaintext": "Following the fall of Constantinople to the Fourth Crusade, Epirus became the center of the Despotate of Epirus, one of the successor states to the Byzantine Empire. Conquered by the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century, Epirus became part of the semi-independent Pashalik governed by the Ottoman Albanian ruler Ali Pasha in the early 19th century, but the Sublime Porte re-asserted its control in 1821. Following the Balkan Wars and World War I, southern Epirus became part of Greece, while northern Epirus became part of Albania.",
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"plaintext": "The name Epirus is derived from the (), meaning \"mainland\" or terra firma. It is thought to come from an Indo-European root apero- 'coast', and was applied to the mainland of north-west Greece opposite Corfu and the Ionian islands. The local name was struck on the coinage of the unified Epirote commonwealth: \"ΑΠΕΙΡΩΤΑΝ\" (, , i.e. \"of the Epirotes\", see image right). The Albanian name for the region, which derives from the Greek, is . Similarly, the Aromanian name for Epirus, which is also Greek-derived, is .",
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"plaintext": "Historically, the geographical area of Epirus proper is defined within the lines drawn from Cape Gjuhëz of the Ceraunian Mountains in the north-west, to Mount Qelqëz in the north-east, to Mount Gavrovo in the south-east, to the mouth of the Ambracian Gulf in the south-west. The northern boundary of ancient Epirus is alternatively given as the Vjosa (or Aoös) river. Epirus's eastern boundary is defined by the Pindus Mountains, that form the spine of mainland Greece and separate Epirus from Macedonia and Thessaly. To the west, Epirus faces the Ionian Sea. The island of Corfu is situated off the Epirote coast but is not regarded as part of Epirus.",
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"plaintext": "The definition of Epirus has changed over time, such that modern administrative boundaries do not correspond to the boundaries of ancient Epirus. The region of Epirus in Greece only comprises a fraction of classical Epirus and does not include its easternmost portions, which lie in Thessaly. In Albania, where the concept of Epirus is never used in an official context, the counties of Gjirokastër, Vlorë, and Berat extend well beyond the northern and northeastern boundaries of classical Epirus.",
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"plaintext": "Epirus is a predominantly rugged and mountainous region. It is largely made up of the Pindus Mountains, a series of parallel limestone ridges that are a continuation of the Dinaric Alps. The Pindus mountains form the spine of mainland Greece and separate Epirus from Macedonia and Thessaly to the east. The ridges of the Pindus are parallel to the sea and generally so steep that the valleys between them are mostly suitable for pasture rather than large-scale agriculture. Altitude increases as one moves east, away from the coast, reaching a maximum of 2,637m at Mount Smolikas, the highest point in Epirus. Other important ranges include Tymfi (2,496m at Mount Gamila), Lygkos (2,249m), to the west and east of Smolikas respectively, Gramos (2,523m) in the northeast, Tzoumerka (2,356m) in the southeast, Tomaros (1,976m) in the southwest, Mitsikeli near Ioannina (1,810m), Mourgana (1,806m) and Nemercke/Aeoropos (2,485m) on the border between Greece and Albania, and the Ceraunian Mountains (2,000m) near Himara in Albania. Most of Epirus lies on the windward side of the Pindus, and the prevailing winds from the Ionian Sea make the region the rainiest in mainland Greece.",
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"plaintext": "Significant lowlands are to be found only near the coast, in the southwest near Arta and Preveza, in the Acheron plain between Paramythia and Fanari, between Igoumenitsa and Sagiada, and also near Saranda. The Zagori area is a scenic upland plateau surrounded by mountain on all sides.",
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"plaintext": "The main river flowing through Epirus is the Vjosë (Aoös in Greek), which flows in a northwesterly direction from the Pindus mountains in Greece to its mouth north of the Bay of Vlorë in Albania. Other important rivers include the Acheron river, famous for its religious significance in ancient Greece and site of the Necromanteion, the Arachthos river, crossed by the historic Bridge of Arta, the Louros, the Thyamis or Kalamas, and the Voidomatis, a tributary of the Vjosë flowing through the Vikos Gorge. The Vikos Gorge, one of the deepest in the world, forms the centerpiece of the Vikos–Aoös National Park, known for its scenic beauty. The only significant lake in Epirus is Lake Pamvotis, on whose shores lies the city of Ioannina, the region's largest and traditionally most important city.",
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"plaintext": "The climate of Epirus is Mediterranean along the coast and Alpine in the interior. Epirus is heavily forested, mainly by coniferous species. The fauna in Epirus is especially rich and features species such as bears, wolves, foxes, deer and lynxes.",
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"plaintext": "In the Neolithic period Epirus was populated by seafarers along the coast and by shepherds and hunters from the southwestern Balkans who brought with them the Greek language. These people buried their leaders in large mounds containing shaft graves. Similar burial chambers were subsequently used by the Mycenaean civilization, suggesting that the founders of Mycenae may have come from Epirus and central Albania. Epirus itself remained culturally backward during this time, but Mycenaean remains have been found at two religious shrines of great antiquity in the region: the Oracle of the Dead on the Acheron River, familiar to the heroes of Homer’s Odyssey, and the Oracle of Zeus at Dodona, to whom Achilles prayed in the Iliad.",
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"plaintext": "In the Middle Bronze Age, Epirus was inhabited by the same nomadic Hellenic tribes that went on to settle in the rest of Greece. Aristotle considered the region around Dodona to have been part of Hellas and the region where the Hellenes originated. According to Bulgarian linguist Vladimir I. Georgiev, Epirus was part of the Proto-Greek linguistic area during the Late Neolithic period. By the early 1st millennium BC, all fourteen Epirote tribes including the Chaonians in northwestern Epirus, the Molossians in the centre and the Thesprotians in the south, were speakers of a strong west Greek dialect.",
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"plaintext": "Geographically on the edge of the Greek world, Epirus remained for the most part outside the limelight of Greek history until relatively late, much like the neighbouring Greek regions of Macedonia, Aetolia, and Acarnania, with which Epirus had political, cultural, linguistic and economic connections. Unlike most other Greeks of this time, who lived in or around city-states, the inhabitants of Epirus lived in small villages and their way of life was foreign to that of the poleis of southern Greece. Their region lay on the periphery of the Greek world and was far from peaceful; for many centuries, it remained a frontier area contested with the Illyrian peoples to the north. However, Epirus had a far greater religious significance than might have been expected given its geographical remoteness, due to the presence of the shrine and oracle at Dodona – regarded as second only to the more famous oracle at Delphi.",
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"plaintext": "The Epirotes, speakers of a Northwest Greek dialect, different from the Dorian of the Greek colonies on the Ionian islands, and bearers of mostly Greek names, as evidenced by epigraphy, seem to have been regarded with some disdain by some classical writers. The 5th-century BC Athenian historian Thucydides describes them as \"barbarians\" in his History of the Peloponnesian War, as does Strabo in his Geography. Other writers, such as Herodotus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Pausanias, and Eutropius, describe them as Greeks. Similarly, Epirote tribes/states are included in the Argive and Epidaurian lists of the Greek Thearodokoi (hosts of sacred envoys). Plutarch mentions an interesting element of Epirote folklore regarding Achilles: In his biography of King Pyrrhus, he claims that Achilles \"had a divine status in Epirus and in the local dialect he was called Aspetos\" (meaning unspeakable, unspeakably great, in Homeric Greek).",
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"plaintext": "Beginning in 370 BC, the Molossian Aeacidae dynasty built a centralized state in Epirus and began expanding their power at the expense of rival tribes. The Aeacids allied themselves with the increasingly powerful kingdom of Macedon, in part against the common threat of Illyrian raids, and in 359 BC the Molossian princess Olympias, niece of Arybbas of Epirus, married King Philip II of Macedon. She was to become the mother of Alexander the Great.",
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"plaintext": "On the death of Arybbas, Alexander of Epirus succeeded to the throne and the title King of Epirus in 334 BC. He invaded Italy, but was killed in battle by a Lucanian in the Battle of Pandosia against several Italic tribes 331 BC. Aeacides of Epirus, who succeeded Alexander, espoused the cause of Olympias against Cassander, but was dethroned in 313 BC. His son Pyrrhus came to throne in 295 BC, and for six years fought against the Romans and Carthaginians in southern Italy and Sicily. The high cost of his victories against the Romans gave Epirus a new, but brief, importance, as well as a lasting contribution to the Greek language with the concept of a \"Pyrrhic victory\". Pyrrhus nonetheless brought great prosperity to Epirus, building the great theater of Dodona and a new suburb at Ambracia (now modern Arta), which he made his capital.",
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"plaintext": "The Aeacid dynasty ended in 232 BC, but Epirus remained a substantial power, unified under the auspices of the Epirote League as a federal state with its own parliament, or synedrion. However, it was faced with the growing threat of the expansionist Roman Republic, which fought a series of wars against Macedon. The League steered an uneasy neutral course in the first two Macedonian Wars but split in the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC), with the Molossians siding with the Macedonians and the Chaonians and Thesprotians siding with Rome. The outcome was disastrous for Epirus; Molossia fell to Rome in 167 BC and 150,000 of its inhabitants were enslaved.",
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"plaintext": "The region of Epirus was placed under the senatorial province of Achaea in 27 BC, with the exception of its northernmost part, which remained part of the province of Macedonia. Under Emperor Trajan, sometime between 103 and 114 AD, Epirus became a separate province, under a procurator Augusti. The new province extended from the Gulf of Aulon (Vlorë) and the Acroceraunian Mountains in the north to the lower course of the Acheloos River in the south, and included the northern Ionian Islands of Corfu, Lefkada, Ithaca, Cephallonia, and Zakynthos.",
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"plaintext": "Probably during the provincial reorganization by Diocletian (r. 284–305), the western portion of the province of Macedonia along the Adriatic coast was split off into the province of New Epirus (). Although this territory was not traditionally part of Epirus proper as defined by the ancient geographers, and was historically inhabited by Illyrian tribes and Greeks, the name reflects the fact that under Roman rule, the area had been subject to increasing Hellenization and settlement by Epirote tribes from the south.",
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"plaintext": "The two Epirote provinces became part of the Diocese of Moesia, until it was divided in ca. 369 into the dioceses of Macedonia and Dacia, when they became part of the former. In the 4th century, Epirus was still a stronghold of paganism, and was aided by Emperor Julian (r. 361–363) and his praetorian prefect Claudius Mamertinus through reduction in taxes and the rebuilding of the provincial capital, Nicopolis. According to Jordanes, in 380 the Visigoths raided the area. With the division of the Empire on the death of Theodosius I in 395, Epirus became part of the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire. In 395–397, the Visigoths under Alaric plundered Greece. They remained in Epirus for a few years, until 401, and again in 406–407, during Alaric's alliance with the Western Roman generalissimo Stilicho in order to wrest the Eastern Illyricum from the Eastern Empire.",
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"plaintext": "The Synecdemus of Hierocles, composed in ca. 527/8 AD but probably reflecting the situation in the first half of the 5th century, reports 11 cities for Old Epirus (, ): the capital Nicopolis, Dodona, Euroea, Hadrianopolis, Appon, Phoenice, Anchiasmos, Buthrotum, Photike, Corfu Island, and Ithaca Island. New Epirus, with capital at Dyrrhachium, comprised 9 cities. From 467 on, the Ionian Islands and the coasts of Epirus became subject to raids by the Vandals, who had taken over the North African provinces and established their own kingdom centred on Carthage. The Vandals notably seized Nicopolis in 474 as a bargaining chip in their negotiations with Emperor Zeno, and plundered Zakynthos, killing many of its inhabitants and ferrying off others into slavery. Epirus Nova became a battleground in the rebellions of the Ostrogoths after 479. In 517, a raid of the Getae or Antae reached Greece, including Epirus Vetus. The claim of Procopius of Caesarea in his Secret History, that under Justinian I (r. 527–565) the entirety of the Balkan provinces was raided by barbarians every year, is considered rhetorical hyperbole by modern scholars; only a single Slavic raid to the environs of Dyrrhachium, in 548/9, has been documented. Procopius further reports that in 551, in an attempt to interdict the Byzantines' lines of communication with Italy during the Gothic War, the Ostrogoth king Totila sent his fleet to raid the shores of Epirus. In response to these raids, and to repair the damage done by two destructive earthquakes in 522, Justinian initiated a wide-ranging programme of reconstruction and re-fortification: Hadrianopolis was rebuilt, albeit in reduced extent, and renamed Justinianopolis, while Euroea was moved further inland (traditionally identified with the founding of Ioannina), while Procopius claims that no less than 36 smaller fortresses in Epirus Vetus—most of them not identifiable today—were either rebuilt or built anew.",
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"plaintext": "In the late 6th century, much of Greece, including Epirus, fell under the control of the Avars and their Slavic allies. This is placed by the Chronicle of Monemvasia in the year 587, and is further corroborated by evidence that several sees were abandoned by their bishops by 591. Thus in the bishop, clergy and people of Euroea fled their city, carrying with them the relics of their patron saint, St. Donatus, to Cassiope in Corfu.",
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"plaintext": "Of the various Slavic tribes, only the Baiounitai, first attested , are known by name, giving their name to their region of settlement: \"Vagenetia\". Based on the density of the Slavic toponyms in Epirus, the Slavs must have settled in the region, although the extent of this settlement is unclear. Slavic toponyms occur mainly in the mountainous areas of the interior and the coasts of the Gulf of Corinth, indicative of the fact that this was the avenue used by most of the Slavs who crossed the Gulf into the Peloponnese. With the exception of some few toponyms on Corfu, the Ionian Islands seem to not have been affected by Slavic settlement. The linguistic analysis of the toponyms reveals that they date mostly to the early wave of Slavic settlement at the turn of the 6th/7th centuries. Due to scarcity of textual evidence, it is unclear how much the area was affected by the second wave of Slavic migration, which began in the middle of the 8th century due to Bulgar pressure in the northern Balkans. Slavic toponyms are nearly lacking in the mountains of Labëria (on the Kurvelesh plateau), and in the Ionian coast where the Lab Albanian villages neighbour with the Greek-speaking ones, therefore it can be assumed that the expansion of the Slavs did not reach the highlands of Labëria.",
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"plaintext": "As in eastern Greece, the restoration of Byzantine rule seems to have proceeded from the islands, chiefly Cephallonia, which was certainly under firm Imperial control in , when Philippicus Bardanes was banished there. The gradual restoration of Imperial rule is evidenced further from the participation of local bishops in councils in Constantinople: whereas only the bishop of Dyrrhachium participated in the Ecumenical Councils of 680/1 and 692, a century later the bishops of Dyrrhachium, Nicopolis, Corfu, Cephallonia, and Zakynthos are attested in the Second Council of Nicaea in 787. In about the middle of the 8th century, the Theme of Cephallenia was established, but at least initially it was more oriented towards restoring Byzantine control over the Ionian and Adriatic seas, combating Saracen piracy, and securing communications with the remaining Byzantine possessions in Italy, rather than any systematic effort at subduing the Epirote mainland. Nevertheless, following the onset of the Muslim conquest of Sicily in 827, the Ionian became particularly exposed to Arab raids.",
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"plaintext": "The 9th century saw great progress in the restoration of Imperial control in the mainland, as evidenced by the participation of the bishops of Ioannina, Naupaktos, Hadrianopolis, and Vagenetia (evidently by now organized as a Sklavinia under imperial rule) in the Ecumenical Councils of 869/70 and 879/80. The Byzantine recovery resulted in an influx of Greeks from southern Italy and Asia Minor into the Greek interior, while remaining Slavs were Christianized and Hellenized. The eventual success of the Hellenization campaign also suggests a continuity of the original Greek population, and that the Slavs had settled among many Greeks, in contrast to areas further north, in what is now Bulgaria and the former Yugoslavia, as those areas could not be Hellenized when they were recovered by the Byzantines in the early 11th century. Following the great naval victory of admiral Nasar in 880, and the beginning of the Byzantine offensive against the Arabs in southern Italy in the 880s, the security situation improved and the Theme of Nicopolis was established, most likely after 886. As the ancient capital of Epirus had been laid waste by the Slavs, the capital of the new theme became Naupaktos further south. The extent of the new province is unclear, but probably matched the extent of the Metropolis of Naupaktos, established at about the same time, encompassing the sees of Vonditsa, Aetos, Acheloos, Rogoi, Ioannina, Hadrianopolis, Photike, and Buthrotum. Vagenetia notably no longer appears as a bishopric. As the authors of the Tabula Imperii Byzantini comment, it appears that \"the Byzantine administration had brought the strongly Slavic-settled areas in the mainland somewhat under its control, and a certain Re-Hellenization had set in\". Further north, the region around Dyrrhachium existed as the homonymous theme possibly as early as the 9th century.",
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"plaintext": "During the early 10th century, the themes of Cephallenia and Nicopolis appear mostly as bases for expeditions against southern Italy and Sicily, while Mardaites from both themes are listed in the large but unsuccessful expedition of 949 against the Emirate of Crete. In , the Theme of Nicopolis was raided by the Bulgarians, who even occupied some parts until driven out or subjugated by the Byzantines years later. Only the extreme north of Epirus seems to have remained consistently under Bulgarian rule in the period, but under Tsar Samuel, who moved the centre of Bulgarian power south and west to Ohrid, probably all of Epirus down to the Ambracian Gulf came under Bulgarian rule. This is evidenced from the fact that the territories that were under Bulgarian rule formed part of the autocephalous Archbishopric of Ohrid after the Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria by Emperor Basil II in 1018: thus in Epirus the sees of Chimara, Hadrianopolis, Bela, Buthrotum, Ioannina, Kozyle, and Rogoi passed under the jurisdiction of Ohrid, while the Metropolitan of Naupaktos retained only the sees of Bonditza, Aetos, and Acheloos. Basil II also established new, smaller themes in the region: Koloneia, and Dryinopolis (Hadrianopolis).",
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"plaintext": "The region joined the uprising of Petar Delyan in 1040, and suffered in the First Norman invasion of the Balkans: Dyrrhachium was occupied by the Normans in 1081–1084, Arta was unsuccessfully besieged, and Ioannina was captured by Robert Guiscard. An Aromanian presence in Epirus is first mentioned in the late 11th century, while Jewish communities are attested throughout the medieval period in Arta and Ioannina.",
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"plaintext": "When Constantinople fell to the Fourth Crusade in 1204, the partitio Romaniae assigned Epirus to Venice, but the Venetians were largely unable to effectively establish their authority, except over Dyrrhachium (the \"Duchy of Durazzo\"). The Greek noble Michael Komnenos Doukas, who had married the daughter of a local magnate, took advantage of this, and within a few years consolidated his control over most of Epirus, first as a Venetian vassal and eventually as an independent ruler. By the time of his death in 1214/5, Michael had established a strong state, the Despotate of Epirus, with the former theme of Nicopolis at its core and Arta as its capital. Epirus, and the city of Ioannina in particular, became a haven for Greek refugees from the Latin Empire of Constantinople for the next half-century.",
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"plaintext": "The Despotate of Epirus ruled over Epirus and western Greece as far south as Naupaktos and the Gulf of Corinth, much of Albania (including Dyrrhachium), Thessaly, and the western portion of Macedonia, extending its rule briefly over central Macedonia and most of Thrace following the aggressive expansionism of Theodore Komnenos Doukas, who established the Empire of Thessalonica in 1224. During this time, the definition of Epirus came to encompass the entire coastal region from the Ambracian Gulf to Dyrrhachium, and the hinterland to the west up to the highest peaks of the Pindus mountain range. Some of the most important cities in Epirus, such as Gjirokastër (Argyrokastron), were founded during this period. The oldest reference to Albanians in Epirus is from a Venetian document dating to 1210, which states that \"the continent facing the island of Corfu is inhabited by Albanians\". Kosta Giakoumis believes that the use of hypothetical immigrations to explain the accounts of Albanian presence in Epirote territory prior to the 13th-14th century is somewhat arbitrary. In 1337, Epirus was once again brought under the rule of the restored Byzantine Empire.",
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"plaintext": "In 1348, taking advantage of the civil war between the Byzantine emperors John V Palaiologos and John VI Kantakouzenos, the Serbian king Stefan Uroš IV Dušan conquered Epirus, with a number of Albanian mercenaries assisting him. The Byzantine authorities in Constantinople soon re-established a measure of control by making the Despotate of Epirus a vassal state, but meanwhile Albanian clans invaded and seized most of the region. The Albanian Losha and Zenevisi clans founded two short-lived principalities, centered in Arta (1358–1416) and Gjirokastër (1386–1411) respectively. Only the city of Ioannina remained under Greek control during this time. Although Albanian clans gained control of most of the region by 1366/7, their continued division into rival clans meant that they could not establish a single central authority.",
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"plaintext": "Ioannina became a center of Greek resistance to the Albanian clans. The Greeks of Ioannina offered power to three foreign rulers during this time, beginning with Thomas II Preljubović (1367–1384), followed by Esau de' Buondelmonti (1385–1411), and finally Carlo I Tocco (1411–1429). The latter finally succeeded in ending the rule of the Albanian clans and unifying Epirus under his rule. Nevertheless, internal dissension eased the Ottoman conquest, which began with the capture of Ioannina in 1430 and continued with Arta in 1449, Angelokastro in 1460, Riniasa Castle and its environs (in what is now Preveza) in 1463, and finally Vonitsa in 1479. With the exception of several coastal Venetian possessions, this was also the end of Latin rule in mainland Greece.",
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"plaintext": "Epirus was ruled by the Ottomans for almost 500 years. Ottoman rule in Epirus proved particularly damaging; the region was subjected to deforestation and excessive cultivation, which damaged the soil and drove many Epirotes to emigrate so as to escape the region's pervasive poverty. Nonetheless, the Ottomans did not enjoy total control of Epirus. The Himara and Zagori regions managed to successfully resist Ottoman rule and maintained a degree of independence throughout this period. The Ottomans expelled the Venetians from almost the whole area in the late 15th century.",
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"plaintext": "Between the 16th and 19th centuries, the city of Ioannina attained great prosperity and became a major center of the modern Greek Enlightenment. Numerous schools were founded, such as the Balaneios, Maroutsaia, Kaplaneios, and Zosimaia, teaching subjects such as literature, philosophy, mathematics and physical sciences. In the 18th century, as the power of the Ottoman Empire declined, Epirus became a de facto independent region under the despotic rule of Ali Pasha of Tepelena, a Muslim Albanian brigand who rose to become the provincial governor of Ioannina in 1788. At the height of his power, he controlled all of Epirus, and much of the Peloponnese, central Greece, and parts of western Macedonia Ali Pasha's campaign to subjugate the confederation of the settlements of Souli met with fierce resistance by the Souliot warriors of the mountainous area. After numerous failed attempts to defeat the Souliotes, his troops succeeded in conquering the area in 1803. On the other hand, Ali, who used Greek as official language, witnessed an increase of Greek cultural activity with the establishment of several educational institutions.",
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"plaintext": "When the Greek War of Independence broke out, the inhabitants of Epirus contributed greatly. Two of the founding members of the Filiki Eteria (the secret society of the Greek revolutionaries), Nikolaos Skoufas and Athanasios Tsakalov, came from the Arta area and the city of Ioannina, respectively. Greece's first constitutional prime minister (1844–1847), Ioannis Kolettis, was a native of the village of Syrrako in Epirus and was a former personal physician to Ali Pasha. Ali Pasha tried to use the war as an opportunity to make himself a fully independent ruler, but was assassinated by Ottoman agents in 1822. When Greece became independent in 1830, however, Epirus remained under Ottoman rule. In 1854, during the Crimean War, a major local rebellion broke out. Although the newly found Greek state tried tacitly to support it, the rebellion was suppressed by Ottoman forces after a few months. Another failed rebellion by local Greeks broke out in 1878. During this period, the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople managed to shut down the few Albanian schools, considering teaching in Albanian a factor that would diminish its influence and lead to the creation of separate Albanian church, while publications in Albanian were banned by the Ottoman Empire. In the late 19th century, the Kingdom of Italy opened various schools in the regions of Ioannina and Preveza in order to influence the local population. These schools began to attract students from the Greek language schools, but were ultimately closed after intervention and harassment by the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. Throughout, the late period of Ottoman rule (from the 18th century) Greek and Aromanian population of the region suffered from Albanians raiders, that sporadically continued after Ali Pasha's death, until 1912–1913.",
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"plaintext": "While the Treaty of Berlin (1878) awarded large parts of Epirus to Greece, opposition by the Ottomans and the League of Prizren resulted in only the region of Arta being ceded to Greece in 1881. It was only following the First Balkan War of 1912–1913 and the Treaty of London that the rest of southern Epirus, including Ioannina, was incorporated into Greece. Greece had also seized northern Epirus during the Balkan Wars, but the Treaty of Bucharest, which concluded the Second Balkan War, assigned Northern Epirus to Albania.",
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"plaintext": "This outcome was unpopular among local Greeks, as a substantial Greek population existed on the Albanian side of the border. Among Greeks, northern Epirus was henceforth regarded as terra irredenta. Local Greeks in northern Epirus revolted, declared their independence and proclaimed the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus in February 1914. After fierce guerrilla fighting, they managed to gain full autonomy under the terms of the Protocol of Corfu, signed by Albanian and Northern Epirote representatives and approved by the Great Powers. The signing of the Protocol ensured that the region would have its own administration, recognized the rights of the local Greeks and provided self-government under nominal Albanian sovereignty. The Republic, however, was short-lived, as when World War I broke out, Albania collapsed, and northern Epirus was alternately controlled by Greece, Italy and France at various intervals. Although short-lived, this state managed to leave behind a number of historical records of its existence, including its own postage stamps; see Postage stamps and postal history of Epirus.",
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"plaintext": "Although the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 awarded Northern Epirus to Greece, developments such as the Greek defeat in the Greco-Turkish War and, crucially, Italian lobbying in favor of Albania meant that Greece would not keep Northern Epirus. In 1924, the area was again ceded to Albania.",
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"plaintext": "In 1939, Italy occupied Albania, and in 1940 invaded Greece. The Italians were driven back into Albania, however, and Greek forces again took control of northern Epirus. The conflict marked the first tactical victory of the Allies in World War II. Benito Mussolini himself supervised the massive counter-attack of his divisions in spring 1941, only to be decisively defeated again by the poorly equipped, but determined, Greeks. Nazi Germany then intervened in April 1941 to avert an embarrassing, wholesale Italian defeat. The German military performed rapid military maneuvers through Yugoslavia and forced the encircled Greek forces of the Epirus front to surrender.",
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"plaintext": "The whole of Epirus was then placed under Italian occupation until 1943, when the Germans took over following the Italian surrender to the Allies. Due to the extensive activity of the anti-Nazi Greek resistance (mainly under EDES), the Germans carried out large scaled anti-partisan sweeps, making wide use of Nazi-collaborationist bands of Cham Albanians, who committed numerous atrocities against the civilian population.",
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"plaintext": "To deal with the situation, the Allied Military Mission in the Axis-occupied Greece (under Colonel C. M. Woodhouse), gave EDES partisans direct orders to counter-attack and chase out of their villages those units that used them as bases and local strongholds. Helped by Allied war material transferred from the recently liberated southern Italy, EDES forces succeeded and as a result several thousands of Muslim Cham Albanians fled the area and took refuge in nearby Albania.",
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"plaintext": "With the liberation of Greece and the start of the first round of the Greek Civil War at the end of 1944, the highlands of Epirus became a major theater of guerrilla warfare between the leftist Greek People's Liberation Army (ELAS) and the right-wing National Republican Greek League (EDES). In subsequent years (1945–1949), the mountains of Epirus also became the scene of some of the fiercest fighting of the second and bloodier round of the Greek Civil War. The final episode of the war took place on Mount Grammos in 1949, ending with the defeat of the Communists. Peace returned to the region in 1949, although because of official Albanian active involvement in the civil war on the side of the communists, the formal state of war between Greece and Albania remained in effect until 1987. Another reason for the continuation of the state of war until 1987 was that during the entire period of Communist rule in Albania, the Greek population of Northern Epirus experienced forced Albanisation. Although a Greek minority was recognized by the Hoxha regime, this recognition only applied to an \"official minority zone\" consisting of 99 villages, leaving out important areas of Greek settlement, such as Himara. People outside the official minority zone received no education in the Greek language, which was prohibited in public. The Hoxha regime also diluted the ethnic demographics of the region by relocating Greeks living there and settling in their stead Albanians from other parts of the country. Relations began to improve in the 1980s with Greece's abandonment of any territorial claims over Northern Epirus and the lifting of the official state of war between the two countries.",
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"plaintext": "The collapse of the communist regime in Albania in 1990–1991 triggered a massive migration of Albanian citizens to Greece, which included many members of the Greek minority. Since the end of the Cold War, many Greeks in Northern Epirus are re-discovering their Greek heritage thanks to the opening of Greek schools in the region, while Cham Albanians have called for compensation for their lost property. In the post-Cold War era, relations have continued to improve though tensions remain over the availability of education in the Greek language outside the official minority zone, the minority's property rights, and occasional violent incidents targeting members of the Greek minority.",
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"plaintext": "A rugged topography, poor soils, and fragmented landholdings have kept agricultural production low and have resulted in a low population density. Animal husbandry is the main industry and corn the chief crop. Oranges and olives are grown in the western lowlands, while tobacco is grown around Ioannina. Epirus has few natural resources and industries, and the population has been depleted by migration. The population is centered around Ioannina, which has the largest number of industrial establishments.",
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"plaintext": "Epirus has historically been a remote and isolated region due to its location between the Pindus mountains and the sea. In antiquity, the Roman Via Egnatia passed through Epirus Nova, which linked Byzantium and Thessalonica to Dyrrachium on the Adriatic Sea. The modern Egnatia Odos highway, which links Ioannina to the Greek province of Macedonia and terminating at Igoumenitsa, is the only highway through the Pindus mountains and has served to greatly reduce the region's isolation from the east, while the Ionia Odos highway, connecting Epirus with Western Greece, helped reducing the region's isolation from the south. Also, the Aktio-Preveza Undersea Tunnel connects the southernmost tip of Epirus, near Preveza, with Aetolia-Acarnania in western Greece. Ferry services from Igoumenitsa to the Ionian islands and Italy exist. The only airport in Epirus is the Ioannina National Airport, while the Aktion National Airport is located just south of Preveza in Aetolia-Acarnania. There are no railroads in Epirus.",
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|
38,261 | 1,107,353,408 | Montevideo | [
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"plaintext": "Montevideo () is the capital and largest city of Uruguay. According to the 2011 census, the city proper has a population of 1,319,108 (about one-third of the country's total population) in an area of . Montevideo is situated on the southern coast of the country, on the northeastern bank of the Río de la Plata.",
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"plaintext": "The city was established in 1724 by a Spanish soldier, Bruno Mauricio de Zabala, as a strategic move amidst the Spanish-Portuguese dispute over the platine region. It was also under brief British rule in 1807, but eventually the city was retaken by Spanish criollos who defeated the British invasions of the River Plate. Montevideo is the seat of the administrative headquarters of Mercosur and ALADI, Latin America's leading trade blocs, a position that entailed comparisons to the role of Brussels in Europe.",
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"plaintext": "The 2019 Mercer's report on quality of life, rated Montevideo first in Latin America, a rank the city has consistently held since 2005. , Montevideo was the 19th largest city economy in the continent and 9th highest income earner among major cities. In 2022, it has a projected GDP of $53.9billion, with a per capita of $30,148.",
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"plaintext": "In 2018, it was classified as a beta global city ranking eighth in Latin America and 84th in the world. Montevideo hosted every match during the first FIFA World Cup, in 1930. Described as a \"vibrant, eclectic place with a rich cultural life\", and \"a thriving tech center and entrepreneurial culture\", Montevideo ranked eighth in Latin America on the 2013 MasterCard Global Destination Cities Index.",
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"plaintext": "In 2014, it was also regarded as the fifth most gay-friendly metropolis in the world and the first in Latin America. It is the hub of commerce and higher education in Uruguay as well as its chief port. The city is also the financial hub of Uruguay and the cultural anchor of a metropolitan area with a population of around 2million.",
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"plaintext": "There are several explanations about the word Montevideo. All agree that \"Monte\" refers to the Cerro de Montevideo, the hill situated across the Bay of Montevideo, but there is disagreement about the etymological origin of the \"video\" part.",
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"plaintext": " Monte vide eu (\"I saw a mount\") is the most widespread belief but is rejected by the majority of experts, who consider it unlikely because it involves a mix of dialects. The name would come from a Portuguese expression which means \"I saw a mount\", wrongly pronounced by an anonymous sailor belonging to the expedition of Fernando de Magallanes on catching sight of the Cerro de Montevideo.",
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"plaintext": " Monte Vidi: This hypothesis comes from the \"Diario de Navegación\" (Navigational Calendar) of boatswain Francisco de Albo, member of the expedition of Fernando de Magallanes, who wrote, \"Tuesday of the said [month of January 1520] we were on the straits of Cape Santa María [now Punta del Este], from where the coast runs east to west, and the terrain is sandy, and at the right of the cape there is a mountain like a hat to which we gave the name \"Montevidi\".\" This is the oldest Spanish document that mentions the promontory with a name similar to the one that designates the city, but it does not contain any mention of the alleged cry \"Monte vide eu.\"",
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"plaintext": " Monte-VI-D-E-O (Monte VI De Este a Oeste): According to Rolando Laguarda Trías, professor of history, the Spaniards annotated the geographic location on a map or Portolan chart, so that the mount/hill is the VI (6th) mount observable on the coast, navigating Río de la Plata from east to west. With the passing of time, these words were unified to \"Montevideo\". No conclusive evidence has been found to confirm this academic hypothesis, nor can it be asserted with certainty which were the other five mounts observable before the Cerro.",
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"plaintext": " Monte Ovidio (Monte Santo Ovidio), a less widespread hypothesis of a religious origin, stems from an interpolation in the aforementioned Diario de Navegación of Fernando de Albo, where it is asserted \"corruptly now called Santo Vidio\" when they refer to the hat-like mount which they named Monte Vidi (that is, the Cerro de Montevideo). Ovidio (Saint Ovidius) was the third bishop of the Portuguese city of Braga, where he was always revered; a monument to him was erected there in 1505. Given the relationship that the Portuguese had with the discovery and foundation of Montevideo, and despite the fact that this hypothesis, like the previous ones, lacks conclusive documentation, there have been those who linked the name of Santo Ovidio or Vidio (appearing on some maps of the time) with the subsequent derivation of the name \"Montevideo\" given to the region since the early years of the 16th century.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1680 and 1683, Portugal founded the city of Colonia do Sacramento in the region across the bay from Buenos Aires. This city met with no resistance from the Spanish until 1723, when they began to place fortifications on the elevations around Montevideo Bay. On 22 November 1723, Field Marshal Manuel de Freitas da Fonseca of Portugal built the Montevieu fort.",
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"plaintext": "A Spanish expedition was sent from Buenos Aires, organized by the Spanish governor of that city, Bruno Mauricio de Zabala. On 22 January 1724, the Spanish forced the Portuguese to abandon the location and started populating the city, initially with six families moving in from Buenos Aires and soon thereafter by families arriving from the Canary Islands who were known as Guanches or Canarians. There was also one significant early Italian resident by the name of Jorge Burgues.",
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"plaintext": "A census of the city's inhabitants was performed in 1724 and then a plan was drawn delineating the city and designating it as San Felipe y Santiago de Montevideo, later shortened to Montevideo. The census counted fifty families of Galician and Canary Islands origin, more than 1000 indigenous people, mostly Guaraní, as well as Black African slaves of Bantu origin.",
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"plaintext": "A few years after its foundation, Montevideo became the main city of the region north of the Río de la Plata and east of the Uruguay River, competing with Buenos Aires for dominance in maritime commerce. The importance of Montevideo as the main port of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata brought it in confrontations with the city of Buenos Aires in various occasions, including several times when it was taken over to be used as a base to defend the eastern province of the Viceroyalty from Portuguese incursions.",
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"plaintext": "In 1776, Spain made Montevideo its main naval base (Real Apostadero de Marina) for the South Atlantic, with authority over the Argentine coast, Fernando Po, and the Falklands.",
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"plaintext": "Until the end of the 18th century, Montevideo remained a fortified area, today known as Ciudad Vieja.",
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"plaintext": "On 3 February 1807, British troops under the command of General Samuel Auchmuty and Admiral Charles Stirling occupied the city during the Battle of Montevideo (1807), but it was recaptured by the Spanish in the same year on 2 September when John Whitelocke was forced to surrender to troops formed by forces of the Banda Oriental—roughly the same area as modern Uruguay—and of Buenos Aires. After this conflict, the governor of Montevideo Francisco Javier de Elío opposed the new viceroy Santiago de Liniers, and created a government Junta when the Peninsular War started in Spain, in defiance of Liniers. Elío disestablished the Junta when Liniers was replaced by Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros.",
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"plaintext": "During the May Revolution of 1810 and the subsequent uprising of the provinces of Rio de la Plata, the Spanish colonial government moved to Montevideo. During that year and the next, Uruguayan revolutionary José Gervasio Artigas united with others from Buenos Aires against Spain. In 1811, the forces deployed by the Junta Grande of Buenos Aires and the gaucho forces led by Artigas started a siege of Montevideo, which had refused to obey the directives of the new authorities of the May Revolution. The siege was lifted at the end of that year, when the military situation started deteriorating in the Upper Peru region.",
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"plaintext": "The Spanish governor was expelled in 1814. In 1816, Portugal invaded the recently liberated territory and in 1821, it was annexed to the Banda Oriental of Brazil. It was named Imperial City by Emperor Pedro I when the city was part of the Empire of Brazil as capital of the Cisplatina province. Juan Antonio Lavalleja and his band called the Treinta y Tres Orientales (\"Thirty-Three Orientals\") re-established the independence of the region in 1825. Uruguay was consolidated as an independent state in 1828, with Montevideo as the nation's capital. In 1829, the demolition of the city's fortifications began and plans were made for an extension beyond the Ciudad Vieja, referred to as the \"Ciudad Nueva\" (\"new city\"). Urban expansion, however, moved very slowly because of the events that followed.",
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"plaintext": "Uruguay's 1830s were dominated by the confrontation between Manuel Oribe and Fructuoso Rivera, the two revolutionary leaders who had fought against the Empire of Brazil under the command of Lavalleja, each of whom had become the caudillo of their respective faction. Politics were divided between Oribe's Blancos (\"whites\"), represented by the National Party, and Rivera's Colorados (\"reds\"), represented by the Colorado Party, with each party's name taken from the color of its emblems. In 1838, Oribe was forced to resign the presidency; he established a rebel army and began a long civil war, the Guerra Grande, which lasted until 1851.",
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"plaintext": "The city of Montevideo suffered a siege of eight years between 1843 and 1851, during which it was supplied by sea with British and French support. By 1843 Montevedio's population of thirty thousand inhabitants was highly cosmopolitan with Uruguayans making up only a third of it. The remaining were chiefly Italian (4205), Spanish (3406), Argentine (2.553), Portuguese (659), English (606) and Brazilians (492). Oribe, with the support of the then conservative Governor of Buenos Aires Province Juan Manuel de Rosas, besieged the Colorados in Montevideo, where the latter were supported by the French Legion, the Italian Legion, the Basque Legion and battalions from Brazil. Finally, in 1851, with the additional support of Argentine rebels who opposed Rosas, the Colorados defeated Oribe. The fighting, however, resumed in 1855, when the Blancos came to power, which they maintained until 1865. Thereafter, the Colorado Party regained power, which they retained until past the middle of the 20th century.",
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"plaintext": "After the end of hostilities, a period of growth and expansion started for the city. In 1853 a stagecoach bus line was established joining Montevideo with the newly formed settlement of Unión and the first natural gas street lights were inaugurated. From 1854 to 1861 the first public sanitation facilities were constructed. In 1856 the Teatro Solís was inaugurated, 15 years after the beginning of its construction. By Decree, in December 1861 the areas of Aguada and Cordón were incorporated to the growing Ciudad Nueva (New City). In 1866, an underwater telegraph line connected the city with Buenos Aires. The statue of Peace, La Paz, was erected on a column in Plaza Cagancha and the building of the Postal Service as well as the bridge of Paso Molino were inaugurated in 1867.",
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"plaintext": "In 1868, the horse-drawn tram company Compañía de Tranvías al Paso del Molino y Cerro created the first lines connecting Montevideo with Unión, the beach resort of Capurro and the industrialized and economically independent Villa del Cerro, at the time called Cosmopolis. In the same year, the Mercado del Puerto was inaugurated. In 1869, the first railway line of the company Ferrocarril Central del Uruguay was inaugurated connecting Bella Vista with the town of Las Piedras. During the same year and the next, the neighborhoods Colón, Nuevo París and La Comercial were founded. The Sunday market of Tristán Narvaja Street was established in Cordón in 1870. Public water supply was established in 1871. In 1878, Bulevar Circunvalación was constructed, a boulevard starting from Punta Carretas, going up to the north end of the city and then turning west to end at the beach of Capurro. It was renamed Artigas Boulevard in 1885. By Decree, on 8 January 1881, the area Los Pocitos was incorporated to the Novísima Ciudad (Most New City).",
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"plaintext": "The first telephone lines were installed in 1882 and electric street lights took the place of the gas operated ones in 1886. The Hipódromo de Maroñas started operating in 1888, and the neighborhoods of Reus del Sur, Reus del Norte and Conciliación were inaugurated in 1889. The new building of the School of Arts and Trades, as well as Zabala Square in Ciudad Vieja were inaugurated in 1890, followed by the Italian Hospital in 1891. In the same year, the village of Peñarol was founded. Other neighborhoods that were founded were Belgrano and Belvedere in 1892, Jacinto Vera in 1895 and Trouville in 1897. In 1894 the new port was constructed, and in 1897, the Central Railway Station of Montevideo was inaugurated.",
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"plaintext": "In the early 20th century, many Europeans (particularly Spaniards and Italians but also thousands from Central Europe) immigrated to the city. In 1908, 30% of the city's population of 300,000 was foreign-born. In that decade the city expanded quickly: new neighborhoods were created and many separate settlements were annexed to the city, among which were the Villa del Cerro, Pocitos, the Prado and Villa Colón. The Rodó Park and the Estadio Gran Parque Central were also established, which served as poles of urban development.",
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"plaintext": "During the early 20th century, Uruguay saw huge social changes with repercussions primarily in urban areas. Among these changes were the right of divorce (1907) and women's right to vote.",
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"plaintext": "The 1910s saw the construction of Montevideo's Rambla; strikes by tram workers, bakers and port workers; the inauguration of electric trams; the creation of the Municipal Intendencias; and the inauguration of the new port.",
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"plaintext": "In 1913, the city limits were extended around the entire gulf. The previously independent localities of the Villa del Cerro and La Teja were annexed to Montevideo, becoming two of its neighborhoods.",
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"plaintext": "During the 1920s, the equestrian statue of Artigas was installed in Plaza Independencia; the Palacio Legislativo was built; the Spanish Plus Ultra flying boat arrived (the first airplane to fly from Spain to Latin America, 1926); prominent politician and former president José Batlle y Ordóñez died (1929); and ground was broken (1929) for the Estadio Centenario (completed 1930).",
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"plaintext": "During World War II, a famous incident involving the German pocket battleship Admiral Graf Spee took place in Punta del Este, from Montevideo. After the Battle of the River Plate with the Royal Navy and Royal New Zealand Navy on 13 December 1939, the Graf Spee retreated to Montevideo's port, which was considered neutral at the time. To avoid risking the crew in what he thought would be a losing battle, Captain Hans Langsdorff scuttled the ship on 17 December. Langsdorff committed suicide two days later. The eagle figurehead of the Graf Spee was salvaged on 10 February 2006; to protect the feelings of those still sensitive to Nazi Germany, the swastika on the figurehead was covered as it was pulled from the water.",
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"plaintext": "Uruguay began to stagnate economically in the mid-1950s; Montevideo began a decline, later exacerbated by widespread social and political violence beginning in 1968 (including the emergence of the guerrilla Movimiento de Liberación Nacional-Tupamaros) and by the Civic-military dictatorship of Uruguay (1973-1985). There were major problems with supply; the immigration cycle was reversed.",
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"plaintext": "From the 1960s to the end of the dictatorship in 1985, around one hundred people died or disappeared because of the political violence. In 1974 another hundred Uruguayans also disappeared in Argentina. In 1980, the dictatorship proposed a new constitution. The project was submitted to referendum and rejected in the first polls since 1971, with 58% of the votes against and 42% in favor. The result weakened the military and triggered its fall, allowing the return of democracy.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1980s, Pope John Paul II visited the city twice. In April 1987, as head of state of Vatican, he signed a mediation agreement for the conflict of the Beagle Channel. He also held a large mass in Tres Cruces, declaring the cross located behind the altar as a monument. In 1988, he returned to the country, visiting Montevideo, Florida, Salto and Melo.",
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"plaintext": "The 2002 Uruguay banking crisis affected several industries of Montevideo. In 2017, the city has maintained 15 years of economic growth, with a GDP of $44billion, and a GDP per capita of $25,900.",
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"plaintext": "Montevideo has consistently been rated as having the highest quality of life of any city in Latin America: by 2015 it held this rank every year during the decade through 2014.",
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"plaintext": "Montevideo is situated on the north shore of the Río de la Plata, the arm of the Atlantic Ocean that separates the south coast of Uruguay from the north coast of Argentina; Buenos Aires lies west on the Argentine side. The Santa Lucía River forms a natural border between Montevideo and San José Department to its west. To the city's north and east is Canelones Department, with the stream of Carrasco forming the eastern natural border. The coastline forming the city's southern border is interspersed with rocky protrusions and sandy beaches. The Bay of Montevideo forms a natural harbor, the nation's largest and one of the largest in the Southern Cone, and the finest natural port in the region, functioning as a crucial component of the Uruguayan economy and foreign trade. Various streams crisscross the town and empty into the Bay of Montevideo. Its coastline near the emptying rivers are heavily polluted.",
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"plaintext": "The city has an average elevation of . Its highest elevations are two hills: the Cerro de Montevideo and the Cerro de la Victoria, with the highest point, the peak of Cerro de Montevideo, crowned by a fortress, the Fortaleza del Cerro at a height of . Closest cities by road are Las Piedras to the north and the so-called Ciudad de la Costa (a conglomeration of coastal towns) to the east, both in the range of 20 to from the city center. The approximate distances to the neighboring department capitals by road are, to San Jose de Mayo (San Jose Department) and to Canelones (Canelones Department).",
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"plaintext": "Montevideo has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa, according to the Köppen climate classification). Being in a middle latitude, the city experiences the four seasons. It has cool Winters (June to August), warm-hot Summers (December to February), mild Autumns (March to May) and volatile Springs (September to November); The climate is characterized for having mild temperatures, without harsh cold or extreme heat. There are numerous thunderstorms but no tropical cyclones. Rainfall is regular and evenly spread throughout the year, reaching around .",
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"plaintext": "Winters are generally cool, wet, windy and overcast. The average temperature during this season is just above . Daytime temperatures are generally between and , and night lows between and . During this season, there are bursts of icy and relatively dry winds of continental polar air masses, giving an unpleasant chilly feeling to the everyday life of the city, with daytime temperatures around or below and possible night frosts. These occur few times during winter, with temperatures generally not falling below because of the oceanic influence that moderates the temperature; a few kilometres inland, frosts are more common and colder. On the other hand, even in the middle of winter it's not uncommon to have temperatures above for a few days. Rainfall and sleet are a frequent winter occurrence, but snowfall is extremely rare: flurries have been recorded only four times but with no accumulation, the last one on 13 July 1930 during the inaugural match of the World Cup, (the other three snowfalls were in 1850, 1853 and 1917); the alleged 1980 Carrasco snowfall was actually a hailstorm.",
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"plaintext": "Summers are warm-hot and humid, with less wind than other seasons. The average temperature in this season is ",
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"plaintext": ". Daytime temperatures are usually between and , while night lows between and . During this season, a moderate wind often blows from the sea in the evenings which has a pleasant cooling effect on the city, in contrast to the more severe summer heat of nearby cities like Buenos Aires. Heat waves come with the north winds, which bring humid and hot air masses from the tropical interior of the continent, that can rise the temperatures above . These warm periods are usually followed by thunderstorms, generated by cold fronts from the southwest that lowers temperatures considerably. This phenomenon is regional, and can occur several times all year long.",
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"plaintext": "The autumn in Montevideo is quite pleasant and not so unstable. Daytime temperatures are in general around and nights around .",
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"plaintext": "Spring average temperatures are very similar to the autumn, but the weather in that season tends to be more windy and volatile, with more dramatic changes in a short period of time.",
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"plaintext": "Montevideo has an annual average temperature of . The lowest recorded temperature is while the highest is .",
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"plaintext": ", the city of Montevideo has been divided into 8 political municipalities (Municipios), referred to with the letters from A to G, including CH, each presided over by a mayor elected by the citizens registered in the constituency. This division, according to the Municipality of Montevideo, \"aims to advance political and administrative decentralization in the department of Montevideo, with the aim of deepening the democratic participation of citizens in governance.\" The head of each Municipio is called an alcalde or (if female) alcaldesa.",
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"plaintext": "Of much greater importance is the division of the city into 62 barrios: neighborhoods or wards. Many of the city's barrios—such as Sayago, Ituzaingó and Pocitos—were previously geographically separate settlements, later absorbed by the growth of the city. Others grew up around certain industrial sites, including the salt-curing works of Villa del Cerro and the tanneries in Nuevo París. Each barrio has its own identity, geographic location and socio-cultural activities. A neighborhood of great significance is Ciudad Vieja, that was surrounded by a protective wall until 1829. This area contains most important buildings of the colonial era and early decades of independence.",
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"plaintext": " Centro",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Barrio Sur",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Aguada",
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1,
7
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},
{
"plaintext": " Villa Muñoz, Goes, Retiro",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Cordón",
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1,
7
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},
{
"plaintext": " Palermo",
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"target_page_ids": [
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1,
8
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},
{
"plaintext": " Parque Rodó",
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"target_page_ids": [
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1,
12
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},
{
"plaintext": " Tres Cruces",
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"section_name": "Geography",
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1,
12
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},
{
"plaintext": " La Comercial",
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"section_name": "Geography",
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1,
13
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},
{
"plaintext": " Larrañaga",
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"section_name": "Geography",
"target_page_ids": [
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1,
10
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},
{
"plaintext": " La Blanqueada",
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1,
14
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},
{
"plaintext": " Parque Batlle – Villa Dolores",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Pocitos",
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1,
8
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},
{
"plaintext": " Punta Carretas",
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1,
15
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},
{
"plaintext": " Unión",
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1,
6
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},
{
"plaintext": " Buceo",
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1,
6
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},
{
"plaintext": " Malvín",
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1,
7
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},
{
"plaintext": " Malvín Norte",
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1,
13
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},
{
"plaintext": " Las Canteras",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Punta Gorda",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Carrasco",
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1,
9
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},
{
"plaintext": " Carrasco Norte",
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1,
15
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},
{
"plaintext": " Bañados de Carrasco",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Flor de Maroñas",
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1,
16
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Maroñas – Parque Guaraní",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Villa Española",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ituzaingó",
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1,
10
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},
{
"plaintext": " Castro – Pérez Castellanos",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Mercado Modelo – Bolívar",
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1,
15
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18,
25
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},
{
"plaintext": " Brazo Oriental",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Jacinto Vera",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " La Figurita",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Reducto",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Capurro – Bella Vista, Arroyo Seco",
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11,
22
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},
{
"plaintext": " Prado – Nueva Savona",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Atahualpa",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Aires Puros",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Paso de las Duranas",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Belvedere",
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},
{
"plaintext": " La Teja",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Tres Ombúes – Pueblo Victoria",
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{
"plaintext": " Villa del Cerro",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Casabó – Pajas Blancas, Rincón del Cerro",
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},
{
"plaintext": " La Paloma – Tomkinson",
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{
"plaintext": " Paso de la Arena – Los Bulevares – Santiago Vázquez",
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{
"plaintext": " Nuevo París",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Conciliación",
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{
"plaintext": " Sayago",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Peñarol – Lavalleja",
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{
"plaintext": " Colón Centro y Noroeste",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Lezica – Melilla",
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{
"plaintext": " Colón Sudeste – Abayubá",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Manga – Toledo Chico",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Casavalle, Barrio Borro",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Cerrito de la Victoria",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Las Acacias",
"section_idx": 3,
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"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Jardines del Hipódromo",
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Piedras Blancas",
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{
"plaintext": " Manga",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Punta de Rieles - Bella Italia",
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"anchor_spans": [
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{
"plaintext": " Villa García – Manga Rural",
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{
"plaintext": "The architecture of Montevideo ranges from Neoclassical buildings such as the Montevideo Metropolitan Cathedral to the late-modern style of the World Trade Center Montevideo or the ANTEL Telecommunication Tower, the tallest skyscraper in the country. Along with the Telecommunications Tower, the Palacio Salvo dominates the skyline of the Bay of Montevideo. The building facades in the Old Town reflect the city's extensive European immigration, displaying the influence of old European architecture. Notable government buildings include the Legislative Palace, the City Hall, Estévez Palace and the Executive Tower. The most notable sports stadium is the Estadio Centenario within Parque Batlle. Parque Batlle, Parque Rodó and Parque Prado are Montevideo's three great parks.",
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"plaintext": "The Pocitos district, near the beach of the same name, has many homes built by Bello and Reboratti between 1920 and 1940, with a mixture of styles. Other landmarks in Pocitos are the \"Edificio Panamericano\" designed by Raul Sichero, and the \"Positano\" and \"El Pilar\" designed by Adolfo Sommer Smith and Luis García Pardo in the 1950s and 1960s. However, the construction boom of the 1970s and 1980s transformed the face of this neighborhood, with a cluster of modern apartment buildings for upper and upper middle class residents.",
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"plaintext": "The Palacio Legislativo in Aguada, the north of the city center, is the seat of the Uruguayan Parliament. Construction started in 1904 and was sponsored by the government of President José Batlle y Ordóñez. It was designed by Italian architects Vittorio Meano and Gaetano Moretti, who planned the building's interior. Among the notable contributors to the project was sculptor José Belloni, who contributed numerous reliefs and allegorical sculptures.",
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"plaintext": "World Trade Center Montevideo officially opened in 1998, but work was completed in 2009. The complex is composed of three towers, two three-story buildings called World Trade Center Plaza and World Trade Center Avenue and a large central square called Towers Square. World Trade Center 1 was the first building to be inaugurated, in 1998. It has 22 floors and 17,100 square meters of space. That same year the avenue and the auditorium were raised. World Trade Center 2 was inaugurated in 2002, a twin tower of World Trade Center 1. Finally, in 2009, World Trade Center 3 and the World Trade Center Plaza and the Towers Square were inaugurated. It is located between the avenues Luis Alberto de Herrera and 26 de Marzo and has 19 floors and of space. The World Trade Center Plaza is designed to be a center of gastronomy opposite Towers Square and Bonavita St. Among the establishments on the plaza are Burger King, Walrus, Bamboo, Asia de Cuba, Gardenia Mvd, and La Claraboya Cafe.",
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"plaintext": "The Towers Square, is an area of remarkable aesthetic design, intended to be a platform for the development of business activities, art exhibitions, dance and music performances and social place. This square connects the different buildings and towers which comprise the WTC Complex and it is the main access to the complex. The square contains various works of art, notably a sculpture by renowned Uruguayan sculptor Pablo Atchugarry. World Trade Center 4, with 40 floors and of space is under construction .",
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"plaintext": "Torre de las Telecomunicaciones (Telecommunications Tower) or Torre Antel (Antel Tower) is the , 37-floor headquarters of Uruguay's government-owned telecommunications company, ANTEL, and is the tallest building in the country. It was designed by architect Carlos Ott. It is situated by the side of the Bay of Montevideo. The tower was completed by American Bridge Company and other design/build consortium team members on 15 March 2000.",
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"plaintext": "When its construction was announced, many politicians complained about its cost (US$40million, plus US$25million for the construction of the other 5 buildings of the Telecommunications Complex). Problems during its construction turned the original US$65million price into US$102million.",
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"plaintext": "Ciudad Vieja was the earliest part of the city to be developed and today it constitutes a prominent barrio of southwest Montevideo. It contains many colonial buildings and national heritage sites, but also many banks, administrative offices, museums, art galleries, cultural institutions, restaurants and night-clubs, making it vibrant with life. Its northern coast is the main port of Uruguay, one of the few deep-draft ports in the Southern Cone of South America.",
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"plaintext": "Montevideo's most important plaza is Plaza Independencia, located between Ciudad Vieja and downtown Montevideo. It starts with the Gateway of The Citadel at one end and ends at the beginning of 18 de Julio Avenue. It is the remaining part of the wall that surrounded the oldest part of the city. Several notable buildings are located here. The Solís Theatre is Uruguay's oldest theater. It was built in 1856 and is owned by the government of Montevideo. In 1998, the government of Montevideo started a major reconstruction of the theater, which included two US$110,000 columns designed by Philippe Starck. The reconstruction was completed in 2004, and the theater reopened in August of that year. The plaza is also the site of the offices of the President of Uruguay (both the Estévez Palace and the Executive Tower). The Artigas Mausoleum is located at the center of the plaza. Statues include that of José Gervasio Artigas, hero of Uruguay's independence movement; an honor guard keeps vigil at the Mausoleum.",
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"plaintext": "Palacio Salvo, at the intersection of 18 de Julio Avenue and Plaza Independencia, was designed by the architect Mario Palanti and completed in 1925. Palanti, an Italian immigrant living in Buenos Aires, used a similar design for his Palacio Barolo in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Palacio Salvo stands high, including its antenna. It is built on the former site of the Confitería La Giralda, renowned for being where Gerardo Matos Rodríguez wrote his tango \"La Cumparsita\" (1917.) Palacio Salvo was originally intended to function as a hotel but is now a mixture of offices and private residences.",
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"plaintext": "Also of major note in Ciudad Vieja is the Plaza de la Constitución (or Plaza Matriz). During the first decades of Uruguayan independence this square was the main hub of city life. On the square are the Cabildo—the seat of colonial government—and the Montevideo Metropolitan Cathedral. The cathedral is the burial place of Fructuoso Rivera, Juan Antonio Lavalleja and Venancio Flores. Another notable square is Plaza Zabala with the equestrian statue of Bruno Mauricio de Zabala. On its south side, Palacio Taranco, once residence of the Ortiz Taranco brothers, is now the Museum of Decorative Arts. A few blocks northwest of Plaza Zabala is the Mercado del Puerto, another major tourist destination.",
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"plaintext": "Parque Batlle (formerly: Parque de los Aliados, translation: \"Park of the Allies\") is a major public central park, located south of Avenida Italia and north of Avenue Rivera. Along with Parque Prado and Parque Rodó it is one of three large parks that dominate Montevideo. The park and surrounding area constitute one of the 62 neighborhoods (barrios) of the city. The barrio of Parque Batlle is one of seven coastal barrios, the others being Buceo, Carrasco, Malvin, Pocitos, Punta Carretas, and Punta Gorda. The barrio of Parque Battle includes four former districts: Belgrano, Italiano, Villa Dolores and Batlle Park itself and borders the neighborhoods of La Blanqueada, Tres Cruces, Pocitos and Buceo. It has a high population density and most of its households are of medium-high- or high-income. Villa Dolores, a sub-district of Parque Batlle, took its name from the original villa of Don Alejo Rossell y Rius and of Doña Dolores Pereira de Rossel. On their grounds, they started a private collection of animals that became a zoological garden and was passed to the city in 1919; in 1955 the Planetarium of Montevideo was built within its premises.",
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"plaintext": "Parque Batlle is named in honor of José Batlle y Ordóñez, President of Uruguay from 1911 to 1915. The park was originally proposed by an Act of March 1907, which also projected wide boulevards and avenues. French landscape architect, Carlos Thays, began the plantings in 1911. In 1918, the park was named Parque de los Aliados, following the victory of the Allies of World War I. On 5 May 1930, after significant expansion, it was again renamed as Parque Batlle y Ordóñez, in memory of the prominent politician and president, who had died in 1929. The park was designated a National Historic Monument Park in 1975. , the park covers an area of and is considered the \"lung\" of the Montevideo city due to the large variety of trees planted here.",
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"plaintext": "The Estadio Centenario, the national football stadium, opened in 1930 for the first World Cup, and later hosted several other sporting grounds of note (see Sports).",
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"plaintext": "In 1934, sculptor José Belloni's \"La Carreta\", a bronze monument on granite base, was installed on Avenida Lorenzo Merola near Estadio Centenario. One of several statues in the park, it depicts yoked oxen pulling a loaded wagon. It was designated a national monument in 1976. Another statue on the same side of the park is a bronze copy of the Discobolus of Myron.",
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"plaintext": "On the west side of Parque Batlle, on Artigas Boulevard, the 1938 Obelisk of Montevideo is a monument dedicated to those who created the first Constitution. The work of sculptor José Luis Zorrilla de San Martín (1891–1975), it is a three-sided granite obelisk, tall, with bronze statues on its three sides, representing \"Law\", \"Liberty\", and \"Force\", respectively. It has been a National Heritage Site since 1976.",
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"plaintext": "Established in 1873, the largest of Montevideo's six main public parks is the Parque Prado. Located in the northern part of the city, the Miguelete Creek flows through the park and the neighborhood and of the same name. It is surrounded by the avenues Agraciada, Obes Lucas, Joaquín Suárez, Luis Alberto de Herrera and by the streets Castro and José María Reyes.",
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"plaintext": "The most frequented areas of the park are the Rosedal, a public rose garden with pergolas, the Botanical Garden, the area around the Hotel del Prado, as well as the Rural del Prado, a seasonal cattle and farm animal fairground. The Rosedal contains four pergolas, eight domes, and a fountain; its 12,000 roses were imported from France in 1910. There are several jogging paths along the Miguelete river.",
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"plaintext": "The Presidential Residence is located behind the Botanical Gardens. Established in 1930, Juan Manuel Blanes Museum is situated in the Palladian villa, a National Heritage Site since 1975, and includes a Japanese garden. The Professor Atilio Lombardo Museum and Botanical Gardens were established in 1902. The National Institute of Physical Climatology and its observatory are also in the Prado.",
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"plaintext": "Parque Rodó is both a barrio (neighborhood) of Montevideo and a park which lies mostly outside the limits of the neighborhood itself and belongs to Punta Carretas. The name \"Rodó\" commemorates José Enrique Rodó, an important Uruguayan writer whose monument is in the southern side of the main park. The park was conceived as a French-style city park. Apart from the main park area which is delimited by Sarmiento Avenue to the south, Parque Rodó includes an amusement park; the Estadio Luis Franzini, belonging to Defensor Sporting; the front lawn of the Faculty of Engineering and a strip west of the Club de Golf de Punta Carretas that includes the Canteras (\"quarry\") del Parque Rodó, the Teatro de Verano (\"summer theatre\") and the Lago (\"lake\") del Parque Rodó.",
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"plaintext": "On the east side of the main park area is the National Museum of Visual Arts. On this side, a street market takes place every Sunday. On the north side is an artificial lake with a little castle housing a municipal library for children. An area to its west is used as an open-air exhibition of photography. West of the park, across the coastal avenue Rambla Presidente Wilson, stretches Ramirez Beach. Directly west of the main park are, and belonging to Parque Rodó barrio, is the former Parque Hotel, now called Edifício Mercosur, seat of the parliament of the members countries of the Mercosur. During the guerilla war the Tupamaros frequently attacked buildings in this area, including the old hotel.",
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"plaintext": "The first set of subsidiary forts were planned by the Portuguese at Montevideo in 1701 to establish a front line base to stop frequent insurrections by the Spaniards emanating from Buenos Aires. These fortifications were planned within the River Plate estuary at Colonia del Sacramento. However, this plan came to fruition only in November 1723, when Captain Manuel Henriques de Noronha reached the shores of Montevideo with soldiers, guns and colonists on his warship Nossa Senhora de Oliveara. They built a small square fortification. However, under siege from forces from Buenos Aires, the Portuguese withdrew from Montevideo Bay in January 1724, after signing an agreement with the Spaniards.",
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"plaintext": "Fortaleza del Cerro overlooks the bay of Montevideo. An observation post at this location was first built by the Spanish in the late 18th century. In 1802, a beacon replaced the observation post; construction of the fortress began in 1809 and was completed in 1839. It has been involved in many historical developments and has been repeatedly taken over by various sides. In 1907, the old beacon was replaced with a stronger electric one. It has been a National Monument since 1931 and has housed a military museum since 1916. Today it is one of the tourist attractions of Montevideo.",
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"plaintext": "Punta Brava Lighthouse (Faro Punta Brava), also known as Punta Carretas Lighthouse, was erected in 1876. The lighthouse is high and its light reaches away, with a flash every ten seconds. In 1962, the lighthouse became electric. The lighthouse is important for guiding boats into the Banco Inglés Buceo Port or the entrance of the Santa Lucía River.",
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"plaintext": "The Rambla is an avenue that goes along the entire coastline of Montevideo. The literal meaning of the Spanish word rambla is \"avenue\" or \"watercourse\", but in the Americas it is mostly used as \"coastal avenue\", and since all the southern departments of Uruguay border either the Río de la Plata or the Atlantic Ocean, they all have ramblas as well. As an integral part of Montevidean identity, the Rambla has been included by Uruguay in the Indicative List of World Heritage sites, though it has not received this status. Previously, the entire Rambla was called Rambla Naciones Unidas (\"United Nations\"), but in recent times different names have been given to specific parts of it.",
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"plaintext": "The Rambla is a very important site for recreation and leisure in Montevideo. Every day, a large number of people go there to take long strolls, jog, bicycle, roller skate, fish and even—in a special area—skateboard. Its length makes it one of the longest esplanades in the world.",
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"plaintext": "Montevideo is noted for its beaches, which are particularly important because 60% of the population spends the summer in the city. Its best known beaches are Ramírez, Pocitos, Carrasco, Buceo and Malvín. Further east and west are other beaches including the Colorada, Punta Espinillo, Punta Yeguas, Zabala and Santa Catarina.",
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"plaintext": "There are five large cemeteries in Montevideo, all administered by the \"Fúnebre y Necrópolis\" annex of the Intendencia of Montevideo.",
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"plaintext": "The largest cemetery is the Cementerio del Norte, located in the northern-central part of the city. The Central Cemetery (Spanish: Cementerio central), located in Barrio Sur in the southern area of the city, is one of Uruguay's main cemeteries. It was one of the first cemeteries (in contrast to church graveyards) in the country, founded in 1835 in a time where burials were still carried out by the Catholic Church. It is the burial place of many of the most famous Uruguayans, such as Eduardo Acevedo, Delmira Agustini, Luis Batlle Berres, José Batlle y Ordóñez, Juan Manuel Blanes, François Ducasse, father of Comte de Lautréamont (Isidore Ducasse), Luis Alberto de Herrera, Benito Nardone, José Enrique Rodó, and Juan Zorrilla de San Martín.",
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"plaintext": "The other large cemeteries are the Cementerio del Buceo, Cementerio del Cerro, and Cementerio Paso Molino.",
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"plaintext": "The British Cemetery Montevideo (Cementerio Británico) is another of the oldest cemeteries in Uruguay, located in the Buceo neighborhood. Many noblemen and eminent persons are buried there. The cemetery originated when the Englishman Mr. Thomas Samuel Hood purchased a plot of land in the name of the English residents in 1828. However, in 1884 the government compensated the British by moving the cemetery to Buceo to accommodate city growth. A section of the cemetery, known as British Cemetery Montevideo Soldiers and Sailors, contains the graves of quite a number of sailors of different nationalities, although the majority are of British descent. One United States Marine, Henry de Costa, is buried here.",
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"plaintext": "In 1860, Montevideo had 57,913 inhabitants including a number of people of African origin who had been brought as slaves and had gained their freedom around the middle of the century. By 1880, the population had quadrupled, mainly because of the great European immigration. In 1908, its population had grown massively to 309,331 inhabitants. In the course of the 20th century the city continued to receive large numbers of European immigrants, especially Spanish and Italian, followed by French, Germans, English, Irish, Swiss, Austrians, Poles, Dutch, Greek, Hungarians, Russians, Croats, Lebanese, Armenians, and Jews of various origins. The last wave of immigrants occurred between 1945 and 1955.",
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"plaintext": "According to the census survey carried out between 15 June and 31 July 2004, Montevideo had a population of 1,325,968 persons, compared to Uruguay's total population of 3,241,003. The female population was 707,697 (53.4%) while the male population accounted for 618,271 (46.6%). The population had declined since the previous census carried out in 1996, with an average annual growth rate of −1.5 per thousand. Continual decline has been documented since the census period of 1975–1985, which showed a rate of −5.6 per thousand. The decrease is due in large part to lowered fertility, partly offset by mortality, and to a smaller degree in migration. The birth rate declined by 19% from 1996 (17 per thousand) to 2004 (13.8 per thousand). Similarly, the total fertility rate (TFR) declined from 2.24 in 1996 to 1.79 in 2004. However, mortality continued to fall with life expectancy at birth for both sexes increasing by 1.73 years.",
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"plaintext": "In the census of 2011, Montevideo had a population of 1,319,108.",
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"plaintext": "Source: Instituto Nacional de Estadística de Uruguay",
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"plaintext": "The Intendancy of Montevideo was first created by a legal act of 18 December 1908. The municipality's first mayor (1909–1911) was Daniel Muñoz. Municipalities were abolished by the Uruguayan Constitution of 1918, effectively restored during the 1933 military coup of Gabriel Terra, and formally restored by the 1934 Constitution. The 1952 Constitution again decided to abolish the municipalities; it came into effect in February 1955. Municipalities were replaced by departmental councils, which consisted of a collegiate executive board with 7 members from Montevideo and 5 from the interior region. However, municipalities were revived under the 1967 Constitution and have operated continuously since that time.",
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"plaintext": "Since 1990, Montevideo has been partially decentralized into 18 areas; administration and services for each area is provided by its Zonal Community Center (Centro Comunal Zonal, CCZ), which is subordinate to the Intendancy of Montevideo. The boundaries of the municipal districts of Montevideo were created on 12 July 1993, and successively amended on 19 October 1993, 6 June 1994 and 10 November 1994. In 2010, the city CCZ were abolished and eight municipalities were created instead.",
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"plaintext": "The city government of Montevideo performs several functions, including maintaining communications with the public, promoting culture, organizing society, caring for the environment and regulating traffic. Its headquarters is the Palacio Municipal on 18 de Julio Avenue in the Centro area of Montevideo.",
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"plaintext": "Another body, the Junta Departamental, or the Congress of Montevideo, governs the Department of Montevideo. The Junta, composed of 31 unsalaried elected members, is responsible for such things as the freedom of the citizens, the regulation of cultural activities, the naming of streets and public places, and the placement of monuments; it also responds to proposals of the Intendant in various circumstances. Its seat is the architecturally remarkable Casa de Francisco Gómez in Ciudad Vieja.",
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"plaintext": "A 2016 private ranking named Subnational Legislative Online Opening Index measured the data availability in official websites, scoring Montevideo as the second most open district nationally at 17.50 points.",
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"plaintext": " Daniel Muñoz (1909–1911)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ramón V. Benzano (1911–1914)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Juan M. Aubriot (1914–1914)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Santiago Rivas (1914–1915)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Francisco Accinelli (1915–1919)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Alberto Dagnino (1933–1937)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Luis Alberto Zanzi (1937–1938)",
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{
"plaintext": " Horacio Acosta y Lara (1938–1942)",
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{
"plaintext": " Benigno Paiva (1942–1942)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Pedro Onetti (1942–1943)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Juan Pedro Fabini (1943–1947)",
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{
"plaintext": " Andrés Martínez Trueba (1947–1948)",
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"plaintext": " Álvaro Correa Moreno (1950–1951)",
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{
"plaintext": " Germán Barbato (1951–1954)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Armando Malet (1954–1955)",
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{
"plaintext": " Board members of the Concejo Departamental (1955–1967)",
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{
"plaintext": " Glauco Segovia (1967–1967)",
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"plaintext": " Carlos Bartolomé Herrera (1967–1969)",
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{
"plaintext": " Oscar Víctor Rachetti (1969–1971)",
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{
"plaintext": " E. Mario Peyrot (1971–1972)",
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{
"plaintext": " Oscar Víctor Rachetti (1972–1983)",
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{
"plaintext": " Juan Carlos Payssé (1983–1985)",
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{
"plaintext": " Aquiles R. Lanza (1985–1985)",
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"plaintext": " Julio Iglesias Álvarez (1985–1986)",
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{
"plaintext": " Eduardo Fabini Jiménez (1989–1990)",
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"plaintext": " Tabaré Vázquez (1990–1994)",
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"plaintext": " Tabaré González (1994–1995)",
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"plaintext": " Mariano Arana (1995–2000 / 2000–2005)",
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"plaintext": " Adolfo Pérez Piera (2005)",
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"plaintext": " Ana Olivera (2010–2015)",
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"plaintext": "In recent years Montevideo nightlife has moved to Parque Rodó, where a large concentration of buildings cater for the recreational interests of young people during the night time. Under a presidential decree which went into effect on 1 March 2006, smoking is prohibited in any public place with roofing, and there is a prohibition on the sale of alcohol in certain businesses from 21.00 to 9.00.",
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"plaintext": "Montevideo has been part of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network in the area of Literature since December 2015.",
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"plaintext": "Montevideo has a very rich architectural heritage and an impressive number of writers, artists, and musicians. Uruguayan tango is a unique form of dance that originated in the neighborhoods of Montevideo towards the end of the 1800s. Tango, candombe and murga are the three main styles of music in this city. The city is also the center of the cinema of Uruguay, which includes commercial, documentary and experimental films. There are two movie theater companies running seven cinemas, around ten independent ones and four art film cinemas in the city. The theater of Uruguay is admired inside and outside Uruguayan borders. The Solís Theatre is the most prominent theater in Uruguay and the oldest in South America. There are several notable theatrical companies and thousands of professional actors and amateurs. Montevideo playwrights produce dozens of works each year; of major note are Mauricio Rosencof, Ana Magnabosco and Ricardo Prieto.",
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"plaintext": "The daily newspaper El País sponsors the Virtual Museum of contemporary Uruguayan art. The director and curator of the Museum presents exhibitions in \"virtual spaces, supplemented by information, biographies, texts in English and Spanish\".",
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"plaintext": "In the early 1970s (1973, to be particular) when the military junta took over power in Uruguay, art suffered in Montevideo. The art studios went into protest mode, with Rimer Cardillo, one of the country's leading artists, making the National Institute of Fine Arts, Montevideo a \"hotbed of resistance\". This resulted in the military junta coming down heavily on artists by closing the Fine Art Institute and carting away all the presses and other studio equipment. Consequently, the learning of fine arts was only in private studios run by people who had been let out of jail, in works of printing and on paper and also painting and sculpture. It resumed much later.",
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"plaintext": "The first public library in Montevideo was formed by the initial donation of the private library of Father José Manuel Pérez Castellano, who died in 1815. Its promoter, director and organizer was Father Dámaso Antonio Larrañaga, who also made a considerable donation along with donations from José Raimundo Guerra, as well as others from the Convent of San Francisco in Salta. In 1816 its stock was 5,000 volumes. The building of the National Library of Uruguay (Biblioteca Pública de Uruguay) was designed by Luis Crespi in the Neoclassical style and occupies an area of . Construction began in 1926 and it was inaugurated in 1964. Its collection amounts to 900,000 volumes.",
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"plaintext": "The city has a long and rich literary tradition. Although Uruguayan literature is not limited to the authors of the capital (Horacio Quiroga was born in Salto and Mario Benedetti in Paso de los Toros, for instance), Montevideo has been and is the center of the editorial and creative activity of literature.",
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"plaintext": "In 1900, the city had a remarkable group of writers, including José Enrique Rodó, Carlos Vaz Ferreira, Julio Herrera y Reissig, Delmira Agustini and Felisberto Hernández. Montevideo was then called the \"Atenas del Plata\" or the \"Athens of the Rio de la Plata\".",
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"plaintext": "Among the outstanding authors of Montevideo of the second half of the 20th century are Juan Carlos Onetti, Antonio Larreta, Eduardo Galeano, Marosa di Giorgio and Cristina Peri Rossi.",
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"plaintext": "A new generation of writers have become known internationally in recent years. These include Eduardo Espina (essayist and poet), Fernando Butazzoni (novelist), Rafael Courtoisie (poet) and Hugo Burel (short story writer and novelist).",
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"plaintext": "In Montevideo, as throughout the Rio de Plata region, the most popular forms of music are tango, milonga and vals criollo. Many notable songs originated in Montevideo including \"El Tango supremo\", \"La Cumparsita\", \"La Milonga\", \"La Puñalada\" and \"Desde el Alma\", composed by notable Montevideo musicians such as Gerardo Matos Rodríguez, Pintín Castellanos and Rosita Melo. Tango is deeply ingrained in the cultural life of the city and is the theme for many of the bars and restaurants in the city. Fun Fun' Bar, established in 1935, is one of the most important places for tango in Uruguay as is El Farolito, located in the old part of the city and Joventango, Café Las Musas, Garufa and Vieja Viola. The city is also home to the Montevideo Jazz Festival and has the Bancaria Jazz Club bar catering for jazz enthusiasts.",
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"plaintext": "The center of traditional Uruguayan food and beverage in Montevideo is the Mercado del Puerto (\"Port Market\"). Beef is very important in Uruguayan cuisine and an essential part of many dishes. A torta frita is a pan-fried cake consumed in Montevideo and throughout Uruguay. It is generally circular, with a small cut in the center for cooking, and is made from wheat flour, yeast, water and sugar or salt. Montevideo has a variety of restaurants, from traditional Uruguayan cuisine to Japanese cuisine.",
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"plaintext": " Delmira Agustini (writer)",
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"plaintext": " Julio Albino (footballer)",
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"plaintext": " Marcelina Almeida (writer)",
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"plaintext": " Victoria Alonsoperez (engineer)",
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"plaintext": " Odile Baron Supervielle (writer, journalist)",
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"plaintext": " Luis Batlle Berres (president of Uruguay)",
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"plaintext": " Mario Benedetti (writer)",
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"plaintext": " Roy Berocay (journalist and author)",
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"plaintext": " Juan Manuel Blanes (artist)",
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"plaintext": " Baltasar Brum (Uruguayan statesman)",
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"plaintext": " Graciela Cánepa (actress and television presenter)",
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"plaintext": " Rodrigo Casagrande (former footballer)",
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"plaintext": " Manuel Ceferino Oribe (Uruguayan politician)",
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"plaintext": " Gonzalo Curbelo (footballer)",
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"plaintext": " Eladio Dieste (civil engineer)",
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"plaintext": " Jorge Drexler (musician and actor)",
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"plaintext": " Esteban Echeverría (Argentine writer)",
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"plaintext": " Claudio Elías (footballer)",
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"plaintext": " Marcel Felder (tennis player)",
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"plaintext": " Diego Forlán (footballer)",
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"plaintext": " Enzo Francescoli (footballer)",
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},
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"plaintext": " José Gervasio Artigas (Uruguayan revolutionary)",
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"plaintext": " Andrea Ghidone (Vedette, model, dancer, actress)",
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"plaintext": " Felisberto Hernández (writer)",
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"plaintext": " Julio Herrera y Reissig (poet)",
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"plaintext": " Juana de Ibarbourou (poet)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Pedro Ipuche Riva (classical composer)",
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"plaintext": " Jules Laforgue (French poet)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Rolando Laguarda Trías (historian)",
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"plaintext": " Lautréamont, Comte de. Isidore Ducasse (French poet)",
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"plaintext": " Rosita Melo (composer, poet, writer)",
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"plaintext": " Martin Mendez (bass player for Swedish metal outfit Opeth)",
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"plaintext": " Ricardo Moller (footballer)",
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"plaintext": " Nando Parrado (writer)",
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"plaintext": " Maxi Pereira (footballer)",
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"plaintext": " Cristina Peri Rossi (writer)",
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"plaintext": " Pedro Piedrabuena (billiard player)",
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"plaintext": " Olga Piria (painter and goldsmith)",
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"plaintext": " Arturo C. Porzecanski (Wall Street economist)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Rubén Rada (Musician)",
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"plaintext": " Andy Ram (Israeli tennis player)",
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"plaintext": " José Enrique Rodó (philosopher)",
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"plaintext": " Gabe Saporta (musician and entrepreneur)",
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"plaintext": " Carlos Savio (footballer)",
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"plaintext": " Erwin Schrott (operatic bass-baritone)",
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"plaintext": " Jorge Speranza (soccer coach and former soccer player)",
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"plaintext": " Jules Supervielle (French author)",
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"plaintext": " Joaquín Torres-García (painter)",
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"plaintext": " Obdulio Varela (footballer)",
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"plaintext": " Tabaré Vázquez (president of Uruguay)",
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"plaintext": " Helen Velando (author)",
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"plaintext": " Margarita Xirgu (Spanish actress)",
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"plaintext": " China Zorrilla (actress)",
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"plaintext": " José Luis Zorrilla de San Martín (sculptor)",
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"plaintext": "The Centro Cultural de España, as well as Asturian and cultural centers, testify to Montevideo's considerable Spanish heritage. Montevideo also has important museums including Museo Torres García, Museo José Gurvich, Museo Nacional de Artes Visuales and Museo Juan Manuel Blanes etc.",
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"plaintext": "The Montevideo Cabildo was the seat of government during the colonial times of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. It is located in front of Constitution Square, in Ciudad Vieja. Built between 1804 and 1869 in Neoclassical style, with a series of Doric and Ionic columns, it became a National Heritage Site in 1975. In 1958, the Municipal Historic Museum and Archive was inaugurated here. It features three permanent city museum exhibitions, as well as temporary art exhibitions, cultural events, seminars, symposiums and forums.",
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"plaintext": "The Palacio Taranco is located in front of the Plaza Zabala, in the heart of Ciudad Vieja. It was erected in the early 20th century as the residence of the Ortiz Taranco brothers on the ruins of Montevideo's first theater (of 1793), during a period in which the architectural style was influenced by French architecture. The palace was designed by French architects Charles Louis Girault and Jules-Léon Chifflot who also designed the Petit Palais and the Arc de Triomphe in Paris. It passed to the city from the heirs of the Tarancos in 1943, along with its precious collection of Uruguayan furniture and draperies and was deemed by the city as an ideal place for a museum; in 1972 it became the Museum of Decorative Arts of Montevideo and in 1975 it became a National Heritage Site. The Decorative Arts Museum has an important collection of European paintings and decorative arts, ancient Greek and Roman art and Islamic ceramics of the 10th–18th century from the area of present-day Iran. The palace is often used as a meeting place by the Uruguayan government.",
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"plaintext": "The National History Museum of Montevideo is located in the historical residence of General Fructuoso Rivera. It exhibits artifacts related to the history of Uruguay. In a process begun in 1998, the National Museum of Natural History (1837) and the National Museum of Anthropology (1981), merged in 2001, becoming the National Museum of Natural History and Anthropology. In July 2009, the two institutions again became independent. The Historical Museum has annexed eight historical houses in the city, five of which are located in the Ciudad Vieja. One of them, on the same block with the main building, is the historic residence of Antonio Montero, which houses the Museo Romantico. Also nearby is the Museo Casa de José Garibaldi where Giuseppe Garibaldi lived in the 1840s while participating in the Uruguayan Civil War.",
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"plaintext": "The Museo Torres García is located in the Old Town, and exhibits Joaquín Torres García's unusual portraits of historical icons and cubist paintings akin to those of Picasso and Braque. The museum was established by Manolita Piña Torres, the widow of Torres Garcia, after his death in 1949. She also set up the García Torres Foundation, a private non-profit organization that organizes the paintings, drawings, original writings, archives, objects and furniture designed by the painter as well as the photographs, magazines and publications related to him.",
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"plaintext": "There are several other important art museums in Montevideo. The Centro de Fotografía de Montevideo (CdF) is a museum, archive, and gallery for historic and contemporary photography with twelve outdoor exhibition spaces in various Montevideo neighborhoods as well as four galleries in its downtown headquarters. The National Museum of Visual Arts in Parque Rodó has Uruguay's largest collection of paintings. The Juan Manuel Blanes Museum was founded in 1930, the 100th anniversary of the first Constitution of Uruguay, significant with regard to the fact that Juan Manuel Blanes painted Uruguayan patriotic themes. In back of the museum is a Japanese Garden with a pond where there are over a hundred carp. The Museo de Historia del Arte, located in the Palacio Municipal, features replicas of ancient monuments and exhibits a varied collection of artifacts from Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, Greece, Rome and Native American cultures including local finds of the pre-Columbian period. The Museo Municipal Precolombino y Colonial, in the Ciudad Vieja, has preserved collections of the archeological finds from excavations carried out by Uruguayan archeologist Antonio Taddei. These antiquaries are exhibits of pre-Columbian art of Latin America, painting and sculpture from the 17th and 18th century mostly from Mexico, Peru and Brazil. The Museo de Arte Contempo has small but impressive exhibits of modern Uruguayan painting and sculpture.",
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"plaintext": "There are also other types of museums in the city. The Museo del Gaucho y de la Moneda, located in the Centro, has distinctive displays of the historical culture of Uruguay's gauchos, their horse gear, silver work and mate (tea), gourds, and bombillas (drinking straws) in odd designs. The Museo Naval, is located on the eastern waterfront in Buceo and offers exhibits depicting the maritime history of Uruguay. The Museo del Automóvil, belonging to the Automobile Club of Uruguay, has a rich collection of vintage cars which includes a 1910 Hupmobile. The Museo y Parque Fernando García in Carrasco, a transport and automobile museum, includes old horse carriages and some early automobiles. The Castillo Pittamiglio, with an unusual façade, highlights the eccentric legacy of Humberto Pittamiglio, local alchemist and architect.",
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"plaintext": "As the capital of Uruguay, Montevideo is home to a number of festivals and carnivals including a Gaucho festival when people ride through the streets on horseback in traditional gaucho gear. The major annual festival is the annual Montevideo Carnival which is part of the national festival of Carnival Week, celebrated throughout Uruguay, with central activities in the capital, Montevideo. Officially, the public holiday lasts for two days on Carnival Monday and Shrove Tuesday preceding Ash Wednesday, but due to the prominence of the festival, most shops and businesses close for the entire week.",
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"plaintext": "During carnival there are many open-air stage performances and competitions and the streets and houses are vibrantly decorated. \"Tablados\" or popular scenes, both fixed and movable, are erected in the whole city. Notable displays include \"Desfile de las Llamadas\" (\"Parade of the Calls\"), which is a grand united parade held on the south part of downtown, where it used to be a common ritual back in the early 20th century. Due to the scale of the festival, preparation begins as early as December with an election of the \"zonal beauty queens\" to appear in the carnival.",
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"plaintext": "Estadio Centenario, the national football stadium in Parque Batlle, was opened in 1930 for the first World Cup, as well as to commemorate the centennial of Uruguay's first constitution. In this World Cup, Uruguay won the title game against Argentina by 4 goals to 2. The stadium has 70,000 seats. It is listed by FIFA as one of the football world's classic stadiums, along with Maracanã, Wembley Stadium, San Siro, Estadio Azteca, and Santiago Bernabéu Stadium. A museum located within the football stadium has exhibits of memorabilia from Uruguay's 1930 and 1950 World Cup championships. Museum tickets give access to the stadium, stands, locker rooms and playing field.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1935 and 1938, the athletics track and the municipal velodrome were completed within Parque Batlle. The Tabaré Athletic Club is occasionally made over as a carnival theater using impermanent materials.",
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"plaintext": "Today the vast majority of teams in the Primera División and Segunda División come from Montevideo, including Nacional, Peñarol, Central Español, Cerrito, Cerro, Danubio, Defensor Sporting, Atlético Fénix, Liverpool, Wanderers, Racing, River Plate, Club Atlético Torque and Rampla Juniors.",
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"plaintext": "Besides Estadio Centenario, other stadiums include Estadio Campeon del Siglo, Peñarol, Gran Parque Central, Belvedere, Complejo Rentistas, Jardines del Hipódromo, José Pedro Damiani, \"La Bombonera\", Luis Franzini, Luis Tróccoli and the park stadiums of Abraham Paladino, Alfredo Víctor Viera, Omar Saroldi, José Nasazzi, Osvaldo Roberto, Maracaná and Palermo.",
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"plaintext": "The city has a tradition as host of major international basketball tournaments including the official 1967 FIBA World Cup and the 1988 1997 and 2017 editions of the official Americas Basketball Championship.",
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"plaintext": "The Uruguayan Basketball League is headquartered in Montevideo and most of its teams are from the city, including Defensor Sporting, Biguá, Aguada, Goes, Malvín, Unión Atlética, and Trouville. Montevideo is also a center of rugby; equestrianism, which regained importance in Montevideo after the Maroñas Racecourse reopened; golf, with the Club de Punta Carretas; and yachting, with the Puerto del Buceo, an ideal place to moor yachts. The Golf Club of Punta Carretas was founded in 1894 covers all the area encircled by the west side of Bulevar Artigas, the Rambla (Montevideo's promenade) and the Parque Rodó (Fun Fair).",
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"plaintext": "The religion with most followers in Montevideo is Roman Catholicism and has been so since the foundation of the city. The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Montevideo was created as the Apostolic Vicariate of Montevideo in 1830. The vicariate was promoted to the Diocese of Montevideo on 13 July 1878. Pope Leo XIII elevated it to the rank of a metropolitan archdiocese on 14 April 1897. The new archdiocese became the Metropolitan of the suffragan sees of Canelones, Florida, Maldonado–Punta del Este, Melo, Mercedes, Minas, Salto, San José de Mayo, Tacuarembó.",
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"plaintext": "Montevideo is the only archdiocese in Uruguay and, as its Ordinary, the archbishop is also Primate of the Catholic Church in Uruguay. The archdiocese's mother church and thus seat of its archbishop is Catedral de la Inmaculada Concepción y San Felipe y Santiago. Church and state are officially separated since 1916 in Uruguay. , the Archbishop of Montevideo is Daniel Fernando Sturla Berhouet, SDB, since his appointment on 11 February 2014.",
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"plaintext": "Other religious faiths in Montevideo are Protestantism, Umbanda, Judaism, and there are many people who define themselves as Atheists and Agnostics, while others profess \"believing in God but without religion\".",
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"plaintext": "The Montevideo Metropolitan Cathedral is the main Roman Catholic church of Montevideo. It is located in Ciudad Vieja, immediately across Constitution Square from the Cabildo. In 1740 a brick church was built on the site. In 1790, the foundation was laid for the current neoclassical structure. The church was consecrated in 1804. Bicentennial celebrations were held in 2004.",
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"plaintext": "In 1897, Pope Leo XIII elevated the church to Metropolitan Cathedral status. Important ceremonies are conducted under the direction of the Archbishop of Montevideo. Weddings and choral concerts are held here and the parish priest conducts the routine functions of the cathedral. In the 19th century, its precincts were also used as a burial place of famous people who died in the city. For decades, the prison and the nearby Punta Carretas parish church were the only major buildings in the neighborhood.",
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"plaintext": "Nuestra Señora del Sagrado Corazón (\"Our Lady of the Sacred Heart\"), also known as Iglesia Punta Carretas (\"Punta Carretas Church\"), was built between 1917 and 1927 in the Romanesque Revival style. The church was originally part of the Order of Friars Minor Capuchin, but is presently in the parish of the Ecclesiastic Curia. Its location is at the corner of Solano García and José Ellauri. It has a nave and aisles. The roof has many vaults. During the construction of the Punta Carretas Shopping complex, major cracks developed in the structure of the church as a result of differential foundation settlement.",
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"plaintext": "As the capital of Uruguay, Montevideo is the economic and political center of the country. Most of the largest and wealthiest businesses in Uruguay have their headquarters in the city. Since the 1990s the city has undergone rapid economic development and modernization, including two of Uruguay's most important buildings—the World Trade Center Montevideo (1998), and Telecommunications Tower (2000), the headquarters of Uruguay's government-owned telecommunications company ANTEL, increasing the city's integration into the global marketplace.",
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"plaintext": "The Port of Montevideo, in the northern part of Ciudad Vieja, is one of the major ports of South America and plays a very important role in the city's economy. The port has been growing rapidly and consistently at an average annual rate of 14 percent due to an increase in foreign trade. The city has received a US$20million loan from the Inter-American Development Bank to modernize the port, increase its size and efficiency, and enable lower maritime and river transportation costs.",
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"plaintext": "The most important state-owned companies headquartered in Montevideo are: AFE (railways), ANCAP (Energy), Administracion Nacional de Puertos (Ports), ANTEL (telecommunications), BHU (savings and loan), BROU (bank), BSE (insurance), OSE (water & sewage), UTE (electricity). These companies operate under public law, using a legal entity defined in the Uruguayan Constitution called Ente Autonomo (\"autonomous entity\"). The government also owns part of other companies operating under private law, such as those owned wholly or partially by the CND (National Development Corporation).",
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"plaintext": "Banking has traditionally been one of the strongest service export sectors in Uruguay: the country was once dubbed \"the Switzerland of America\", mainly for its banking sector and stability, although that stability has been threatened in the 21st century by the recent global economic climate. The largest bank in Uruguay is Banco Republica (BROU), based in Montevideo. 9 private banks, most of them branches of international banks, operate in the country (Banco Santander, BBVA, ABN AMRO, Citibank, among others). There are also a myriad of brokers and financial-services bureaus, among them Ficus Capital, Galfin Sociedad de Bolsa, Europa Sociedad de Bolsa, Darío Cukier, GBU, Hordeñana & Asociados Sociedad de Bolsa, etc.",
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"plaintext": "Tourism accounts for much of Uruguay's economy. Tourism in Montevideo is centered in the Ciudad Vieja area, which includes the city's oldest buildings, several museums, art galleries, and nightclubs, with Sarandí Street and the Mercado del Puerto being the most frequented venues of the old city. On the edge of Ciudad Vieja, Plaza Independencia is surrounded by many sights, including the Solís Theatre and the Palacio Salvo; the plaza also constitutes one end of 18 de Julio Avenue, the city's most important tourist destination outside of Ciudad Vieja. Apart from being a shopping street, the avenue is noted for its Art Deco buildings, three important public squares, the Gaucho Museum, the Palacio Municipal and many other sights. The avenue leads to the Obelisk of Montevideo; beyond that is Parque Batlle, which along with the Parque Prado is another important tourist destination. Along the coast, the Fortaleza del Cerro, the Rambla (the coastal avenue), of sandy beaches, and Punta Gorda attract many tourists, as do the Barrio Sur and Palermo barrios.The Ministry of Tourism offers a two-and-a-half-hour city tour and the Montevideo Tourist Guide Association offers guided tours in English, Italian, Portuguese and German. Apart from these, many private companies offer organized city tours.",
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"plaintext": "Most tourists to the city come from Argentina, Brazil and Europe, with the number of visitors from elsewhere in Latin America and from the United States growing every year, thanks to an increasing number of international airline arrivals at Carrasco International Airport as well as cruises and ferries that arrive into the port of Montevideo.",
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"plaintext": "Montevideo is the heartland of retailing in Uruguay. The city has become the principal center of business and real estate, including many expensive buildings and modern towers for residences and offices, surrounded by extensive green spaces. In 1985, the first shopping center in Rio de la Plata, Montevideo Shopping was built. In 1994, with building of three more shopping complexes such as the Shopping Tres Cruces, Portones Shopping, and Punta Carretas Shopping, the business map of the city changed dramatically. The creation of shopping complexes brought a major change in the habits of the people of Montevideo. Global firms such as McDonald's and Burger King etc. are firmly established in Montevideo. In 2013 Nuevocentro Shopping, a shopping mall located in the Jacinto Vera neighborhood, was inaugurated.",
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"plaintext": "Apart from the big shopping complexes, the main retailing venues of the city are: most of 18 de Julio Avenue in the Centro and Cordón barrios, a length of Agraciada Avenue in the Paso de Molino area of Belvedere, a length of Arenal Grande St. and the ",
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"plaintext": "Out of the 100 radio stations found in Uruguay, 40 of them are in Montevideo. The city has a vibrant artistic and literary community. The press enjoyed full freedom until the advent of the Civic-military dictatorship (1973–1985); this freedom returned on 1 March 1985, as part of the restoration of democracy.",
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"plaintext": "Some of the important newspapers published in the city are: Brecha, La Republica, El Observador, El País, Gaceta Comercial and La Diaria. El Día was the most prestigious paper in Uruguay, founded in 1886 by José Batlle, who would later go on to become President of Uruguay. The paper ceased production in the early 1990s. All television stations have their headquarters in Montevideo, for example: Saeta Channel 10, Teledoce, Channel 4 and National Television (Channel 5)",
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"plaintext": "The city and its metropolitan area have a bus transportation network, the Sistema Metropolitano de Transporte or STM for its acronym. It covers urban and interurban services within the Metropolitan Area and is administered by the municipal government together with the Ministry of Transport and Public Works. The Baltasar Brum Terminal located in Ciudad Vieja, is the main urban bus station. However, there are numerous interchanges and terminals distributed in both the city and the metropolitan area.",
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"plaintext": "Public transportation statistics",
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"plaintext": "The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Montevideo, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 65 min. 14.% of public transit riders, ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 14 min, while 18% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 5.2km, while 6% travel for over 12km in a single direction.",
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"plaintext": "The State Railways Administration of Uruguay (AFE) operates three commuter rail lines, namely the Empalme Olmos, San Jose and Florida. These lines operate to major suburban areas of Canelones, San José and Florida. Within the Montevideo city limits, local trains stop at Lorenzo Carnelli, Yatai (Step Mill), Sayago, Colón (line to San Jose and Florida), Peñarol and Manga (line Empalme Olmos) stations. The historic 19th century General Artigas Central Station located in the barrio Aguada, six blocks from the central business district, was abandoned 1 March 2003 and remains closed. A new station, north of the old one and part of the Telecommunications Tower modern complex, has taken over the rail traffic.",
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"plaintext": "The Tres Cruces bus station is the main bus terminal in Uruguay, serving long-distance buses that travel into Montevideo, from other parts of the country and abroad. Inaugurated in 1994, it serves more than 12 million passengers per year. ",
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"plaintext": "Montevideo is served by the Carrasco International Airport , which is located in the north of Ciudad de la Costa, in Canelones Department, from the city center. It handles over 1,5 million passengers per year, and has been cited as one of the most efficient and traveler-friendly airports in Latin America.",
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"plaintext": "Ángel S. Adami Airport is a private airport operated by minor charter companies and in which there is also a flight school.",
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"plaintext": "Montevideo is also served by a ferry system operated by the company Buquebus that connects the port with Buenos Aires. More than 2.2million people per year travel between Argentina and Uruguay with Buquebus. One of these ships is a catamaran, which can reach a top speed of about .The port on Montevideo Bay is one of the reasons the city was founded. It gives natural protection to ships, although two jetties now further protect the harbor entrance from waves. This natural port is competitive with the other great port of Río de la Plata, Buenos Aires.",
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"plaintext": "The main engineering work on the port occurred between the years 1870 and 1930. These six decades saw the construction of the port's first wooden pier, several warehouses in La Aguada, the north and south Rambla, a river port, a new pier, the dredged river basin and the La Teja Refinery. A major storm in 1923 necessitated repairs to many of the city's engineering works. Since the second half of the 20th century, until the 21st century, physical changes had ceased, and since that time the area had degraded due to national economic stagnation.",
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"plaintext": "The port's proximity has contributed to the installation of various industries in the area surrounding the bay, particularly import/export businesses and other business related to port and naval activity. The density of industrial development in the area surrounding the port has kept its popularity as a residential area relatively low despite its centrality. The main environmental problems are subaquatic sedimentation and air and water contamination.",
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"plaintext": "Every year more than one hundred cruises arrive, bringing tourists to Montevideo by public or private tours.",
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"plaintext": "The city has bicycle circuits in Ciudad Vieja, Artigas Boulevard and Centro as well as with good facilities for cyclists such as bike paths and bike racks throughout the city. In 2013 the \"South Bicicircuito\" was also inaugurated, which connects several of the dependent faculties of the University of the Republic. There are more than 100 bike stations in the city. In 2014, a bicycle sharing system called Movete was launched.",
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"plaintext": "The University of the Republic is the country's largest and most important university, with a student body of 81,774, according to the census of 2007. It was founded on 18 July 1849 in Montevideo, where most of its buildings and facilities are still located. Its Rector is Dr. Rodrigo Arocena. The university houses 14 faculties (departments) and various institutes and schools. Many eminent Uruguayans have graduated from this university, including Carlos Vaz Ferreira, José Luis Massera, Gabriel Paternain, Mario Wschebor, Roman Fresnedo Siri, Carlos Ott and Eladio Dieste",
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"plaintext": "The process of founding the country's public university began on 11 June 1833 with the passage of a law proposed by Senator Dámaso Antonio Larrañaga. It called for the creation of nine academic departments; the President of the Republic would pass a decree formally creating the departments once the majority of them were in operation. In 1836, the House of General Studies was formed, housing the departments of Latin, philosophy, mathematics, theology and jurisprudence. On 27 May 1838, Manuel Oribe passed a decree establishing the Greater University of the Republic. That decree had few practical effects, given the institutional instability of the Oriental Republic of the Uruguay at that time.",
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"plaintext": "The largest private university in Uruguay, is also located in Montevideo. ORT Uruguay was first established as a non-profit organization in 1942, and was officially certified as a private university in September 1996, becoming the second private educational institution in the country to achieve that status. It is a member of World ORT, an international educational network founded in 1880 by the Jewish community in Saint Petersburg, Russia.",
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"plaintext": "The university has about 8,000 students, distributed among 5 faculties and institutes, mainly geared towards the sciences and technology/engineering. Its rector is Dr. Jorge A. Grünberg.",
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"plaintext": "The Montevideo Crandon Institute is an American School of missionary origin and the main Methodist educational institution in Uruguay. Founded in 1879 and supported by the Women's Society of the Methodist Church of the United States, it is one of the most traditional and emblematic institutions in the city inculcating John Wesley's values. Its alumni include presidents, senators, ambassadors and Nobel Prize winners, along with musicians, scientists, and others. The Montevideo Crandon Institute boasts of being the first academic institution in South America where a home economics course was taught.",
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"plaintext": "The Christian Brothers of Ireland Stella Maris College is a private, co-educational, not-for-profit Catholic school located in the wealthy residential southeastern neighborhood of Carrasco. Established in 1955, it is regarded as one of the best high schools in the country, blending a rigorous curriculum with strong extracurricular activities. The school's headmaster, history professor Juan Pedro Toni, is a member of the Stella Maris Board of Governors and the school is a member of the International Baccalaureate Organization (IBO). Its long list of distinguished former pupils includes economists, engineers, architects, lawyers, politicians and even F1 champions. The school has also played an important part in the development of rugby union in Uruguay, with the creation of Old Christians Club, the school's alumni club.",
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"plaintext": "Also in Carrasco is The British Schools of Montevideo, one of the oldest educational institutions in the country, founded in 1908 with \"the object of giving children a complete education, both intellectual and moral, based upon the ideas and principles of the best schools in The British Isles\".",
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"plaintext": "The School is governed by the Board of Governors, elected by the British Schools Society in Uruguay, whose honorary president is the British Ambassador to Uruguay. Prominent alumni include former government ministers Pedro Bordaberry Herrán and Gabriel Gurméndez Armand-Ugon.",
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"plaintext": "Located in Cordon, St.Brendan's school, previously named St.Catherine's is a non-profit civil association, which has a solid institutional culture with a clear vision of the future. It is known for being one of the best schools in the country, joining students from the wealthiest parts of Montevideo, such as, Punta Carretas, Pocitos, Malvin and Carrasco.",
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"plaintext": "St. Brendan's School is a bilingual, non-denominational school that promotes a pedagogical constructivist approach focused on the child as a whole. In this approach, understanding is built from the connections children make between their own prior knowledge and the learning experiences, thus developing critical thinking skills. It is also the only school in the country implementing the three International Baccalaureate Programmes. These are:",
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"plaintext": "Diploma Program – Pre-University course for students aged 16 to 19. The Diploma Program is a two-year curriculum.",
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"plaintext": "MYP -Middle Years Program. For students aged 12 to 16.",
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"plaintext": "PYP – Primary Years Program. For students aged 3 to 12.",
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"plaintext": "Other educational institutions of note include Colegio Ingles, Instituto Preuniversitario Salesiano Juan XXIII, Lycée Français de Montevideo, Ivy Thomas, German School of Montevideo and Colegio Preuniversitario Ciudad de San Felipe.",
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"plaintext": "In Montevideo, as elsewhere in the country, there are both public and private health services. In both sectors, medical services are provided by polyclinics and hospitals or sanatorios. The term hospital is used here for both outpatient and inpatient facilities, while sanatorio is used for private short- and long-term facilities for the treatment of illnesses.",
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"plaintext": "Hospital de Clínicas \"Dr. Manuel Quintela\" is a University Hospital attached to the University of the Republic, and is located on Avenida Italia. It functions as an adult general polyclinic and hospital. The building was designed by architect Carlos Surraco in 1928–1929 and has a surface area of on 23 floors. The hospital was inaugurated 21 September 1953. For many years it was led by Dr. Hugo Villar, who was a considerable influence on the institution.",
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"plaintext": "Hospital Maciel is one of the oldest hospitals in Uruguay and stands on the block bounded by the streets Maciel, 25 de Mayo, Guaraní and Washington, with the main entrance at 25 de Mayo, 172. The land was originally donated in Spanish colonial times by philanthropist Francisco Antonio Maciel, who teamed up with Mateo Vidal to establish a hospital and charity. The first building was constructed between 1781 and 1788 and later expanded upon. The present building stems from the 1825 plans of José Toribio (son of Tomás Toribio) and later Bernardo Poncini (wing on the Guaraní street, 1859), Eduardo Canstatt (corner of Guaraní and 25 de Mayo) and Julián Masquelez (1889). The hospital has a chapel built in Greek style by Miguel Estévez in 1798.",
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"plaintext": "Hospital Pereira Rossell was founded in 1908 and was built on land donated in late 1900 by Alexis Rossell y Rius and Dolores Pereira de Rossell. It was the city's first pediatric hospital, and shortly afterwards the addition of an obstetric and gynecological clinic in 1915 made it the first maternity hospital as well. Later, the hospital received a donation from Dr. Enrique Pouey for a radiotherapy unit.",
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"plaintext": "Hospital Vilardebó is the only psychiatric hospital in Montevideo. Named after the physician and naturalist Teodoro Vilardebó Matuliche, it opened 21 May 1880. The hospital was originally one of the best of Latin America and in 1915 grew to 1,500 inpatients. Today the hospital is very deteriorated, with broken walls and floors, lack of medicines, beds, and rooms for the personnel. It has an emergency service, outpatient, clinic and inpatient rooms and employs approximately 610 staff, psychologists, psychiatrists, social workers, administrators, guards, among others. The average patient age is 30 years; more than half of the patients arrive by court order; 42% suffer from schizophrenia, 18% from depression and mania, and there are also a high percentage of drug addicted patients.",
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"plaintext": "Other public polyclinics and hospitals of note include the Hospital Saint Bois, founded 18 November 1928, which consists of a General Hospital and Eye Hospital; the Pasteur Hospital in La Unión neighborhood; the Hospital Español, which was founded in 1886, passed to the private sector in the 20th century, closed in 2004 and was restored and re-inaugurated in 2007 as the municipal Juan Jose Crottogini Polyclinic; the National Cancer Institute; and the National Institute of Trauma and Orthopedics.",
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"plaintext": "Private healthcare is offered by many private health insurance companies, each of which has one or more polyclinics and owns or is associated with one or more hospitals. Private medical facilities of note include the Hospital Británico, the Italian Hospital of Montevideo, Mutualista CASMU's Sanatoria I, II, III and IV, the Evangelical Hospital, Médica Uruguaya, Sanatorio de la Asociación Española, Sanatorios del Círculo Católico, Sanatorio Casa de Galicia and Sanatorio GREMCA.",
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"plaintext": "Montevideo is twinned with:",
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"plaintext": " Arica, Chile",
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"plaintext": " Asunción, Paraguay",
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"plaintext": " Berisso, Argentina",
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"plaintext": " Bluefields, Nicaragua",
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"plaintext": "Max Ferdinand Perutz (19 May 1914 – 6 February 2002) was an Austrian-born British molecular biologist, who shared the 1962 Nobel Prize for Chemistry with John Kendrew, for their studies of the structures of haemoglobin and myoglobin. He went on to win the Royal Medal of the Royal Society in 1971 and the Copley Medal in 1979. At Cambridge he founded and chaired (1962–79) The Medical Research Council (MRC) Laboratory of Molecular Biology (LMB), fourteen of whose scientists have won Nobel Prizes. Perutz's contributions to molecular biology in Cambridge are documented in The History of the University of Cambridge: Volume 4 (1870 to 1990) published by the Cambridge University Press in 1992.",
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"plaintext": "Perutz was born in Vienna, the son of Adele \"Dely\" (Goldschmidt) and Hugo Perutz, a textile manufacturer. His parents were Jewish by ancestry, but had baptised Perutz in the Catholic religion. Although Perutz rejected religion and was an atheist in his later years, he was against offending others for their religious beliefs.",
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"plaintext": "His parents hoped that he would become a lawyer, but he became interested in chemistry while at school. Overcoming his parents' objections he enrolled as a chemistry undergraduate at the University of Vienna and completed his degree in 1936. Made aware by lecturer Fritz von Wessely of the advances being undertaken at the University of Cambridge into biochemistry by a team led by Gowland Hopkins, he asked Professor Mark who was soon to visit Cambridge to make inquiries to Hopkins about whether there would be a place for him. Mark forgot, but had visited J.D. Bernal, who was looking for a research student to assist him with studies into X-ray crystallography. Perutz was dismayed as he knew nothing about the subject. Mark countered by saying that he would soon learn. Bernal accepted him as a research student in his crystallography research group at the Cavendish Laboratory. His father had deposited £500 with his London agent to support him. He learnt quickly. Bernal encouraged him to use the X-ray diffraction method to study the structure of proteins. As protein crystals were difficult to obtain he used horse haemoglobin crystals, and began his doctoral thesis on its structure. Haemoglobin was a subject which was to occupy him for most of his professional career. He completed his Ph.D. under Lawrence Bragg.",
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"plaintext": "Rejected by Kings and St John's colleges he applied to and became a member of Peterhouse, on the basis that it served the best food. He was elected an Honorary Fellow of Peterhouse in 1962. He took a keen interest in the Junior Members, and was a regular and popular speaker at the Kelvin Club, the College's scientific society.",
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"plaintext": "When Hitler took over Austria in 1938, Perutz's parents managed to escape to Switzerland, but they had lost all of their money. As a result, Perutz lost their financial support. With his ability to ski, experience in mountaineering since childhood and his knowledge of crystals, Perutz was accepted as a member of a three-man team to study the conversion of snow into ice in Swiss glaciers in the summer of 1938. His resulting article for the Proceedings of the Royal Society made him known as an expert on glaciers.",
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"plaintext": "Lawrence Bragg who was Professor of Experimental Physics at the Cavendish, thought that Perutz's research into haemoglobin had promise and encouraged him to apply for a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation to continue his research. The application was accepted in January 1939 and with the money Perutz was able to bring his parents from Switzerland in March 1939 to England.",
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"plaintext": "On the outbreak of World War II Perutz was rounded up along with other persons of German or Austrian background, and sent to Newfoundland (on orders from Winston Churchill). After being interned for several months he returned to Cambridge. ",
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"plaintext": "In 1947 Perutz, with the support of Professor Bragg was successful in obtaining support from the Medical Research Council (MRC) to undertake research into the molecular structure of biological systems. This financial support allowed him to establish the Molecular Biology Unit at the Cavendish Laboratory. Perutz's new unit attracted researchers who realised that the field of molecular biology had great promise, among them were Francis Crick in 1949 and James D. Watson in 1951.",
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"plaintext": "In 1953 Perutz showed that diffracted X-rays from protein crystals could be phased by comparing the patterns from crystals of the protein with and without heavy atoms attached. In 1959 he employed this method to determine the molecular structure of the protein haemoglobin, which transports oxygen in the blood. This work resulted in his sharing with John Kendrew the 1962 Nobel Prize for Chemistry. Nowadays the molecular structures of several thousand proteins are determined by X-ray crystallography every year.",
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"plaintext": "After 1959, Perutz and his colleagues went on to determine the structure of oxy- and deoxy- haemoglobin at high resolution. As a result, in 1970, he was at last able to suggest how it works as a molecular machine: how it switches between its deoxygenated and its oxygenated states, in turn triggering the uptake of oxygen and then its release to the muscles and other organs. Further work over the next two decades refined and corroborated the proposed mechanism. In addition Perutz studied the structural changes in a number of haemoglobin diseases and how these might affect oxygen binding. He hoped that the molecule could be made to function as a drug receptor and that it would be possible to inhibit or reverse the genetic errors such as those that occur in sickle cell anaemia. A further interest was the variation of the haemoglobin molecule from species to species to suit differing habitats and patterns of behaviour. In his final years Perutz turned to the study of changes in protein structures implicated in Huntington and other neurodegenerative diseases. He demonstrated that the onset of Huntington disease is related to the number of glutamine repeats as they bind to form what he called a polar zipper.",
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"plaintext": "During the early 1950s, while Watson and Crick were frantically trying to determine the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), they were given by Perutz an unpublished 1952 progress report for the King's College laboratory of Sir John Randall. This report contained X-ray diffraction images taken by Rosalind Franklin, that proved to be crucial in coming to the double-helix structure.",
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"plaintext": "Perutz did this without Franklin's knowledge or permission, and before she had a chance to publish a detailed analysis of the content of her unpublished progress report. Later this action was criticised by Randall and others, in view of the results and the honours resulting from this \"gift\".",
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"plaintext": "In an effort to clarify this issue, Perutz later published the report, arguing that it included nothing that Franklin had not said in a talk she gave in late 1951, which Watson had attended. Perutz also added that the report was addressed to an MRC committee created to \"establish contact between the different groups of people working for the Council\". Randall's and Perutz's labs were both funded by the MRC.",
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"plaintext": "In his later years, Perutz was a regular reviewer/essayist for The New York Review of Books on biomedical subjects. Many of these essays are reprinted in his 1998 book I wish I had made you angry earlier. ",
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"plaintext": "In August 1985 The New Yorker also published his account tiled \"That Was the War: Enemy Alien\" of his experiences as an internee during World War 2. ",
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"plaintext": "Perutz's flair for writing was a late development. His relative Leo Perutz, a distinguished writer, told Max when he was a boy that he would never be a writer, an unwarranted judgement, as demonstrated by Perutz's remarkable letters written as an undergraduate. They are published in What a Time I Am Having: Selected Letters of Max Perutz. Perutz was delighted to win the Lewis Thomas Prize for Writing about Science in 1997.",
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"plaintext": "Perutz attacked the theories of philosophers Sir Karl Popper and Thomas Kuhn and biologist Richard Dawkins in a lecture given at Cambridge on 'Living Molecules' in 1994. He criticised Popper's notion that science progresses through a process of hypothesis formation and refutation, saying that hypotheses are not necessarily the basis of scientific research and, in molecular biology at least, they are not necessarily subject to revision either. For Perutz, Kuhn's notion that science advances in paradigm shifts that are subject to social and cultural pressures is an unfair representation of modern science.",
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"plaintext": "These criticisms extended to scientists who attack religion, in particular to Dawkins. Statements which offend religious faith were for Perutz tactless and simply damage the reputation of science. They are of quite a different order to criticism of the demonstrably false theory of creationism. He concluded that \"even if we do not believe in God, we should try to live as though we did.\"",
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"plaintext": "Within days of the 11 September attacks in 2001, Perutz wrote to British Prime Minister Tony Blair, appealing to him not to respond with military force: \"I am alarmed by the American cries for vengeance and concerned that President Bush's retaliation will lead to the death of thousands more innocent people, driving us into a world of escalating terror and counter-terror. I do hope that you can use your restraining influence to prevent this happening.\"",
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"plaintext": "Perutz was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1954. In addition to the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1962, which he shared with John Kendrew for their respective studies of the structures of haemoglobin and myoglobin, Max Perutz received a number of other important honours: he was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1963, received the Austrian Decoration for Science and Art in 1967, the Royal Medal of the Royal Society in 1971, appointed a Companion of Honour in 1975, received the Copley Medal in 1979 and the Order of Merit in 1988.",
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"plaintext": "2009. What a Time I Am Having: Selected Letters of Max Perutz edited by Vivien Perutz. Cold Spring Harbor, New York. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. ",
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"plaintext": "In 1942, Perutz married Gisela Clara Mathilde Peiser (1915–2005), a medical photographer. They had two children, Vivien (b. 1944), an art historian; and Robin (b. 1949), a professor of Chemistry at the University of York. Gisela was a refugee from Germany (she was a Protestant whose own father had been born Jewish).",
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"plaintext": "Granada (, ) is the capital city of the province of Granada, in the autonomous community of Andalusia, Spain. Granada is located at the foot of the Sierra Nevada mountains, at the confluence of four rivers, the Darro, the Genil, the Monachil and the Beiro. Ascribed to the Vega de Granada comarca, the city sits at an average elevation of above sea level, yet is only one hour by car from the Mediterranean coast, the Costa Tropical. Nearby is the Sierra Nevada Ski Station, where the FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 1996 were held.",
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"plaintext": "At the beginning of the 11th century, the area became dominated by the Zirids, a Sanhaja Berber group and offshoot of the Zirids who ruled parts of North Africa. This group became an important contingent in the army of ʿAbd al-Malik al-Muẓaffar, the prime minister of Caliph Hisham II (r. 976–1009) and successor to Ibn Abi ʿAmir al-Mansur (Almanzor) as de facto ruler of the Caliphate of Córdoba. For their service, the Zirids were granted control of the province of Elvira. When the Caliphate collapsed after 1009 and the Fitna (civil war) began, the Zirid leader Zawi ben Ziri established an independent kingdom for himself, the Taifa of Granada. Arab sources such as al-Idrisi consider him to be the founder of the city of Granada. His surviving memoirs – the only ones for the Spanish \"Middle Ages\" – provide considerable detail for this brief period. Because Madīnat Ilbīra was situated on a low plain and, as a result, difficult to protect from attacks, the ruler decided to transfer his residence to the higher situated area of Ġarnāṭa. According to Arabic sources Ilbīra was razed during the Fitna, afterwards it was not restored at its previous place and instead Ġarnāṭa, the former Jewish town, replaced it as the main city. In a short time this town was transformed into one of the most important cities of al-Andalus. Until the 11th century it had a mixed population of Christians, Muslims, and Jews.",
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"plaintext": "Under the Zirid kings Habbus ibn Maksan and Badis, the most powerful figure was the Jewish administrator known as Samuel ha-Nagid (in Hebrew) or Isma'il ibn Nagrilla (in Arabic). Samuel was a highly educated member of the former elites of Cordoba, who fled that city after the outbreak of the Fitna. He eventually found his way to Granada, where Habbus ibn Maksan appointed him his secretary in 1020 and entrusted him with many important responsibilities, including tax collection. Under Badis, he even took charge of the army. During this period, the Muslim king was looked upon as a mainly symbolic figurehead. Granada was the center of Jewish Sephardi culture and scholarship. According to Daniel Eisenberg:",
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"plaintext": "After Samuel's death, his son Joseph took over after his position but proved to lack his father's diplomacy, bringing on the 1066 Granada massacre, which ended the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain.",
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"plaintext": "From the late 11th century to the early 13th century, Al-Andalus was dominated by two successive North African Berber empires. The Almoravids ruled Granada from 1090 and the Almohads from 1166. Evidence from the artistic and archeological remains of this period suggest that the city thrived under the Almoravids but declined under the Almohads. Remnants of the Almohad period in the city include the Alcázar Genil, built in 1218–1219 (but later redecorated under the Nasrids), and possibly the former minaret attached to the present-day Church of San Juan de los Reyes in the Albaicin.",
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"plaintext": "In 1228 Idris al-Ma'mun, the last effective Almohad ruler in al-Andalus, left the Iberian Peninsula. As Almohad rule collapsed local leaders and factions emerged across the region. With the Reconquista in full swing, the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon – under kings Ferdinand III and James I, respectively – made major conquests across al-Andalus. Castile captured Cordoba in 1236 and Seville in 1248. Meanwhile, the ambitious Ibn al-Ahmar (Muhammad I) established what became the last and longest reigning Muslim dynasty in the Iberian peninsula, the Nasrids, who ruled the Emirate of Granada. On multiple occasions Ibn al-Ahmar aligned himself with Ferdinand III, eventually agreeing to become his vassal in 1246. Granada thereafter became a tributary state to the Kingdom of Castile, although this was often interrupted by wars between the two states. The political history of the emirate was turbulent and intertwined with that of its neighbours. The Nasrids sometimes provided refuge or military aid to Castilian kings and noblemen, even against other Muslim states, while in turn the Castilians provided refuge and aid to some Nasrid emirs against other Nasrid rivals. On other occasions the Nasrids attempted to leverage the aid of the North African Marinids to ward off Castile, although Marinid interventions in the Peninsula ended after Battle of Rio Salado (1340).",
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"plaintext": "The population of the emirate was also swelled by Muslim refugees from the territories newly conquered by Castile and Aragon, resulting in a small yet densely-populated territory which was more uniformly Muslim and Arabic-speaking than before. The city itself expanded and new neighbourhoods grew around the Albaicín (named after refugees from Baeza) and in Antequeruela (named after refugees from Antequera after 1410). A new set of walls was constructed further north during the 13th–14th centuries, with Bab Ilbirah (present-day Puerta de Elvira) as its western entrance. A major Muslim cemetery existed outside this gate. The city's heart was its Great Mosque (on the site of the present-day Granada Cathedral) and the commercial district known as the qaysariyya (the Alcaicería). Next to this was the only major madrasa built in al-Andalus, the Madrasa al-Yusufiyya (known today as the Palacio de la Madraza), founded in 1349. Other monuments from this era include the al-Funduq al-Jadida (\"New Inn\" or caravanserai, now known as the Corral del Carbón), built in the early 14th century, the Maristan (hospital), built in 1365–1367 and demolished in 1843, and the main mosque of the Albaicín, dating from the 13th century.",
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"plaintext": "When Ibn Al-Ahmar established himself in the city he moved the royal palace from the old Zirid citadel on the Albaicín hill to the Sabika hill, beginning construction on what became the present Alhambra. The Alhambra acted as a self-contained palace-city, with its own mosque, hammams, fortress, and residential quarters for workers and servants. The most celebrated palaces that survive today, such as the Comares Palace and the Palace of the Lions, generally date from the reigns of Yusuf I (r. 1333–1354) and his son Muhammad V (r. 1354–1391, with interruptions). Some smaller examples of Nasrid palace architecture in the city have survived in the Cuarto Real de Santo Domingo (late 13th century) and the Dar al-Horra (15th century).Partly due to the heavy tributary payments to Castile, Granada's economy specialized in the trade of high-value goods. Integrated within the European mercantile network, the ports of the kingdom fostered intense trading relations with the Genoese, but also with the Catalans, and to a lesser extent, with the Venetians, the Florentines, and the Portuguese. It provided connections with Muslim and Arab trade centers, particularly for gold from sub-Saharan Africa and the Maghreb, and exported silk and dried fruits produced in the area.",
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"plaintext": "Despite its frontier position, Granada was also an important Islamic intellectual and cultural center, especially in the time of Muhammad V, with figures such as Ibn Khaldun and Ibn al-Khatib serving in the Nasrid court. Ibn Battuta, a famous traveller and historian, visited the Emirate of Granada in 1350. He described it as a powerful and self-sufficient kingdom in its own right, although frequently embroiled in skirmishes with the Kingdom of Castile. In his journal, Ibn Battuta called Granada the \"metropolis of Andalusia and the bride of its cities.\"",
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"plaintext": "On 2 January 1492, the last Muslim ruler in Iberia, Emir Muhammad XII, known as \"Boabdil\" to the Spanish, surrendered complete control of the Emirate of Granada to the Catholic Monarchs (Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile), after the last episode of the Granada War.",
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"plaintext": "The 1492 capitulation of the Kingdom of Granada to the Catholic Monarchs is one of the most significant events in Granada's history. It brought the demise of the last Muslim-controlled polity in the Iberian Peninsula. The terms of the surrender, outlined in the Treaty of Granada at the end of 1491, explicitly allowed the Muslim inhabitants, known as mudéjares, to continue unmolested in the practice of their faith and customs. This had been a traditional practice during Castilian (and Aragonese) conquests of Muslim cities since the takeover of Toledo in the 11th century. The terms of the surrender pressured Jewish inhabitants to convert or leave within three years, but this provision was quickly superseded by the Alhambra Decree, issued only a few months later on March 31, which instead forced all Jews in Spain to convert or be expelled within four months. Those who converted became known as conversos (converts). This move, along with the progressive erosion of other guarantees provided by the surrender treaty, raised tensions and fears within the remaining Muslim community during the 1490s. Many of the city's affluent Muslims and its traditional ruling classes emigrated to North Africa in the early years after the conquest, but these early emigrants numbered only a few thousand, with the rest of the population unable to afford leaving. ",
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"plaintext": "By 1499, Cardinal Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros grew frustrated with the slow pace of the efforts of the first archbishop of Granada, Hernando de Talavera, to convert non-Christians and undertook a program of forced baptisms, creating the converso class for Muslims and Jews. Cisneros's new strategy, which was a direct violation of the terms of the treaty, provoked the Rebellion of the Alpujarras (1499–1501) centered in the rural Alpujarras region southeast of the city. The rebellion lasted until 1500 in Granada and continued until 1501 in the Alpujarras. Responding to the rebellion of 1501, the Crown of Castile rescinded the Treaty of Granada, and mandated that Granada's Muslims convert or emigrate. Many of the remaining Muslim elites subsequently emigrated to North Africa. The majority of the Granada's mudéjares converted (becoming the so-called moriscos or Moorish) so that they could stay. Both populations of converts were subject to persecution, execution, or exile, and each had cells that practiced their original religion in secrecy (the so-called marranos in the case of the conversos accused of the charge of crypto-Judaism).",
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"plaintext": "Over the course of the 16th century, Granada took on an ever more Catholic and Castilian character, as immigrants arrived from other regions of Castile, lured by the promise of economic opportunities in the newly conquered city. At the time of the city's surrender in 1492 it had a population of 50,000 which included only a handful of Christians (mostly captives), but by 1561 (the year of the first royal census of the city) the population was composed of over 30,000 Christian immigrants and approximately 15,000 moriscos. After 1492 the city's first churches had been installed in some converted mosques. The vast majority of the city's remaining mosques were subsequently converted into churches during and after the mass conversions of 1500. In 1531, Charles V founded the University of Granada on the site of the former madrasa built by Yusuf I.",
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"plaintext": "Granada's Town Council did not fully establish until almost nine years after the Castilian conquest, upon the concession of the so-called 'Constitutive Charter' of the Ayuntamiento of Granada on 23 September 1500. From then on, the municipal institution became a crucible for the \"Old Christian\" and the converted morisco elites, resulting in strong factionalism, particularly after 1508. The new period also saw the creation of a number of other new institutions such as the Cathedral Cabildo, the , the Royal Chapel and the Royal Chancellery. For the rest of the 16th century the Granadan ruling oligarchy featured roughly a 40% of (Jewish) conversos and about a 31% of hidalgos. From the 1520s onward, the mosque structures themselves began to be replaced with new church buildings, a process which continued for most of the century. In December 1568, during a period of renewed persecution against moriscos, the Second Morisco Rebellion broke out in the Alpujarras. Although the city's morisco population played little role in the rebellion, King Philip II ordered the expulsion of the vast majority of the morisco population from the Kingdom of Granada, with the exception of those artisans and professionals judged essential to the economy. The expelled population was redistributed to other cities throughout the Crown of Castile. The final expulsion of all moriscos from Castile and Aragon was carried out between 1609 and 1614.",
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"plaintext": "During the 17th century, despite the importance of immigration, the population of the city stagnated at about 55,000, contrary to the trend of population increase experienced in the rural areas of the Kingdom of Granada, where the hammer of depopulation caused by the expulsion of the moriscos had taken a far greater toll in the previous century. The 17th-century demographic stagnation in the city and overall steady population increase in the wider kingdom went in line with the demographic disaster experienced throughout the century in the rest of the Crown of Castile. The city was overshadowed in importance by other cities including Seville and the capital, Madrid.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1810 and 1812 Granada was occupied by Napoleon's army during the Peninsular War. The French troops occupied the Alhambra as a fortified position and caused significant damage to the monument. Upon evacuating the city, they attempted to dynamite the whole complex, successfully blowing up eight towers before the remaining fuses were disabled by Spanish soldier José Garcia, thus saving what remains today. In 1830 Washington Irving lived in Granada and wrote his Tales of the Alhambra, which revived some international interest in southern Spain and in its Islamic-era monuments.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1930s the tensions that eventually divided Spain were evident in Granada, with frequent riots and friction between landowners and peasants. When the Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936, Granada was one of the cities that joined the Nationalist uprising. There was local resistance against the Nationalists, particularly from the working classes in the Albaicín, which was violently repressed. During the 1950s and 1960s, under the Franco regime, the province of Granada was one of the poorest areas in Spain. In recent decades tourism has become a major industry in the city.",
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"plaintext": "The city of Granada sits on the Vega de Granada, one of the depressions or plains located within the Baetic mountain ranges, continued to the west by those of Archidona and Antequera and to the East by those of Guadix, Baza and Huéscar.",
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"plaintext": "The fertile soil of the Vega, apt for agriculture, is irrigated by the water streams originated in Sierra Nevada, as well as minor secondary ranges, all drained by the catchment basin of the Genil River, that cuts across the city centre following an east to west direction. The Monachil, a left-bank tributary of the former, also passes through the city, discharging into the Genil to the west of the city centre.",
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"plaintext": "Granada has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa) close to a cold semi-arid climate (BSk) Summers are hot and dry with daily temperatures averaging in the hottest month (July); however, temperatures reaching over are not uncommon in the summer months. Winters are cool and damp, with most of the rainfall concentrated from November through to January. The coldest month is January with daytime temperatures hovering at and dropping to around during the night. Frost is common as temperatures usually reach below-freezing in the early morning. Snow is rare and occurs once every few years. Spring and autumn are unpredictable, with temperatures ranging from mild to warm. Early summer in 2017 confronted the city with two massive heat waves that broke long-standing record temperatures starting on June 13, 2017, with a new maximum high for the month at 40.6°C (old record 40.0), which was topped three times within the span of four days at 40.9°C on June 14, 41.3 (June 15) and, eventually, 41.5 (June 17). The second extreme surge in temperatures followed roughly a month later when readings soared to 45.7 and 45.3°C on July 12 and 13, respectively, surpassing the old July record by almost 3 degrees.",
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"plaintext": "In the municipality of Granada there are five urban areas: Granada city, Alquería del Fargue, Bobadilla, Cerrillo de Maracena and Lancha del Genil. Due to the expansion of Granada city, Cerrillo de Maracena has been integrated into it.",
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"plaintext": "According to the municipal register of inhabitants, in 2021 the municipality of Granada had a population of 231,775 people, of whom 106,987 were men (46.15%) and 124,738 were women (53.85%). Since the 90's, there has been a slight decrease in the population of Granada city, in favour of smaller towns in the metropolitan area. ",
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"plaintext": "According to the population pyramid: ",
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"plaintext": " People younger than 20 years old are 19% of the total population",
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"plaintext": " People between 20-40 years old are 23%",
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"plaintext": " People between 40-60 years old are 29%",
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"plaintext": " People older than 60 years old are 29%",
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"plaintext": "18,455 people living in the municipality of Granada in 2021 were of foreign nationality, which represents 7.95% of total population, rate lower than the national average. Resident foreigners come from all continents, the most numerous being Moroccan (4,890), Chinese (1,047), Senegalese (947), Colombian (889), Italian (854) and Bolivian (763).",
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"plaintext": "The Alhambra is a fortified palace complex located on the Sabika hill, an outcrop of the Sierra Nevada which overlooks the city of Granada. It is one of the most famous monuments of Islamic architecture and one of the best-preserved palaces of the historic Islamic world, in addition to containing notable examples of Spanish Renaissance architecture. It is one of Spain's major tourist attractions and a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1984.",
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"plaintext": "The complex was begun in 1238 by Muhammad I Ibn al-Ahmar, the first Nasrid emir, on the site of earlier fortresses and of the 11th-century palace of vizier Samuel ibn Naghrillah. Later Nasrid rulers continuously modified the site, most notably during the reigns of Yusuf I and Muhammad V in the 14th century. During this era, the Alhambra was a self-contained city separate from the rest of Granada below. It contained most of the amenities of a Muslim city such as a Friday mosque, hammams (public baths), roads, houses, artisan workshops, a tannery, and a sophisticated water supply system. As a royal city and citadel, it contained at least six major palaces, most of them located along the northern edge where they commanded views over the Albaicín quarter. The most famous and best-preserved are the Mexuar, the Comares Palace, the Palace of the Lions, and the Partal Palace, which form the main attraction to visitors today. The other palaces are known from historical sources and from modern excavations. At the Alhambra's western tip is the Alcazaba fortress, the centerpiece of its defensive system. The architecture of the Nasrid palaces reflects the tradition of Moorish architecture developed over previous centuries. Decoration is focused on the inside of the building and was executed primarily with tile mosaics on lower walls and carved stucco on the upper walls. Geometric patterns, vegetal motifs, and Arabic calligraphy were the main types of decorative motifs. Additionally, \"stalactite\"-like sculpting, known as muqarnas, was used for three-dimensional features like vaulted ceilings.",
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"plaintext": "After the conclusion of the Reconquista in 1492, the site became the Royal Court of Ferdinand and Isabella (where Christopher Columbus received royal endorsement for his expedition), and the palaces were partially altered. In 1526, Charles V commissioned a new Renaissance-style palace, now known as the Palace of Charles V, in direct juxtaposition with the Nasrid palaces, but it was left uncompleted in the early 17th century. Other notable Renaissance additions from the reign of Charles V include the Emperor's Chambers and the Peinador de la Reina ('Queen's Robing Room'), which are connected to the former Nasrid Palaces. ",
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"plaintext": "In the 18th century the Alhambra fell into severe neglect and parts of it were demolished by French troops in 1812. Through the course of the 19th century, the Alhambra was \"rediscovered\" by British, American, and other European Romantic travelers and intellectuals. The most influential of them was Washington Irving, whose Tales of the Alhambra (1832) brought international attention to the site. The Alhambra became one of the first Islamic monuments to become the object of modern scientific study and has been the subject of numerous restorations since the 19th century, a process which continues today. ",
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"plaintext": "The Generalife is a Nasrid-era country estate or summer palace located just east of the Alhambra, on a sloping site above it. It was first built by Muhammad II and Muhammad III in the late 13th and early 14th centuries. This palace features several rectangular garden courtyards with decorated pavilions at either end and it was originally linked to the Alhambra by a walled corridor that crosses the valley between the two. It underwent modifications and redecoration under multiple later Nasrid rulers. ",
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"plaintext": "The Generalife also underwent major alterations by Christian Spanish builders in the 16th century, which imparted Renaissance elements on the palace. In the 20th century a large area of modern landscaped gardens, known as the Jardines Nuevos ('New Gardens'), were added to the south of the Nasrid palace and form the main approach to it today. These date in large part to the work of Leopoldo Torres Balbás and Francisco Prieto Moreno, between 1931 and 1951, who incorporated both Italian and Moorish influences in their design. An open-air auditorium was also added in 1952. Along with the Alhambra, the Generalife is a major tourist attraction and was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984.",
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"plaintext": "The cathedral of Granada is built over the Nasrid Great Mosque of Granada, in the centre of the city. Its construction began during the Spanish Renaissance in the early 16th century, shortly after the conquest of Granada by the Catholic Monarchs, who commissioned the works to Juan Gil de Hontañón and Enrique Egas. Numerous grand buildings were built in the reign of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, so that the cathedral is contemporary to the Christian palace of the Alhambra, the University and the Real Chancillería (Supreme Court).",
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"plaintext": "The church was conceived on the model of the Cathedral of Toledo, for what initially was a Gothic architectural project, as was customary in Spain in the early decades of the 16th century. However, Egas was relieved by the Catholic hierarchy in 1529, and the continuation of the work was assigned to Diego Siloe, who built upon the example of his predecessor, but changed the approach towards a fully Renaissance aesthetic.",
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"plaintext": "The architect drew new Renaissance lines for the whole building over the gothic foundations, with an ambulatory and five naves instead of the usual three. Over time, the bishopric continued to commission new architectural projects of importance, such as the redesign of the main façade, undertaken in 1664 by Alonso Cano (1601–1667) to introduce Baroque elements. In 1706 Francisco de Hurtado Izquierdo and later his collaborator José Bada built the current tabernacle of the cathedral.",
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"plaintext": "Highlights of the church's components include the main chapel, where may be found the praying statues of the Catholic Monarchs, which consists of a series of Corinthian columns with the entablature resting on their capitals, and the vault over all. The spaces of the walls between the columns are perforated by a series of windows. The design of the tabernacle of 1706 preserves the classic proportions of the church, with its multiple columns crossing the forms of Diego de Siloé.",
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"plaintext": "The Catholic Monarchs chose the city of Granada as their burial site by a royal decree dated September 13, 1504. The Royal Chapel of Granada, built over the former terrace of the Great Mosque, ranks with other important Granadan buildings such as the Lonja and the Catedral e Iglesia del Sagrario. In it are buried the Catholic Monarchs, their daughter Joanna of Castile (Juana la Loca) and her husband Felipe I (Felipe el Hermoso). Construction of the Chapel started in 1505, directed by its designer, Enrique Egas. Built in several stages, the continuing evolution of its design joined Gothic construction and decoration with Renaissance ideals, as seen in the tombs and the 17th and 18th century Granadan art in the Chapel of Santa Cruz. Over the years the church acquired a treasury of works of art, liturgical objects and relics.",
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"plaintext": "The Royal Chapel was declared a Historic Artistic Monument on May 19, 1884, taking consideration of BIC (Bien de Interés Cultural) status in the current legislation of Spanish Historical Heritage (Law 16/1985 of 25 June). The most important parts of the chapel are its main retable, grid and vault. In the Sacristy-Museum is the legacy of the Catholic Monarchs. Its art gallery is highlighted by works of the Flemish, Italian and Spanish schools.",
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"plaintext": "The historic neighbourhood, located on the hillsides north of the Alhambra, still retains much of its medieval street plan dating back to the Nasrid period, although it has undergone physical and demographic changes since then. Archeological evidence indicates that Iberians inhabited the main hill of the present-day Albaicin towards the 7th century BC and that a significant town was located here during the Roman period. During the early Islamic period, up to the 10th century, the location hosted only the small settlement of Gharnāṭa (Granada), until in the 11th century the creation of the Zirid Taifa kingdom transformed the location into one of the most important cities in Al-Andalus. During this period, the city's main citadel and palace, the al-Qaṣaba al-Qadīma (\"Old Citadel\"), was located on the top of this hill. During the Nasrid period, the citadel was moved to the Alhambra and the old district became known as (), from which its present name derives. Among the various Nasrid-period houses and other structures, one notable establishment was the Maristan, a type of historic hospital (bimaristan) which also took care of the mentally ill.",
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"plaintext": "Through the course of the 16th century, after the surrender of Granada to the Catholic Monarchs in 1492, the district underwent some of the some changes that occurred throughout the city. Mosques were replaced with new parish churches, particularly after 1501. These new churches were often built in a mix of Mudéjar and Renaissance styles, such as the Church of Santa Ana, the Church of San Cristóbal, and the Church of San Miguel Bajo, among others. Some, like the churches of El Salvador, San José, and San Juan de los Reyes, preserve parts of former mosques. New civic institutions were also built in this area, such as the Royal Chancellery (Real Chancillería), which overlooks Plaza Nueva, a wide public square expanded during the 16th century. ",
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"plaintext": "During the 16th century the most of the city's morisco population was concentrated in the Albaicín, but after the 1568 rebellion and their subsequent expulsion, the district was depopulated. As a result, many of the remaining Christian residents expanded their residences to form carmens, traditional semi-rural houses with gardens or orchards, many examples of which survive today. Some of these houses and mansions, such as Casa de Zafra and the Dar al-Horra, date back to the Nasrid period. In 1994 the UNESCO World Heritage Site encompassing the Alhambra was extended to incorporate the Albaicín as well. In addition to its historic houses and mansions, churches, and the Royal Chancellery, the district also preserves sections of the 11th-century Zirid city walls (part of the former Zirid citadel), the 14th-century Nasrid walls, the Bañuelo (a former Islamic-era bathhouse), and numerous cisterns from the Islamic period that were part of a water supply system providing water to most of the city's houses.",
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"plaintext": "The Sacromonte neighbourhood is located on the Valparaíso hill, one of several hills that make up Granada. This neighborhood is known as the old neighbourhood of the Romani, who settled in Granada after the conquest of the city. It is one of the most picturesque neighborhoods, full of whitewashed caves cut into the rock and used as residences. The sound of strumming guitars may still be heard there in the performance of flamenco cantes and quejíos, so that over time it has become one of the most popular tourist attractions in Granada.",
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"plaintext": "At the top of this hill is the Abbey of Sacromonte and the College of Sacromonte, founded in the 17th century by the then Archbishop of Granada Pedro de Castro. The Abbey of Sacromonte was built to monitor and guard the alleged relics of the evangelists of Baetica. Those are of questionable authenticity, but since their finding the area has been a religious pilgrimage destination.",
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"plaintext": "The abbey complex consists of the catacombs, the abbey (17th–18th centuries), the Colegio Viejo de San Dionisio Areopagita (17th century) and the Colegio Nuevo (19th century). The interior of the church is simple and small but has numerous excellent works of art, which accentuate the size and rich carving of the Crucificado de Risueño, an object of devotion for the Romani people, who sing and dance in the procession of Holy Week. The facilities also include a museum, which houses the works acquired by the Foundation.",
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"plaintext": "The Charterhouse of Granada is a monastery of cloistered monks, located in what was a farm or Muslim almunia called Aynadamar (\"fountain of tears\") that had an abundance of water and fruit trees. The initiative to build the monastery in that place was begun by Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, known as El Gran Capitán. The charterhouse was founded in 1506; construction started ten years later, and continued for the following 300 years.",
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"plaintext": "The Monastery suffered heavy damage during the Peninsular War and lost considerable property in 1837 as a result of the confiscations of Mendizábal. Currently, the monastery belongs to the Carthusians, reporting directly to the Archdiocese of Granada.",
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"plaintext": "The street entrance to the complex is an ornate arch of Plateresque style. Through it one reaches a large courtyard, at the end which is a wide staircase leading to the entrance of the church. The church, of early 16th century style and plan, has three entrances, one for the faithful and the other two for monks and clergy. Its plan has a single nave divided into four sections, highlighting the retables of Juan Sánchez Cotán and the chancel's glass doors, adorned with mother-of-pearl, silver, rare woods and ivory. The presbytery is covered by elliptical vaulting. The main altar, between the chancel arch and the church tabernacle, is gilded wood.",
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"plaintext": "The church's tabernacle and sancta sanctorum are considered a masterpiece of Baroque Spanish art in its blend of architecture, painting and sculpture. The dome that covers this area is decorated with frescoes by the Córdoba artist Antonio Palomino (18th century) representing the triumph of the Church Militant, faith, and religious life.",
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"plaintext": "The courtyard, with galleries of arches on Doric order columns opening on it, is centered by a fountain. The Chapter House of Legos is the oldest building of the monastery (1517). It is rectangular and covered with groin vaulting.",
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"plaintext": "The Mosque of Granada was inaugurated in 2003 on the summit of the neighborhood of Albayzin. The mosque was built near the Church of San Salvador and the Church of San Nicolás. The Church of San Salvador was built on the site of the Great Mosque of Albayzin. The Society for the Return of Islam in Spain purchased the site in 1981, but it took many years for the plans to be approved. The mosque's initial funding was supplied by Shaykh 'Abdalqadir as-Sufi al-Murabit who envisioned providing Granada's new Spanish Muslim community with a mosque. Additional funding came from Malaysia, Morocco and the United Arab Emirates. In 1991 the CIE (Comunidad Islámica en España) hired the architect Renato Ramirez Sanchez to design the mosque. In the 1990s, there was a heated debate pertaining to the design of the minaret. Construction eventually began in 2001. The mosque now serves about 500 people.",
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"plaintext": "The Palace of the Marqués de Salar was built in one of the most emblematic streets of Granada, the Carrera del Darro, at number 5. This place is an architectural example of the classical Granada during the Renaissance transformation of the XVIth century. It was built by the Marqués de Salar, great-grandson of both Hernán Pérez del Pulgar (known by the name of El de la Hazañas [The One of the Valiant Deeds]) and Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba (El Gran Capitán [The Great Captain]), Captain-General of the Castilian-Aragonese forces that concluded the Reconquest of the peninsula. The palace is now the museum of perfumes El Patio de los Perfumes, with of floor space on two floors and of patio to relax surrounded by flowers and perfumes.",
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"plaintext": " Monasterio de San Jerónimo (16th-century Monastery of Saint Jerome)",
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"plaintext": " San Juan de Dios Hospital (historic hospital)",
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"plaintext": "Palacio de la Madraza (remains of 14th-century madrasa incorporated into 18th-century city hall)",
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"plaintext": " Archaeological Museum of Granada (in the 16th-century Castril Palace)",
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"plaintext": " Museo de Bellas Artes de Granada (Museum of Fine Arts)",
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"plaintext": "El Bañuelo (11th or 12th-century bathhouse)",
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"plaintext": "Corral del Carbón (14th-century caravanserai, later converted to theatre)",
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"plaintext": "Cuarto Real de Santo Domingo (13th-century palace, later converted to convent)",
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"plaintext": "Palacio de los Olvidados (16th century house and museum displaying torture instruments of the Spanish Inquisition)",
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"plaintext": "Church of San Salvador (16th-century church, including remains of 13th-century mosque)",
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"plaintext": "Since 1988, there is in Granada a monument honoring Judah ben Saul ibn Tibbon.",
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"plaintext": "Granada's metropolitan area consists of about fifty municipalities and the capital. Although it is not formally constituted as a political and administrative body, there are several public services that are combined. The arrival of many inhabitants of the capital and other towns in the province, influences a large population growth. Despite the fact that the capital loses inhabitants, who move to neighboring towns. The main causes of the exodus towards the towns of the metropolitan area are, mainly, the difficulty of accessing a home in the capital because of the high prices it has and labor reasons, because in the towns of the periphery the majority are being located of industrial estates.",
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"plaintext": "The city of Granada is the capital of the province of the same name, thus all administrative entities of provincial scope dependent on the regional government and the state are located there. There is a provincial delegation from each of the governmental departments to the Junta de Andalucía, coordinated by a government delegate under the Ministry of the Interior. The national government of Spain has a sub-delegation in Granada, subordinate to the government delegate in the autonomous community.",
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"plaintext": "The headquarters of the Superior Court of Justice of Andalusia, Ceuta and Melilla is in Granada, located in Plaza Nueva, in the building of the historic Royal Chancery, as well as the Superior Prosecutor's Office of Andalusia, located in the building of the Bank of Spain. It has a Provincial Court, located in Corteza del Carmen Street, and is also head of the Judicial Party No. 3 of the province, whose demarcation includes the city and 49 towns, some of them very populated, in the metropolitan area region.",
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"plaintext": "Most of the courts are located in two administrative buildings, in Plaza Nueva and Avenida del Sur. The set of judicial bodies is as follows:",
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"plaintext": " Superior Court of Justice: President. Civil-Criminal Chamber. Contentious-Administrative Room. Social room.",
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"plaintext": " Provincial Court: President. Criminal: 2; Civil: 3",
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{
"plaintext": " Courts",
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{
"plaintext": "Its political administration is carried out through a City Council, of democratic management, whose components are chosen every four years by universal suffrage. The electoral roll is composed of all residents registered in Granada over 18 years of age, of Spanish nationality and of the other member countries of the European Union. According to the provisions of the General Electoral Regime Law, which establishes the number of eligible councilors according to the population of the municipality, the Municipal Corporation of Granada is made up of 27 councilors.",
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"plaintext": "In the municipal elections held in 2019 the constitution of the City Council was eleven councilors belonging to the Popular Party, eight to the Socialist Party, four belonging to Citizens Party, three to Vamos, Granada and one to the United Left-Socialist Alternative-For the People. Luis Salvador, leader of Citizens, became mayor with support from the PP and Vox.",
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"plaintext": "The municipality of Granada consists of eight districts whose population is distributed in the attached chart according to the 2009 census of the City of Granada. These districts formed a set of 36 neighborhoods. All boundaries of districts and neighborhoods were modified in February 2013.",
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"plaintext": "The municipal government team has organized the distribution of management responsibilities, structuring itself in the following service areas: Weddings and Palaces, Equal opportunities, Economy, Education, Communication office, Unified license management, Youth, Environment, Municipal Office of Consumer Information, Citizen Participation, Group of Civil Protection Volunteers, Local Police.",
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"plaintext": "Realejo was the Jewish district in the time of the Nasrid Granada. (The centuries since the Jewish population were so important that Granada was known in Al-Andalus under the name of \"Granada of the Jews\", Gharnāṭah al-Yahūd.) It is today a district made up of many Granadinian villas, with gardens opening onto the streets, called Los Cármenes.",
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"plaintext": "This district contains the Carthusian monastery of the same name: Cartuja. This is an old monastery started in a late Gothic style with Baroque exuberant interior decorations. In this district also, many buildings were created with the extension of the University of Granada.",
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"plaintext": "The toponym derives from a gate (Bab al-Ramla, or the Gate of the Ears) that was built when Granada was controlled by the Nasrid dynasty. Nowadays, Bib-Rambla is a high point for gastronomy, especially in its terraces of restaurants, open on beautiful days. The Arab bazaar, the Alcaicería, is made up of several narrow streets, which start from this place and continue as far as the cathedral",
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"plaintext": "The Sacromonte neighborhood is located on the extension of the hill of Albaicín, along the Darro River. This area, which became famous by the nineteenth century for its predominantly Gitano inhabitants, is characterized by cave houses, which are dug into the hillside. The area has a reputation as a major center of flamenco song and dance, including the Zambra Gitana, an Andalusian dance originating in the Middle East. The zone is a protected cultural environment under the auspices of the Centro de Interpretación del Sacromonte, a cultural center dedicated to the preservation of Gitano cultural forms.",
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"plaintext": "This formerly blue collar but now upmarket neighborhood houses 100,000 residents of Granada, making it the largest neighborhood or 'barrio'. Traditionally populated by Romani people, now many residents are from North and West Africa, China, and many South American countries. Every Saturday morning it hosts a large outdoor market or \"mercadillo\", where many people come and sell their wares of fruits and vegetables, clothes and shoes, and other bits and bobs.",
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"plaintext": "The gastronomy of Granada is part of the Arabic-Andalusian cuisine tradition, with a strong Arab and Jewish heritage, which is reflected in its condiments and spices, such as cumin, coriander, nutmeg, cinnamon, raisins, almonds or honey. The writer Miguel Alcobendas, author of the traditional cuisine of Granada, says that it has its origin in living together, from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century (when Granada surrendered to the Catholic Monarchs), of Muslims, Jews and Christians in the Nasrid Kingdom from Granada. Subsequently, there was a miscegenation with the kitchen of the Christians, in which the pork acquired an importance in the kitchen of Granada more than in the rest of Spain, since its consumption allowed its eaters to demonstrate a certain distance from the persecuted religions, since both Muslims and Jews have it banned.",
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"plaintext": "The climatic differences of the different regions of the province, from the coast to the peaks of the Sierra Nevada propitiates a great variety of raw materials: vegetables, meats and sausages, and fish that are combined in a multitude of dishes and recipes for soups and stews.",
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"plaintext": "The famous and reputed Trevélez ham comes from the Sierra of Granada, to which other pork derivatives are added, sausages such as chorizo, black pudding and pork tenderloin.",
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"plaintext": "Ham and beans, two products of the land, are combined in one of its most typical dishes, beans with ham; Other known dishes are the Sacromonte tortilla, which among other ingredients must have cooked brains and veal crustaillas, chopped and sauteed before mixing with the egg. It is also worth mentioning \"papas a lo pobre\", potatoes which are usually served with egg and fried peppers, as well as with pieces of pork or ham.",
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"plaintext": "Among the stews and potajes, the pot of San Antón stands out, which is eaten mainly towards the second half of January; cabbage stew, which combines vegetables and legumes; the stew of green beans and fennel; The thistle and pumpkin casserole, with noodles and aromatic herbs, or gypsy pottery are other dishes of the land.",
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"plaintext": "Confectionery is well represented in the gastronomy of Granada, for sweets prepared by the nuns can be purchased in the numerous convents of the city: the pestiños of Vélez or those of the Encarnación, the puff pastries of San Jerónimo, the ovos moles of San Antón, the Zafra biscuit, sweet potato rolls, cocas, roscos from Santo Tomas and mantecados. Aljojábanas, honey and cheese dumplings and some of the fritters called , as well as fig bread, Moorish roscos and an almond cake called soyá are all of Arabic heritage.",
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"plaintext": "Unlike in other provinces of Andalusia, in Granada tapas (appetizers or snacks) are usually free in bars and restaurants. \"Bar hopping\" (Ir de tapas) and eating tapas in the time between finishing work and having dinner is a deeply rooted traditional activity among the people of Granada. There are different tapas routes around the city.",
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"plaintext": "Granada produces agricultural products such as barley, wheat, sugarcane and tobacco. Besides these crops, olive trees as well as oranges, lemons, figs, almonds, and pomegranates are also commonly grown. For manufacturing, sugar refining is also made in the city. Vineyards and wines are also a significant contributor to the city and region. In 2020, Granada exported a total of $1.3 billion products.",
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"plaintext": "In Granada there is a wide program of leisure and entertainment, which covers a large number of fields, available to both visitors and citizens themselves. Of the leisure activities carried out, the following can be highlighted:",
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"plaintext": " The zambras of Sacromonte. Old bridal parties held by the gypsies of the city, and that disappeared for years before their current vindication. They develop in the caves of the Sacromonte neighborhood and have a unique character in the world of flamenco. There are also more classic flamenco shows in the Albaicín. These flamenco shows, usually linked to restaurants, are one of the city's cultural attractions.",
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"plaintext": " Festivals. Granada has a very complete range of events: International Music and Dance Festival, International Jazz Festival, Granada Festival South Cinemas and International Tango Festival, among others.",
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"plaintext": " Concerts. Throughout the year there is a stable program of concerts in the Manuel de Falla Auditorium and theater and opera performances in the Congress Palace.",
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"plaintext": " Parties. Throughout the year several parties are held on significant dates for religious, civil or cultural reasons.",
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"plaintext": "The University of Granada (UGR), founded in 1531 by the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, meant the continuation of higher studies in La Madraza, when the city was the capital of the last Nasrid Kingdom. The university has become internationally recognised in many university fields: teaching, research, cultural and services to its members and its surroundings. It is therefore one of the destinations that receives more exchange students from the Erasmus Program13 and the fourth Spanish university in number of students, after the Complutense University of Madrid, and the University of Seville. The university has around 47,000 undergraduate students.",
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"plaintext": "In the city there are a total of 69 compulsory secondary education centers. Infant and primary education is taught in 104 centers, distributed among private, concerted and public centers. There are also five adult education centers.",
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"plaintext": "Its public health system is the exclusive competence of the autonomous community, which provides two types of attention: primary, which constitutes the first level of access to the system; and the specialized one. Health centers and offices constitute the offer of primary care, differing from each other in the level of care they provide.",
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"plaintext": "Its hospital network is basically composed of public hospitals managed by the Andalusian Health Service and other smaller private management centers. This network covers the needs of the city and its Metropolitan Area. In total there are 2047 beds.",
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"plaintext": " The Hospital of the Health Campus, was inaugurated completely in July 2016 and is the second largest in Spain – after La Paz Hospital – and is the reference center in the city for the areas of Allergology, Pathological Anatomy, Hematology, Internal Medicine, Mental Health, Pulmonology, Radiotherapy or Urology, among others; Orthopedic and Traumatological Surgery; Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine; Neurology, Neurosurgery, Neurophysiology, Maxillofacial Surgery, Plastic Surgery, Dermatology, Ophthalmology, Otorhino, Rheumatology, Endocrinology and Vascular Surgery.",
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"plaintext": " The Virgen de las Nieves Regional Hospital (popularly known as Ruiz de Alda Hospital), is formed by a general hospital, a maternal and child hospital, all located in the same enclosure, and is maintained as a nerve center of Digestive, Respiratory, Oncology, Hematology and Transplants. It includes the San Juan de Dios Hospital, a peripheral center of specialties and a therapeutic unit for the mental illnesses.",
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"plaintext": " The Hospital of San Rafael, has a hospitalization capacity of 190 beds and as a day hospital has 45 places of geriatrics and 15 of Alzheimer's. It is owned by the Hospital Order of San Juan de Dios. It is especially dedicated to the comprehensive care of the elderly, possessing a large number of analysis and rehabilitation services. The hospital activity is arranged with the Ministry of Health of the Junta de Andalucía.",
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"plaintext": " La Inmaculada Clinic is a private hospital belonging to the ASISA insurance company born as a concerted hospital of the Spanish Health System in 1975. Through an agreement with the University of Granada, the center also participates in the training of students of the Faculty of Medicine.",
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"plaintext": " Nuestra Señora de la Salud Clinic is a private hospital that has 71 rooms and belongs to the medical insurance company Adeslas. Serves insured private medical companies. It currently has a new location with a newly built site. It is very close to the Alhambra, near the Serrallo Tunnels, being its previous location on the Avenue of the Armed Forces (Granada).",
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"plaintext": "The local primary care network currently consists of eight health centers distributed by the different districts of the city and are the following: Zaidín Sur, Zaidín Centro-Este, Realejo, Las Flores, La Caleta, Góngora, Doctores, Cartuja and Albaycín.",
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"plaintext": "Article 42 of the General Health Law provides that municipalities, without prejudice to the powers of other public administrations, will have the following minimum responsibilities in matters related to health.",
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"plaintext": " Sanitary control of the environment: air pollution, water supply, sewage sanitation and urban and industrial waste.",
"section_idx": 11,
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},
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"plaintext": " Sanitary control of industries, activities and services, transport, noise and vibration.",
"section_idx": 11,
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},
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"plaintext": " Sanitary control of buildings and places of housing and human coexistence, especially of food centers, hairdressers, saunas and centers of personal hygiene, hotels and residential centers, schools, tourist camps and areas of physical activity sports and recreation.",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Social welfare",
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"plaintext": " Sanitary control of the distribution and supply of perishable food, beverages and other products, directly or indirectly related to human use or consumption, as well as the means of transport.",
"section_idx": 11,
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"plaintext": " Sanitary control of cemeteries and mortuary health police.",
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"plaintext": "The coordination between the State security forces (National Police, Civil Guard, Local Police and Autonomous Police) and the City of Granada is carried out by the local Citizen Security Board. This body allows the correct communication of the security forces in matters of security, within its competence the prevention of crime, road safety and the correct development of events.",
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"plaintext": "The daily citizen security is in charge of the State and local Security Forces and Bodies (Spain) according to the powers that each estate has, trying to act in a coordinated and collaborative way in the prosecution and resolution of all types of crimes that produce the citizens.",
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"plaintext": "Social services",
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"plaintext": "The City of Granada has the Social Services Area to provide the necessary help and advice that the most disadvantaged and needy groups and people may need. For this reason, the Social Welfare Delegation of the City of Granada has several municipal community social services centers, one for each local district, coordinated by Los Mondragones Municipal Administration located on the Fuerzas Armadas Avenue. In its internal organization the services provided are organized around each municipal center and therefore of each municipal district but also around groups.",
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"plaintext": "The city of Granada has a significant number of parks and gardens, including:",
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"plaintext": " The gardens of Alhambra and Generalife",
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"plaintext": " Campo del Príncipe Gardens",
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"plaintext": " Gardens of the Royal Hospital",
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"plaintext": " Gardens of Paseo del Salón and of La Bomba (BIC)",
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"plaintext": " Gardens of the Triumph",
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"plaintext": " Gardens of Violón",
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"plaintext": " Córdoba Gardens Palace",
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"plaintext": " Zaidín Park",
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"plaintext": " Plaza de la Trinidad",
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"plaintext": " 28 de Febrero Park",
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"plaintext": " Almunia de Aynadamar Park",
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"plaintext": " Federico García Lorca Park",
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"plaintext": " Fuente Nueva University Park",
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{
"plaintext": "Judah ben Saul ibn Tibbon (1120–1190), translator and physician",
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"plaintext": "Al-Zuhri ( 1130s–1150s), geographer",
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"plaintext": "Ibn Sa'id al-Maghribi (1213–1286), geographer, historian and poet",
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"plaintext": " Álvaro de Bazán (1526–1588), admiral",
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"plaintext": " Alonso Cano (1601–1667), painter, sculptor and architect",
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"plaintext": " Pedro Rodríguez Cubero (1656 – 1704), governor of Spanish New Mexico between 1697 and 1703.",
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"plaintext": " Pedro de Mena (1628–1688), baroque sculptor",
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"plaintext": " José de Mora (1642–1724), baroque sculptor",
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},
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"plaintext": " Francisco Martínez de la Rosa (1787–1862), statesman, politician, dramatist and poet",
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"plaintext": " Ángel Ganivet (1865–1898), writer and dramatist",
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"plaintext": " Mariana Pineda (1804–1831), liberalist heroine",
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},
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"plaintext": " Eugenia de Montijo (1826–1920), last Empress consort of France",
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"plaintext": " Mariano Fortuny y Madrazo (1871–1949), painter, photographer, designer and scenographer",
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"plaintext": " Pablo de Loyzaga (1872–1951), sculptor and professor of fine arts",
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},
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"plaintext": "Emilio Herrera Linares (1879–1967), military engineer and physicist",
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"plaintext": " Melchor Fernández Almagro (1893–1966), literary critic, historian and journalist",
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"plaintext": " Federico García Lorca (1898–1936), poet and dramatist",
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"plaintext": " Francisco García Lorca (1902-1976), diplomat, writer from the Generation of '36 and historian",
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"plaintext": " Isabel García Lorca (1909–2002), teacher and writer",
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"plaintext": " Luis Rosales Camacho (1910–1992), poet and essayist from the Generation of '36",
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"plaintext": "José Tamayo (1920–2003), theatre director",
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"plaintext": " Manuel Jiménez de Parga (b. 1929), lawyer, politician, diplomat and jurist",
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"plaintext": " Miguel Ríos (born 1944) rock singer and composer",
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"plaintext": " (1946–2000), singer-songwriter",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Manuel Orantes (born 1949), tennis player",
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"plaintext": " Javier Egea (1952–1999), considered one of the most important Spanish poets of the 1980s",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Luis García Montero (born 1958), poet and literary critic",
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"plaintext": "Chus Gutiérrez (born 1962), film director, actress and journalist",
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},
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"plaintext": "María José Rienda Contreras (born 1975), ski racer",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Pilar Ramírez Tello (born 1976), English-Spanish translator who translated The Hunger Games and Divergent series to Spanish",
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"plaintext": "Pablo Aguilar Bermúdez (born 1989), basketball player",
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"plaintext": "Lidia Redondo (born 1992), gymnast",
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"plaintext": "Sam Hidalgo-Clyne (born 1993), Scotland international rugby union player (born in Granada, but moved to Scotland at age 3)",
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"plaintext": "Construction of a light rail network, the Granada metro, began in 2007, but was greatly delayed by the Spanish economic crisis. Service finally started on 21 September 2017. The single line crosses Granada and covers the towns of Albolote, Maracena and Armilla. ",
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"plaintext": "Other transportation options in the city of Granada are trains, taxis or buses.",
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"plaintext": "The main company operating bus transport in Granada is Transportes Rober. There is also bus transportation to and from the airport with the company Alsa.",
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"plaintext": "Granada railway station has rail connections with many cities in Spain. There are several types of train service to and from Granada",
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"plaintext": " Short-distance trains",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Medium distance trains",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Long-distance trains",
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},
{
"plaintext": " AVE (high speed long distance) via the Antequera–Granada high-speed rail line. The closest AVE connection is in Antequera.",
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"plaintext": "Granada has a wide network of taxis to help travellers reach their destinations. Official Granada taxis are white with a green stripe.",
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"plaintext": "The nearest civil airport is Federico García Lorca Airport, about west of Granada. The was the first civil airport serving the city and its surroundings but it was replaced by the former airport in the 1970s and repurposed for military uses.",
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"plaintext": "The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Granada, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 42 min. 9% of public transit riders, ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 10 min, while 8% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 2.7km, while 0% travel for over 12km in a single direction.",
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{
"plaintext": "Granada has a football team:",
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"plaintext": " Granada CF, in La Liga",
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"plaintext": "Granada has a basketball team:",
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"plaintext": " Fundación CB Granada, in LEB Oro",
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{
"plaintext": "Skiing:",
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},
{
"plaintext": " FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 1996",
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"plaintext": "Bullfighting:",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Granada has a 14,507-capacity bullring named Plaza de toros de Granada.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Granada shares twin cities status with these cities:",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Aix-en-Provence, France, 1979",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Tetuán, Morocco, 1988",
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1,
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},
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"plaintext": " Tlemcen, Algeria, 1989",
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},
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"plaintext": " Coral Gables, Florida, United States, 1989",
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany, 1991",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Marrakech, Morocco, 1994",
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1,
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},
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"plaintext": " Belo Horizonte, Brazil, 2002",
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},
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"plaintext": " Gate of the Ears",
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"plaintext": " Rafael Guillén",
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"plaintext": " El Fandi",
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},
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"plaintext": " History of the Jews in Spain",
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},
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"plaintext": " Synod of Elvira",
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},
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"plaintext": " Memories of the Alhambra",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Cortés Peña, Antonio Luis and Bernard Vincent. Historia de Granada. 4 vols. Granada: Editorial Don Quijote, 1983.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Historia del reino de Granada. 3 vols. Granada: Universidad de Granada, Legado Andalusí, 2000.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "City council of Granada",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Granada Tourism Guide",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Granada city guide at HitchHikers Handbook",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Webcam Granada/Alhambra",
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| [
"Granada",
"Bien_de_Interés_Cultural_landmarks_in_the_Province_of_Granada",
"Capitals_of_former_nations",
"Historic_Jewish_communities"
]
| 8,810 | 35,212 | 2,091 | 406 | 0 | 0 | Granada | municipality and capital of the province of Granada, Spain | []
|
38,265 | 1,087,212,585 | Viceroyalty_of_New_Granada | [
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"plaintext": "The Viceroyalty of New Granada ( ) also called Viceroyalty of the New Kingdom of Granada or Viceroyalty of Santafé was the name given on 27 May 1717, to the jurisdiction of the Spanish Empire in northern South America, corresponding to modern Colombia, Ecuador, Panama and Venezuela. Created in 1717 by King Felipe V, as part of a new territorial control policy, it was suspended in 1723 for financial problems and was restored in 1739 until the independence movement suspended it again in 1810. The territory corresponding to Panama was incorporated later in 1739, and the provinces of Venezuela were separated from the Viceroyalty and assigned to the Captaincy General of Venezuela in 1777. In addition to those core areas, the territory of the Viceroyalty of New Granada included Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, southwestern Suriname, parts of northwestern Brazil, and northern Peru.",
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"plaintext": "Two centuries after the establishment of the New Kingdom of Granada in the 16th century, whose governor was dependent upon the Viceroy of Peru at Lima, and an audiencia at Santa Fé de Bogotá (today capital of the republic of Colombia), the slowness of communications between the two capitals led to the creation of an independent Viceroyalty of New Granada in 1717 (and its reestablishment in 1739 after a short interruption). Other provinces corresponding to modern Ecuador, the eastern and southern parts of today's Venezuela, and Panama came together in a political unit under the jurisdiction of Bogotá, confirming that city as one of the principal administrative centers of the Spanish possessions in the New World, along with Lima and Mexico City. Sporadic attempts at reform were directed at increasing efficiency and centralizing authority, but control from Spain was never very effective.",
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"plaintext": "The rough and diverse geography of northern South America and the limited range of proper roads made travel and communications within the viceroyalty difficult. The establishment of an autonomous Captaincy General in Caracas in 1777 and the preservation of the older Audiencia of Quito, nominally subject to the Viceroy but for most purposes independent, was a response to the necessities of effectively governing the peripheral regions. Some analysts also consider that these measures reflected a degree of local traditions that eventually contributed to the differing political and national differences among these territories once they became independent in the nineteenth century and which the unifying efforts of Simón Bolívar could not overcome.",
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"plaintext": "The Spanish had never subjugated the Wayuu. The two groups were in a more or less permanent state of war. There had been rebellions in 1701 (when they destroyed a Capuchin mission), 1727 (when more than 2,000 Wayuus attacked the Spanish), 1741, 1757, 1761 and 1768. In 1718, Governor Soto de Herrera called them \"barbarians, horse thieves, worthy of death, without God, without law, and without a king.\" Of all the Indians in the territory of Colombia, the Wayuu were unique in having learned the use of firearms and horses.",
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"plaintext": "In 1769 the Spanish took 22 Wayuus captive, in order to put them to work building the fortifications of Cartagena. The reaction of the Wayuus was unexpected. On 2 May 1769, at El Rincón, near Riohacha, they set their village afire, burning the church and two Spaniards who had taken refuge in it. They also captured the priest. The Spanish immediately dispatched an expedition from El Rincón to capture the Wayuus. At the head of this force was José Antonio de Sierra, a mestizo who had also headed the party that had taken the 22 Guajiro captives. The Guajiros recognized him and forced his party to take refuge in the house of the curate, which they then set afire. Sierra and eight of his men were killed.",
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"plaintext": "This success was soon known in other Guajiro areas, and more men joined the revolt. According to Messía, at the peak, there were 20,000 Wayuus under arms. Many had firearms acquired from English and Dutch smugglers, sometimes even from the Spanish. This enabled the rebels to take nearly all the settlements of the region, which they burned. According to the authorities, more than 100 Spaniards were killed and many others were taken prisoner. Many cattle were also taken by the rebels. The Spaniards took refuge in Riohacha and sent urgent messages to Maracaibo, Valledupar, Santa Marta and Cartagena, the latter responding by sending 100 troops. The rebels themselves were not unified. Sierra's relatives among the Indians took up arms against the rebels to avenge his death. A battle between the two groups of Wayuus was fought at La Soledad. That and the arrival of the Spanish reinforcements caused the rebellion to fade away, but not before the Guajiro had regained much territory.",
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"plaintext": "The retribution stoked renewed rebellion, which, combined with a weakened Spain, made possible a successful independence struggle led mainly by Simón Bolívar and Francisco de Paula Santander in neighboring Venezuela. Bolívar returned to New Granada only in 1819 after establishing himself as leader of the pro-independence forces in the Venezuelan llanos. From there Bolivar led an army over the Andes and captured New Granada after a quick campaign that ended at the Battle of Boyacá, on 7 August 1819, finally proclaimed independence in 1819. The pro-Spanish resistance was defeated in 1822 in the present territory of Colombia and in 1823 in Venezuela.",
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"plaintext": "The territories of the viceroyalty gained full de facto independence from Spain between 1819 and 1822 after a series of military and political struggles, uniting in a republic now known as Gran Colombia.",
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"plaintext": "With the dissolution of Gran Colombia, the states of Ecuador, Venezuela, and the Republic of New Granada were created. The Republic of New Granada, with its capital at Bogotá, lasted from 1831 to 1856. The name \"Colombia\" reappeared in the \"United States of Colombia\"; the new name for the country having been introduced by a liberal government after a civil war. The use of the term \"New Granada\" survived in conservative circles, such as among ecclesiastics.",
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"plaintext": "New Granada was estimated to have 4,345,000 inhabitants in 1819.",
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"plaintext": "By population",
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"plaintext": "1 - Santa Fe de Bogotá",
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"plaintext": " Spanish Empire",
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"plaintext": " Criollo people",
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"plaintext": "Fisher, John R., Allan J. Keuthe and Anthony McFarlane, eds. Reform and Insurrection in Bourbon New Granada and Peru. Baton Rouge, Louisiana State University Press, 1990. ",
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"section_name": "Notes",
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"plaintext": "Kuethe, Alan J. Military Reform and Society in New Granada, 1773-1808. Gainesville, University Presses of Florida, 1978. ",
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"plaintext": "McFarlane, Anthony. Colombia Before Independence: Economy, Society, and Politics under Bourbon Rule. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993. ",
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"plaintext": "Phelan, John Leddy. The People and the King: The Comunero Revolution in Colombia, 1781. Madison, University of Wisconsin Press, 1978. ",
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"plaintext": "Torres, James. \"Bullion and Monetary Flows in the Northern Andes: New Evidence and Insights\". Revista Tiempo y Economia 6(1), 13–46, ",
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38,267 | 1,107,784,209 | Dimension_(vector_space) | [
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"plaintext": "In mathematics, the dimension of a vector space V is the cardinality (i.e., the number of vectors) of a basis of V over its base field. It is sometimes called Hamel dimension (after Georg Hamel) or algebraic dimension to distinguish it from other types of dimension.",
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"plaintext": "as a standard basis, and therefore More generally, and even more generally, for any field ",
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"plaintext": "Any two finite dimensional vector spaces over with the same dimension are isomorphic. Any bijective map between their bases can be uniquely extended to a bijective linear map between the vector spaces. If is some set, a vector space with dimension over can be constructed as follows: take the set of all functions such that for all but finitely many in These functions can be added and multiplied with elements of to obtain the desired -vector space.",
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"plaintext": "A vector space can be seen as a particular case of a matroid, and in the latter there is a well-defined notion of dimension. The length of a module and the rank of an abelian group both have several properties similar to the dimension of vector spaces.",
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"plaintext": "The Krull dimension of a commutative ring, named after Wolfgang Krull (18991971), is defined to be the maximal number of strict inclusions in an increasing chain of prime ideals in the ring.",
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"plaintext": "The dimension of a vector space may alternatively be characterized as the trace of the identity operator. For instance, ",
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"plaintext": "This appears to be a circular definition, but it allows useful generalizations.",
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"plaintext": "Firstly, it allows for a definition of a notion of dimension when one has a trace but no natural sense of basis. For example, one may have an algebra with maps (the inclusion of scalars, called the unit) and a map (corresponding to trace, called the counit). The composition is a scalar (being a linear operator on a 1-dimensional space) corresponds to \"trace of identity\", and gives a notion of dimension for an abstract algebra. In practice, in bialgebras, this map is required to be the identity, which can be obtained by normalizing the counit by dividing by dimension (), so in these cases the normalizing constant corresponds to dimension.",
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"plaintext": "Alternatively, it may be possible to take the trace of operators on an infinite-dimensional space; in this case a (finite) trace is defined, even though no (finite) dimension exists, and gives a notion of \"dimension of the operator\". These fall under the rubric of \"trace class operators\" on a Hilbert space, or more generally nuclear operators on a Banach space.",
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"plaintext": "A subtler generalization is to consider the trace of a family of operators as a kind of \"twisted\" dimension. This occurs significantly in representation theory, where the character of a representation is the trace of the representation, hence a scalar-valued function on a group whose value on the identity is the dimension of the representation, as a representation sends the identity in the group to the identity matrix: The other values of the character can be viewed as \"twisted\" dimensions, and find analogs or generalizations of statements about dimensions to statements about characters or representations. A sophisticated example of this occurs in the theory of monstrous moonshine: the -invariant is the graded dimension of an infinite-dimensional graded representation of the monster group, and replacing the dimension with the character gives the McKay–Thompson series for each element of the Monster group.",
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"plaintext": " MIT Linear Algebra Lecture on Independence, Basis, and Dimension by Gilbert Strang at MIT OpenCourseWare",
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38,272 | 1,107,813,105 | Nicotine | [
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"plaintext": "Nicotine is a naturally produced alkaloid in the nightshade family of plants (most predominantly in tobacco and Duboisia hopwoodii) and is widely used recreationally as a stimulant and anxiolytic. As a pharmaceutical drug, it is used for smoking cessation to relieve withdrawal symptoms. Nicotine acts as a receptor agonist at most nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), except at two nicotinic receptor subunits (nAChRα9 and nAChRα10) where it acts as a receptor antagonist.",
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"plaintext": "Nicotine is highly addictive unless used in slow-release forms. Animal research suggests that monoamine oxidase inhibitors present in tobacco smoke may enhance nicotine's addictive properties. Tobacco with reduced nicotine (denicotinized tobacco) acutely reduces nicotine withdrawal, raises striatal dopamine and is also investigated as add on therapy to standard therapy to quit smoking. An average cigarette yields about 2mg of absorbed nicotine. ",
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"plaintext": "The primary therapeutic use of nicotine is treating nicotine dependence to eliminate smoking and the damage it does to health. Controlled levels of nicotine are given to patients through gums, dermal patches, lozenges, inhalers, or nasal sprays to wean them off their dependence. A 2018 Cochrane Collaboration review found high quality evidence that all current forms of nicotine replacement therapy (gum, patch, lozenges, inhaler, and nasal spray) therapies increase the chances of successfully quitting smoking by , regardless of setting.",
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"plaintext": "Combining nicotine patch use with a faster acting nicotine replacement, like gum or spray, improves the odds of treatment success. 4mg versus 2mg nicotine gum also increase the chances of success.",
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"plaintext": "In contrast to recreational nicotine products, which have been designed to maximize the likelihood of addiction, nicotine replacement products (NRTs) are designed to minimize addictiveness. The more quickly a dose of nicotine is delivered and absorbed, the higher the addiction risk.",
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"plaintext": "Nicotine has been used as an insecticide since at least the 1690s, in the form of tobacco extracts (although other components of tobacco also seem to have pesticide effects). Nicotine pesticides have not been commercially available in the US since 2014, and homemade pesticides are banned on organic crops and not recommended for small gardeners. Nicotine pesticides have been banned in the EU since 2009. Foods are imported from countries in which nicotine pesticides are allowed, such as China, but foods may not exceed maximum nicotine levels. Neonicotinoids, which are derived from and structurally similar to nicotine, are widely used as agricultural and veterinary pesticides as of 2016.",
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"plaintext": "Nicotine-containing products are sometimes used for the performance-enhancing effects of nicotine on cognition. A 2010 meta-analysis of 41double-blind, placebo-controlled studies concluded that nicotine or smoking had significant positive effects on aspects of fine motor abilities, alerting and orienting attention, and episodic and working memory. A 2015 review noted that stimulation of the α4β2 nicotinic receptor is responsible for certain improvements in attentional performance; among the nicotinic receptor subtypes, nicotine has the highest binding affinity at the α4β2 receptor (ki=1), which is also the biological target that mediates nicotine's addictive properties. Nicotine has potential beneficial effects, but it also has paradoxical effects, which may be due to the inverted U-shape of the dose-response curve or pharmacokinetic features.",
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"plaintext": "Nicotine is used as a recreational drug. It is widely used, highly addictive and hard to discontinue. Nicotine is often used compulsively, and dependence can develop within days. Recreational drug users commonly use nicotine for its mood-altering effects. Recreational nicotine products include chewing tobacco, cigars, cigarettes, e-cigarettes, snuff, pipe tobacco, and snus.",
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"plaintext": "Alcohol combined with nicotine is called nicotini.",
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"plaintext": "Nicotine use for tobacco cessation has few contraindications.",
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"plaintext": "It is not known whether nicotine replacement therapy is effective for smoking cessation in adolescents, as of 2014. It is therefore not recommended to adolescents. It is not safe to use nicotine during pregnancy or breastfeeding, although it is safer than smoking; the desirability of NRT use in pregnancy is therefore debated.",
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"plaintext": "Randomized trials and observational studies of nicotine replacement therapy in cardiovascular patients show no increase in adverse cardiovascular events compared to those treated with placebo. Using nicotine products during cancer treatment is counterrecommended, as nicotine promotes tumour growth, but temporary use of NRTs to quit smoking may be advised for harm reduction.",
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"plaintext": "Nicotine gum is contraindicated in individuals with temporomandibular joint disease. People with chronic nasal disorders and severe reactive airway disease require additional precautions when using nicotine nasal sprays. Nicotine in any form is contraindicated in individuals with a known hypersensitivity to nicotine.",
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"plaintext": "Nicotine is classified as a poison. However, at doses used by consumers, it presents little if any hazard to the user. A 2018 Cochrane Collaboration review lists nine main adverse events related to nicotine replacement therapy: headache, dizziness/light-headedness, nausea/vomiting, gastro-intestinal symptoms, sleep/dream problems, non-ischemic palpitations and chest pain, skin reactions, oral/nasal reactions and hiccups. Many of these were also common in the placebo group without nicotine. Palpitations and chest pain were deemed \"rare\" and there was no evidence of an increased number of serious cardiac problems compared to the placebo group, even in people with established cardiac disease. The common side effects from nicotine exposure are listed in the table below. Serious adverse events due to the use of nicotine replacement therapy are extremely rare. At low amounts, it has a mild analgesic effect. At sufficiently high doses, nicotine may result in nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, salivation, bradyarrhythmia, and possibly seizures, hypoventilation, and death.",
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"plaintext": "Nicotine reduces the amount of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, slow-wave sleep (SWS), and total sleep time in healthy nonsmokers given nicotine via a transdermal patch, and the reduction is dose-dependent. Acute nicotine intoxication has been found to significantly reduce total sleep time and increase REM latency, sleep onset latency, and non-rapid eye movement (NREM) stage 2 sleep time. Depressive non-smokers experience mood improvements under nicotine administration; however, subsequent nicotine withdrawal has a negative effect on both mood and sleep.",
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"plaintext": "A 2018 Cochrane review found that, in rare cases, nicotine replacement therapy can cause non-ischemic chest pain (i.e., chest pain that is unrelated to a heart attack) and heart palpitations, but does not increase the incidence of serious cardiac adverse events (i.e., myocardial infarction, stroke, and cardiac death) relative to controls.",
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"plaintext": "A 2016 review of the cardiovascular toxicity of nicotine concluded, \"Based on current knowledge, we believe that the cardiovascular risks of nicotine from e-cigarette use in people without cardiovascular disease are quite low. We have concerns that nicotine from e-cigarettes could pose some risk for users with cardiovascular disease.\"",
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"plaintext": "In the short term, nicotine causes a transient increase blood pressure, but in the long term, epidemiological studies generally do not show increased blood pressure or hypertension among nicotine users.",
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"plaintext": "Nicotine is highly addictive. Its addictiveness depends on how it is administered. Animal research suggests that monoamine oxidase inhibitors in tobacco smoke may enhance its addictiveness. Nicotine dependence involves aspects of both psychological dependence and physical dependence, since discontinuation of extended use has been shown to produce both affective (e.g., anxiety, irritability, craving, anhedonia) and somatic (mild motor dysfunctions such as tremor) withdrawal symptoms. Withdrawal symptoms peak in one to three days and can persist for several weeks. Some people experience symptoms for 6 months or longer.",
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"plaintext": "Normal between-cigarettes discontinuation, in unrestricted smokers, causes mild but measurable nicotine withdrawal symptoms. These include mildly worse mood, stress, anxiety, cognition, and sleep, all of which briefly return to normal with the next cigarette. Smokers have worse mood than they would have if they were not nicotine-dependent; they experience normal moods only immediately after smoking. Nicotine dependence is associated with poor sleep quality and shorter sleep duration among smokers.",
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"plaintext": "In dependent smokers, withdrawal causes impairments in memory and attention, and smoking during withdrawal returns these cognitive abilities to pre-withdrawal levels. The temporarily increased cognitive levels of smokers after inhaling smoke are offset by periods of cognitive decline during nicotine withdrawal. Therefore, the overall daily cognitive levels of smokers and non-smokers are roughly similar.",
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"plaintext": "Nicotine activates the mesolimbic pathway and induces long-term ΔFosB expression (i.e., produces phosphorylated ΔFosB isoforms) in the nucleus accumbens when inhaled or injected frequently or at high doses, but not necessarily when ingested. Consequently, high daily exposure (possibly excluding oral route) to nicotine can cause ΔFosB overexpression in the nucleus accumbens, resulting in nicotine addiction.",
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"plaintext": "Although nicotine itself does not cause cancer in humans, it is unclear whether it functions as a tumor promoter . A 2018 report by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine concludes, \"[w]hile it is biologically plausible that nicotine can act as a tumor promoter, the existing body of evidence indicates this is unlikely to translate into increased risk of human cancer.\"",
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"plaintext": "Low levels of nicotine stimulate cell proliferation, while high levels are cytotoxic. Nicotine increases cholinergic signaling and adrenergic signaling in colon cancer cells, thereby impeding apoptosis (programmed cell death), promoting tumor growth, and activating growth factors and cellular mitogenic factors such as 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX), and epidermal growth factor (EGF). Nicotine also promotes cancer growth by stimulating angiogenesis and neovascularization. Nicotine promotes lung cancer development and accelerates its proliferation, angiogenesis, migration, invasion and epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT), via its influence on nAChRs receptors, whose presence has been confirmed in lung cancer cells. In cancer cells, nicotine promotes the epithelial–mesenchymal transition which makes the cancer cells more resistant to drugs that treat cancer.",
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"plaintext": "Nicotine can form carcinogenic Tobacco-specific nitrosamines (TSNAs) through a nitrosation reaction. This occurs mostly in the curing and processing of tobacco. However, nicotine in the mouth and stomach can react to form N-Nitrosonornicotine, a known type 1 carcinogen, suggesting that consumption of non-tobacco forms of nicotine may still play a role in carcinogenesis.",
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"plaintext": "Nicotine causes DNA damage in several types of human cells as judged by assays for genotoxicity such as the comet assay, cytokinesis-block micronucleus test and chromosome aberrations test. The cell types susceptible to nicotine induced DNA damage include human primary parotid gland cells, human lymphocytes, human respiratory tract cells.",
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"plaintext": "Nicotine has been shown to produce birth defects in some animal species, but not others; consequently, it is considered to be a possible teratogen in humans. In animal studies that resulted in birth defects, researchers found that nicotine negatively affects fetal brain development and pregnancy outcomes; the negative effects on early brain development are associated with abnormalities in brain metabolism and neurotransmitter system function. Nicotine crosses the placenta and is found in the breast milk of mothers who smoke as well as mothers who inhale passive smoke.",
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"plaintext": "Nicotine exposure in utero is responsible for several complications of pregnancy and birth: pregnant women who smoke are at greater risk for both miscarriage and stillbirth and infants exposed to nicotine in utero tend to have lower birth weights. Some evidence suggests that in utero nicotine exposure influences the occurrence of certain conditions later in life, including type 2 diabetes, obesity, hypertension, neurobehavioral defects, respiratory dysfunction, and infertility.",
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"plaintext": "It is unlikely that a person would overdose on nicotine through smoking alone. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) stated in 2013 that there are no significant safety concerns associated with the use of more than one form of over-the-counter (OTC) nicotine replacement therapy at the same time, or using OTC NRT at the same time as another nicotine-containing product, like cigarettes. The median lethal dose of nicotine in humans is unknown. Nevertheless, nicotine has a relatively high toxicity in comparison to many other alkaloids such as caffeine, which has an LD50 of 127mg/kg when administered to mice. At sufficiently high doses, it is associated with nicotine poisoning, which, while common in children (in whom poisonous and lethal levels occur at lower doses per kilogram of body weight) rarely results in significant morbidity or death. The estimated lower dose limit for fatal outcomes is 500–1,000mg of ingested nicotine for an adult (6.5–13mg/kg).",
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"plaintext": "The initial symptoms of a nicotine overdose typically include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, hypersalivation, abdominal pain, tachycardia (rapid heart rate), hypertension (high blood pressure), tachypnea (rapid breathing), headache, dizziness, pallor (pale skin), auditory or visual disturbances, and perspiration, followed shortly after by marked bradycardia (slow heart rate), bradypnea (slow breathing), and hypotension (low blood pressure). Respiratory stimulation (i.e., tachypnea) is one of the primary signs of nicotine poisoning. At sufficiently high doses, somnolence (sleepiness or drowsiness), confusion, syncope (loss of consciousness from fainting), shortness of breath, marked weakness, seizures, and coma may occur. Lethal nicotine poisoning rapidly produces seizures, and death– which may occur within minutes– is believed to be due to respiratory paralysis.",
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"plaintext": "Today nicotine is less commonly used in agricultural insecticides, which was a main source of poisoning. More recent cases of poisoning typically appear to be in the form of Green Tobacco Sickness, accidental ingestion of tobacco or tobacco products, or ingestion of nicotine-containing plants. People who harvest or cultivate tobacco may experience Green Tobacco Sickness (GTS), a type of nicotine poisoning caused by dermal exposure to wet tobacco leaves. This occurs most commonly in young, inexperienced tobacco harvesters who do not consume tobacco. People can be exposed to nicotine in the workplace by breathing it in, skin absorption, swallowing it, or eye contact. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for nicotine exposure in the workplace as 0.5mg/m3 skin exposure over an 8-hour workday. The US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 0.5mg/m3 skin exposure over an 8-hour workday. At environmental levels of 5mg/m3, nicotine is immediately dangerous to life and health.",
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"plaintext": " Potential interaction with sympathomimetic drugs (adrenergic agonists) and sympatholytic drugs (alpha-blockers and beta-blockers).",
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"plaintext": "Nicotine and cigarette smoke both induce the expression of liver enzymes (e.g., certain cytochrome P450 proteins) which metabolize drugs, leading to the potential for alterations in drug metabolism.",
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"plaintext": " Smoking cessation may decrease the metabolism of acetaminophen, beta-blockers, caffeine, oxazepam, pentazocine, propoxyphene, theophylline, and tricyclic antidepressants, leading to higher plasma concentrations of these drugs.",
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"plaintext": " Possible alteration of nicotine absorption through the skin from the transdermal nicotine patch by drugs that cause vasodilation or vasoconstriction.",
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"plaintext": " Possible alteration of nicotine absorption through the nasal cavity from the nicotine nasal spray by nasal vasoconstrictors (e.g., xylometazoline).",
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"plaintext": " Possible alteration of nicotine absorption through oral mucosa from nicotine gum and lozenges by food and drink that modify salivary pH.",
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"plaintext": "Nicotine acts as a receptor agonist at most nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), except at two nicotinic receptor subunits (nAChRα9 and nAChRα10) where it acts as a receptor antagonist. Such antagonism results in mild analgesia.",
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"plaintext": "By binding to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the brain, nicotine elicits its psychoactive effects and increases the levels of several neurotransmitters in various brain structures– acting as a sort of \"volume control\". Nicotine has a higher affinity for nicotinic receptors in the brain than those in skeletal muscle, though at toxic doses it can induce contractions and respiratory paralysis. Nicotine's selectivity is thought to be due to a particular amino acid difference on these receptor subtypes. Nicotine is unusual in comparison to most drugs, as its profile changes from stimulant to sedative with increasing dosages, a phenomenon known as \"Nesbitt's paradox\" after the doctor who first described it in 1969. At very high doses it dampens neuronal activity. Nicotine induces both behavioral stimulation and anxiety in animals. Research into nicotine's most predominant metabolite, cotinine, suggests that some of nicotine's psychoactive effects are mediated by cotinine.",
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"plaintext": "Nicotine activates nicotinic receptors (particularly α4β2 nicotinic receptors, but also α5 nAChRs) on neurons that innervate the ventral tegmental area and within the mesolimbic pathway where it appears to cause the release of dopamine. This nicotine-induced dopamine release occurs at least partially through activation of the cholinergic–dopaminergic reward link in the ventral tegmental area. Nicotine can modulate the firing rate of the ventral tegmental area neurons. Nicotine also appears to induce the release of endogenous opioids that activate opioid pathways in the reward system, since naltrexone– an opioid receptor antagonist– blocks nicotine self-administration. These actions are largely responsible for the strongly reinforcing effects of nicotine, which often occur in the absence of euphoria; however, mild euphoria from nicotine use can occur in some individuals. Chronic nicotine use inhibits class I and II histone deacetylases in the striatum, where this effect plays a role in nicotine addiction.",
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"plaintext": "Nicotine also activates the sympathetic nervous system, acting via splanchnic nerves to the adrenal medulla, stimulating the release of epinephrine. Acetylcholine released by preganglionic sympathetic fibers of these nerves acts on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, causing the release of epinephrine (and norepinephrine) into the bloodstream.",
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"plaintext": "By binding to ganglion type nicotinic receptors in the adrenal medulla, nicotine increases flow of adrenaline (epinephrine), a stimulating hormone and neurotransmitter. By binding to the receptors, it causes cell depolarization and an influx of calcium through voltage-gated calcium channels. Calcium triggers the exocytosis of chromaffin granules and thus the release of epinephrine (and norepinephrine) into the bloodstream. The release of epinephrine (adrenaline) causes an increase in heart rate, blood pressure and respiration, as well as higher blood glucose levels.",
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"plaintext": "As nicotine enters the body, it is distributed quickly through the bloodstream and crosses the blood–brain barrier reaching the brain within 10–20 seconds after inhalation. The elimination half-life of nicotine in the body is around two hours. Nicotine is primarily excreted in urine and urinary concentrations vary depending upon urine flow rate and urine pH.",
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"plaintext": "The amount of nicotine absorbed by the body from smoking can depend on many factors, including the types of tobacco, whether the smoke is inhaled, and whether a filter is used. However, it has been found that the nicotine yield of individual products has only a small effect (4.4%) on the blood concentration of nicotine, suggesting \"the assumed health advantage of switching to lower-tar and lower-nicotine cigarettes may be largely offset by the tendency of smokers to compensate by increasing inhalation\".",
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"plaintext": "Nicotine has a half-life of 1–2hours. Cotinine is an active metabolite of nicotine that remains in the blood with a half-life of 18–20hours, making it easier to analyze.",
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"plaintext": "Nicotine is metabolized in the liver by cytochrome P450 enzymes (mostly CYP2A6, and also by CYP2B6) and FMO3, which selectively metabolizes (S)-nicotine. A major metabolite is cotinine. Other primary metabolites include nicotine N'''-oxide, nornicotine, nicotine isomethonium ion, 2-hydroxynicotine and nicotine glucuronide. Under some conditions, other substances may be formed such as myosmine.",
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"plaintext": "Glucuronidation and oxidative metabolism of nicotine to cotinine are both inhibited by menthol, an additive to mentholated cigarettes, thus increasing the half-life of nicotine in vivo.",
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"plaintext": "Nicotine decreases hunger and food consumption. The majority of research shows that nicotine reduces body weight, but some researchers have found that nicotine may result in weight gain under specific types of eating habits in animal models. Nicotine effect on weight appears to result from nicotine's stimulation of α3β4 nAChR receptors located in the POMC neurons in the arcuate nucleus and subsequently the melanocortin system, especially the melanocortin-4 receptors on second-order neurons in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, thus modulating feeding inhibition. POMC neurons are a precursor of the melanocortin system, a critical regulator of body weight and peripheral tissue such as skin and hair.",
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"plaintext": "Nicotine is a hygroscopic, colorless to yellow-brown, oily liquid, that is readily soluble in alcohol, ether or light petroleum. It is miscible with water in its neutral amine base form between 60°C and 210°C. It is a dibasic nitrogenous base, having Kb1=1×10−6, Kb2=1×10−11. It readily forms ammonium salts with acids that are usually solid and water-soluble. Its flash point is 95°C and its auto-ignition temperature is 244°C. Nicotine is readily volatile (vapor pressure 5.5 Pa at 25 °C) On exposure to ultraviolet light or various oxidizing agents, nicotine is converted to nicotine oxide, nicotinic acid (niacin, vitamin B3), and methylamine.",
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"plaintext": "Nicotine is chiral and hence optically active, having two enantiomeric forms. The naturally occurring form of nicotine is levorotatory with a specific rotation of [α]D=–166.4° ((−)-nicotine). The dextrorotatory form, (+)-nicotine is physiologically less active than (−)-nicotine. (−)-nicotine is more toxic than (+)-nicotine. The salts of (−)-nicotine are usually dextrorotatory; this conversion between levorotatory and dextrorotatory upon protonation is common among alkaloids. The hydrochloride and sulfate salts become optically inactive if heated in a closed vessel above 180°C. Anabasine is a structural isomer of nicotine, as both compounds have the molecular formula . ",
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"plaintext": "Pod mod electronic cigarettes use nicotine in the form of a protonated nicotine, rather than free-base nicotine found in earlier generations.",
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"plaintext": "The first laboratory preparation of nicotine (as its racemate) was described in 1904.",
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"plaintext": "The starting material was an N-substituted pyrrole derivative, which was heated to convert it by a [1,5] sigmatropic shift to the isomer with a carbon bond between the pyrrole and pyridine rings, followed by methylation and selective reduction of the pyrrole ring using tin and hydrochloric acid. Many other syntheses of nicotine, in both racemic and chiral forms have since been published.",
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"plaintext": "The biosynthetic pathway of nicotine involves a coupling reaction between the two cyclic structures that comprise nicotine. Metabolic studies show that the pyridine ring of nicotine is derived from niacin (nicotinic acid) while the pyrrolidine is derived from N-methyl-Δ1-pyrrollidium cation. Biosynthesis of the two component structures proceeds via two independent syntheses, the NAD pathway for niacin and the tropane pathway for N-methyl-Δ1-pyrrollidium cation.",
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"plaintext": "The NAD pathway in the genus Nicotiana begins with the oxidation of aspartic acid into α-imino succinate by aspartate oxidase (AO). This is followed by a condensation with glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and a cyclization catalyzed by quinolinate synthase (QS) to give quinolinic acid. Quinolinic acid then reacts with phosphoriboxyl pyrophosphate catalyzed by quinolinic acid phosphoribosyl transferase (QPT) to form niacin mononucleotide (NaMN). The reaction now proceeds via the NAD salvage cycle to produce niacin via the conversion of nicotinamide by the enzyme nicotinamidase.",
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"plaintext": "The N-methyl-Δ1-pyrrollidium cation used in the synthesis of nicotine is an intermediate in the synthesis of tropane-derived alkaloids. Biosynthesis begins with decarboxylation of ornithine by ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) to produce putrescine. Putrescine is then converted into N-methyl putrescine via methylation by SAM catalyzed by putrescine N-methyltransferase (PMT). N-methylputrescine then undergoes deamination into 4-methylaminobutanal by the N-methylputrescine oxidase (MPO) enzyme, 4-methylaminobutanal then spontaneously cyclize into N-methyl-Δ1-pyrrollidium cation.",
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"plaintext": "The final step in the synthesis of nicotine is the coupling between N-methyl-Δ1-pyrrollidium cation and niacin. Although studies conclude some form of coupling between the two component structures, the definite process and mechanism remains undetermined. The current agreed theory involves the conversion of niacin into 2,5-dihydropyridine through 3,6-dihydronicotinic acid. The 2,5-dihydropyridine intermediate would then react with N-methyl-Δ1-pyrrollidium cation to form enantiomerically pure (−)-nicotine.",
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"plaintext": "Nicotine can be quantified in blood, plasma, or urine to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning or to facilitate a medicolegal death investigation. Urinary or salivary cotinine concentrations are frequently measured for the purposes of pre-employment and health insurance medical screening programs. Careful interpretation of results is important, since passive exposure to cigarette smoke can result in significant accumulation of nicotine, followed by the appearance of its metabolites in various body fluids. Nicotine use is not regulated in competitive sports programs.",
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"plaintext": "Nicotine is a secondary metabolite produced in a variety of plants in the family Solanaceae, most notably in tobacco Nicotiana tabacum, where it can be found at high concentrations of 0.5 to 7.5%. Nicotine is also found in the leaves of other tobacco species, such as Nicotiana rustica (in amounts of 2–14%). Nicotine production is strongly induced in response to wounding as part of a jasmonate-dependent reaction. Specialist insects on tobacco, such as the tobacco hornworm (Manduca sexta), have a number of adaptations to the detoxification and even adaptive re-purposing of nicotine. Nicotine is also found at low concentrations in the nectar of tobacco plants, where it may promote outcrossing by affecting the behavior of hummingbird pollinators.",
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"plaintext": "Nicotine occurs in smaller amounts (varying from 2–7μg/kg, or 20–70 millionths of a percent wet weight) in other Solanaceaeous plants, including some crop species such as potatoes, tomatoes, eggplant, and peppers, as well as non-crop species such as Duboisia hopwoodii. The amounts of nicotine in tomatoes lowers substantially as the fruit ripens. A 1999 report found \"In some papers it is suggested that the contribution of dietary nicotine intake is significant when compared with exposure to ETS [environmental tobacco smoke] or by active smoking of small numbers of cigarettes. Others consider the dietary intake to be negligible unless inordinately large amounts of specific vegetables are consumed.\" The amount of nicotine eaten per day is roughly around 1.4 and 2.25μg/day at the 95th percentile. These numbers may be low due to insufficient food intake data. The concentrations of nicotine in vegetables are difficult to measure accurately, since they are very low (parts per billion range).",
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"plaintext": "Nicotine was originally isolated from the tobacco plant in 1828 by chemists Wilhelm Heinrich Posselt and Karl Ludwig Reimann from Germany, who believed it was a poison. Its chemical empirical formula was described by Melsens in 1843, its structure was discovered by Adolf Pinner and Richard Wolffenstein in 1893, and it was first synthesized by Amé Pictet and A. Rotschy in 1904.",
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"plaintext": "Nicotine is named after the tobacco plant Nicotiana tabacum, which in turn is named after the French ambassador in Portugal, Jean Nicot de Villemain, who sent tobacco and seeds to Paris in 1560, presented to the French King, and who promoted their medicinal use. Smoking was believed to protect against illness, particularly the plague.",
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"plaintext": "Tobacco was introduced to Europe in 1559, and by the late 17th century, it was used not only for smoking but also as an insecticide. After World War II, over 2,500 tons of nicotine insecticide were used worldwide, but by the 1980s the use of nicotine insecticide had declined below 200 tons. This was due to the availability of other insecticides that are cheaper and less harmful to mammals.",
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"plaintext": "The nicotine content of popular American-brand cigarettes has increased over time, and one study found that there was an average increase of 1.78% per year between the years of 1998 and 2005.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, nicotine products and Nicotine Replacement Therapy products like Nicotrol are only available to persons 21 and above; proof of age is required; not for sale in vending machine or from any source where proof of age cannot be verified. In some states, these products are only available to persons over the age of 21. Many states in the US have implemented a Tobacco 21 law for tobacco products, raising the minimum age from 18 to 21. As of 2019, the minimum age to use tobacco is 21 at the federal level.",
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"plaintext": "In the European Union, the minimum age to purchase nicotine products is 18. However, there is no minimum age requirement to use tobacco or nicotine products.",
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"plaintext": "In some anti-smoking literature, the harm that tobacco smoking and nicotine addiction does is personified as Nick O'Teen, represented as a humanoid with some aspect of a cigarette or cigarette butt about him or his clothes and hat. Nick O'Teen was a villain that was created for the Health Education Council.",
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"plaintext": "Nicotine was often compared to caffeine in advertisements in the 1980s by the tobacco industry, and later in the 2010s by the electronic cigarettes industry, in an effort to reduce the stigmatization and the public perception of the risks associated with nicotine use.",
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"plaintext": "While acute/initial nicotine intake causes activation of neuronal nicotine receptors, chronic low doses of nicotine use leads to desensitization of those receptors (due to the development of tolerance) and results in an antidepressant effect, with early research showing low dose nicotine patches could be an effective treatment of major depressive disorder in non-smokers.",
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"plaintext": "Though tobacco smoking is associated with an increased risk of Alzheimer's disease, there is evidence that nicotine itself has the potential to prevent and treat Alzheimer's disease.",
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"plaintext": "Smoking is associated with a decreased risk of Parkinson's Disease; however, it is unknown whether this is due to people with healthier brain dopaminergic reward centers (the area of the brain affected by Parkinson's) being more likely to enjoy smoking and thus pick up the habit, nicotine directly acting as a neuroprotective agent, or other compounds in cigarette smoke acting as neuroprotective agents.",
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"plaintext": "Immune cells of both the Innate immune system and adaptive immune systems frequently express the α2, α5, α6, α7, α9, and α10 subunits of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Evidence suggests that nicotinic receptors which contain these subunits are involved in the regulation of immune function.",
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"plaintext": "A photoactivatable form of nicotine, which releases nicotine when exposed to ultraviolet light with certain conditions, has been developed for studying nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in brain tissue.",
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"plaintext": "Several in vitro studies have investigated the potential effects of nicotine on a range of oral cells. A recent systematic review concluded that nicotine was unlikely to be cytotoxic to oral cells in vitro'' in most physiological conditions but further research is needed. Understanding the potential role of nicotine in oral health has become increasingly important given the recent introduction of novel nicotine products and their potential role in helping smokers quit.",
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"plaintext": " 6-Chloronicotine",
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"plaintext": " Nicotine marketing",
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"plaintext": " Toxicology monograph for Nicotine from the Hazardous Substances Data Bank",
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"plaintext": " Chemical Hazards monograph for Nicotine from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health",
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"plaintext": " Laboratory Chemical Safety Summary for Nicotine from PubChem",
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38,273 | 1,096,423,842 | Turbo_Pascal | [
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"plaintext": "Turbo Pascal is a software development system that includes a compiler and an integrated development environment (IDE) for the Pascal programming language running on CP/M, CP/M-86, and DOS. It was originally developed by Anders Hejlsberg at Borland, and was notable for its extremely fast compiling times. Turbo Pascal, and the later but similar Turbo C, made Borland a leader in PC-based development.",
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"plaintext": "For versions 6 and 7 (last), both a lower-priced Turbo Pascal and more expensive Borland Pascal were produced; Borland Pascal was more oriented toward professional software development, with more libraries and standard library source code. The name Borland Pascal is also used more generically for Borland's dialect of the Pascal programming language, significantly different from Standard Pascal.",
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"plaintext": "Borland has released three old versions of Turbo Pascal free of charge because of their historical interest: the original Turbo Pascal (now known as 1.0), and versions 3.02 and 5.5 for DOS.",
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"plaintext": "Philippe Kahn first saw an opportunity for Borland, his newly formed software company, in the field of programming tools. Historically, the vast majority of programmers saw their workflow in terms of the edit/compile/link cycle, with separate tools dedicated to each task. Programmers wrote source code using a text editor; the source code was then compiled into object code (often requiring multiple passes), and a linker combined object code with runtime libraries to produce an executable program.",
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"plaintext": "In the early IBM PC market (1981–1983) the major programming tool vendors all made compilers that worked in a similar fashion. For example, the Microsoft Pascal system consisted of two compiler passes and a final linking pass (which could take minutes on systems with only floppy disks for secondary storage, although programs were very much smaller than they are today). This process was less resource-intensive than the later integrated development environment (IDE). Vendors of software development tools aimed their products at professional developers, and the price for these basic tools plus ancillary tools like profilers ran into the hundreds of dollars.",
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"plaintext": "Kahn's idea was to package all these functions in an integrated programming toolkit designed to have much better performance and resource utilisation than the usual professional development tools, and charge a low price for a package integrating a custom text editor, compiler, and all functionality need to produce executable programs. The program was sold by direct mail order for $49.95, without going through established sales channels (retailers or resellers).",
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"plaintext": "The Turbo Pascal compiler was based on the Blue Label Pascal compiler originally produced for the NasSys cassette-based operating system of the Nascom microcomputer in 1981 by Anders Hejlsberg. Borland licensed Hejlsberg's \"PolyPascal\" compiler core (Poly Data was the name of Hejlsberg's company in Denmark), and added the user interface and editor. Anders Hejlsberg joined the company as an employee and was the architect for all versions of the Turbo Pascal compiler and the first three versions of Borland Delphi.",
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"plaintext": "The compiler was first released as Compas Pascal for CP/M, and then released on 20 November 1983 as Turbo Pascal for CP/M (including the Apple II computer when fitted with a Z-80 SoftCard, effectively converting the 6502-based Apple into a CP/M machine, the Commodore 64 with CP/M cartridge, and the later DEC Rainbow), CP/M-86, and DOS machines. On its launch in the United States market, Turbo Pascal retailed for USD49.99, a very low price for a compiler at the time. The integrated Pascal compiler was of good quality compared to other Pascal products of the time.",
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"plaintext": "The Turbo name alluded to the speed of compiling and of the executables produced. The edit/compile/run cycle was fast compared to other Pascal implementations because everything related to building the program was stored in RAM, and because it was a one-pass compiler written in assembly language. Compiling was much faster than compilers for other languages (even Borland's own later compilers for C), and other Pascal compilers, and programmer time was also saved since the program could be compiled and run from the IDE. The execution speed of these COM-format programs was a revelation for developers whose only prior experience programming microcomputers was with interpreted BASIC or UCSD Pascal, which compiled to p-code which was then interpreted at runtime.",
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"plaintext": "Unlike some other development tools, Turbo Pascal disks had no copy protection. Turbo Pascal came with the \"Book License\": \"You must treat this software just like a book ... [it] may be used by any number of people ... may be freely moved from one computer location to another, so long as there is no possibility of it being used at one location while it's being used at another.\"",
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"plaintext": "Jerry Pournelle of Byte magazine wrote in February 1984 that Turbo Pascal \"comes close to what I think the computer industry is headed for: well documented, standard, plenty of good features, and a reasonable price\". Pournelle disliked the requirement to buy another license to distribute binaries, but noted that \"it turns out not to be a lot more. Borland only wants another $100\" more than the $49.95 base price, and that \"my first impression of Turbo is that it's probably worth $149.95. It looks to do everything MT+ with the Speed Programming Package does, and maybe even do it faster and better\". He reported in July that, according to Kahn, IBM had refused to resell Turbo Pascal unless the price was at least $200; Pournelle noted that \"Turbo is much better than the Pascal IBM sells\", and unlike the latter was compatible with the IBM PCjr. Three Byte reviewers praised Turbo Pascal in the same issue. One called the DOS version \"without doubt, the best software value I have ever purchased\", and another called the CP/M version \"an excellent product ... [Borland] deserves praise for this high-value product\". The third stated that it was \"not a good compiler for developing massive applications\", but added that it was greatly superior to BASIC, the programming language usually associated with home computers at the time. He concluded that Turbo Pascal was \"a bargain that shouldn't be passed up\".",
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"plaintext": "Despite finding what it described as \"a serious bug\" in version 3.0, and decreased compatibility with PC clones, the magazine in February 1986 stated that \"it is hard to avoid recommending Turbo to anyone who wants to program in Pascal\", citing improved speed and graphic routines. When reviewing four other Pascal compilers in December 1986, Byte described Turbo Pascal as \"practical and attractive to programmers at all levels of expertise\". Bruce Webster also praised the language in the magazine, stating in August 1985 that Turbo Pascal \"is best known for its small size, incredible compile speeds, and fast execution times\". He noted that the software's quality and low price had been especially surprising after the \"JRT Pascal fiasco\", and stated that even at the new higher $69.95 price, version 3.0 was \"probably still the best software deal on the market\".",
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"plaintext": "PC Magazine was similarly complimentary in November 1984, stating that \"nothing like Turbo Pascal has ever existed for PC-DOS before\". It praised the software's low price, speed, unusually good documentation for a compiler, and noted the existence of many utilities from other companies that hoped to benefit from Turbo Pascal's popularity. The review stated that the IDE that simplified the edit-compile-run-debug loop made Turbo Pascal accessible to new programmers like BASIC.",
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"plaintext": "Byte in 1989 listed Turbo C and Turbo Pascal as among the \"Distinction\" winners of the Byte Awards. Citing their user interface and continued emphasis on speed, the magazine stated that \"for rapid prototyping there's not much better\". In the same issue Pournelle again praised version 4.0 and 5.0 of Turbo Pascal. Citing Anacreon as \"a good example of how complex a program you can write in Pascal\", and the many libraries available from Borland and other developers, he wrote, \"I am more and more convinced that Turbo Pascal is the programming language of choice for people who are more interested in what they want the machine to do than in how to make that happen. Turbo Pascal may be neither as elegant nor as portable as C, but it's sure less obscure. I think it may well be the language for the rest of us\".",
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"plaintext": "Borland sold about 250,000 copies of Turbo Pascal in two years, which Webster described as \"an amazing figure for a computer language\". He reported six months later that the figure had risen to \"more than 400,000 copies in a marketplace that had been estimated as having only 30,000 potential buyers\".",
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"plaintext": "Bill Gates saw the success of Turbo Pascal in very personal terms, and \"couldn't understand why [Microsoft's] stuff was so slow. He would bring in Greg Whitten [programming director of Microsoft languages] and yell at him for half an hour\". He could not understand why Kahn had been able to beat an established competitor like Microsoft.\"",
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"plaintext": "By 1995 Borland had dropped Turbo/Borland Pascal and replaced it with the rapid application development (RAD) environment Borland Delphi, based on Object Pascal. The 32- and 64-bit Delphi versions still support the more portable Pascal enhancements of the earlier products (i.e. those that are not specific to 16-bit code) including the earlier static object model. This language backwards compatibility means much old Turbo Pascal code can still be compiled and run in a modern environment today.",
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"plaintext": "Other suppliers have produced software development tools compatible with Turbo Pascal. The best-known are Free Pascal and Virtual Pascal.",
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"plaintext": " Pascal is not case-sensitive.",
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"plaintext": " Historically, Pascal comments are enclosed , or , and these can span any number of lines. Later versions of Borland Pascal also supported C++-style comments , which finish at the end of the line.",
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"plaintext": " The syntax for the statement is more flexible than standard Pascal.",
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"plaintext": " Sets may only have up to 256 (28) members.",
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"plaintext": " The standard Pascal preceded by a length byte is supported, and takes a fixed amount of storage; later versions added a more flexible null-terminated type, calling the older type \"short string\". Older source code which handles strings in non-standard ways (e.g., directly manipulating the length byte like to truncate a string) must either have its strings declared as short strings, or be rewritten.",
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"plaintext": "This is the classic Hello world program in Turbo Pascal:",
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"plaintext": "This asks for a name and writes it back to the screen a hundred times:",
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"plaintext": "While all versions of Turbo Pascal could include inline machine code, starting with version 6 it was possible to integrate assembly language within Pascal source code.",
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"plaintext": "Support for the various 8086 memory models was provided by inline assembly, compiler options, and language extensions such as the \"absolute\" keyword. The Turbo Assembler, TASM, a standard x86 assembler independent of TP, and source-compatible with the widely used Microsoft Macro Assembler MASM, was supplied with the enhanced \"Borland Pascal\" versions.",
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"plaintext": "The IDE provided several debugging facilities, including single stepping, examination and changing of variables, and conditional breakpoints. In later versions assembly-language blocks could be stepped through. The user could add breakpoints on variables and registers in an IDE window. Programs using IBM PC graphics mode could flip between graphics and text mode automatically or manually, or display both on two screens. For cases where the relatively simple debugging facilities of the IDE were insufficient, Turbopower Software produced a more powerful debugger, T-Debug. The same company produced Turbo Analyst and Overlay Manager for Turbo Pascal. T-Debug was later updated for Turbo Pascal 4, but discontinued with the release of Borland's Turbo Debugger (TD), which also allowed some hardware intervention on computers equipped with the new 80386 processor.",
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"plaintext": "TD was usually supplied in conjunction with the Turbo Assembler and the Turbo Profiler, a code profiler that reported on the time spent in each part of the program to assist program optimisation by finding bottlenecks. The books included with Borland Pascal had detailed descriptions of the Intel assembler language, including the number of clock cycles required by each instruction. Development and debugging could be carried out entirely within the IDE unless the advanced debugging facilities of Turbopower T-Debug, and later TD, were required.",
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"plaintext": "Later versions also supported remote debugging via an RS-232 communication cable.",
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"plaintext": "Over the years, Borland enhanced not only the IDE, but also extended the programming language. A development system based on ISO standard Pascal requires implementation-specific extensions for the development of real-world applications on the platforms they target. Standard Pascal is designed to be platform-independent, so prescribes no low-level access to hardware- or operating system-dependent facilities. Standard Pascal also does not prescribe how a large program should be split into separate compilation units. From version 4, Turbo Pascal adopted the concept of units from UCSD Pascal. Units were used as external function libraries, like the object files used in other languages such as FORTRAN or C.",
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"plaintext": "For example, the line in a program included the unit called crt; the is the mechanism for using other compilation units. and were the keywords used to specify, within the unit, what was (and what was not) visible outside the unit. This is similar to the and keywords in other languages such as C++ and Java.",
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"plaintext": "Units in Borland's Pascal were similar to Modula-2's separate compilation system. In 1987, when Turbo Pascal 4 was released, Modula-2 was making inroads as an educational language which could replace Pascal. Borland, in fact, had a Turbo Modula-2 compiler, but only released it on CP/M (its user interface was almost identical to that of Turbo Pascal 1–3) with little marketing. A much improved DOS version was developed, but as Borland was unwilling to publish the results itself, the authors including Niels Jensen bought the rights and formed Jensen & Partners International to publish it as JPI TopSpeed Modula-2. Instead Borland chose to implement separate compilation in their established Pascal product.",
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"plaintext": "Separate compilation was not part of the standard Pascal language, but was already available in UCSD Pascal, which was very popular on 8-bit machines. Turbo Pascal syntax for units appears to have been borrowed from UCSD Pascal. Earlier versions of Turbo Pascal, designed for computers with limited resources, supported a \"chain and execute\" system of dynamic linking for separately compiled objects, similar to the system widely used in BASIC. Also, the language had a statement to include separate source code in a program when necessary, and overlaying was supported from TP3, but, as with overlays, chained objects had to fit into the original (limited) program memory space. As computing and storage facilities advanced, the ability to generate large EXE files was added to Turbo Pascal, with the ability to statically link and collectively load separately compiled objects.",
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"plaintext": "The .TPU files output by compiling a Turbo Pascal unit are tightly linked to the internal structures of the compiler, rather than standard .OBJ linkable files. This improved compilation and linkage times, but meant that .TPU files could not be linked with the output of other languages or even used with different releases of Turbo Pascal unless recompiled from source.",
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"plaintext": "From version 5.5 some object-oriented programming features were introduced: classes, inheritance, constructors and destructors. The IDE was already augmented with an object browser interface showing relations between objects and methods and allowing programmers to navigate the modules easily. Borland called its language Object Pascal, which was greatly extended to become the language underlying Delphi (which has two separate OOP systems).",
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"plaintext": "The name \"Object Pascal\" originated with the Pascal extensions developed by Apple Inc. to program its Lisa and Macintosh computers. Pascal originator Niklaus Wirth consulted in developing these extensions, which built upon the record type already present in Pascal.",
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"plaintext": "Several versions of Turbo Pascal, including the latest version 7, include a CRT unit used by many fullscreen text mode applications. This unit contains code in its initialization section to determine the CPU speed and calibrate delay loops. This code fails on processors with a speed greater than about 200MHz and aborts immediately with a \"Runtime Error 200\" message. (the error code 200 had nothing to do with the CPU speed 200MHz). This is caused because a loop runs to count the number of times it can iterate in a fixed time, as measured by the real-time clock. When Turbo Pascal was developed it ran on machines with CPUs running at 2.5 to 8MHz, and little thought was given to the possibility of vastly higher speeds, so from about 200MHz enough iterations can be run to overflow the 16-bit counter. A patch was produced when machines became too fast for the original method, but failed as processor speeds increased yet further, and was superseded by others.",
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"plaintext": "Programs subject to this error can be recompiled from source code with a compiler patched to eliminate the error (using a TURBO.TPL itself compiled with a corrected CRT unit) or, if source code is not available, executables can be patched by a tool named TPPATCH or equivalent, or by loading a Terminate and Stay Resident program loaded before running the faulty program.",
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"plaintext": "There are also patches to the TP7 compiler itself, thus if the Pascal source is available, a new compilation's code will work without the compiled code having to be patched. If the source code is available, porting to libraries without CPU clock speed dependency is a solution too.",
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"plaintext": "There were several floating point types, including (the 4-byte [IEEE 754] representation) (the 8-byte IEEE 754 representation), (a 10-byte IEEE 754 representation used mostly internally by numeric coprocessors) and (a 6-byte representation).",
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"plaintext": "In addition to standard executable programs, the compiler could generate Terminate and Stay Resident (TSR) programs, small utilities that stayed in memory and let the computer do other tasks—running several programs at the same time, multitasking, was not otherwise available. Borland itself produced a small application suite called Sidekick that was a TSR letting the user keep a diary, notes, and so forth.",
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"plaintext": "Version 2, released a few months later on 17 April 1984, was an incremental improvement to the original Turbo Pascal, to the point that the reference manual was at first identical to version 1's, down to having 1983 as the copyright date on some of the compiler's sample output, but had a separate \"Addendum to Reference Manual: Version 2.0 and 8087 Supplement\" manual with separate page numbering. Additions included an overlay system, where separate overlay procedures would be automatically swapped from disk into a reserved space in memory. This memory was part of the 64kB RAM used by the program's code, and was automatically the size of the largest overlay procedure. Overlay procedures could include overlay sections themselves, but unless a RAM disk was used, the resulting disk swapping could be slow. 2.0 also added the Dispose procedure to manage the heap, allowing individual dynamic variables to be freed, as an alternative to the more primitive 'Mark/Release' system. and increased compatibility with WordStar commands plus use of the numeric keypad on the IBM PC and compatibles. Such PCs also had new text window and CGA graphics mode commands, as well as being able to use the PC's speaker for tones. Finally, DOS and CP/M-86 machines with an 8087 maths coprocessor (or later compatible) had an alternative TURBO-87 compiler available to purchase. It supported the 8087's long real data types with a range of 1.67E-307 to 1.67E+308 to 14 significant figure precision but with a much greater processing speed. The manual notes that although source code for the Turbo Pascal's software real data types offering a range of 1E-63 to 1E+63 to 11 significant figures, these were incompatible at a binary level: as well as having a much larger range, the software reals took six bytes in memory and the 8087 ones were eight.",
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"plaintext": "Version 3 was released on 17 September 1986. Turbo Pascal 3 supported turtle graphics. In addition to the default software real numbers and 8087 edition of the compiler, Borland also offered a BCD version (TURBOBCD) which offered the same numeric range as real data types but to 18 significant figures.",
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"plaintext": "Released on 20 November 1987, Version 4 was a total rewrite, with both look and feel and internal operation much changed. The compiler generated executables in .EXE format under DOS, rather than the simpler but more restricted .COM executables. The by-then-obsolete CP/M and CP/M-86 operating system versions were dropped when Turbo Pascal was rewritten. Version 4 introduced units, and a full-screen text user interface with pull-down menus; earlier versions had a text-based menu screen and a separate full-screen editor. (Microsoft Windows was still very experimental when the first version was released, and even mice were rare.) An add on package, the Turbo Pascal Graphix Toolbox, was available for Turbo Pascal V4.",
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"plaintext": "Colour displays were replacing monochrome; Turbo Pascal version 5.0, released 24 August 24, 1988, introduced blue as the editor's default background color, used by Borland's DOS compilers until the end of this product line in the mid-1990s. Later versions came in two packages with the same version number: a less expensive \"Turbo\" package, and a \"Borland\" package with enhanced capabilities and more add-ons.",
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"plaintext": "This version, released on 2 May 1989, introduced object-oriented programming features for the Pascal language, including concept of classes, static and dynamic objects, constructors and destructors and inheritance, which would become the basis for the Object Pascal found in Borland Delphi. The IDE uses the default blue colour scheme that would also be used on later Borland Turbo products. Other changes to IDE include the addition of a step-by-step debugger to the IDE, and context-sensitive help with description of all built-in functions, and the ability to copying code fragments from help to edit window.",
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"plaintext": "Two versions named \"Turbo Pascal for Windows\" (TPW), for Windows 3.x, were released: TPW 1.0, based on Turbo Pascal 6 but released about 2 years later, and 1.5, released after Turbo Pascal 7; they were succeeded by Borland Pascal 7, which had Windows support. The Windows compiler in Pascal 7 was titled Borland Pascal for Windows.",
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"plaintext": "Both versions built Windows-compatible programs, and featured a Windows-based IDE, as opposed to the DOS-based IDE in Turbo Pascal. The IDE and editor commands conformed to the Microsoft Windows user interface guidelines instead of the classic TP user interface. The support for Windows programs required the ObjectWindows library, similar but not identical to that for the first release of Borland C++, and radically different from the earlier DOS Turbo Vision environment. Turbo Pascal was superseded for the Windows platform by Delphi; the Delphi compiler can produce console programs and graphical user interface (GUI) applications, so that using Turbo and Borland Pascal became unnecessary.",
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"plaintext": "Borland released Turbo Pascal for Macintosh in 1986. Much like versions 1 to 3 for other operating systems, it was written in compact assembly language and had a very powerful IDE, but no good debugger. Borland did not support this product very well, although they issued a version 1.1, patched to run on the 32-bit Macintosh II. Macintosh support was dropped soon after.",
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"plaintext": "Borland released several versions of Turbo Pascal as freeware after they became \"antique software\" (abandonware), with 1.0 for DOS on 1 February 2000, 3.02 on 10 February 2000, 5.5 on 21 February 2002, Turbo Pascal 7.01 French version in year 2000. Most of the downloads are still available on the successor website of Embarcadero Technologies.",
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"plaintext": "Borland Pascal is still taught in some countries at secondary, sixth form and university levels. It is taught at colleges and universities in Costa Rica, Turkey, Iraq, Germany, Russian Federation, USA and at secondary schools in Argentina, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Costa Rica, Croatia, France, Hungary, Italy, Jamaica, Libya, Moldova, Romania, Serbia, Tunisia, Ukraine, Czech republic and Vietnam. It was the state-approved educational programming language for all South African secondary schools until 2002. Today it continues to be taught in some universities around the world as an introduction to computer programming, usually advancing to C or Java or both. ",
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"plaintext": "Some lecturers prefer to use Borland Pascal 7 or Turbo Pascal 5.5 because of its simplicity in comparison to more modern IDEs such as Microsoft Visual Studio or Borland JBuilder, so it introduces students unfamiliar with computing to common tasks such as using the keyboard and keyboard shortcuts (TP 5.5 has no mouse support), familiarises them with DOS commands (which are largely the same as those of Microsoft Windows's command prompt), and lets them write programs without spending a lot of effort on getting the environment to work. TP 5.5 is available as a free download from Borland.",
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38,274 | 1,107,068,040 | Enoch_Powell | [
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"plaintext": "John Enoch Powell (16 June 1912 – 8 February 1998) was a British politician, classical scholar, author, linguist, soldier, philologist, and poet. He served as a Conservative Member of Parliament (1950–1974) and was Minister of Health (1960–1963) then Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) MP (1974–1987).",
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"plaintext": "Before entering politics, Powell was a classical scholar. During World War II, he served in both staff and intelligence positions, reaching the rank of brigadier. He also wrote poetry, and many books on classical and political subjects.",
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"plaintext": "Powell attracted widespread attention for his \"Rivers of Blood\" speech, delivered on 20 April 1968 to the General Meeting of the West Midlands Area Conservative Political Centre. In it, Powell criticised the rates of immigration into the UK, especially from the New Commonwealth, and opposed the anti-discrimination legislation Race Relations Bill. The speech drew sharp criticism from Powell's own party members and the press, and Conservative Party leader Edward Heath removed Powell from his position as Shadow Defence Secretary.",
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"plaintext": "In the aftermath of the speech, several polls suggested that 67 to 82 per cent of the UK population agreed with Powell's opinions. His supporters claimed that the large public following that Powell attracted helped the Conservatives to win the 1970 general election, and perhaps cost them the February 1974 general election, when Powell turned his back on the Conservatives by endorsing a vote for Labour, which returned as a minority government. Powell was returned to the House of Commons in October 1974 as the Ulster Unionist Party MP for the Northern Ireland constituency of South Down. He represented the constituency until he was defeated at the 1987 general election.",
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"plaintext": "John Enoch Powell was born in Stechford, Worcestershire, within the city of Birmingham, on 16 June 1912, and was baptized at Newport, Shropshire, in the church where his parents had married in 1909. He was the only child of Albert Enoch Powell (1872–1956), a primary school headmaster, and his wife, Ellen Mary (1886–1953). Ellen was the daughter of Henry Breese, a Liverpool policeman, and his wife Eliza, who had been a teacher. His mother did not like his name, and as a child he was known as \"Jack\". At the age of three, Powell was nicknamed \"the Professor\" because he used to stand on a chair and describe the stuffed birds his grandfather had shot, which were displayed in his parents' home. In 1918, the family moved to Kings Norton, Birmingham, where Powell remained until 1930.",
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"plaintext": "Powell read avidly from a young age; as early as three he could \"read reasonably well\". Though not wealthy, the Powells were financially comfortable, and their home included a library. By the age of six Powell was addicted to reading, predominantly history books. Powell's Toryism and regard for institutions was formed at an early age: around this time his parents took him to Caernarfon Castle and he removed his cap when he entered one of the rooms. His father asked him why, to which Powell replied that it was the room where the first Prince of Wales had been born. Every Sunday Powell would give lectures to his parents on the books he had read and he would also conduct evensong and preach a sermon. Once he was old enough to go out on his own, Powell would walk around rural Worcestershire with the aid of Ordnance Survey maps, which instilled in him a love for landscape and cartography.",
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"plaintext": "Powell attended a dame school run by a friend of his mother's until he was eleven. He was then a pupil for three years at King's Norton Grammar School for Boys before he won a scholarship to King Edward's School, Birmingham in 1925, aged thirteen. The legacy of the First World War loomed large for Powell: almost all his teachers had fought in the war, and some of the pupils who had scratched their names on the desks had subsequently died in the conflict. Powell also read books on the war, which helped form his opinion that Britain and Germany would fight again.",
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"plaintext": "The head of classics at the school saw that Powell had an interest in the subject and agreed to transfer him to the classics side of the school. Powell's mother taught him Greek in just over two weeks during the Christmas break in 1925 and by the time he started the next term he had attained fluency in Greek that most pupils would reach after two years. Within two terms Powell was top of the classics form. His classmate Christopher Evans recalled that Powell was \"austere\" and \"really unlike any schoolboy one had known ... He was quite a phenomenon\". Another contemporary, Denis Hills, later said that Powell \"carried an armful of books (Greek texts?) and kept to himself ... he was reputed to be cleverer than any of the masters\". Powell won all three of the school's classics prizes (in Thucydides, Herodotus and Divinity) in the fifth form, two or three years younger than anyone else had won them. He also began to translate Herodotus' Histories and completed the translation of the first part when he was fourteen. He entered the sixth form two years before his classmates and was remembered as a hard-working student; his contemporary Roy Lewis recalled that \"we thought that the masters were afraid of him\". Powell also won a medal in gymnastics and gained a proficiency in the clarinet. He contemplated studying at the Royal Academy of Music but his parents persuaded him to try for a scholarship at Cambridge. Duggie Smith, Powell's form-master in the lower classical sixth and his principal classics master in the upper sixth, recalled in 1952: \"Of all my pupils, he always insisted on the highest standards of accuracy and knowledge in those who taught him ... He was a pupil from whom I learnt more than most\".",
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"plaintext": "It was during his time at sixth form that Powell learned German and began reading German books, which would influence his move towards atheism. Aged thirteen he also read James George Frazer's The Golden Bough and Thomas Carlyle's Sartor Resartus, which led him towards Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Friedrich Nietzsche. During the last four years at King Edward's School he was top of his form and won a number of prizes in Greek and Divinity. In 1929 he was awarded the Higher School Certificate with a distinction in Latin, Greek and ancient history, and won the school's Lee Divinity Prize for an essay on the New Testament after having memorised St Paul's Epistle to the Galatians in Greek. Powell also won the Badger Prize for English Literature twice and the Lightfoot Thucydides Prize.",
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"plaintext": "In December 1929, aged seventeen, he sat the classics scholarship paper at Trinity College, Cambridge and won the top award. Sir Ronald Melville, who sat the exams at the same time, recalled that \"the exams mostly lasted three hours. Powell left the room halfway through each of them\". Powell later told Melville that in one-and-a-half hours on the Greek paper, he translated the text into Thucydides' style of Greek and then in the style of Herodotus. For another paper, Powell also had to translate a passage from Bede, which he did into Platonic Greek. In the remaining time, Powell later remembered, \"I tore it up and translated it again into Herodotean Greek – Ionic Greek – (which I had never written before) and then, still having time to spare, I proceeded to annotate it\".",
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"plaintext": "He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, from 1930 to 1933. Powell became almost a recluse and devoted his time to studying: on days without lectures or supervisions, he would read from 5.30 in the morning until 9.30 at night. Granta called him \"The Hermit of Trinity\". He later said \"I thought the only thing to do was to work. I thought that was what I was going to Cambridge for, because I never knew of anything else\". At the age of eighteen his first paper to a classical journal was published (in German) to the Philologische Wochenschrift, on a line of Herodotus. While studying at Cambridge, Powell became aware that there was another classicist who signed his name as \"John U. Powell\". Powell decided to use his middle name and from that moment referred to himself as \"Enoch Powell\". Powell won the Craven scholarship at the beginning of his second term in January 1931, the second time since the scholarship was established in 1647 that a freshman had won it.",
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"plaintext": "It was at Cambridge that Powell fell under the influence of the poet A. E. Housman, then Professor of Latin at the university. He attended Housman's lectures during his second year in 1931 and later recalled that he was \"gripped by the spectacle of that rigorous intellect dissecting remorselessly the textual deformation of poetry which his sensitivity would not permit him to read without betraying his emotions\"; it was Housman's \"ruthless and fearless logic with which he dissected the text\" in an atmosphere of \"suppressed emotion\" that impressed him. Powell also admired Housman's lectures on Lucretius, Horace, Virgil and Catullus. Powell sent him a correction of Virgil's Aeneid and received the reply: \"Dear Mr Powell. You analyse the difficulties of the passage correctly, and your emendation removes them. Yours sincerely, A. E. Housman\". In later life Powell claimed that \"no praise in the next forty years was ever to be so intoxicating\".",
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"plaintext": "Powell won a number of prizes, including the Percy Pemberton Prize, the Porson Prize, the Yeats Prize and the Lees Knowles. He won a distinction in Greek and Latin for Part I of his Classical Tripos and was awarded the Members' prize for Latin prose and the First Chancellor's Classical Medal. He also won the Cromer Greek essay prize of the British Academy in March 1933, having written on \"Thucydides, his moral and historical principles and their influence in later antiquities\". Also in 1933, Powell won the Browne Medal and delivered his winning essay in the Senate House, Cambridge. The Chancellor of Cambridge University, the Conservative Party leader Stanley Baldwin, told the Master of Trinity J. J. Thomson: \"Powell reads as if he understands\". Shortly before his finals in May 1933, Powell became ill with tonsillitis and then caught pyelitis. His neighbour in Trinity Great Court, Frederick Simpson, arranged that the Tripos examination papers be sent to the nursing home where he was convalescing. Despite having a temperature of 104 degrees when he sat the last of the seven papers, Powell gained a first class with distinction. The Cambridge classical scholar Martin Charlesworth said after Powell's graduation: \"That man Powell is extraordinary. He is the best Greek scholar since Porson\".",
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"plaintext": "After graduating from Cambridge, Powell stayed on at Trinity College as a fellow, spending much of his time studying ancient manuscripts in Latin and producing academic works in Greek and Welsh. He won the Craven travelling scholarship, which he used to fund travels to Italy, where he read Greek manuscripts in libraries. He also learned Italian. On his first trip to Italy, during 1933–1934, he visited Venice, Florence and Parma, and on his second excursion in 1935 he went to Venice, Naples and Turin. Powell was still convinced of the inevitability of war with Germany after Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany in 1933: he told his father in 1934, \"I want to be in the army from the first day that Britain goes to war\". He suffered a spiritual crisis when he heard of the Night of the Long Knives in July 1934, which shattered his vision of German culture. He later recalled that he sat for hours in a state of shock: \"So it had all been illusion, all fantasy, all a self-created myth ... The spiritual homeland had not been a spiritual homeland after all, since nothing can be a homeland, let alone a spiritual homeland, where there is no justice, where justice does not reign\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1935, Powell met the German–Jewish classical scholar Paul Maas in Venice, who confirmed Powell's belief about the nature of Nazi Germany, and he had a \"furious\" argument with an adherent of Oswald Mosley's British Union of Fascists, who had tried unsuccessfully to persuade Powell of Mosley's merits. He spent his time at Trinity teaching and supervising undergraduates, and worked on a lexicon of Herodotus. In January 1936 Powell delivered an address to the Classical Association on \"The War and its Aftermath in their Influence on Thucydidean Studies\", which was published in The Times. Since 1932 Powell had been working on the Egyptian manuscripts of J. Rendel Harris and his translation from the Greek into English was published in 1937.",
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"plaintext": "Powell's first collection of poems, First Poems, was published in 1937 and was influenced by Housman. The Times Literary Supplement reviewed them and said they possessed to a degree \"the tone and temper\" of Housman's A Shropshire Lad. The Poet Laureate John Masefield told Powell he read them \"with a great deal of admiration for their concision and point\", and Hilaire Belloc said \"I have read them with the greatest pleasure and interest ... I shall always retain them\". His second volume of poems, Casting Off, and Other Poems, was printed in 1939. In its review, The Times Literary Supplement said Powell's \"lyrical feeling, reflection, and an epigrammatic conciseness are pleasantly balanced, and he is particularly happy perhaps in saluting the blossoms of spring\". Maurice Cowling appraised Powell's poems as \"restrained and pessimistic, and written out of a high sense of human destiny. It expressed the position of youth and had an eschatological overtone characteristic of Housman's repressed tombstone emotion. It registered the resigned, masculine gloom of the Trinity ethos into which he had been inducted\". A further collection of poems, Dancer's End and The Wedding Gift, were published in 1951, and all his poems were published in one volume in 1990. Powell said the first two volumes were \"dominated by the War – the War foreseen, the War imminent, and the War actual\", and the second group were a \"response to a brief period...of intense emotional excitement\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1937, he was appointed Professor of Greek at the University of Sydney aged 25 (failing in his aim of beating Nietzsche's record of becoming a professor at 24). He was the youngest professor in the British Empire. Among his students was future Labor Prime Minister of Australia Gough Whitlam, who described his lectures as 'dry as dust'. He revised Henry Stuart Jones's edition of Thucydides' Historiae for the Oxford University Press in 1938, and his most lasting contribution to classical scholarship was his Lexicon to Herodotus, published by Cambridge University Press the same year. William Lorimer reviewed the lexicon in the Classical Review and praised Powell's \"amazing industry, much thought and care, and fine scholarship\". The classicist Robin Lane Fox said the lexicon is \"an entirely mechanical production with no intellectual power\" but is \"nonetheless valuable\" and demonstrated Powell's \"sharp, clear and nit-picking mind\". Robin Waterfield, in his translation of Herodotus' Histories for Oxford World's Classics, said Powell's lexicon was \"absolutely indispensable\". The Australian academic Athanasius Treweek called it \"the most fantastically accurate work of this type that I have ever handled\".",
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"plaintext": "Soon after arrival in Australia, he was appointed Curator of the Nicholson Museum at the University of Sydney. He stunned the vice-chancellor by informing him that war would soon begin in Europe and that when it did, he would be heading home to enlist in the army. He later recalled that his attitude towards Germany was of \"great hatred as well as fear ... a fear of my country being defeated\" and in his inaugural lecture as professor of Greek on 7 May 1938 he condemned Britain's policy of appeasement and prophesied the coming war with Germany. During his time in Australia as a professor, he grew increasingly angry at the appeasement of Germany and what he saw as a betrayal of the UK's national interests. After Neville Chamberlain's first visit to Adolf Hitler at Berchtesgaden, Powell wrote in a letter to his parents on 18 September 1938:",
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"plaintext": "During the winter of 1938–1939 he travelled to Britain to arrange his appointment as professor of Greek and classical literature at Durham University, which he was due to take up in 1940. After his arrival in Britain he visited Germany and later remembered his \"sensation of embarrassment on producing a British passport at the German frontier in December 1938\". He met again Paul Maas, other German Jews and members of the anti-Nazi movement, and helped Maas obtain a British visa from the British consul, which enabled Maas to escape Germany just before war broke out.",
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"plaintext": "In another letter to his parents in June 1939, before the beginning of war, Powell wrote: \"It is the English, not their Government; for if they were not blind cowards, they would lynch Chamberlain and Halifax and all the other smarmy traitors\". At the outbreak of war, Powell immediately returned to the UK, but not before buying a Russian dictionary, since he thought \"Russia would hold the key to our survival and victory, as it had in 1812 and 1916\".",
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"plaintext": "During October 1939, almost a month after returning home from Australia, Powell enlisted as a private in the Royal Warwickshire Regiment. He had trouble enlisting, as during the \"Phoney War\" the War Office did not want men with no military training. Rather than waiting to be called up, he claimed to be Australian, as Australians, many of whom had travelled to Britain at great expense to join up, were allowed to enlist straight away. In a poem, he wrote of men joining the army like \"bridegrooms going to meet their brides\", but his biographer points out that it is unlikely that many other men shared his joy, particularly not those who were leaving actual brides behind. He purchased a copy of Carl von Clausewitz's On War in the original German in a second-hand bookshop, which he read every night.",
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"plaintext": "In later years, Powell recorded his promotion from private to lance-corporal in his Who's Who entry, on other occasions describing it as a greater promotion than entering the Cabinet. Early in 1940, he was trained for a commission after, while working in a kitchen, answering the question of an inspecting brigadier with a Greek proverb; on several occasions, he told colleagues that he expected to be at least a major-general by the end of the war. He passed out top from his officer training.",
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"plaintext": "On 18 May 1940, Powell was one of the cadets from the 166th, 167th, 168th, and 170th Officer Cadet Training Units commissioned as a second lieutenant onto the General List. He was almost immediately transferred to the Intelligence Corps. He was soon promoted to captain and posted as GSO3 (Intelligence) to the 1st (later 9th) Armoured Division. During this time he taught himself the Portuguese language to read the poet Camões in the original; as insufficient Russian-speaking officers were available at the War Office, his knowledge of the Russian language and textual analysis skills were used to translate a Russian parachute training manual—a task he completed after 11pm in addition to his normal duties, deducing the meaning of many technical terms from the context; he was convinced that the Soviet Union must eventually enter the war on the Allied side. On one occasion, he was arrested as a suspected German spy for singing the Horst-Wessel-Lied. He was sent to the Staff College, Camberley.",
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"plaintext": "In October 1941, Powell was posted to Cairo and transferred back to the Royal Warwickshire Regiment. As secretary to the Joint Intelligence Committee, Middle East, he was soon doing work that would normally have been done by a more senior officer and was (May 1942, backdated to December 1941) promoted to major. He was promoted to lieutenant-colonel in August 1942, telling his parents that he was doing the work of three people and expected to be a brigadier within a year or two, and in that role helped plan the Second Battle of El Alamein, having previously helped plan the attack on Rommel's supply lines. Powell and his team began work at 0400 each day to digest radio intercepts and other intelligence data (such as estimating how many tanks Rommel currently had and what his likely plans were) ready to present to the chiefs of staff at 0900. The following year, he was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire for his military service.",
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"plaintext": "It was in Algiers that the beginning of Powell's distrust of the United States began. After socially mixing with senior American officers that he met and exploring their cultural views of the world, he became convinced that one of America's war aims was to destroy the British Empire. Writing home on 16 February 1943, Powell stated: \"I see growing on the horizon the greater peril than Germany or Japan ever were... our terrible enemy, America\". Powell's suspicion of the anti-British Empire demeanour of the U.S. Government's foreign policy continued for the remainder of the war and into his subsequent post-war political career. He cut out and retained an article from the New Statesman magazine published on 13 November 1943 in which the American writer and diplomat Clare Boothe Luce said in a speech that Indian independence from the British Empire would mean that the \"USA will really have won the greatest war in the world for democracy\".",
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"plaintext": "After the Axis defeat at the Second Battle of El Alamein, Powell's attention increasingly moved to the Far East theatre, and he wanted to go there to take part in the campaign against the Japanese Imperial Army because: \"the war in Europe was won now\", and he wanted to see the Union Flag back in Singapore before, Powell feared, the Americans beat the British Empire to it and secured an imperial domination of their own over the region. He had at this time an ambition to be assigned to the Chindits units operating in Burma, and secured an interview with their Commander Orde Wingate to this end while the latter was on a temporary stop-over in Cairo, but Powell's duties and rank precluded the assignment. Having declined two posts carrying the rank of full colonel (in Algiers and Cairo, which would have left him in the now moribund North African theatre \"indefinitely\"), and despite expecting to have to accept a reduction in rank to major in order to get the transfer, he secured a posting to the British Imperial Indian Army in Delhi as a lieutenant-colonel in military intelligence in August 1943. Within a few days of arriving in India, Powell bought as many books as he could about India and read them avidly. On one occasion, he wrote to his parents in a letter \"I soaked up India like a sponge soaks up water.\"",
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"plaintext": "Powell was appointed Secretary to the Joint Intelligence Committee for India and Louis Mountbatten's South East Asia Command, involved in planning an amphibious offensive against Akyab, an island off the coast of Burma. Orde Wingate, also involved in planning that operation, had taken such a dislike to Powell that he asked a colleague to restrain him if he were tempted to \"beat his brains in\".",
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"plaintext": "On one occasion, Powell's yellow skin (he was recovering from jaundice), over-formal dress and strange manner caused him to be mistaken for a Japanese spy. During this period, he declined to meet a Cambridge academic colleague, Glyn Daniel, for a drink or dinner as he was devoting his limited leisure time to studying the poet John Donne. Powell had continued to learn Urdu and was taught by a nephew of the Urdu poet Altaf Hussain Hali. He had an unrealised ambition to compose a critical edition of Hali's Musaddas, The Rise and Fall of Islam. He also had an ambition of becoming Viceroy of India, and when Mountbatten transferred his staff to Kandy, Ceylon, Powell chose to remain in Delhi. He was promoted to full colonel at the end of March 1944, as assistant director of military intelligence in India, giving intelligence support to the Burma campaign of William Slim.",
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"plaintext": "Having begun the war as the youngest professor in the British Empire, Powell ended it as a brigadier. He was given the promotion to serve on a committee of generals and brigadiers to plan the postwar defence of India: the resulting 470-page report was almost entirely written by Powell. For a few weeks he was the youngest brigadier in the British Army, and he was one of only two men in the entire war to rise from private to brigadier (the other being Fitzroy Maclean). He was offered a regular commission as a brigadier in the Indian Army, and the post of assistant commandant of an Indian officers' training academy, which he declined. He told a colleague that he expected to be head of all military intelligence in \"the next war\".",
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"plaintext": "Powell never experienced combat and felt guilty for having survived, writing that soldiers who did so carried \"a sort of shame with them to the grave\" and referring to the Second Battle of El Alamein as a \"separating flame\" between the living and the dead. When once asked how he would like to be remembered, he at first answered, \"Others will remember me as they will remember me\", but when pressed he replied, \"I should like to have been killed in the war\".",
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"plaintext": "Though he voted for the Labour Party in their 1945 landslide victory, because he wanted to punish the Conservative Party for the Munich agreement, after the war he joined the Conservative Party and worked for the Conservative Research Department under Rab Butler, where his colleagues included Iain Macleod and Reginald Maudling.",
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"plaintext": "Powell's ambition to be Viceroy of India crumbled in February 1947, when Prime Minister Clement Attlee announced that Indian independence was imminent. Powell was so shocked by the change of policy that he spent the whole night after it was announced walking the streets of London. He came to terms with it by becoming fiercely anti-imperialist, believing that once India had gone the whole empire should follow it. This logical absolutism explained his later indifference to the Suez crisis, his contempt for the Commonwealth and his urging that the UK should end any remaining pretence that it was a world power.",
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"plaintext": "After unsuccessfully contesting the Labour Party's safe seat of Normanton at a by-election in 1947 (when the Labour majority was 62 per cent), he was elected as a Conservative Member of Parliament (MP) for Wolverhampton South West at the 1950 general election.",
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"plaintext": "On 16 March 1950, Powell made his maiden speech, speaking on a White Paper on Defence and beginning by saying, \"There is no need for me to pretend those feelings of awe and hesitation which assail any honourable Member who rises to address this House for the first time.\"",
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"plaintext": "On 3 March 1953, Powell spoke against the Royal Titles Bill in the House of Commons. He said he found three major changes to the style of the United Kingdom, \"all of which seem to me to be evil\". The first one was \"that in this title, for the first time, will be recognised a principle hitherto never admitted in this country, namely, the divisibility of the crown.\" Powell said that the unity of the realm had evolved over centuries and included the British Empire: \"It was a unit because it had one Sovereign. There was one Sovereign: one realm.\" He feared that by \"recognising the division of the realm into separate realms, are we not opening the way for that other remaining unity—the last unity of all—that of the person, to go the way of the rest?\"",
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"plaintext": "The second change he objected to was \"the suppression of the word 'British', both from before the words 'Realms and Territories' where it is replaced by the words 'her other' and from before the word 'Commonwealth', which, in the Statute of Westminster, is described as the 'British Commonwealth of Nations:",
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"plaintext": "Powell claimed that the answer was that because the British Nationality Act 1948 had removed allegiance to the crown as the basis of citizenship and replaced that with nine separate citizenships combined together by statute. Therefore, if any of these nine countries became republics the law would not change, as happened with India when it became a republic. Furthermore, Powell went on, the essence of unity was \"that all the parts recognise they would sacrifice themselves to the interests of the whole.\" He denied that there was in India that \"recognition of belonging to a greater whole which involves the ultimate consequence in certain circumstances of self-sacrifice in the interests of the whole.\" Therefore, the title 'Head of the Commonwealth', the third major change, was \"essentially a sham. They are essentially something which we have invented to blind ourselves to the reality of the position.\"",
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"plaintext": "These changes were \"greatly repugnant\" to Powell:",
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"plaintext": "For the rest of his life, Powell regarded this speech as the finest he ever delivered (rather than the much more well-known 1968 anti-immigration speech).",
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"plaintext": "In mid-November 1953, Powell secured a place on the 1922 Committee's executive at the third attempt. Butler also invited him onto the committee that reviewed party policy for the general election, which he attended until 1955. Powell was a member of the Suez Group of MPs who were against the removal of British troops from the Suez Canal, because such a move would demonstrate, Powell argued, that the UK could no longer maintain a position there, and that any claim to the Suez Canal would therefore be illogical. However, after the troops had left in June 1956 and the Egyptians nationalised the Canal a month later, Powell opposed the attempt to retake the canal in the Suez Crisis because he thought the British no longer had the resources to be a world power.",
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"plaintext": "On 21 December 1955, Powell was appointed parliamentary secretary to Duncan Sandys at the Ministry of Housing. He called it \"the best ever Christmas box\". In early 1956, he spoke for the Housing Subsidies Bill in the Commons and argued for the rejection of an amendment that would have hindered slum clearances. He also spoke in support of the Slum Clearances Bill, which provided entitlement for full compensation for those who purchased a house after August 1939 and still occupied it in December 1955 if this property would be compulsorily purchased by the government if it was deemed unfit for human habitation.",
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"plaintext": "In early 1956, Powell attended a subcommittee on immigration control as a housing minister and advocated immigration controls. In August, he gave a speech at a meeting of the Institute of Personnel Management and was asked a question about immigration. He answered that limiting immigration would require a change in the law: \"There might be circumstances in which such a change of the law might be the lesser of two evils\". But he added, \"There would be very few people who would say the time had yet come when it was essential that so great a change should be made\". Powell later told Paul Foot that the statement was made \"out of loyalty to the Government line\". Powell also spoke for the Rent Bill, which ended wartime rent controls when existing tenants moved out, thereby phasing out regulation.",
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"plaintext": "At a meeting of the 1922 Committee on 22 November 1956, Butler made a speech appealing for party unity in the aftermath of the Suez Crisis. His speech did not go down well and Harold Macmillan, whom Butler had taken along for moral support, addressed them and was a great success. In Powell's view this was \"one of the most horrible things that I remember in politics... seeing the way in which Harold Macmillan, with all the skill of the old actor-manager, succeeded in false-footing Rab. The sheer devilry of it verged upon the disgusting\". After Macmillan's death in 1986 Powell said \"Macmillan was a Whig, not a Tory... he had no use for the Conservative loyalties and affections; they interfered too much with the Whig's true vocation of detecting trends in events and riding them skilfully so as to preserve the privileges, property and interests of his class\". However, when Macmillan replaced Eden as Prime Minister, Powell was offered the office of Financial Secretary to the Treasury on 14 January 1957. This office was the Chancellor of the Exchequer's deputy and the most important job outside the Cabinet.",
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"plaintext": "In January 1958 he resigned, along with the Chancellor of the Exchequer Peter Thorneycroft and his Treasury colleague Nigel Birch, in protest at government plans for increased expenditure; he was a staunch advocate of disinflation, or, in modern terms, a monetarist, and a believer in market forces. Powell was also a member of the Mont Pelerin Society. The by-product of this expenditure was the printing of extra money to pay for it all, which Powell believed to be the cause of inflation, and in effect a form of taxation, as the holders of money find their money is worth less. Inflation rose to 2.5 per cent, a high figure for the era, especially in peacetime.",
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"plaintext": "During the late 1950s, Powell promoted control of the money supply to prevent inflation and, during the 1960s, was an advocate of free market policies, which at the time were seen as extreme, unworkable and unpopular. Powell advocated the privatisation of the Post Office and the telephone network as early as 1964, over 20 years before the latter actually took place; and 47 years before the former occurred. He both scorned the idea of \"consensus politics\" and wanted the Conservative Party to become a modern business-like party, freed from its old aristocratic and \"old boy network\" associations. In his 1958 resignation over public spending and what he saw as an inflationary economic policy, he anticipated almost exactly the views that during the 1980s came to be described as \"monetarism\".",
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"plaintext": "On 27 July 1959, Powell delivered a speech on the Hola Camp of Kenya, where eleven Mau Mau were killed after refusing work in the camp. Powell noted that some MPs had described the eleven as \"sub-human\", but Powell responded by saying: \"In general, I would say that it is a fearful doctrine, which must recoil upon the heads of those who pronounce it, to stand in judgement on a fellow human being and to say, 'Because he was such-and-such, therefore the consequences which would otherwise flow from his death shall not flow'.\" Powell also disagreed with the notion that because it was in Africa, different methods were acceptable:",
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"plaintext": "Denis Healey, a member of parliament from 1952 to 1992, later said this speech was \"the greatest parliamentary speech I ever heard... it had all the moral passion and rhetorical force of Demosthenes\". The Daily Telegraph report of the speech said that \"as Mr Powell sat down, he put his hand across his eyes. His emotion was justified, for he had made a great and sincere speech\".",
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"plaintext": "Powell returned to the government in July 1960, when he was appointed Health minister, although he did not become a member of the Cabinet until 1962. During a meeting with parents of babies that had been born with deformities caused by the drug thalidomide, he was unsympathetic to the victims, refusing to meet any babies affected by the drug. Powell also refused to launch a public inquiry, and resisted calls to issue a warning against any left-over thalidomide pills that might remain in people's medicine cabinets (as US President John F. Kennedy had done).",
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"plaintext": "In this job, he developed the 1962 Hospital Plan. He began a debate on the neglect of the huge psychiatric institutions, calling for them to be replaced by wards in general hospitals. In his famous 1961 \"Water Tower\" speech, he said:",
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"plaintext": "The speech catalysed a debate that was one of several strands leading to the Care in the Community initiative of the 1980s. In 1993, however, Powell claimed that his policy could have worked. He claimed the criminally insane should have never been released and that the problem was one of funding. He said the new way of caring for the mentally ill would cost more, not less, than the old way because community care was decentralised and intimate as well as being \"more human\". His successors had not, Powell claimed, provided the money for local authorities to spend on mental health care and therefore institutional care had been neglected while at the same time there was not any investment in community care.",
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"plaintext": "After his speech on immigration in 1968, Powell's political opponents sometimes alleged that he had, when Minister of Health, recruited immigrants from the Commonwealth into the National Health Service (NHS). However, the Minister of Health was not responsible for recruitment (this was left to health authorities) and Sir George Godber, Chief Medical Officer for Her Majesty's Government in England from 1960 to 1973, stated that the allegation was \"bunk... absolute rubbish. There was no such policy\". Powell's biographer Simon Heffer also stated that the claim \"is a complete untruth. As Powell's biographer I have been thoroughly through the Ministry of Health papers at the Public Record Office and have found no evidence to support this assertion\".",
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"plaintext": "During the early 1960s, Powell was asked about the recruitment of immigrant workers for the NHS. He replied by saying \"recruitment was in the hands of the hospital authorities, but this was something that happened of its own accord given that there was no bar upon entry and employment in the United Kingdom to those from the West Indies or anywhere else [in the Commonwealth or colonies].\" Powell did welcome immigrant nurses and doctors, under the condition that they were to be temporary workers training in the UK and would then return to their native countries as qualified doctors or nurses. Shortly after becoming Minister of Health, Powell asked Butler (the Home Secretary), if he could be appointed to a ministerial committee which monitored immigration and was about to be re-constituted. Powell was worried about the strain by NHS immigrants, and papers show that he wanted a stronger restriction on Commonwealth immigration than what was passed in 1961.",
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"plaintext": "In October 1963, along with Iain Macleod, Reginald Maudling and Lord Hailsham, Powell tried in vain to persuade Butler not to serve under Alec Douglas-Home, in the belief that the latter would be unable to form a government. Powell commented that they had given Butler a revolver, which he had refused to use in case it made a noise or hurt anyone. Macleod and Powell refused to serve in Home's Cabinet. This refusal is not usually attributed to personal antipathy to Douglas-Home but rather to anger at what Macleod and Powell saw as Macmillan's underhand manipulation of colleagues during the process of choosing a new leader. However, at the meeting at his house on the evening of 17 October, Powell, who still enjoyed a liberal reputation on racial issues after his Hola Massacre Speech, reportedly said of Home: \"How can I serve under a man whose views on Africa are positively Portuguese?\"",
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"plaintext": "During the 1964 general election, Powell said in his election address, \"it was essential, for the sake not only of our own people but of the immigrants themselves, to introduce control over the numbers allowed in. I am convinced that strict control must continue if we are to avoid the evils of a 'colour question' in this country, for ourselves and for our children\". Norman Fowler, then a reporter for The Times, interviewed Powell during the election and asked him what the biggest issue was: \"I expected to be told something about the cost of living but not a bit of it. 'Immigration,' replied Powell. I duly phoned in my piece but it was never used. After all, who in 1964 had ever heard of a former Conservative cabinet minister thinking that immigration was an important political issue?\"",
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"plaintext": "Following the Conservatives' defeat in the election, he agreed to return to the front bench as Transport Spokesman. In July 1965, he stood in the first-ever party leadership election but came a distant third to Edward Heath, obtaining only 15 votes, just below the result Hugh Fraser would gain in the 1975 contest. Heath appointed him Shadow Secretary of State for Defence. Powell said that he had \"left his visiting card\", i.e. demonstrated himself to be a potential future leader, but the immediate effect was to demonstrate his limited support in the Parliamentary Party, enabling Heath to feel more comfortable calling his bluff.",
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"plaintext": "In his first speech to the Conservative Party conference as Shadow Secretary of State for Defence on 14 October 1965, Powell outlined a fresh defence policy, jettisoning what he saw as outdated global military commitments left over from the UK's imperial past and stressing that the UK was a European power and therefore an alliance with Western European states from possible attack from the East was central to the UK's safety. He defended the UK's nuclear weapons and argued that it was \"the merest casuistry to argue that if the weapon and the means of using it are purchased in part, or even altogether, from another nation, therefore the independent right to use it has no reality. With a weapon so catastrophic, it is possession and the right to use which count\". Also, Powell called into question Western military commitments East of Suez:",
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"plaintext": "The Daily Telegraph journalist David Howell remarked to Andrew Alexander that Powell had \"just withdrawn us from East of Suez, and received an enormous ovation because no-one understood what he was talking about\". However, the Americans were worried by Powell's speech as they wanted British military commitments in South-East Asia as they were still fighting in Vietnam. A transcript of the speech was sent to Washington and the American embassy requested to talk to Heath about the \"Powell doctrine\". The New York Times said Powell's speech was \"a potential declaration of independence from American policy\". During the election campaign of 1966, Powell claimed that the British government had contingency plans to send at least a token British force to Vietnam and that, under Labour, \"Britain has behaved perfectly clearly and perfectly recognisably as an American satellite\".",
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"plaintext": "Lyndon B. Johnson had indeed asked Wilson for some British forces for Vietnam, and when it was later suggested to Powell that Washington understood that the public reaction to Powell's allegations had made Wilson realise he would not have favourable public opinion and so could not go through with it, Powell responded: \"The greatest service I have performed for my country, if that is so\". Labour was returned with a large majority, and Powell was retained by Heath as Shadow Defence Secretary as he believed Powell \"was too dangerous to leave out\".",
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"plaintext": "In a controversial speech on 26 May 1967, Powell criticised the UK's post-war world role:",
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"plaintext": "In 1967, Powell spoke of his opposition to the immigration of Kenyan Asians to the United Kingdom after the African country's leader Jomo Kenyatta's discriminatory policies led to the flight of Asians from that country.",
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"plaintext": "The biggest argument Powell and Heath had during Powell's time in the Shadow Cabinet was over a dispute over the role of Black Rod, who would go to the Commons to summon them to the Lords to hear the Royal Assent of Bills. In November 1967, Black Rod arrived during a debate on the EEC and was met with cries of \"Shame\" to Op it\". At the next Shadow Cabinet meeting Heath said this \"nonsense\" must be stopped. Powell suggested that Heath did not mean it should be ended. He asked whether Heath realised that the words Black Rod used went back to the 1307 Parliament of Carlisle and were ancient even then. Heath reacted furiously, saying that the British people \"were tired of this nonsense and ceremonial and mummery. He would not stand for the perpetuation of this ridiculous business etc\".",
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"plaintext": "The Birmingham-based television company ATV saw an advance copy of the speech on the Saturday morning, and its news editor ordered a television crew to go to the venue, where they filmed sections of the speech. Earlier in the week, Powell said to his friend Clement 'Clem' Jones, a journalist and then editor at the Wolverhampton Express & Star, \"I'm going to make a speech at the weekend and it's going to go up 'fizz' like a rocket; but whereas all rockets fall to the earth, this one is going to stay up.\"",
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"plaintext": "The separation between patriotism and racism and between nationalism and separatism remains of some controversy even today. Powell has remained a controversial and yet prominent figure and has been cited by Nigel Farage as his \"political hero.\" ",
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"plaintext": "Powell was renowned for his oratorical skills and his maverick nature. On 20 April 1968, he gave a speech in Birmingham in which he warned his audience of what he believed would be the consequences of continued unchecked mass immigration from the Commonwealth to the UK. Above all, it is an allusion to the Roman poet Virgil towards the end of the speech which has been remembered, giving the speech its colloquial name:",
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"plaintext": "The Times declared it \"an evil speech\", stating, \"This is the first time that a serious British politician has appealed to racial hatred in this direct way in our postwar history.\"",
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"plaintext": "The main political issue addressed by the speech was not immigration as such, however. It was the introduction of the Race Relations Act 1968 (by the Labour Government at the time), which Powell found offensive and immoral. The Act would prohibit discrimination on the grounds of race in certain areas of British life, particularly housing, where many local authorities had been refusing to provide houses for immigrant families until they had lived in the country for a certain number of years.",
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"plaintext": "One feature of his speech was the extensive quotation of a letter he received detailing the experiences of one of his constituents in Wolverhampton. The writer described the fate of an elderly woman who was supposedly the last White person living in her street. She had repeatedly refused applications from non-Whites requiring rooms-to-let, which resulted in her being called a \"racialist\" outside her home and receiving \"excreta\" through her letterbox.",
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"plaintext": "When Heath telephoned Margaret Thatcher to tell her that he was going to sack Powell, she responded: \"I really thought that it was better to let things cool down for the present rather than heighten the crisis\". Heath sacked Powell from his Shadow cabinet the day after the speech and he never held another senior political post again. Powell received almost 120,000 (predominantly positive) letters and a Gallup poll at the end of April showed that 74 per cent of those asked agreed with his speech and only 15 per cent disagreed, with 11 per cent unsure. One poll concluded that between 61 and 73 per cent disagreed with Heath sacking Powell. According to George L. Bernstein, many British people felt that Powell \"was the first British politician who was actually listening to them\".",
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"plaintext": "After The Sunday Times branded his speeches \"racialist\", Powell sued it for libel, but withdrew when he was required to provide the letters he had quoted from because he had promised anonymity for the writer, who refused to waive it.",
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"plaintext": "Powell had also expressed his opposition to the Race Relations legislation being put into place by the Labour Prime Minister Harold Wilson at the time.",
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"plaintext": "Following the \"Rivers of Blood\" speech, Powell was transformed into a national public figure and won huge support across the UK. Three days after the speech, on 23 April, as the Race Relations Bill was being debated in the House of Commons, 1,000 dockers marched on Westminster protesting against the \"victimisation\" of Powell, with slogans such as \"we want Enoch Powell!\" and \"Enoch here, Enoch there, we want Enoch everywhere\". The next day, 400 meat porters from Smithfield market handed in a 92-page petition in support of Powell, amidst other mass demonstrations of working-class support, much of it from trade unionists, in London and Wolverhampton.",
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"plaintext": "Conservative politician Michael Heseltine stated that in the aftermath of the \"Rivers of blood\" speech, if Enoch Powell had stood for leadership of the Conservative party he would have won \"by a landslide\" and if he had stood to be Prime Minister he would have won by a \"national landslide\".",
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"plaintext": "Powell made a speech in Morecambe on 11 October 1968 on the economy, setting out alternative, radical free-market policies that would later be called the 'Morecambe Budget'. Powell used the financial year of 1968–69 to show how income tax could be halved from 8s3d to 4s3d in the pound (basic rate cut from 41 to 21 per cent) and how capital gains tax and Selective Employment Tax could be abolished without reducing expenditure on defence or the social services. These tax reductions required a saving of £2,855,000,000 and this would be funded by eradicating losses in the nationalised industries and privatising the profit-making state concerns; ending all housing subsidies except for those who could not afford their own housing; ending all foreign aid; ending all grants and subsidies in agriculture; ending all assistance to development areas; ending all investment grants; and abolishing the National Economic Development Council and the Prices and Incomes Board. The cuts in taxation would also allow the state to borrow from the public to spend on capital projects such as hospitals and roads and spend on \"the firm and humane treatment of criminals\".",
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"plaintext": "In mid-1968, Powell's book The House of Lords in the Middle Ages was published after twenty years' work. At the press conference for its publication, Powell said if the government introduced a Bill to reform the Lords he would be its \"resolute enemy\". Later in 1968, when the Labour government published its Bills for the new session, Powell was angry at Heath's acceptance of the plan drawn up by the Conservative Iain Macleod and Labour's Richard Crossman to reform the Lords, titled the Parliament (No. 2) Bill. Crossman, opening the debate on 19 November, said the government would reform the Lords in five ways: removing the voting rights of hereditary peers; making sure no party had a permanent majority; ensuring the government of the day usually passed its laws; weakening the Lords' powers to delay new laws; and abolishing the power to refuse subordinate legislation if it had been passed by the Commons. Powell spoke in the debate, opposing these plans. He said the reforms were \"unnecessary and undesirable\" and that there was no weight in the claim that the Lords could \"check or frustrate the firm intentions\" of the Commons. He claimed that only election or nomination could replace the hereditary nature of the Lords. If they were elected it would pose the dilemma of which House was truly representative of the electorate. He also had another objection: \"How can the same electorate be represented in two ways so that the two sets of representatives can conflict and disagree with one another?\" Those nominated would be bound to the Chief Whip of their party through a sort of oath and Powell asked \"what sort of men and women are they to be who would submit to be nominated to another chamber upon condition that they will be mere dummies, automatic parts of a voting machine?\" He also stated that the inclusion in the proposals of thirty crossbenchers was \"a grand absurdity\", because they would have been chosen \"upon the very basis that they have no strong views of principle on the way in which the country ought to be governed\". Powell claimed the Lords derived their authority not from a strict hereditary system but from its prescriptive nature: \"It has long been so, and it works\". He then added that there was not any widespread desire for reform: he indicated a recent survey of working-class voters that showed that only one-third of them wanted to reform or abolish the House of Lords, with another third believing the Lords were an \"intrinsic part of the national traditions of Britain\". Powell deduced from this, \"As so often, the ordinary rank and file of the electorate have seen a truth, an important fact, which has escaped so many more clever people—the underlying value of that which is traditional, that which is prescriptive\".",
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"plaintext": "Following more speeches against the Bill during early 1969, and faced with the fact a bloc of left-wing Labour members were also against reforming the House of Lords as they desired its abolition altogether, Harold Wilson announced on 17 April that the Bill was being withdrawn. Wilson's statement was brief, with Powell intervening: \"Don't eat them too quickly\", which provoked much laughter in the House. Later that day Powell said in a speech to the Primrose League:",
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"plaintext": "Powell's biographer, Simon Heffer, described the defeat of Lords reform as \"perhaps the greatest triumph of Powell's political career\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1969, when it was first suggested that the United Kingdom should join the European Economic Community, Powell spoke openly of his opposition to such a move.",
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"plaintext": "A Gallup poll in February 1969 showed Powell to be the \"most admired person\" in British public opinion.",
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"plaintext": "In a defence debate in March 1970, Powell claimed that \"the whole theory of the tactical nuclear weapon, or the tactical use of nuclear weapons, is an unmitigated absurdity\" and that it was \"remotely improbable\" that any group of nations engaged in war would \"decide upon general and mutual suicide\", and advocated enlargement of the UK's conventional forces. However, when fellow Conservative Julian Amery later in the debate criticised Powell for his antinuclear pronouncements, Powell responded: \"I have always regarded the possession of the nuclear capability as a protection against nuclear blackmail. It is a protection against being threatened with nuclear weapons. What it is not a protection against is war\".",
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"plaintext": "The 1970 general election took place on 18 June and was unexpectedly won by the Conservatives, with a late surge in their support. Powell's supporters claim that he contributed to this surprise victory. In \"exhaustive research\" on the election, the American pollster Douglas Schoen and University of Oxford academic R. W. Johnson believed it \"beyond dispute\" that Powell had attracted 2.5 million votes to the Conservatives, but the Conservative vote had increased by only 1.7 million since 1966.",
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"plaintext": "Powell had voted against the Schuman Declaration in 1950 and had supported entry into the European Coal and Steel Community only because he believed that it was simply a means to secure free trade. In March 1969, he opposed the UK's joining the European Economic Community. Opposition to entry had hitherto been confined largely to the Labour Party but now, he said, it was clear to him that the sovereignty of Parliament was in question, as was UK's very survival as a nation. This nationalist analysis attracted millions of middle-class Conservatives and others, and as much as anything else it made Powell the implacable enemy of Heath, a fervent pro-European; but there was already enmity between the two.",
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"plaintext": "During 1970, Powell gave speeches about the EEC in Lyons (in French), Frankfurt (in German), Turin (in Italian) and The Hague.",
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"plaintext": "The Conservatives had promised at the 1970 general election in relation to the Common Market. \"Our sole commitment is to negotiate; no more, no less\". When Heath signed an accession treaty before Parliament had even debated the issue, the second reading of the Bill to put the Treaty into law was passed by just eight votes on second reading, and it became clear that the British people would have no further say in the matter, Powell declared his hostility to his party's line. He voted against the government on every one of the 104 divisions in the course of the European Communities Bill. When finally he lost this struggle, after three years of campaigning on the question, he decided he could no longer sit in a parliament that he believed was no longer sovereign.",
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"plaintext": "A Daily Express opinion poll in 1972 showed Powell to be the most popular politician in the country. In mid-1972, he prepared to resign the Conservative whip and changed his mind only because of fears of a renewed wave of immigration from Uganda after the accession of Idi Amin, who had expelled Uganda's Asian residents. He decided to remain in parliament and in the Conservative Party, and was expected to support the party in Wolverhampton at the snap general election of February 1974 called by Edward Heath. However, on 23 February 1974, with the election only five days away, Powell dramatically turned his back on his party, giving as the reasons that it had taken the United Kingdom into the EEC without having a mandate to do so, and that it had abandoned other manifesto commitments, so that he could no longer support it at the election. The monetarist economist Milton Friedman sent Powell a letter praising him as principled. Powell had arranged for his friend Andrew Alexander to talk to Joe Haines, the press secretary of the Labour leader Harold Wilson, about the timing of Powell's speeches against Heath. Powell had been talking to Wilson irregularly since June 1973 during chance meetings in the gentlemen's lavatories of the \"aye\" lobby in the House of Commons. Wilson and Haines had ensured that Powell would dominate the newspapers of the Sunday and Monday before election day by having no Labour frontbencher give a major speech on 23 February, the day of Powell's speech. Powell gave this speech at the Mecca Dance Hall in the Bull Ring, Birmingham, to an audience of 1,500, with some press reports estimating that 7,000 more had to be turned away. Powell said the issue of British membership of the EEC was one where \"if there be a conflict between the call of country and that of party, the call of country must come first\":",
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"plaintext": "Powell went on to criticise the Conservative government for obtaining British membership despite the party having promised at the general election of 1970 that it would \"negotiate: no more, no less\" and that \"the full-hearted consent of Parliament and people\" would be needed if the UK were to join. He also denounced Heath for accusing his political opponents of lacking respect for Parliament while also being \"the first Prime Minister in three hundred years who entertained, let alone executed, the intention of depriving Parliament of its sole right to make the laws and impose the taxes of this country\". He then advocated a vote for the Labour Party:",
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"plaintext": "This call to vote Labour surprised some of Powell's supporters who were more concerned with beating socialism than the supposed loss of national independence. On 25 February, he made another speech at Shipley, again urging a vote for Labour, saying he did not believe the claim that Wilson would renege on his commitment to renegotiation, which Powell believed was ironic because of Heath's premiership: \"In acrobatics Harold Wilson, for all his nimbleness and skill, is simply no match for the breathtaking, thoroughgoing efficiency of the present Prime Minister\". At this moment a heckler shouted \"Judas!\" Powell responded: \"Judas was paid! Judas was paid! I am making a sacrifice!\" Later in the speech Powell said, \"I was born a Tory, am a Tory and shall die a Tory. It is part of me... it is something I cannot alter\". In 1987, Powell said there was no contradiction between urging people to vote Labour while proclaiming to be a Tory: \"Many Labour members are quite good Tories\".",
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"plaintext": "Powell, in an interview on 26 February, said he would be voting for Helene Middleweek, the Labour candidate, rather than the Conservative Nicholas Budgen. Powell did not stay up on election night to watch the results on television, and when on 1 March he picked up his copy of The Times from his letterbox and saw the headline \"Mr Heath's general election gamble fails\", he reacted by singing the Te Deum. He later said: \"I had had my revenge on the man who had destroyed the self-government of the United Kingdom\". The election result was a hung parliament. Although the Tories had won the most votes, Labour finished five seats ahead of the Conservatives. The national swing to Labour was 1 per cent; 4 per cent in Powell's heartland, the West Midlands conurbation; and 16 per cent in his old constituency (although Budgen won the seat). According to the Telegraph journalist Simon Heffer, both Powell and Heath believed that Powell had been responsible for the Conservatives' losing the election.",
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"plaintext": "In a sudden general election in October 1974, Powell returned to Parliament as Ulster Unionist MP for South Down, having rejected an offer to stand as a candidate for the far-right National Front, formed seven years earlier and fiercely opposed to non-white immigration. He repeated his call to vote Labour because of their policy on the EEC.",
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"plaintext": "Since 1968, Powell had been an increasingly frequent visitor to Northern Ireland, and in keeping with his general British nationalist viewpoint, he sided strongly with the Ulster Unionists in their desire to remain a constituent part of the United Kingdom. From early 1971, he opposed, with increasing vehemence, Heath's approach to Northern Ireland, the greatest breach with his party coming over the imposition of direct rule in 1972. He strongly believed that it would survive only if the Unionists strove to integrate completely with the United Kingdom by abandoning devolved rule in Northern Ireland. He refused to join the Orange Order, the first Ulster Unionist MP at Westminster never to be a member (and, to date, one of only four, the others being Ken Maginnis, Danny Kinahan and Sylvia Hermon), and he was an outspoken opponent of the more extremist loyalism espoused by Ian Paisley and his supporters.",
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"plaintext": "In the aftermath of the Birmingham pub bombings by the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA) on 21 November 1974, the government passed the Prevention of Terrorism Act. During its second reading, Powell warned of passing legislation \"in haste and under the immediate pressure of indignation on matters which touch the fundamental liberties of the subject; for both haste and anger are ill counsellors, especially when one is legislating for the rights of the subject\". He said terrorism was a form of warfare that could not be prevented by laws and punishments but by the aggressor's certainty that the war was impossible to win.",
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"plaintext": "When Heath called a leadership election at the end of 1974, Powell claimed they would have to find someone who was not a member of the Cabinet that \"without a single resignation or public dissent, not merely swallowed but advocated every single reversal of election pledge or party principle\". During February 1975, after winning the leadership election, Margaret Thatcher refused to offer Powell a Shadow Cabinet place because \"he turned his back on his own people\" by leaving the Conservative Party exactly 12 months earlier and telling the electorate to vote Labour. Powell replied she was correct to exclude him: \"In the first place I am not a member of the Conservative Party and secondly, until the Conservative Party has worked its passage a very long way it will not be rejoining me\". Powell also attributed Thatcher's success to luck, saying that she was faced with \"supremely unattractive opponents at the time\".",
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"plaintext": "During the 1975 referendum on British membership of the EEC, Powell campaigned for a 'No' vote. Powell was one of the few prominent supporters of the 'No' camp, with Michael Foot, Tony Benn, Peter Shore, and Barbara Castle. The electorate voted 'Yes' by a margin of more than two to one.",
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"plaintext": "On 23 March 1977, in a vote of confidence against the minority Labour government, Powell, along with a few other Ulster Unionists, abstained. The government won by 322 votes to 298, and remained in power for another two years.",
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"plaintext": "Powell said that the only way to stop the Provisional IRA was for Northern Ireland to be an integral part of the United Kingdom, treated the same as any other of its constituent parts. He said the ambiguous nature of the province's status, with its own parliament and prime minister, gave hope to the PIRA that it could be detached from the rest of the UK:",
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"plaintext": "Nonetheless, in the 1987 general election that he lost, Powell campaigned in Bangor for James Kilfedder, the devolutionist North Down Popular Unionist Party MP and against Robert McCartney, who was standing as a Real Unionist on a policy of integration and equal citizenship for Northern Ireland.",
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"plaintext": "In Powell's later career as an Ulster Unionist MP he continued to criticise the United States and claimed that the Americans were trying to persuade the British to surrender Northern Ireland into an all-Irish state because the condition for Irish membership of NATO, Powell claimed, was Northern Ireland. The Americans wanted to close the 'yawning gap' in NATO defence that was the southern Irish coast to northern Spain. Powell had a copy of a State Department Policy Statement from 15 August 1950, in which the American government said that the \"agitation\" caused by partition in Ireland \"lessens the usefulness of Ireland in international organisations and complicates strategic planning for Europe\". \"It is desirable\", the document continued, \"that Ireland should be integrated into the defence planning of the North Atlantic area, for its strategic position and present lack of defensive capacity are matters of significance.\"",
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"plaintext": "Though he voted with the Conservatives in a vote of confidence that brought down the Labour government on 28 March, Powell did not welcome the victory of Margaret Thatcher in the May 1979 election. \"Grim\" was Powell's response when he was asked what he thought of Thatcher's victory because he believed she would renege like Heath did in 1972. During the election campaign, Thatcher, when questioned, again repeated her vow that there would be no position for Powell in her cabinet if the Conservatives won the forthcoming general election. In the days after the election, Powell wrote to Callaghan to commiserate on his defeat, pay tribute to his reign and to wish him well.",
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"plaintext": "After a riot in Bristol in 1980, Powell asserted that the media were ignoring similar events in south London and Birmingham, and claimed: \"Far less than the foreseeable New Commonwealth and Pakistan ethnic proportion would be sufficient to constitute a dominant political force in the United Kingdom able to extract from a government and the main parties terms calculated to render its influence still more impregnable. Far less than this proportion would provide the bases and citadels for urban terrorism, which would in turn reinforce the overt political leverage of simple numbers\". He attacked \"the false nostrums and promises of those who apparently monopolise the channels of communication. Who then is likely to listen, let alone to respond, to the proof that nothing short of major movements of population can shift the lines along which we are being carried towards disaster?\"",
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"plaintext": "In the 1980s, Powell began espousing the policy of unilateral nuclear disarmament. In a debate on the nuclear deterrent on 3 March 1981, Powell claimed that the debate was now more political than military; that the UK did not possess an independent deterrent and that through NATO the UK was tied to the nuclear deterrence theory of the United States. In the debate on the address shortly after the general election of 1983, Powell picked up on Thatcher's willingness, when asked, to use nuclear weapons as a \"last resort\". Powell presented a scenario of what he thought the last resort would be, namely that the Soviet Union would be ready to invade the UK and had used a nuclear weapon on somewhere such as Rockall to demonstrate their willingness to use it:",
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"plaintext": "Powell went on to say that if the Soviet invasion had already begun and the UK resorted to a retaliatory strike the results would be the same: \"We should be condemning, not merely to death, but as near as may be the non-existence of our population\". To Powell, an invasion would take place with or without the UK's nuclear weapons and therefore there was no point in retaining them. He said that after years of consideration, he had come to the conclusion that there were no \"rational grounds on which the deformation of our defence preparations in the United Kingdom by our determination to maintain a current independent nuclear deterrent can be justified\".",
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"plaintext": "On 28 March 1981, Powell gave a speech to Ashton-under-Lyne Young Conservatives where he criticised the \"conspiracy of silence\" between the government and the opposition over the prospective growth through births of the immigration population, and added, We have seen nothing yet' is a phrase that we could with advantage repeat to ourselves whenever we try to form a picture of that future\". He also criticised those who believed it was \"too late to do anything\" and that \"there lies the certainty of violence on a scale which can only adequately be described as civil war\". He also said that the solution was \"a reduction in prospective numbers as would represent re-emigration hardly less massive than the immigration which occurred in the first place\". The Shadow Home Secretary, Labour MP Roy Hattersley, criticised Powell for using \"Munich beer-hall language\". On 11 April, there was a riot in Brixton and when on 13 April an interviewer quoted to Thatcher Powell's remark that \"We have seen nothing yet\", she replied: \"I heard him say that and I thought it was a very very alarming remark. And I hope with all my heart that it isn't true\".",
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"plaintext": "In July, a riot took place in Toxteth, Liverpool. On 16 July 1981, Powell gave a speech in the Commons in which he said the riots could not be understood unless one takes into consideration the fact that in some large cities between a quarter and a half of those under 25 were immigrant or descended from immigrants. He read out a letter he had received from a member of the public about immigration that included the line: \"As they continue to multiply and as we can't retreat further there must be conflict\". A Labour MP, Martin Flannery, intervened, saying Powell was making \"a National Front speech\". Powell predicted \"inner London becoming ungovernable or violence which could only effectively be described as civil war\", and Flannery intervened again to ask what Powell knew about inner cities.",
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"plaintext": "Powell replied: \"I was a Member for Wolverhampton for a quarter of a century. What I saw in those early years of the development of this problem in Wolverhampton has made it impossible for me ever to dissociate myself from this gigantic and tragic problem\". He also criticised the view that the causes of the riots were economic: \"Are we seriously saying that so long as there is poverty, unemployment and deprivation our cities will be torn to pieces, that the police in them will be the objects of attack and that we shall destroy our own environment? Of course not\". Dame Judith Hart attacked his speech as \"an evil incitement to riot\". Powell replied: \"I am within the judgment of the House, as I am within the judgment of the people of this country, and I am content to stand before either tribunal\".",
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"plaintext": "After the Scarman Report on the riots was published, Powell gave a speech on 10 December in the Commons. Powell disagreed with Scarman, as the report stated that the black community was alienated because it was economically disadvantaged: the black community was alienated because it was alien. He said tensions would worsen because the non-white population was growing: whereas in Lambeth it was 25 per cent, of those of secondary school age it was 40 per cent. Powell said that the government should be honest to the people by telling them that in thirty years' time, the black population of Lambeth would have doubled in size.",
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"plaintext": "John Casey records an exchange between Powell and Thatcher during a meeting of the Conservative Philosophy Group:",
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"plaintext": "When Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands in April 1982, Powell was given secret briefings on Privy Councillor terms on behalf of his party. On 3 April, Powell said in the Commons that the time for inquests on the government's failure to protect the Falkland Islands would come later and that although it was right to put the issue before the United Nations, the UK should not wait upon that organisation to deliberate but use forceful action now. He then turned to face Thatcher: \"The Prime Minister, shortly after she came into office, received a sobriquet as the 'Iron Lady'. It arose in the context of remarks which she made about defence against the Soviet Union and its allies; but there was no reason to suppose that the right hon. Lady did not welcome and, indeed, take pride in that description. In the next week or two this House, the nation and the right hon. Lady herself will learn of what metal she is made\". According to Thatcher's friends this had a \"devastating impact\" on her and encouraged her resolve.",
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"plaintext": "On 14 April, in the Commons, Powell said: \"it is difficult to fault the military and especially the naval measures which the Government have taken\". He added: \"We are in some danger of resting our position too exclusively upon the existence, the nature and the wishes of the inhabitants of the Falkland Islands... if the population of the Falkland Islands did not desire to be British, the principle that the Queen wishes no unwilling subjects would long ago have prevailed; but we should create great difficulties for ourselves in other contexts, as well as in this context, if we rested our action purely and exclusively on the notion of restoring tolerable, acceptable conditions and self-determination to our fellow Britons on the Falkland Islands.... I do not think that we need be too nice about saying that we defend our territory as well as our people. There is nothing irrational, nothing to be ashamed of, in doing that. Indeed, it is impossible in the last resort to distinguish between the defence of territory and the defence of people\".",
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"plaintext": "Powell also criticised the United Nations Security Council's resolution calling for a \"peaceful solution\". He said while he wanted a peaceful solution, the resolution's meaning \"seems to be of a negotiated settlement or compromise between two incompatible positions—between the position which exists in international law, that the Falkland Islands and their dependencies are British sovereign territory and some other position altogether... It cannot be meant that one country has only to seize the territory of another country for the nations of the world to say that some middle position must be found.... If that were the meaning of the resolution of the Security Council, the charter of the United Nations would not be a charter of peace; it would be a pirates' charter. It would mean that any claim anywhere in the world had only to be pursued by force, and points would immediately be gained and a bargaining position established by the aggressor\".",
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"plaintext": "On 28 April, Powell spoke in the Commons against the Northern Ireland Secretary's (Jim Prior) plans for devolution to a power-sharing assembly in Northern Ireland: \"We assured the people of the Falkland Islands that there should be no change in their status without their agreement. Yet at the very same time that those assurances were being repeated, the actions of the Government and their representatives elsewhere were belying or contradicting those assurances and showing that part at any rate of the Government was looking to a very different outcome that could not be approved by the people of the islands. Essentially, exactly the same has happened over the years to Northern Ireland\". He further claimed that power-sharing was a negation of democracy.",
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"plaintext": "The next day Powell disagreed with the Labour Party leader Michael Foot's claim that the British government was acting under the authority of the United Nations: \"The right of self-defence—to repel aggression and to expel an invader from one's territory and one's people whom he has occupied and taken captive—is, as the Government have said, an inherent right. It is one which existed before the United Nations was dreamt of\".",
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"plaintext": "On 13 May Powell said the task force was sent \"to repossess the Falkland Islands, to restore British administration of the islands and to ensure that the decisive factor in the future of the islands should be the wishes of the inhabitants\" but the Foreign Secretary (Francis Pym) desired an \"interim agreement\": \"So far as I understand that interim agreement, it is in breach, if not in contradiction, of each of the three objects with which the task force was dispatched to the South Atlantic. There was to be a complete and supervised withdrawal of Argentine forces... matched by corresponding withdrawal of British forces. There is no withdrawal of British force that 'corresponds' to the withdrawal from the territory of the islands of those who have unlawfully occupied them. We have a right to be there; those are our waters, the territory is ours and we have the right to sail the oceans with our fleets whenever we think fit. So the whole notion of a 'corresponding withdrawal', a withdrawal of the only force which can possibly restore the position, which can possibly ensure any of the objectives which have been talked about on either side of the House, is in contradiction of the determination to repossess the Falklands\".",
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"plaintext": "After British forces successfully recaptured the Falklands, Powell asked Thatcher in the Commons on 17 June, recalling his statement to her of 3 April: \"Is the right hon. Lady aware that the report has now been received from the public analyst on a certain substance recently subjected to analysis and that I have obtained a copy of the report? It shows that the substance under test consisted of ferrous matter of the highest quality, that it is of exceptional tensile strength, is highly resistant to wear and tear and to stress, and may be used with advantage for all national purposes?\" She replied, \"I think that I am very grateful indeed to the right hon. Gentleman. I agree with every word that he said\". Their mutual friend Ian Gow printed and framed this and the original question and presented it to Thatcher, who hung it in her office.",
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"plaintext": "Powell wrote an article for The Times on 29 June, in which he said: \"The Falklands have brought to the surface of the British mind our latent perception of ourselves as a sea animal.... No assault on a landward possession would have evoked the same automatic defiance, tinged with a touch of that self sufficiency which belongs to all nations\". The United States' response was \"very different but just as deep an instinctual reaction... the United States have an almost neurotic sense of vulnerability... its two coastlines, its two theatres, its two navies are separated by the entire length of the New World... she lives with... the nightmare of having one day to fight a decisive sea battle without the benefit of concentration, the perpetual spectre of naval 'war on two fronts'.\" Powell added: \"The Panama Canal from 1914 onwards could never quite exorcise the spectre.... It was the position of the Falkland Islands in relation to that route which gave and gives them their significance—for the United States above all. The British people have become uneasily aware that their American allies would prefer the Falkland Islands to pass out of Britain's possession into hands which, if not wholly American, might be amenable to American control. In fact, the American struggle to wrest the islands from Britain has only commenced in earnest now that the fighting is over\". Powell then said there was \"the Hispanic factor\": \"If we could gather together all the anxieties for the future which in Britain cluster around race relations... and then attribute them, translated into Hispanic terms, to the Americans, we would have something of the phobias which haunt the United States and addressed itself to the aftermath of the Falklands campaign\".",
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"plaintext": "Writing in The Guardian on 18 October, Powell asserted that due to the Falklands War, \"Britain no longer looked upon itself and the world through American spectacles\" and the view was \"more rational; and it was more congenial; for, after all, it was our own view\". He quoted an observation that Americans thought their country was \"a unique society... where God has put together all nationalities, races and interests of the globe for one purpose—to show the rest of the world how to live\". He denounced the \"manic exaltation of the American illusion\" and compared it to the \"American nightmare\". Powell also disliked the American belief that \"they are authorised, possibly by the deity, to intervene, openly or covertly, in the internal affairs of other countries anywhere in the world\". The UK should dissociate herself from American intervention in the Lebanon: \"It is not in Britain's self-interest alone that Britain should once again assert her own position. A world in which the American myth and the American nightmare go unchallenged by question or by contradiction is not a world as safe or as peaceable as human reason, prudence and realism can make it\".",
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"plaintext": "Speaking to the Aldershot and North Hants Conservative Association on 4 February 1983, Powell blamed the United Nations for the Falklands War by the General Assembly resolution of December 1967 that stated \"its gratitude for the continuous efforts made by the Government of Argentina to facilitate the process of decolonisation\" and further called on the UK and Argentina to negotiate. Powell said that \"it would be difficult to imagine a more cynically wicked or criminally absurd or insultingly provocative action\". As 102 had voted for this resolution, with only the UK voting against it (with 32 abstentions), he claimed it was not surprising that Argentina had continually threatened the UK until this threatening turned into aggression: \"It is with the United Nations that the guilt lies for the breach of the peace and the bloodshed\". The UN knew that no international forum had ruled against British possession of the Falklands but had voted its gratitude to Argentina who wanted to annexe the Islands from their rightful owners. It was therefore \"disgraceful\" for the UK to belong to such a body that engaged in \"pure spite for spite's sake against the United Kingdom\": \"We were, and are, the victims of our own insincerity. For over thirty years we have sanctimoniously and dishonestly pretended respect, if not awe, for an organisation which all the time we knew was a monstrous and farcical humbug.... The moral is to cease to engage in humbug, which almost all have happily and self-righteously engaged in for a generation\".",
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"plaintext": "In an article for the Sunday Telegraph on 3 April, Powell expressed his opposition to the Labour Party's manifesto pledge to outlaw fox hunting. He claimed that angling was much crueller and that it was just as logical to ban the boiling of live lobsters or eating live oysters. The ceremonial part of fox hunting was \"a side of our national character which is deeply antipathetic to the Labour party\". In the 1983 general election, Powell had to face a DUP candidate in his constituency and Ian Paisley denounced Powell as \"a foreigner and an Anglo-Catholic\".",
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"plaintext": "On 31 May Powell gave a speech at Downpatrick against nuclear weapons. Powell claimed that war could not be banished because \"War is implicit in the human condition\". The \"true case against the nuclear weapon is the nightmarish unreality and criminal levity of the grounds upon which its acquisition and multiplication are advocated and defended\". Thatcher had claimed nuclear weapons were our defence \"of last resort\". Powell said he supposed this to mean \"that the Soviet Union, which seems always to be assumed to be the enemy in question, proved so victorious in a war of aggression in Europe as to stand upon the verge of invading these islands.... Suppose further, because this is necessary to the alleged case for our nuclear weapon as the defence of last resort, that, as in 1940, the United States was standing aloof from the contest but that, in contrast with 1940, Britain and the Warsaw Pact respectively possessed the nuclear weaponry which they do today. Such must surely be the sort of scene in which the Prime Minister is asserting that Britain would be saved by possession of her present nuclear armament. I can only say: 'One must be mad to think it'.\" Powell pointed out that the UK's nuclear weaponry \"is negligible in comparison with that of Russia: if we could destroy 16 Russian cities she could destroy practically every vestige of life on these islands several times over. For us to use the weapon would therefore be equivalent to more than suicide: it would be genocide—the extinction of our race—in the literal and precise meaning of that much abused expression. Would anybody in their senses contemplate that this ought to be our choice or would be our choice?\"",
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"plaintext": "Powell further stated that the continental nations held the nuclear weapon in such esteem that they had conventional forces \"manifestly inadequate to impose more than brief delay upon an assault from the East. The theory of nuclear deterrence states that, should Warsaw Pact forces score substantial military successes or make substantial advances this side of the Iron Curtain, the United States would initiate the suicidal duel of strategic nuclear exchanges with the Soviet Union. One can only greet this idea with an even more emphatic 'One must be mad to think of it'. That a nation staring ultimate military defeat in the face would choose self-extermination is unbelievable enough; but that the United States, separated from Europe by the Atlantic Ocean, would regard the loss of the first pawn in the long game as necessitating harakiri is not describable by the ordinary resources of language\". The reason why governments, including in the US, supported nuclear weapons was that \"enormous economic and financial interests are vested in the continuation and elaboration of nuclear armaments. I believe, however, that the crucial explanation lies in another direction: the nuclear hypothesis provides governments with an excuse for not doing what they have no intention of doing anyhow, but for reasons which they find it inconvenient to specify\".",
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"plaintext": "On 2 June, Powell spoke against the stationing of US cruise missiles in the UK and asserted that the United States had an obsessive sense of mission and a hallucinatory view of international relations: \"The American nation, as we have watched their proceedings during these last 25 years, will not, when another Atlantic crisis, another Middle East crisis or another European crisis comes, wait upon the deliberations of the British Cabinet, whose point of view and appreciation of the situation will be so different from their own\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1983, his local agent was Jeffrey Donaldson, later an Ulster Unionist MP before defecting to the DUP.",
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"plaintext": "In 1984, Powell alleged that the Central Intelligence Agency had murdered Earl Mountbatten of Burma and that the assassinations of the MPs Airey Neave and Robert Bradford were carried out at the direction of elements in the Government of the United States of America with the strategic objective of preventing Neave's policy of integration of Ulster fully into the United Kingdom. In 1986, Powell stated that the Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) had not killed Neave but that \"MI6 and their friends\" were responsible: Powell cited as his sources information that had been disclosed to him from within the Royal Ulster Constabulary. Margaret Thatcher, however, rejected and dismissed these assertions.",
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"plaintext": "In 1985, race riots between the black community and the police broke out in London and in Birmingham, leading Powell to repeat his warning that ethnic civil conflict would be the ultimate outcome of foreign mass migration into the British Isles, and re-issue his call for a government sponsored programme of repatriation.",
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"plaintext": "Powell later came into conflict with Thatcher in November 1985 over her support for the Anglo-Irish Agreement. On the day it was signed, 14 November, Powell asked her in the Commons: \"Does the Right Hon. Lady understand — if she does not yet understand she soon will — that the penalty for treachery is to fall into public contempt?\", the Prime Minister replying that she found his remarks \"deeply offensive\".",
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"plaintext": "Along with other Unionist MPs, Powell resigned his seat in protest and then narrowly regained it at the ensuing by-election.",
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"plaintext": "Despite once having been the youngest university professor in the entire British Empire, Powell was upstaged by the former Irish schoolteacher Seamus Mallon who was a new entrant to the House of Commons in 1986. During his maiden speech, Mallon quoted the renowned Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza, saying \"Peace is not an absence of war. It is … a state of mind, a disposition for benevolence, confidence, justice.\" Powell, sitting close to Mallon, hissed an objection. When Mallon enquired why, Powell claimed that he had misquoted Spinoza. Mallon insisted he had not and, to reconcile the standoff between two stubborn gentlemen, the supercilious classics professor and the Ulsterman, they both repaired to the library to verify the quote. The Christian Brothers-educated Mallon was found to have been correct.",
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"plaintext": "In 1987, Thatcher visited the Soviet Union, which signified to Powell a \"radical transformation which is in progress in both the foreign policy and the defence policy of the United Kingdom\". In a speech in the Commons on 7 April, Powell claimed the nuclear hypothesis had been shaken by two events. The first was the Strategic Defense Initiative or \"Star Wars\": \"Star wars raised the terrible prospect that there might be an effective means of neutralising the inter-continental ballistic missile, whereby the two great giants who held what had become to be seen as the balance of terror would contract out of the game altogether: the deterrent would be switched off by the invulnerability of the two providers of the mutual terror\".",
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"plaintext": "America's \"European allies were brought along to acquiesce in the United States engaging in the rational activity of discovering whether there was after all some defence against nuclear attack... by the apparent assurance obtained from the United States that it was only engaged in experiment and research, and that, if there were any danger of effective protection being devised, of course the United States would not avail itself of that protection without the agreement of its European allies. That was the first recent event which shook to its foundations the nuclear deterrent with which we had lived these last 30 years\".",
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"plaintext": "The second event was Mikhail Gorbachev's offer of both the Soviet Union and the United States agreeing to abolish intermediate-range ballistic missiles. Powell said that Thatcher's \"most significant point was when she went on to say that we must aim at a conventional forces balance. So, after all our journeys of the last 30 or 40 years, the disappearance of the intermediate range ballistic missile revived the old question of the supposed conventional imbalance between the Russian alliance and the North Atlantic Alliance\".",
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"plaintext": "Powell further claimed that even if nuclear weapons had not existed, the Russians would still not have invaded Western Europe: \"What has prevented that from happening was... the fact that the Soviet Union knew... that such an action on its part would have led to a third world war—a long war, bitterly fought, a war which in the end the Soviet Union would have been likely to lose on the same basis and in the same way as the corresponding war was lost by Napoleon, by the Emperor Wilhelm and by Adolf Hitler. It was that fear, that caution, that understanding, that perception on the part of Russia and its leaders that was the real deterrent against Russia committing the utterly irrational and suicidal act of plunging into a third world war in which the Soviet Union would be likely to find itself confronting a combination of the greatest industrial and economic powers in the world\".",
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"plaintext": "Powell said, \"In the minds of the Russians the inevitable commitment of the United States in such a war would have come not directly or necessarily from the stationing of American marines in Germany, but, as it came in the previous two struggles, from the ultimate involvement of the United States in any war determining the future of Europe\". Thatcher's belief in the nuclear hypothesis \"in the context of the use of American bases in Britain to launch an aggressive attack on Libya, that it was 'inconceivable' that we could have refused a demand placed upon this country by the United States. The Prime Minister supplied the reason why: she said it was because we depend for our liberty and freedom upon the United States. Once let the nuclear hypothesis be questioned or destroyed, once allow it to break down, and from that moment the American imperative in this country's policies disappears with it\".",
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"plaintext": "At the start of 1987 general election, Powell claimed the Conservatives' prospects did not look good: \"I have the feeling of 1945\". During the final weekend of the election campaign Powell gave a speech in London reiterating his opposition to the nuclear hypothesis, calling it \"barmy\", and advocating a vote for the Labour Party, which had unilateral nuclear disarmament as a policy. He claimed that Chernobyl had strengthened \"a growing impulse to escape from the nightmare of peace being dependent upon the contemplation of horrific and mutual carnage. Events have now so developed that this aspiration can at last be rationally, logically and—I dare to add—patriotically seized by the people of the United Kingdom if they will use their votes to do so\".",
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"plaintext": "However, Powell lost his seat in the election by 731 votes to the Social Democratic and Labour Party's Eddie McGrady, mainly because of demographic and boundary changes that resulted in there being many more Irish Nationalists in the constituency than before. The boundary changes had arisen due to his own campaign for the number of MPs representing Northern Ireland to be increased to the equivalent proportion for the rest of the United Kingdom, as part of the steps towards greater integration. McGrady paid tribute to Powell, recognising the respect he was held by both Unionists and Nationalists in the constituency. Powell said, \"For the rest of my life when I look back on the 13 years I shall be filled with affection for the Province and its people, and their fortunes will never be out of my heart\". He received a warm ovation from the mostly Nationalist audience and as he walked off the platform, he said the words Edmund Burke used on the death of candidate Richard Coombe: \"What shadows we are, what shadows we pursue\". When a BBC reporter asked Powell to explain his defeat, he replied: \"My opponent polled more votes than me\".",
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"plaintext": "He was offered a life peerage, which was regarded as his right as a former cabinet minister, but declined it. He argued that as he had opposed the Life Peerages Act 1958, it would be hypocritical for him to take one, but even if he was willing to accept a hereditary peerage (which would have been extinct upon his death as he had no male heir), Thatcher was unwilling to court the controversy that might have arisen as a result.",
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"plaintext": "Powell was critical of the Special Air Service (SAS) shootings of three unarmed IRA members in Gibraltar in March 1988. Powell claimed in an article for The Guardian on 7 December 1988 that the new Western-friendly foreign policy of Russia under Mikhail Gorbachev heralded \"the death and burial of the American empire\". Chancellor Helmut Kohl of West Germany had decided to visit Moscow to negotiate German reunification, signalling to Powell that the last gasp of American power in Europe to be replaced by a new balance of power not resting on military force but on the \"recognition of the restraints which the ultimate certainty of failure places upon the ambitions of the respective national states\".",
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"plaintext": "In an interview for the Sunday People in December 1988, Powell said the Conservative Party was \"rejoining Enoch\" on the European Community but repeated his warning of civil war as the consequence of immigration: \"I still cannot forsee how a country can be peaceably governed in which the composition of the population is progressively going to change. I am talking about violence on a scale which can only be described as civil war. I cannot see there can be any other outcome\". It would not be a race war but \"about people who revolt against being trapped in a situation where they feel at the mercy of a built-in racial majority, whatever its colour\" and claimed that the government had made contingency plans for such an event. The solution, he said, was repatriation on a large scale and the cost of doing this in welfare payments and pensions was well worth paying.",
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"plaintext": "After Thatcher's Bruges speech in September 1988 and her increasing hostility to a European currency in the last years of her premiership, Powell made many speeches publicly supporting her attitude to Europe. When Heath criticised Thatcher's speech in May 1989 Powell called him \"the old virtuoso of the U-turn\". When inflation crept up that year, he condemned the Chancellor Nigel Lawson's policy of printing money so sterling would shadow the German deutschmark and said that it was for the UK to join the European Monetary System.",
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"plaintext": "In early September 1989, a collection of Powell's speeches on Europe was published titled Enoch Powell on 1992 (1992 being the year set for the creation of the Single Market by the Single European Act of 1986). In a speech at Chatham House for the launch of the book on 6 September, he advised Thatcher to fight the next general election on a nationalist theme as many Eastern European nations previously under Russian rule were gaining their freedom. At the Conservative Party conference in October, he told a fringe meeting, \"I find myself today less on the fringe of that party than I have done for 20 years\". After Thatcher resisted further European integration at a meeting at Strasbourg in November Powell asked her parliamentary private secretary Mark Lennox-Boyd to pass to her \"my respectful congratulations on her stand... she both spoke for Britain and gave a lead to Europe—in the line of succession of Winston Churchill and William Pitt. Those who lead are always out in front, alone\". Thatcher replied, \"I am deeply touched by your words. They give me the greatest possible encouragement\".",
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"plaintext": "On 5 January 1990, addressing Conservatives in Liverpool, Powell said that if the Conservatives played the \"British card\" at the next general election, they could win; the new mood in the UK for \"self-determination\" had given the newly independent nations of Eastern Europe a \"beacon\", adding that the UK should stand alone, if necessary, for European freedom, adding: \"We are taunted—by the French, by the Italians, by the Spaniards—for refusing to worship at the shrine of a common government superimposed upon them all... where were the European unity merchants in 1940? I will tell you. They were either writhing under a hideous oppression or they were aiding and abetting that oppression. Lucky for Europe that Britain was alone in 1940\".",
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"plaintext": "The Conservative Party would have to ask, preferably at the next election: \"Do you intend still to control the laws which you obey, the taxes you pay and the policies of your government?\" Five days after this speech, in an interview for The Daily Telegraph, Thatcher praised Powell: \"I have always read Enoch Powell's speeches and articles very carefully.... I always think it was a tragedy that he left. He is a very, very able politician. I say that even though he has sometimes said vitriolic things against me\". On the day of the Mid-Staffordshire by-election, Powell said that the government should admit that the community charge was \"a disaster\" and that what mattered most to the people of Mid-Staffordshire was the question of who should govern the UK and that only the Conservative Party was advocating that the British should govern themselves. Thatcher had been labelled \"dictatorial\" for wanting to \"go it alone\" in Europe: \"Well, I do not mind somebody being dictatorial in defending my own rights and those of my fellow countrymen... lose self-government, and I have lost everything, and for good\". This was the first election since 1970 in which Powell was advocating a vote for the Conservative Party. However, the Labour Party won the seat from the Conservative Party, mainly, it was said, because of the community charge.",
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"plaintext": "After Iraq invaded Kuwait on 2 August 1990, Powell said that since the UK was not an ally of Kuwait in the \"formal sense\" and because the balance of power in the Middle East had ceased to be a British concern after the end of the British Empire, the UK should not go to war. Powell said that \"Saddam Hussein has a long way to go yet before his troops come storming up the beaches of Kent or Sussex\". On 21 October, he wrote, \"The world is full of evil men engaged in doing evil things. That does not make us policemen to round them up nor judges to find them guilty and to sentence them. What is so special about the ruler of Iraq that we suddenly discover that we are to be his jailers and his judges?... we as a nation have no interest in the existence or non-existence of Kuwait or, for that matter, Saudi Arabia as an independent state. I sometimes wonder if, when we shed our power, we omitted to shed our arrogance\".",
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"plaintext": "When Thatcher was challenged by Michael Heseltine for the leadership of the Conservative Party during November 1990, Powell said he would rejoin the party, which he had left in February 1974 over the issue of Europe, if Thatcher won, and would urge the public to support both her and, in Powell's view, national independence. He wrote to one of Thatcher's supporters, Norman Tebbit, on 16 November, telling him Thatcher was entitled to use his name and his support in any way she saw fit. Since she resigned on 22 November, Powell never rejoined the Conservatives. Powell wrote the following Sunday: \"Good news is seldom so good, nor bad news so bad, as at first sight it appears\".",
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"plaintext": "Her downfall was due to having so few like-minded people on European integration amongst her colleagues and that as she had adopted a line that would improve her party's popularity, it was foolish of them to force her out. However he added, \"The battle has been lost, but not the war. The fact abides that, outside the magic circle at the top, a deep rooted opposition has been disclosed in the UK to surrendering to others the right to make our laws, fix our taxes, or decide our policies. Running deep beneath the overlay of years of indifference is still the attachment of the British public to their tradition of democracy. Their resentment on learning that their own decisions can be overruled from outside remains as obstinate as ever\". Thatcher had relit the flame of independence and \"what has happened once can happen again... sooner or later those who aspire to govern... will have to listen\".",
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"plaintext": "In December 1991, Powell said that \"Whether Yugoslavia dissolves into two states or half a dozen states or does not dissolve at all makes no difference to the safety and well being of the United Kingdom\". The UK's national interests determined that the country should have \"a foreign policy which befits the sole insular and oceanic state in Europe\". During the 1992 general election Powell spoke for Nicholas Budgen in his old seat of Wolverhampton South West. He praised Budgen for his opposition to the Maastricht Treaty and condemned the rest of the Conservative Party for supporting it.",
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"plaintext": "In late 1992, aged 80, Powell was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease. In 1994, he published The Evolution of the Gospel: A New Translation of the First Gospel with Commentary and Introductory Essay. On 5 November, the European printed an article by Powell in which he said he did not expect the European Communities Act 1972 to be amended or repealed but added, \"Still, something has happened. There has been an explosion. Politicians, political parties, the public itself have looked into the abyss... the British people, somehow or other, will not be parted from their right to govern themselves in parliament\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1993, the twenty-fifth anniversary of Powell's \"Rivers of Blood\" speech, Powell wrote an article for The Times, in which he claimed the concentration of immigrant communities in inner cities would lead to \"communalism\", which would have grave effects on the electoral system: \"communalism and democracy, as the experience of India demonstrates, are incompatible\". In May, he spoke for Alan Sked of the Anti-Federalist League (the forerunner of the United Kingdom Independence Party) who was standing at the Newbury by-election. Sked went on to lose his deposit at the by-election, polling only 601 votes (1.0 per cent). At Michael Portillo's 40th birthday party the same month, Thatcher greeted him enthusiastically and asked him: \"Enoch, I haven't seen you since your eightieth-birthday dinner. How are you?\" Powell replied, \"I'm eighty-one\". Powell's opinion of Thatcher had declined after she endorsed John Major at the 1992 general election, which he believed to be a repudiation of her fight against European integration after the Bruges speech.",
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"plaintext": "On 16 May 1994, Powell spoke at the Bruges Group and said Europe had \"destroyed one Prime Minister and will destroy another Prime Minister yet\" and demanded powers surrendered to the European Court of Justice to be repatriated. In June 1994, he wrote an article for the Daily Mail, where he stated that \"Britain is waking from the nightmare of being part of the continental bloc, to rediscover that these offshore islands belong to the outside world and lie open to its oceans\". Innovations in contemporary society did not worry him: \"When exploration has run its course, we shall revert to the normal type of living to which nature and instinct predispose us. The decline will not have been permanent. The deterioration will not have been irreversible\".",
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"plaintext": "In his book The Evolution of the Gospel, published in August 1994, Powell said he had arrived at the view that Jesus Christ was not crucified but stoned to death by the Jews. Bishop John Austin Baker commented \"He is a great classicist, but theology is out of his academic field.\"",
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"plaintext": "Following his death, Powell's friend Richard Ritchie recorded in 1998 that \"during one of the habitual coal crises of recent years he told me that he had no objection to supporting the coal industry, either through the restriction of cheap coal imports or subsidy, if it were the country's wish to preserve local coal communities\".",
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"plaintext": "In the 1990s, Powell endorsed three UKIP candidates in parliamentary elections. He also turned down two invitations to stand for the party in elections, citing retirement.",
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"plaintext": "In April 1995, he said in an interview that for the Conservatives \"defeat [at the next election] would help. It helps one to change one's tune\". The party was just \"slithering around\". The same month, he took part at a debate on Europe at the Cambridge Union and won.",
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"plaintext": "In July 1995, there was a leadership election for the Conservative Party, in which Major resigned as leader of the party and stood in the election. Powell wrote, \"He says to the Sovereign: I no longer am leader of the majority party in the House of Commons; but I am carrying on as your Prime Minister. Now I don't think anybody can say that—at least without inflicting damage on the constitution\". To seek to offer advice to the Queen while unable to feel they could command a majority in the Commons was \"tantamount to treating the monarch herself with disrespect and denying the very principle in which our parliamentary democracy is founded\". After Major's challenger, John Redwood, was defeated, Powell wrote to him, \"Dear Redwood, you will never regret the events of the last week or two. Patience will evidently have to be exercised—and patience is the greatest of the political virtues—by those of us who want to keep Britain independent and self-governed\".",
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"plaintext": "During the final years of his life, he managed occasional pieces of journalism and co-operated in a BBC documentary about his life in 1995 (Odd Man Out was broadcast on 11 November). In April 1996, he wrote an article for the Daily Express, in which he said: \"Those who consented to the surrender made in 1972 will have to think again. Thinking again means that activity most unthinkable for politicians—unsaying what has been said. The surrender... we have made is not irrevocable. Parliament still has the power (thank God) to reclaim what has been surrendered by treaty. It is time we told the other European nations what we mean by being self-governed\". In October, he gave his last interview, to Matthew d'Ancona in the Sunday Telegraph.",
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"plaintext": "He said: \"I have lived into an age in which my ideas are now part of common intuition, part of a common fashion. It has been a great experience, having given up so much to find that there is now this range of opinion in all classes, that an agreement with the EEC is totally incompatible with normal parliamentary government.... The nation has returned to haunt us\". When Labour won the 1997 general election, Powell told his wife, Pamela Wilson, \"They have voted to break up the United Kingdom.\" She rejoined the Conservative Party the next day, but he did not. By then, Powell had been hospitalised several times as a result of a succession of falls.",
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"plaintext": "A few hours following Powell's final admission to King Edward VII's Hospital in London, he asked where his lunch was. On being told that he was being fed intravenously, he remarked, \"I don't call that much of a lunch.\" These were his last recorded words. On 8 February 1998, he died there at the age of 85. His study of the Gospel of John remained unfinished.",
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"plaintext": "Dressed in a brigadier's uniform, Powell's body was buried in his regiment's plot in Warwick Cemetery, Warwickshire, ten days after a family funeral service at Westminster Abbey and public services at St. Margaret's, Westminster and the Collegiate Church of St Mary, Warwick.",
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"plaintext": "Over 1,000 people turned up to Powell's funeral, and during the ceremony he was hailed as a man of prophecy, political sacrifice and as a great parliamentarian. During the service, Lord Biffen said that Powell's nationalism \"certainly did not bear the stamp of racial superiority or xenophobia\". After Powell's death, many Conservative politicians paid tribute to him, including former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, who said, \"There will never be anybody else so compelling as Enoch Powell. He was magnetic. Listening to his speeches was an unforgettable privilege. He was one of those rare people who made a difference and whose moral compass led us in the right direction.\" Other mourners at the service included socialist Labour MP Tony Benn who, despite criticising the Rivers of Blood speech, maintained a close relationship with Powell, and when asked why he had attended the funeral, simply responded with \"he was my friend.\"",
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"plaintext": "Other politicians, including his rivals, also paid tribute to him, including former Labour party leader Tony Blair who said, \"However controversial his views, he was one of the great figures of 20th-century British politics, gifted with a brilliant mind. However much we disagreed with many of his views, there was no doubting the strength of his convictions or their sincerity, or his tenacity in pursuing them, regardless of his own political self-interest.\"",
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"plaintext": "He was survived by his widow and two daughters.",
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"plaintext": "Powell was reading Ancient Greek by the age of five, which he learned from his mother. At the age of 70, he began learning his 14th and final language, Hebrew.",
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"plaintext": "Despite his earlier atheism, Powell became a devout member of the Church of England, thinking in 1949 \"that he heard the bells of St Peter's Wolverhampton calling him\" while walking to his flat in his (then future) constituency. Subsequently, he became a churchwarden of St. Margaret's, Westminster.",
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"plaintext": "On 2 January 1952, the 39-year-old Powell married 26-year-old Margaret Pamela Wilson, a former colleague from the Conservative Central Office. Their first daughter, Susan, was born in January 1954, and their second daughter, Jennifer, was born in October 1956.",
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"plaintext": "Powell firmly believed that William Shakespeare of Stratford on Avon was not the writer of the plays and poems of Shakespeare. He appeared on an episode of Frontline, \"The Shakespeare Mystery,\" 19 April 1989, in which he said, \"My astonishment was to discover that these were the works of someone who'd 'been in the kitchen.' They are written by someone who has lived the life, who has been part of a life of politics and power, who knows what people feel when they are near to the centre of power. Near to the heat of the kitchen.\" He called the traditional biography a \"Stratfordian fantasy.\" On the subject of Shakespeare's will, he says, \"That is a will in which this great spirit, this man of immense learning and vision, not only bequeathed no books...\" but he also neglected to bequeath \"the most valuable thing he had to bequeath, the remaining manuscripts of his plays which were eventually to be published seven years after his death.\" Powell calls the Droeshout portrait of Shakespeare in the First Folio, and the monument to Shakespeare in Stratford \"a mask,\" \"a fix,\" \"a spoof\" to conceal the identity of the true author.",
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"plaintext": "Powell's rhetorical gifts were also employed, with success, beyond politics. He was a poet of some accomplishment, with four published collections to his name: First Poems; Casting Off; Dancer's End; and The Wedding Gift. His Collected Poems appeared in 1990. He translated Herodotus' Histories and published many other works of classical scholarship. He published a biography of Joseph Chamberlain, which treated the split with William Gladstone over Irish Home Rule in 1886 as the pivotal point of his career, rather than the adoption of tariff reform, and contained the famous line: \"All political lives, unless they are cut off in midstream at a happy juncture, end in failure, because that is the nature of politics and of all human affairs\". His political publications were often as critical of his own party as they were of Labour, often making fun of what he saw as logical fallacies in reasoning or action. His book Freedom & Reality contained many quotes from Labour party manifestos or by Harold Wilson that he regarded as nonsensical.",
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"plaintext": "When asked by BBC interviewer Michael Parkinson what he regarded as his achievements, he replied \"it is doubtful whether any man can say how the world was altered because he was in it.\" In August 2002, Powell appeared 55th in the List of 100 Greatest Britons of all time (voted for by the public in a BBC nationwide poll).",
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"plaintext": "In March 2015, The Independent reported that Powell was one of the MPs whose activities had been investigated as part of Operation Fernbridge. His name had been passed to police by Paul Butler, the Bishop of Durham, after allegations of Powell's involvement in historic child abuse had been made by one individual in the 1980s to the then Bishop of Monmouth, Dominic Walker. Simon Heffer, who has published a biography of Powell, has described the allegation as a \"monstrous lie\" and criticised the Church of England's actions in \"putting this smear into the public domain\", while the church stated that it had simply responded to an inquiry from the press and confirmed that allegations about Powell, which related to an alleged satanic cult rather than any criminal activity, had been passed to the police. David Aaronovitch of The Times wrote in April 2015 that the 1980s claims about Powell originated from fabricated claims invented by a conman, Derry Mainwaring Knight, whose false assertions had become known to the clergy, but had been unwittingly conveyed to the police in good faith.",
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"plaintext": "According to Michael Bloch, in his old age, Powell confessed to Canon Eric James, a former Trinity College Chaplain, that he had been in love with a fellow male undergraduate at Cambridge, whom Bloch identifies as \"probably Edward Curtis of Clare College\", and that this infatuation had inspired love verses published in his First Poems. This confession was revealed by James in a letter to The Times on 10 February 1998.",
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"plaintext": "Following his appointment as Professor of Greek at the University of Sydney in 1937, he wrote to his parents (on 22 May and 16 June 1938) that he was repelled by his female students, while feeling \"an instant and instinctive affection\" for young Australian males. This, he added, might be \"deplored, but it cannot be altered\", and it therefore had to be \"endured – and (alas!) camouflaged.\" The letters are now in the Churchill College Archives (POLL 1/1/1).",
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"plaintext": "Following a long illness, Pamela Powell died in November 2017 at the age of 91, 19 years after her husband.",
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"plaintext": "Concerns raised about effects of coloured immigration in communities in his constituency played a part in his commentary. In March 1968, the month before the \"Rivers of Blood\" speech, he made his first public references to them in a speech in Walsall, when he described the concern of an anonymous constituent whose daughter was the only white child in her primary school class and suffered bullying from non-white pupils. When Wolverhampton Express and Star journalists failed to find the child or the class, the paper's editor and a then personal friend, Clement Jones, challenged him, stating Jones himself had similar anonymous complaints that were traced to members of the National Front (NF). Powell would not accept the explanation, and told Jones he had received \"bags of supporting mail\" as a result of the Walsall speech.",
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"plaintext": "During the 1970 election, Tony Benn declared in a speech that Powell's approach to immigration was 'evil', and said \"The flag of racialism which has been hoisted in Wolverhampton is beginning to look like the one that fluttered over Dachau and Belsen.\" In response, when a television reporter told Powell at a meeting of Benn's comments, he snatched the microphone and replied \"All I will say is that for myself, in 1939 I voluntarily returned from Australia to this country, to serve as a private soldier against Germany and Nazism. I am the same man today.\" Similarly, Powell responded to student hecklers at a speech in Cardiff: \"I hope those who shouted 'Fascist' and 'Nazi' are aware that before they were born I was fighting against Fascism and Nazism.\"",
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"plaintext": "In November 1968, Powell also suggested that the problems that would be caused if there were a large influx of Germans or Russians into the UK \"would be as serious – and in some respects more serious – than could follow from the introduction of a similar number of West Indies or Pakistanis\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1944, when Powell was visiting Poona with another member of the Joint Intelligence Committee, an Indian, General (later Field Marshal) K. M. Cariappa, he refused to stay at the Byculla club once it became clear that Cariappa as an Indian would not be allowed to stay there. Close friends also recall that Powell took great pleasure in speaking Urdu when dining at Indian restaurants.",
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"plaintext": "Nevertheless, Powell's nationalism and accusations of racialism sometimes trod a fine line. In 1996, BBC journalist Michael Cockerell asked him about the language he used in the \"Rivers of Blood\" speech, arguing that it could be used by self-proclaimed racialists against non-whites. In defence of the language he used in the speech, Powell replied:",
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"plaintext": "Victoria Honeyman, Lecturer in Politics at the University of Leeds in England, wrote of Powell's beliefs on immigration:",
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"plaintext": "According to Libertarian theorist Murray Rothbard, Powellism was seen as a proper step toward free markets in the early 1970s, writing:",
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"plaintext": "Powell sat for sculptor Alan Thornhill for a portrait in clay. The correspondence file relating to the Powell portrait bust is held as part of the Thornhill Papers (2006:56) in the archive of the Henry Moore Foundation's Henry Moore Institute in Leeds and the terracotta remains in the collection of the artist. English photographer Allan Warren photographed many portraits of Powell.",
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"plaintext": " Powell's \"Rivers of Blood\" speech was subject of the play What Shadows by Chris Hannan, staged in Birmingham from 27 October to 12 November 2016, with Powell portrayed by Ian McDiarmid and Clem Jones by George Costigan.",
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"plaintext": " Nigel Hastilow",
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"plaintext": " Paul Corthorn, Enoch Powell: Politics and Ideas in Modern Britain, OUP Oxford, 2019.",
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"plaintext": " Olivier Esteves et Stéphane Porion, The Lives and Afterlives of Enoch Powell, London, Routledge, 2019.",
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"plaintext": " Lewis, Roy (1979), Enoch Powell. Principle in Politics, Cassell, London. ",
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"plaintext": " Schofield, Camilla (2013), Enoch Powell and the Making of Postcolonial Britain, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, ",
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"plaintext": " Schoen, Douglas E. (1977), Enoch Powell and the Powellites, Macmillan, London. ",
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"plaintext": " Clarke, Peter (7 March 2013). \"I am a classical scholar, and you are not.\" London Review of Books, vol. 35, no. 5. pp.31–32. . Archived from the original.",
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"plaintext": " : Powell interviewed shortly after his controversial \"Rivers of Blood\" speech (3 min 38 s).",
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"plaintext": " Tru64 UNIX - HP's official Tru64 UNIX site",
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"plaintext": " comp.unix.tru64 - Newsgroup on running, owning and administering Tru64 UNIX (web-accessible via Google Groups)",
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"plaintext": " HP Tru64 Unix man pages and shell accounts provided by Polarhome",
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"plaintext": "A PDP-7A (serial number 115) was under restoration in Oslo, Norway; a second PDP-7A (serial number 113) previously located at the University of Oregon in its Nuclear Physics laboratory is now at the Living Computer Museum in Seattle, Washington and is completely restored to running condition after being disassembled for transport; Another PDP-7 (serial number 47) is known to be in the collection of Max Burnet near Sydney, Australia, a fourth PDP-7 (serial number 33) is in storage at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California and a fifth PDP-7 (serial number 129) belonging to Fred Yerian is also located at the Museum, and has been demonstrated running Unix version 0 and compiling a B program.",
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"plaintext": " Information about the PDP-7 and PDP-7/A, including some manuals and a customer list covering 99 of the systems shipped, Digital Equipment Corporation PDP-7.",
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38,279 | 1,104,597,938 | A_Commentary_on_the_UNIX_Operating_System | [
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"plaintext": "A Commentary on the UNIX Operating System by John Lions (later reissued as Lions' Commentary on UNIX 6th Edition) is a highly influential 1976 publication containing analytical commentary on the source code of the 6th Edition Unix computer operating system \"resident nucleus\" (i.e., kernel) software, plus copy formatted and indexed by Lions, of said source code obtained from the authors at AT&T Bell Labs. It is also commonly referred to as the Lions Book.",
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"plaintext": "Itself an exemplar of the early success of UNIX as portable code for a publishing platform, Lions' work was typeset using UNIX tools, on systems running code ported at the University, similar to that which it documented, see page vi.",
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"plaintext": "It was commonly held to be the most copied book in computer science. Despite its age, Lions's book is still considered an excellent commentary on simple, high quality code.",
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"plaintext": "UNIX Operating System Source Code Level Six is the kernel source code, lightly edited by Lions to better separate the functionality— system initialization and process management, interrupts and system calls, basic I/O, file systems and pipes and character devices. All procedures and symbols are listed alphabetically with a cross reference.",
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"plaintext": "The code as presented will run on a PDP-11/40 with RK-05 disk drive, LP-11 line printer interface, PCL-11 paper tape writer and KL-11 terminal interface, or a suitable PDP-11 emulator, such as SIMH.",
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"plaintext": "A Commentary on the UNIX Operating System starts with notes on UNIX and other useful documentation (the UNIX manual pages, DEC hardware manuals and so on), a section on the architecture of the PDP-11 and a chapter on how to read C programs. The source commentary follows, divided into the same sections as the code. The book ends with suggested exercises for the student.",
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"plaintext": "As Lions explains, this commentary supplements the comments in the source. It is possible to understand the code without the extra commentary, and the reader is advised to do so and only read the notes as needed. The commentary also remarks on how the code might be improved.",
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"plaintext": "The source code and commentary were printed in book form in 1977, after first being assembled in May 1976, as a set of lecture notes for Lions's computer science courses (6.602B and 6.657G, mentioned in the introduction of the book) at the University of New South Wales.",
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"plaintext": "UNSW had actually obtained UNIX source code in 1975, in response to a 1974 query to Dennis Ritchie at Bell. Bell Labs was a subsidiary of AT&T, under restrictions owing to its monopolistic nature as a national telecommunications infrastructure provider, and not permitted to conduct business in any other field, and so was not at liberty to profit from sale of software, however UNIX was being provided under license by another AT&T subsidiary, Western Electric at least by 1977.",
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"plaintext": "The UNIX User's group, USENIX's newsletter, UNIX News, of March 1977, announced the availability of the book to UNIX licensees. Note that the newsletter's own strongly worded circulation restriction notice, could only ever have applied within the framework of existing licenses to the licensees with agreements held with the mentioned organisations, not to non-licensees, as a matter of civil contract—the newsletter displays no evidence of governmental authority of the type which might allow general suppression of circulation, such as national security Top Secret classification.)",
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"plaintext": "Difficulty in keeping pace with the book's popularity, meant that by 1978 it was available only from AT&T Bell Labs.",
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"plaintext": "For many years, the Lions book was the only UNIX kernel documentation available outside Bell Labs. Although the license of 6th Edition allowed classroom use of the source code, the license of 7th Edition specifically excluded such use, so subsequent to this, the book, based on the more liberally licensed version, spread widely through copy machine reproductions, made arguably under various excuses, including (but not limited to!) generous educational licensing terms afforded the publishing institution by the source code owner, as well as various copyright exemptions protecting discussion of mathematical work, though in the shadow of increasing political pressure to erode such rights, as technological means to 'self-copy' -- and even self-publish—works became cheaper, more efficient, and more prolific. UNIX itself, was one of these, having been a successful innovation financed at Bell in order to facilitate publishing of technical manuals in-house.",
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"plaintext": "When AT&T announced UNIX Version 7 at USENIX in June 1979, the academic/research license no longer automatically permitted classroom use.",
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"plaintext": "However, thousands of computer science students around the world spread photocopies. As they were not being taught it in class, they would sometimes meet after hours to discuss the book. Many pioneers of UNIX and open source had a treasured multiple-generation photocopy.",
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"plaintext": "Other follow-on effects of the license change included Andrew S. Tanenbaum creating Minix. As Tanenbaum wrote in Operating Systems (1987):",
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"plaintext": "Various UNIX people, particularly Peter H. Salus, Dennis Ritchie and Berny Goodheart, lobbied Unix's various owners (AT&T, Novell, the Santa Cruz Operation) for many years to allow the book to be published officially. In 1996, the Santa Cruz Operation finally authorised the release of the twenty-year-old 6th Edition source code (along with the source code of other versions of \"Ancient UNIX\"), and the full code plus the 1977 version of the commentary was published by Peer-To-Peer Communications (). The reissue includes commentary from Michael Tilson (SCO), Peter Salus, Dennis Ritchie, Ken Thompson, Peter Collinson, Greg Rose, Mike O'Dell, Berny Goodheart and Peter Reintjes.",
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"plaintext": "A major reason why this piece of code was hard to understand was that it depended on a quirk of the way the C-compiler for the PDP-11 saved registers in procedure calls. This code failed when ported to other machines and had to be redesigned in Version 7 UNIX. Dennis Ritchie later explained the meaning of this remark:",
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"plaintext": "xv6, a modern reimplementation of Sixth Edition UNIX in ANSI C for multiprocessor x86 and RISC-V systems.",
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"plaintext": " Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Operating Systems: Design and Implementation, (Prentice Hall, , June 1987)",
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"plaintext": " Brian W. Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie, The C Programming Language'', ",
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38,282 | 1,106,018,118 | NOFX | [
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"plaintext": "NOFX recorded their debut studio album Liberal Animation in 1988 with Brett Gurewitz of Bad Religion. Although the title and some of the album's lyrics mocked vegetarianism and animal rights, Fat Mike says that he became a vegetarian after writing the Liberal Animation album. The album was re-released in 1991 on Gurewitz's label Epitaph Records. Casillas left the band shortly after the recording of Liberal Animation and was replaced by Steve Kidwiller (a.k.a. \"Steve the Caucasian\"). The band released its second studio album, S&M Airlines, through Epitaph in 1989.",
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"plaintext": "In 1991, NOFX released its third studio album, Ribbed. Shortly after the album was released, Steve Kidwiller left the band, and Aaron Abeyta (a.k.a. \"El Hefe\") joined the group. With Abeyta, the band recorded the extended play The Longest Line, followed by the studio album White Trash, Two Heebs and a Bean, released in May and November 1992 respectively. Also in 1992, NOFX's former label Mystic Records released Maximum Rocknroll, which compiles early singles and demo songs and is a reissue of their 1989 long-out-of-print compilation tape E Is for Everything. Despite being referred to as an \"official\" release, Fat Mike has been quoted as saying that he did not know that the album existed until he saw a copy of it \"in a store.\"",
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"plaintext": "Due to the success of Punk in Drublic, NOFX received many offers to sign with major record labels, but the band declined the offers. In 1995, the band released its first live album, I Heard They Suck Live!!. In the liner notes the band explicitly rejected the advances of major record labels and radio airplay, stating \"We've been doing fine all these years without you so leave us alone!\" Punk in Drublic is now considered a classic punk album by fans and critics alike.",
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"plaintext": "Punk in Drublic was followed by 1996's Heavy Petting Zoo, whose LP companion featured different cover art and the name Eating Lamb. The artwork for the CD featured a man holding a sheep, while the LP depicted the same man in a 69 position with the sheep. The Eating Lamb version was banned from sale in Germany due to its obscene cover art. The LP version did not achieve the success of its predecessor, although it was the first NOFX record to achieve a position on the Billboard charts, reaching number 63. Fat Mike stated: \"Weird record. I thought it was the coolest record when we finished it, but a few months later I wasn't so sure. Some of those songs are kinda weird. I like the cover a lot though. I think it sold well in Belgium.\"",
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"plaintext": "In 1997, the band released So Long and Thanks for All the Shoes, a return to faster punk, as exemplified by the frenetic opening track, \"It's My Job to Keep Punk Rock Elite.\"",
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"plaintext": "NOFX released The Decline, an 18-minute single-track extended play, which served as a fiery and cynical social commentary, in 1999. The Decline, clocking in at 18:23, is the second-longest punk song ever recorded (behind Crass' 20-minute song \"Taking Sides\").",
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"plaintext": "NOFX released its ninth studio album, The War on Errorism, in 2003, an album of political songs. It became the start of its anti-George W. Bush campaign. Fat Mike organized the website punkvoter.com, compiled two chart-topping Rock Against Bush albums, and started a Rock Against Bush U.S. tour. The song \"Separation of Church and Skate\" from the album was featured in the game Tony Hawk's Underground. In 2004, a previously unreleased demo version of their song \"Concerns of a GOP Neo-Phyte\" was contributed to the compilation album Take Action! Vol. 4.",
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"plaintext": "On March 14, 2006, the extended play Never Trust a Hippy was released. The EP was followed on April 18 by the studio album Wolves in Wolves' Clothing. On September 12, 2006, the video game EA Sports NHL 07 was released, featuring \"Wolves in Wolves' Clothing\" on its soundtrack, produced by Bill Stevenson and Fat Mike. NOFX's song \"Kill All the White Man\" was played briefly in the action movie Crank in 2006, and was credited as such in the film's soundtrack.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2007, the band recorded three nights of performances in San Francisco, California, for their second live album, They've Actually Gotten Worse Live!, released November 20, 2007. The live album is described on the press release as \"their sloppiest, drunkest, funniest, best sounding recording ever ... and they even made sure not to play any songs off their 1995 live album I Heard They Suck Live.\"",
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"plaintext": "NOFX launched a world tour in September 2007, which included concerts in Israel (Jerusalem, Tel Aviv, and Haifa). During its final performances in Israel (September 7 in Haifa), vocalist Fat Mike inadvertently struck guitarist Eric Melvin with his bass guitar during the performance of \"Bottles to the Ground\", breaking the guitar's neck, and leaving a bloody gash on Melvin's forehead. The broken bass guitar was replaced with one from Useless ID for the rest of the concert. The band completed its scheduled set amidst the audience's cheers for Melvin's good humor and perseverance. This tour was the basis of the band's television show, NOFX: Backstage Passport. The show was originally to be titled NOFX: Punk Rock Passport, but the band had issues with the company who held the rights to air the show, Fuse TV. Along with the show's title being changed, the band had numerous other issues with Fuse, including the company attempting to fabricate story lines that were untrue. Fat Mike, in an interview with Studio Q on the CBC, stated that the three months editing the show were the worst three months of his life.",
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"plaintext": "During the same tour, NOFX played four concerts in South Africa, the band's first performances on the African continent. The tour of South Africa followed successful tours by the bands Lagwagon, Frenzal Rhomb, and Mad Caddies, all of which are signed to Fat Wreck Chords.",
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"plaintext": "In February 2009, NOFX reunited with former members Steve Kidwiller and Dave Casillas for its 25th anniversary special performances. NOFX released a new album, Coaster, on April 28, 2009. The band worked with the same co-producer, Bill Stevenson, who produced its previous album, Wolves in Wolves' Clothing. NOFX was also added to the lineup for the Warped Tour 2009. They also toured Australia and New Zealand in late 2009 with Bad Religion.",
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"plaintext": "During this time period, Fat Mike would occasionally adopt the Cokie the Clown persona (as seen on the extended play's cover and the \"Cokie the Clown\" music video) during live performances. Fat Mike performed a solo acoustic performance on March 20, 2010, at the SXSW Festival as Cokie, which was described as \"strange, emotional, and intimate.\" At the end of the concert, after debuting a new song called \"Drinking Pee\", a video that was played for the audience suggested that a number of festival participants unknowingly drank Fat Mike's urine. The stunt resulted in Fat Mike getting banned from the Austin, Texas, venue, Emo's. In May 2010, NOFX posted a video online that showed Fat Mike urinating into a bottle of Patrón as was previously announced, but then switching the bottle before going on stage to a bottle not containing any urine. Months later in an interview, Mike stated that he had \"always wanted to be banned from somewhere.\"",
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"plaintext": "On June 21, 2010, NOFX announced that they were going to release a compilation album titled The Longest EP, a compilation of selected songs from its extended plays from 1987 to 2009. It was released on August 17, 2010.",
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"plaintext": "On November 23, 2010, Fat Wreck Chords released NOFX / The Spits, a split EP with the Seattle, Washington, band The Spits. It contained two new songs from each band.",
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"plaintext": "In a January 2011 interview with The Daily Times, Fat Mike revealed that a new NOFX album was in production, saying \"There are some really good songs on Coaster, but after having written 300 songs, I feel lucky I came up with them. That's why there are songs on there about Iron Maiden and Tegan and Sara. I'm reaching, man. Sometimes I grab stuff just to grab stuff, and I'm going in a lot of different directions.\" In December 2011, Fat Mike revealed to Phoenix New Times that he has begun work on a new NOFX album and a soundtrack to a \"fetish film\" called Rubber Bordello.",
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"plaintext": "In June 2011, NOFX began their Great White North Tour, which would have them traveling across Canada. The tour kicked off in St. John's, Newfoundland, on June 14. It was the first time the band had been to Newfoundland.",
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"plaintext": "Along with a self-titled 10\" of 80s hardcore punk cover songs, the band also planned to re-release their first recordings in summer 2011. The 10\" features covers from the Necros and D.O.A., and songs such as \"Police Brutality\" and \"Race Riot.\" The album was released on a vinyl record and has been distributed to independent record companies around the U.S., Great Britain, and elsewhere.",
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"plaintext": "On February 14, 2012, in an article on Rolling Stone's website, Fat Mike said that a new album was on the way. \"We're recording in April, and it should be out in the fall. I've got 12 songs, but I don't have a name for it and only a few of the songs are finished,\" he says. \"We're demo-ing it right now.\"",
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"plaintext": "A 7\" single, My Stepdad's a Cop and My Stepmom's a Domme, featuring new songs recorded prior to the sessions for Self Entitled, was released in June 2012.",
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"plaintext": "NOFX released their twelfth studio album, Self Entitled, on September 11, 2012. NOFX also released X'mas Has Been X'd on January 15, 2013, and their 30th anniversary LP box set on February 19, 2013.",
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"plaintext": "In March 2018, NOFX released a new single \"There's No 'Too Soon' if Time Is Relative\", in tribute to physicist Stephen Hawking, who had died days earlier. The track had been recorded a month prior to its release. Several days later, they announced the first annual \"Camp Punk in Drublic Festival\" in Legend Valley in Thornville, Ohio. The three-day event was to feature NOFX alongside Rancid, Pennywise, the Mighty Mighty Bosstones and Me First and the Gimme Gimmes. In a May 2018 interview, Fat Mike hinted that NOFX was working on new material.",
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"plaintext": "NOFX also frequently poke fun (in a lighthearted manner) at other bands and figures in the punk rock community. Such examples include \"Whoa on the Whoas\", parodying The Offspring's frequent use of the word \"whoa\" in their songs, and mocking Blink-182 in their song \"Fun Things to Fuck (If You're a Winner)\". The band is also known for referencing or paying tribute to Bad Religion in both their songs and their albums, with examples including \"I Am a Huge Fan of Bad Religion\"; mentioning their records on \"We Got Two Jealous Agains\" and its sequel \"I've Got One Jealous Again, Again\"; and the cover of Surfer parodying that of Bad Religion's 1988 album Suffer. A split album between NOFX and fellow punk band Rancid featured each group covering 6 songs from the other band's catalog.",
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"plaintext": "The band cites its influences as Bad Religion, Rich Kids on LSD, D.I., SNFU, Operation Ivy, The Dickies, Descendents, Circle Jerks, Dead Milkmen, Ramones, Sex Pistols, Adrenalin O.D., Minor Threat, Germs, Suicidal Tendencies, Black Flag, Dead Kennedys, The Adolescents, Misfits, and Subhumans.",
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"plaintext": "For years the band consented to very few interviews and have only made a few music videos, citing the fact that it does not need any more exposure and that people were exploiting the group. In recent years, Fat Mike has consented to more interviews, including six different interviews with Nardwuar between 2002 and 2011. The band has also refused permission for its music videos to be broadcast on MTV, VH1, and similar music channels, although its music has been played on Canada's Much Music. NOFX made a live appearance on NBC's Late Night with Conan O'Brien in 2004. The band briefly pursued an \"anti-Conan\" riff, although the intent was likely jocular.",
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"plaintext": "In the UK, the term glitter rock was most often used to refer to the extreme version of glam pursued by Gary Glitter and the independent band with whom he often performed known as the Glitter Band. The Glitter Band and Gary Glitter had between them eighteen top ten singles in the UK between 1972 and 1975. A second wave of glam rock acts, including Suzi Quatro, Roy Wood's Wizzard and Sparks, had hits on the British single charts in 1973 and 1974. Quatro directly inspired the pioneering Los Angeles based all-girl group The Runaways. Existing acts, some not usually considered central to the genre, also adopted glam styles, including Rod Stewart, Elton John, Queen and, for a time, The Rolling Stones. After seeing Marc Bolan wearing Zandra Rhodes-designed outfits, Freddie Mercury enlisted Rhodes to design costumes for the next Queen tour in 1974. Punk rock, often seen as a reaction to the artifice of glam rock, but using some elements of the genre, including makeup and involving cover versions of glam rock records, helped end the fashion for glam from about 1976.",
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"plaintext": "While glam rock was exclusively a British cultural phenomenon, with Steven Wells in The Guardian writing \"Americans only got glam second hand via the posh Bowie version\", covers of British glam rock classics are now piped-muzak staples at US sporting events. Glam rock was a background influence for Richard O'Brien, writer of the 1973 London musical The Rocky Horror Show. Although glam rock went into a steep decline in popularity in the UK in the second half of the 1970s, it had a direct influence on acts that rose to prominence later, including Kiss and American glam metal acts like Quiet Riot, W.A.S.P., Twisted Sister, Bon Jovi and Mötley Crüe.",
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"plaintext": "New Romantic acts in the UK such as Adam and the Ants and A Flock of Seagulls extended glam, and its androgyny and sexual politics were picked up by acts including Culture Club, Bronski Beat and Frankie Goes to Hollywood. Gothic rock was largely informed by the makeup, clothes, theatricality and sound of glam, and punk rock adopted some of the performance and persona-creating tendencies of glam, as well as the genre's emphasis on pop-art qualities and simple but powerful instrumentation.",
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"plaintext": "Glam rock has been influential around the world. In Japan in the 1980s, visual kei was strongly influenced by glam rock aesthetics. Glam rock has since enjoyed continued influence and sporadic modest revivals in R&B crossover act Prince, bands such as Marilyn Manson, Suede, Placebo, Chainsaw Kittens, Spacehog and the Darkness, and has inspired pop artists such as Lady Gaga.",
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| 76,092 | 36,691 | 1,427 | 164 | 0 | 0 | glam rock | style of rock music that developed in the United Kingdom in the early 1970s performed by musicians who wore outrageous costumes, makeup, and hairstyles, particularly platform shoes and glitter | [
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38,284 | 1,101,813,638 | Musician | [
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38,286 | 1,107,474,654 | Inflation | [
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"plaintext": "Most economists agree that high levels of inflation as well as hyperinflation—which have severely disruptive effects on the real economy—are caused by persistent excessive growth in the money supply. Views on low to moderate rates of inflation are more varied. Low or moderate inflation may be attributed to fluctuations in real demand for goods and services, or changes in available supplies such as during scarcities. Moderate inflation affects economies in both positive and negative ways. The negative effects would include an increase in the opportunity cost of holding money, uncertainty over future inflation which may discourage investment and savings, and if inflation were rapid enough, shortages of goods as consumers begin hoarding out of concern that prices will increase in the future. Positive effects include reducing unemployment due to nominal wage rigidity, allowing the central bank greater freedom in carrying out monetary policy, encouraging loans and investment instead of money hoarding, and avoiding the inefficiencies associated with deflation.",
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"plaintext": "Today, most economists favour a low and steady rate of inflation. Low (as opposed to zero or negative) inflation reduces the severity of economic recessions by enabling the labor market to adjust more quickly in a downturn, and reduces the risk that a liquidity trap prevents monetary policy from stabilising the economy, while avoiding the costs associated with high inflation. The task of keeping the rate of inflation low and stable is usually given to monetary authorities. Generally, these monetary authorities are the central banks that control monetary policy through the setting of interest rates, by carrying out open market operations and (more rarely) changing commercial bank reserve requirements.",
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"plaintext": "The term originates from the Latin inflare (to blow up or inflate) and was initially used in 1838 in the regard of an inflation of the currency, per the Oxford English Dictionary (1989).",
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"plaintext": "It was also used for lending and price inflation in the years after that, until 1874. During the American Civil War (1861–65) the gold dollar was replaced by the greenback, a government-issued paper currency that quickly lost some of its value; thereby, this definition of the word appears to have been enhanced.",
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"plaintext": "The term inflation appeared in America in the mid-nineteenth century, \"not in reference to something that happens to prices, but as something that happens to a paper currency\". Today, however, it is understood as referring to a sustained increase in the general price level (as distinct from short-term fluctuations).",
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"plaintext": "Other economic concepts related to inflation include: deflationa fall in the general price level; disinflationa decrease in the rate of inflation; hyperinflationan out-of-control inflationary spiral; stagflationa combination of inflation, slow economic growth and high unemployment; reflationan attempt to raise the general level of prices to counteract deflationary pressures; and asset price inflationa general rise in the prices of financial assets without a corresponding increase in the prices of goods or services; agflationan advanced increase in the price for food and industrial agricultural crops when compared with the general rise in prices.",
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"plaintext": "The adoption of fiat currency by many countries, from the 18th century onwards, made much larger variations in the supply of money possible. Rapid increases in the money supply have taken place a number of times in countries experiencing political crises, producing hyperinflationsepisodes of extreme inflation rates much higher than those observed in earlier periods of commodity money. The hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic of Germany is a notable example. Currently, the hyperinflation in Venezuela is the highest in the world, with an annual inflation rate of 833,997% as of October 2018.",
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"plaintext": "Historically, inflations of varying magnitudes have occurred from the price revolution of the 16th century, which was driven by the flood of gold and particularly silver seized and mined by the Spaniards in Latin America, to the largest paper money inflation of all time in Hungary after World War II.",
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"plaintext": "Rapid increases in the quantity of money or in the overall money supply have occurred in many different societies throughout history, changing with different forms of money used. For instance, when silver was used as currency, the government could collect silver coins, melt them down, mix them with other metals such as copper or lead and reissue them at the same nominal value, a process known as debasement. At the ascent of Nero as Roman emperor in AD 54, the denarius contained more than 90% silver, but by the 270s hardly any silver was left. By diluting the silver with other metals, the government could issue more coins without increasing the amount of silver used to make them. When the cost of each coin is lowered in this way, the government profits from an increase in seigniorage. This practice would increase the money supply but at the same time the relative value of each coin would be lowered. As the relative value of the coins becomes lower, consumers would need to give more coins in exchange for the same goods and services as before. These goods and services would experience a price increase as the value of each coin is reduced.",
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"plaintext": "Song Dynasty China introduced the practice of printing paper money to create fiat currency. During the Mongol Yuan Dynasty, the government spent a great deal of money fighting costly wars, and reacted by printing more money, leading to inflation. Fearing the inflation that plagued the Yuan dynasty, the Ming Dynasty initially rejected the use of paper money, and reverted to using copper coins.",
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"plaintext": "During the Malian king Mansa Musa's hajj to Mecca in 1324, he was reportedly accompanied by a camel train that included thousands of people and nearly a hundred camels. When he passed through Cairo, he spent or gave away so much gold that it depressed its price in Egypt for over a decade, reducing its purchasing power. A contemporary Arab historian remarked about Mansa Musa's visit:",
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"plaintext": "From the second half of the 15th century to the first half of the 17th, Western Europe experienced a major inflationary cycle referred to as the \"price revolution\", with prices on average rising perhaps sixfold over 150 years. This is often attributed to the influx of gold and silver from the New World into Habsburg Spain, with wider availability of silver in previously cash-starved Europe causing widespread inflation. European population rebound from the Black Death began before the arrival of New World metal, and may have began a process of inflation that New World silver compounded later in the 16th century.",
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"plaintext": "Given that there are many possible measures of the price level, there are many possible measures of price inflation. Most frequently, the term \"inflation\" refers to a rise in a broad price index representing the overall price level for goods and services in the economy. The Consumer Price Index (CPI), the Personal consumption expenditures price index (PCEPI) and the GDP deflator are some examples of broad price indices. However, \"inflation\" may also be used to describe a rising price level within a narrower set of assets, goods or services within the economy, such as commodities (including food, fuel, metals), tangible assets (such as real estate), financial assets (such as stocks, bonds), services (such as entertainment and health care), or labor. Although the values of capital assets are often casually said to \"inflate,\" this should not be confused with inflation as a defined term; a more accurate description for an increase in the value of a capital asset is appreciation. The FBI (CCI), the Producer Price Index, and Employment Cost Index (ECI) are examples of narrow price indices used to measure price inflation in particular sectors of the economy. Core inflation is a measure of inflation for a subset of consumer prices that excludes food and energy prices, which rise and fall more than other prices in the short term. The Federal Reserve Board pays particular attention to the core inflation rate to get a better estimate of long-term future inflation trends overall.",
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"plaintext": "The inflation rate is most widely calculated by determining the movement or change in a price index, typically the consumer price index.",
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"plaintext": "The inflation rate is the percentage change of a price index over time. The Retail Prices Index is also a measure of inflation that is commonly used in the United Kingdom. It is broader than the CPI and contains a larger basket of goods and services. ",
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"plaintext": "Given the recent high inflation, the RPI is indicative of the experiences of a wide range of household types, particularly low-income households.",
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"plaintext": "To illustrate the method of calculation, in January 2007, the U.S. Consumer Price Index was 202.416, and in January 2008 it was 211.080. The formula for calculating the annual percentage rate inflation in the CPI over the course of the year is: ",
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"plaintext": "The resulting inflation rate for the CPI in this one-year period is 4.28%, meaning the general level of prices for typical U.S. consumers rose by approximately four percent in 2007.",
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"plaintext": "Other widely used price indices for calculating price inflation include the following:",
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"plaintext": " Producer price indices (PPIs) which measures average changes in prices received by domestic producers for their output. This differs from the CPI in that price subsidization, profits, and taxes may cause the amount received by the producer to differ from what the consumer paid. There is also typically a delay between an increase in the PPI and any eventual increase in the CPI. Producer price index measures the pressure being put on producers by the costs of their raw materials. This could be \"passed on\" to consumers, or it could be absorbed by profits, or offset by increasing productivity. In India and the United States, an earlier version of the PPI was called the Wholesale price index.",
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"plaintext": " Commodity price indices, which measure the price of a selection of commodities. In the present commodity price indices are weighted by the relative importance of the components to the \"all in\" cost of an employee.",
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"plaintext": " Core price indices: because food and oil prices can change quickly due to changes in supply and demand conditions in the food and oil markets, it can be difficult to detect the long run trend in price levels when those prices are included. Therefore, most statistical agencies also report a measure of 'core inflation', which removes the most volatile components (such as food and oil) from a broad price index like the CPI. Because core inflation is less affected by short run supply and demand conditions in specific markets, central banks rely on it to better measure the inflationary effect of current monetary policy.",
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"plaintext": "Other common measures of inflation are:",
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"plaintext": " GDP deflator is a measure of the price of all the goods and services included in gross domestic product (GDP). The US Commerce Department publishes a deflator series for US GDP, defined as its nominal GDP measure divided by its real GDP measure.",
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"plaintext": "∴ ",
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"plaintext": " Regional inflation The Bureau of Labor Statistics breaks down CPI-U calculations down to different regions of the US.",
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"plaintext": " Historical inflation Before collecting consistent econometric data became standard for governments, and for the purpose of comparing absolute, rather than relative standards of living, various economists have calculated imputed inflation figures. Most inflation data before the early 20th century is imputed based on the known costs of goods, rather than compiled at the time. It is also used to adjust for the differences in real standard of living for the presence of technology.",
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"plaintext": " Asset price inflation is an undue increase in the prices of real or financial assets, such as stock (equity) and real estate. While there is no widely accepted index of this type, some central bankers have suggested that it would be better to aim at stabilizing a wider general price level inflation measure that includes some asset prices, instead of stabilizing CPI or core inflation only. The reason is that by raising interest rates when stock prices or real estate prices rise, and lowering them when these asset prices fall, central banks might be more successful in avoiding bubbles and crashes in asset prices.",
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"plaintext": "Measuring inflation in an economy requires objective means of differentiating changes in nominal prices on a common set of goods and services, and distinguishing them from those price shifts resulting from changes in value such as volume, quality, or performance. For example, if the price of a can of corn changes from $0.90 to $1.00 over the course of a year, with no change in quality, then this price difference represents inflation. This single price change would not, however, represent general inflation in an overall economy. To measure overall inflation, the price change of a large \"basket\" of representative goods and services is measured. This is the purpose of a price index, which is the combined price of a \"basket\" of many goods and services. The combined price is the sum of the weighted prices of items in the \"basket\". A weighted price is calculated by multiplying the unit price of an item by the number of that item the average consumer purchases. Weighted pricing is a necessary means to measuring the effect of individual unit price changes on the economy's overall inflation. The Consumer Price Index, for example, uses data collected by surveying households to determine what proportion of the typical consumer's overall spending is spent on specific goods and services, and weights the average prices of those items accordingly. Those weighted average prices are combined to calculate the overall price. To better relate price changes over time, indexes typically choose a \"base year\" price and assign it a value of 100. Index prices in subsequent years are then expressed in relation to the base year price. While comparing inflation measures for various periods one has to take into consideration the base effect as well.",
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"plaintext": "Inflation measures are often modified over time, either for the relative weight of goods in the basket, or in the way in which goods and services from the present are compared with goods and services from the past. Basket weights are updated regularly, usually every year, to adapt to changes in consumer behavior. Sudden changes in consumer behavior can still introduce a weighting bias in inflation measurement. For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic it has been shown that the basket of goods and services was no longer representative of consumption during the crisis, as numerous goods and services could no longer be consumed due to government containment measures (“lock-downs”).",
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"plaintext": "Over time, adjustments are also made to the type of goods and services selected to reflect changes in the sorts of goods and services purchased by 'typical consumers'. New products may be introduced, older products disappear, the quality of existing products may change, and consumer preferences can shift. Both the sorts of goods and services which are included in the \"basket\" and the weighted price used in inflation measures will be changed over time to keep pace with the changing marketplace. Different segments of the population may naturally consume different \"baskets\" of goods and services and may even experience different inflation rates. It is argued that companies have put more innovation into bringing down prices for wealthy families than for poor families.",
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"plaintext": "Inflation numbers are often seasonally adjusted to differentiate expected cyclical cost shifts. For example, home heating costs are expected to rise in colder months, and seasonal adjustments are often used when measuring for inflation to compensate for cyclical spikes in energy or fuel demand. Inflation numbers may be averaged or otherwise subjected to statistical techniques to remove statistical noise and volatility of individual prices.",
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"plaintext": "When looking at inflation, economic institutions may focus only on certain kinds of prices, or special indices, such as the core inflation index which is used by central banks to formulate monetary policy.",
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"plaintext": "Most inflation indices are calculated from weighted averages of selected price changes. This necessarily introduces distortion, and can lead to legitimate disputes about what the true inflation rate is. This problem can be overcome by including all available price changes in the calculation, and then choosing the median value. In some other cases, governments may intentionally report false inflation rates; for instance, during the presidency of Cristina Kirchner (2007–2015) the government of Argentina was criticised for manipulating economic data, such as inflation and GDP figures, for political gain and to reduce payments on its inflation-indexed debt.",
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"plaintext": "Inflation expectations or expected inflation is the rate of inflation that is anticipated for some period of time in the foreseeable future. There are two major approaches to modeling the formation of inflation expectations. Adaptive expectations models them as a weighted average of what was expected one period earlier and the actual rate of inflation that most recently occurred. Rational expectations models them as unbiased, in the sense that the expected inflation rate is not systematically above or systematically below the inflation rate that actually occurs.",
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"plaintext": "A long-standing survey of inflation expectations is the University of Michigan survey.",
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"plaintext": "Inflation expectations affect the economy in several ways. They are more or less built into nominal interest rates, so that a rise (or fall) in the expected inflation rate will typically result in a rise (or fall) in nominal interest rates, giving a smaller effect if any on real interest rates. In addition, higher expected inflation tends to be built into the rate of wage increases, giving a smaller effect if any on the changes in real wages. Moreover, the response of inflationary expectations to monetary policy can influence the division of the effects of policy between inflation and unemployment (see Monetary policy credibility).",
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"plaintext": "A great deal of economic literature has addressed the question of what causes inflation and what effect it has. There have been many diverse schools of thought on the subject. Since the 1920s these can be divided into two broad groups.",
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"plaintext": "Monetarists believe the most significant factor influencing inflation or deflation is how fast the money supply grows or shrinks. They consider fiscal policy, or government spending and taxation, as ineffective in controlling inflation. The monetarist economist Milton Friedman famously stated, \"Inflation is always and everywhere a monetary phenomenon.\"",
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"plaintext": "Monetarists assert that the empirical study of monetary history shows that inflation has always been a monetary phenomenon. The quantity theory of money, simply stated, says that any change in the amount of money in a system will change the price level. This theory begins with the equation of exchange:",
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"plaintext": "where",
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"plaintext": " is the nominal quantity of money;",
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"plaintext": " is the velocity of money in final expenditures;",
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"plaintext": " is the general price level;",
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"plaintext": " is an index of the real value of final expenditures;",
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"plaintext": "In this formula, the general price level is related to the level of real economic activity (Q), the quantity of money (M) and the velocity of money (V). The formula is an identity because the velocity of money (V) is defined to be the ratio of final nominal expenditure () to the quantity of money (M).",
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"plaintext": "Monetarists assume that the velocity of money is unaffected by monetary policy (at least in the long run), and the real value of output is determined in the long run by the productive capacity of the economy. Under these assumptions, the primary driver of the change in the general price level is changes in the quantity of money. With exogenous velocity (that is, velocity being determined externally and not being influenced by monetary policy), the money supply determines the value of nominal output (which equals final expenditure) in the short run. ",
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"plaintext": "In practice, velocity is not exogenous in the short run, and so the formula does not necessarily imply a stable short-run relationship between the money supply and nominal output. However, in the long run, changes in velocity are assumed to be determined by the evolution of the payments mechanism. If velocity is relatively unaffected by monetary policy, the long-run rate of increase in prices (the inflation rate) is equal to the long-run growth rate of the money supply plus the exogenous long-run rate of velocity growth minus the long run growth rate of real output.",
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"plaintext": "Keynesian economics proposes that changes in the money supply do not directly affect prices in the short run, and that visible inflation is the result of demand pressures in the economy expressing themselves in prices.",
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"plaintext": "There are three major sources of inflation, as part of what Robert J. Gordon calls the \"triangle model\":",
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"plaintext": " Demand-pull inflation is caused by increases in aggregate demand due to increased private and government spending, etc. Demand inflation encourages economic growth since the excess demand and favourable market conditions will stimulate investment and expansion.",
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"plaintext": " Cost-push inflation, also called \"supply shock inflation,\" is caused by a drop in aggregate supply (potential output). This may be due to natural disasters, war or increased prices of inputs. For example, a sudden decrease in the supply of oil, leading to increased oil prices, can cause cost-push inflation. Producers for whom oil is a part of their costs could then pass this on to consumers in the form of increased prices. Another example stems from unexpectedly high insured losses, either legitimate (catastrophes) or fraudulent (which might be particularly prevalent in times of recession). High inflation can prompt employees to demand rapid wage increases, to keep up with consumer prices. In the cost-push theory of inflation, rising wages in turn can help fuel inflation. In the case of collective bargaining, wage growth will be set as a function of inflationary expectations, which will be higher when inflation is high. This can cause a wage spiral. In a sense, inflation begets further inflationary expectations, which beget further inflation.",
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"plaintext": " Built-in inflation is induced by adaptive expectations, and is often linked to the \"price/wage spiral\". It involves workers trying to keep their wages up with prices (above the rate of inflation), and firms passing these higher labor costs on to their customers as higher prices, leading to a feedback loop. Built-in inflation reflects events in the past, and so might be seen as hangover inflation.",
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"plaintext": "Demand-pull theory states that inflation accelerates when aggregate demand increases beyond the ability of the economy to produce (its potential output). Hence, any factor that increases aggregate demand can cause inflation. However, in the long run, aggregate demand can be held above productive capacity only by increasing the quantity of money in circulation faster than the real growth rate of the economy. Another (although much less common) cause can be a rapid decline in the demand for money, as happened in Europe during the Black Death, or in the Japanese occupied territories just before the defeat of Japan in 1945.",
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"plaintext": "The effect of money on inflation is most obvious when governments finance spending in a crisis, such as a civil war, by printing money excessively. This sometimes leads to hyperinflation, a condition where prices can double in a month or even daily. The money supply is also thought to play a major role in determining moderate levels of inflation, although there are differences of opinion on how important it is. For example, monetarist economists believe that the link is very strong; Keynesian economists, by contrast, typically emphasize the role of aggregate demand in the economy rather than the money supply in determining inflation. That is, for Keynesians, the money supply is only one determinant of aggregate demand.",
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"plaintext": "Some Keynesian economists also disagree with the notion that central banks fully control the money supply, arguing that central banks have little control, since the money supply adapts to the demand for bank credit issued by commercial banks. This is known as the theory of endogenous money, and has been advocated strongly by post-Keynesians as far back as the 1960s. This position is not universally acceptedbanks create money by making loans, but the aggregate volume of these loans diminishes as real interest rates increase. Thus, central banks can influence the money supply by making money cheaper or more expensive, thus increasing or decreasing its production.",
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"plaintext": "A fundamental concept in inflation analysis is the relationship between inflation and unemployment, called the Phillips curve. This model suggests that there is a trade-off between price stability and employment. Therefore, some level of inflation could be considered desirable to minimize unemployment. The Phillips curve model described the U.S. experience well in the 1960s but failed to describe the stagflation experienced in the 1970s. Thus, modern macroeconomics describes inflation using a Phillips curve that is able to shift due to such matters as supply shocks and structural inflation. The former refers to such events like the 1973 oil crisis, while the latter refers to the price/wage spiral and inflationary expectations implying that inflation is the new normal. Thus, the Phillips curve represents only the demand-pull component of the triangle model.",
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"plaintext": "Another concept of note is the potential output (sometimes called the \"natural gross domestic product\"), a level of GDP, where the economy is at its optimal level of production given institutional and natural constraints. (This level of output corresponds to the Non-Accelerating Inflation Rate of Unemployment, NAIRU, or the \"natural\" rate of unemployment or the full-employment unemployment rate.) If GDP exceeds its potential (and unemployment is below the NAIRU), the theory says that inflation will accelerate as suppliers increase their prices and built-in inflation worsens. If GDP falls below its potential level (and unemployment is above the NAIRU), inflation will decelerate as suppliers attempt to fill excess capacity, cutting prices and undermining built-in inflation.",
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"plaintext": "However, one problem with this theory for policy-making purposes is that the exact level of potential output (and of the NAIRU) is generally unknown and tends to change over time. Inflation also seems to act in an asymmetric way, rising more quickly than it falls. It can change because of policy: for example, high unemployment under British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher might have led to a rise in the NAIRU (and a fall in potential) because many of the unemployed found themselves as structurally unemployed, unable to find jobs that fit their skills. A rise in structural unemployment implies that a smaller percentage of the labor force can find jobs at the NAIRU, where the economy avoids crossing the threshold into the realm of accelerating inflation.",
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"plaintext": "A connection between inflation and unemployment has been drawn since the emergence of large scale unemployment in the 19th century, and connections continue to be drawn today. However, the unemployment rate generally only affects inflation in the short-term but not the long-term. In the long term, the velocity of money is far more predictive of inflation than low unemployment.",
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"plaintext": "In Marxian economics, the unemployed serve as a reserve army of labor, which restrain wage inflation. In the 20th century, similar concepts in Keynesian economics include the NAIRU (Non-Accelerating Inflation Rate of Unemployment) and the Phillips curve.",
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"plaintext": "Keynesian price inelasticity can contribute to inflation when firms consolidate, tending to support monopoly or monopsony conditions anywhere along the supply chain for goods or services. When this occurs, firms can provide greater shareholder value by taking a larger proportion of profits than by investing in providing greater volumes of their outputs.",
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"plaintext": "Examples include the rise in gasoline and other fossil fuel prices in the first quarter of 2022. Shortly after initial energy price shocks caused by the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine subsided, oil companies found that supply chain constrictions, already exacerbated by the ongoing global COVID-19 pandemic, supported price inelasticity, i.e., they began lowering prices to match the price of oil when it fell much more slowly than they had increased their prices when costs rose. California's five largest gasoline companies, Chevron Corporation, Marathon Petroleum, Valero Energy, PBF Energy, and Phillips 66, responsible for 96% of transportation fuel sold in the state, all participated in this behavior, reaping first quarter profits much larger than any of their quarterly results in the previous several years. On May 19, 2022, the U.S. House of Representatives passed a bill to prevent such \"price gouging\" by addressing the resulting windfall profits, but it is unlikely to prevail against the minority filibuster challenge in the Senate.",
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"plaintext": "Similarly in the first quarter of 2022, meatpacking giant Tyson Foods relied on downward price inelasticity in packaged chicken and related products to increase their profits to about $500 million, responding to a $1.5 billion increase in their costs with almost $2 billion in price hikes. Tyson's three main competitors, having essentially no ability to compete on lower prices because supply chain constriction would not support an increase in volumes, followed suit. Tyson's quarter was one of their most profitable, expanding their operating margin 38%.",
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"plaintext": "If economic growth matches the growth of the money supply, inflation should not occur when all else is equal. A large variety of factors can affect the rate of both. For example, investment in market production, infrastructure, education, and preventive health care can all grow an economy in greater amounts than the investment spending.",
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"plaintext": "Rational expectations theory holds that economic actors look rationally into the future when trying to maximize their well-being, and do not respond solely to immediate opportunity costs and pressures. In this view, while generally grounded in monetarism, future expectations and strategies are important for inflation as well.",
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"plaintext": "A core assertion of rational expectations theory is that actors will seek to \"head off\" central-bank decisions by acting in ways that fulfill predictions of higher inflation. This means that central banks must establish their credibility in fighting inflation, or economic actors will make bets that the central bank will expand the money supply rapidly enough to prevent recession, even at the expense of exacerbating inflation. Thus, if a central bank has a reputation as being \"soft\" on inflation, when it announces a new policy of fighting inflation with restrictive monetary growth economic agents will not believe that the policy will persist; their inflationary expectations will remain high, and so will inflation. On the other hand, if the central bank has a reputation of being \"tough\" on inflation, then such a policy announcement will be believed and inflationary expectations will come down rapidly, thus allowing inflation itself to come down rapidly with minimal economic disruption.",
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"plaintext": "Additionally, there are theories about inflation accepted by economists outside of the mainstream.",
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"plaintext": "The Austrian School stresses that inflation is not uniform over all assets, goods, and services. Inflation depends on differences in markets and on where newly created money and credit enter the economy. Ludwig von Mises said that inflation should refer to an increase in the quantity of money, that is not offset by a corresponding increase in the need for money, and that price inflation will necessarily follow, always leaving a poorer nation.",
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"plaintext": "The real bills doctrine (RBD) asserts that banks should issue their money in exchange for short-term real bills of adequate value. As long as banks only issue a dollar in exchange for assets worth at least a dollar, the issuing bank's assets will naturally move in step with its issuance of money, and the money will hold its value. Should the bank fail to get or maintain assets of adequate value, then the bank's money will lose value, just as any financial security will lose value if its asset backing diminishes. The real bills doctrine (also known as the backing theory) thus asserts that inflation results when money outruns its issuer's assets. The quantity theory of money, in contrast, claims that inflation results when money outruns the economy's production of goods.",
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"plaintext": "Currency and banking schools of economics argue the RBD, that banks should also be able to issue currency against bills of trading, which is \"real bills\" that they buy from merchants. This theory was important in the 19th century in debates between \"Banking\" and \"Currency\" schools of monetary soundness, and in the formation of the Federal Reserve. In the wake of the collapse of the international gold standard post 1913, and the move towards deficit financing of government, RBD has remained a minor topic, primarily of interest in limited contexts, such as currency boards. It is generally held in ill repute today, with Frederic Mishkin, a governor of the Federal Reserve going so far as to say it had been \"completely discredited.\"",
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"plaintext": "The debate between currency, or quantity theory, and the banking schools during the 19th century prefigures current questions about the credibility of money in the present. In the 19th century, the banking schools had greater influence in policy in the United States and Great Britain, while the currency schools had more influence \"on the continent\", that is in non-British countries, particularly in the Latin Monetary Union and the Scandinavian Monetary Union.",
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"plaintext": "In 2019 monetary historians Thomas M. Humphrey and Richard H. Timberlake published \"Gold, the Real Bills Doctrine, and the Fed: Sources of Monetary Disorder 1922-1938\".",
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"plaintext": "Inflation is the decrease in the purchasing power of a currency. That is, when the general level of prices rise, each monetary unit can buy fewer goods and services in aggregate. The effect of inflation differs on different sectors of the economy, with some sectors being adversely affected while others benefitting. For example, with inflation, those segments in society which own physical assets, such as property, stock etc., benefit from the price/value of their holdings going up, when those who seek to acquire them will need to pay more for them. Their ability to do so will depend on the degree to which their income is fixed. For example, increases in payments to workers and pensioners often lag behind inflation, and for some people income is fixed. Also, individuals or institutions with cash assets will experience a decline in the purchasing power of the cash. Increases in the price level (inflation) erode the real value of money (the functional currency) and other items with an underlying monetary nature.",
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"plaintext": "Debtors who have debts with a fixed nominal rate of interest will see a reduction in the \"real\" interest rate as the inflation rate rises. The real interest on a loan is the nominal rate minus the inflation rate. The formula R = N-I approximates the correct answer as long as both the nominal interest rate and the inflation rate are small. The correct equation is r = n/i where r, n and i are expressed as ratios (e.g. 1.2 for +20%, 0.8 for −20%). As an example, when the inflation rate is 3%, a loan with a nominal interest rate of 5% would have a real interest rate of approximately 2% (in fact, it's 1.94%). Any unexpected increase in the inflation rate would decrease the real interest rate. Banks and other lenders adjust for this inflation risk either by including an inflation risk premium to fixed interest rate loans, or lending at an adjustable rate.",
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"plaintext": "High or unpredictable inflation rates are regarded as harmful to an overall economy. They add inefficiencies in the market, and make it difficult for companies to budget or plan long-term. Inflation can act as a drag on productivity as companies are forced to shift resources away from products and services to focus on profit and losses from currency inflation. Uncertainty about the future purchasing power of money discourages investment and saving. Inflation can also impose hidden tax increases. For instance, inflated earnings push taxpayers into higher income tax rates unless the tax brackets are indexed to inflation.",
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"plaintext": "With high inflation, purchasing power is redistributed from those on fixed nominal incomes, such as some pensioners whose pensions are not indexed to the price level, towards those with variable incomes whose earnings may better keep pace with the inflation. This redistribution of purchasing power will also occur between international trading partners. Where fixed exchange rates are imposed, higher inflation in one economy than another will cause the first economy's exports to become more expensive and affect the balance of trade. There can also be negative effects to trade from an increased instability in currency exchange prices caused by unpredictable inflation.",
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"plaintext": "Hoarding People buy durable and/or non-perishable commodities and other goods as stores of wealth, to avoid the losses expected from the declining purchasing power of money, creating shortages of the hoarded goods.",
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"plaintext": "Social unrest and revolts Inflation can lead to massive demonstrations and revolutions. For example, inflation and in particular food inflation is considered one of the main reasons that caused the 2010–11 Tunisian revolution and the 2011 Egyptian revolution, according to many observers including Robert Zoellick, president of the World Bank. Tunisian president Zine El Abidine Ben Ali was ousted, Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak was also ousted after only 18 days of demonstrations, and protests soon spread in many countries of North Africa and Middle East.",
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"plaintext": "Hyperinflation If inflation becomes too high, it can cause people to severely curtail their use of the currency, leading to an acceleration in the inflation rate. High and accelerating inflation grossly interferes with the normal workings of the economy, hurting its ability to supply goods. Hyperinflation can lead people to abandon the use of the country's currency in favour of external currencies (dollarization), as has been reported to have occurred in North Korea).",
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"plaintext": "Allocative efficiency A change in the supply or demand for a good will normally cause its relative price to change, signaling the buyers and sellers that they should re-allocate resources in response to the new market conditions. But when prices are constantly changing due to inflation, price changes due to genuine relative price signals are difficult to distinguish from price changes due to general inflation, so agents are slow to respond to them. The result is a loss of allocative efficiency.",
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"plaintext": "Shoe leather cost High inflation increases the opportunity cost of holding cash balances and can induce people to hold a greater portion of their assets in interest paying accounts. However, since cash is still needed to carry out transactions this means that more \"trips to the bank\" are necessary to make withdrawals, proverbially wearing out the \"shoe leather\" with each trip.",
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"plaintext": "Menu costs",
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"plaintext": " With high inflation, firms must change their prices often to keep up with economy-wide changes. But often changing prices is itself a costly activity whether explicitly, as with the need to print new menus, or implicitly, as with the extra time and effort needed to change prices constantly.",
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"plaintext": "Tax Inflation serves as a hidden tax on currency holdings.",
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"plaintext": "Labour-market adjustments Nominal wages are slow to adjust downwards. This can lead to prolonged disequilibrium and high unemployment in the labor market. Since inflation allows real wages to fall even if nominal wages are kept constant, moderate inflation enables labor markets to reach equilibrium faster.",
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"plaintext": "Room to maneuver The primary tools for controlling the money supply are the ability to set the discount rate, the rate at which banks can borrow from the central bank, and open market operations, which are the central bank's interventions into the bonds market with the aim of affecting the nominal interest rate. If an economy finds itself in a recession with already low, or even zero, nominal interest rates, then the bank cannot cut these rates further (since negative nominal interest rates are impossible) to stimulate the economy this situation is known as a liquidity trap.",
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"plaintext": "Mundell–Tobin effect According to the Mundell-Tobin effect, an increase in inflation leads to an increase in capital investment, which leads to an increase in growth.:: The Nobel laureate Robert Mundell noted that moderate inflation would induce savers to substitute lending for some money holding as a means to finance future spending. That substitution would cause market clearing real interest rates to fall. The lower real rate of interest would induce more borrowing to finance investment. In a similar vein, Nobel laureate James Tobin noted that such inflation would cause businesses to substitute investment in physical capital (plant, equipment, and inventories) for money balances in their asset portfolios. That substitution would mean choosing the making of investments with lower rates of real return. (The rates of return are lower because the investments with higher rates of return were already being made before.) The two related effects are known as the Mundell–Tobin effect. Unless the economy is already overinvesting according to models of economic growth theory, that extra investment resulting from the effect would be seen as positive.",
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"plaintext": "Instability with deflation Economist S.C. Tsiang noted that once substantial deflation is expected, two important effects will appear; both a result of money holding substituting for lending as a vehicle for saving. The first was that continually falling prices and the resulting incentive to hoard money will cause instability resulting from the likely increasing fear, while money hoards grow in value, that the value of those hoards are at risk, as people realize that a movement to trade those money hoards for real goods and assets will quickly drive those prices up. Any movement to spend those hoards \"once started would become a tremendous avalanche, which could rampage for a long time before it would spend itself.\" Thus, a regime of long-term deflation is likely to be interrupted by periodic spikes of rapid inflation and consequent real economic disruptions. The second effect noted by Tsiang is that when savers have substituted money holding for lending on financial markets, the role of those markets in channeling savings into investment is undermined. With nominal interest rates driven to zero, or near zero, from the competition with a high return money asset, there would be no price mechanism in whatever is left of those markets. With financial markets effectively euthanized, the remaining goods and physical asset prices would move in perverse directions. For example, an increased desire to save could not push interest rates further down (and thereby stimulate investment) but would instead cause additional money hoarding, driving consumer prices further down and making investment in consumer goods production thereby less attractive. Moderate inflation, once its expectation is incorporated into nominal interest rates, would give those interest rates room to go both up and down in response to shifting investment opportunities, or savers' preferences, and thus allow financial markets to function in a more normal fashion.",
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"plaintext": "The real purchasing power of fixed payments is eroded by inflation unless they are inflation-adjusted to keep their real values constant. In many countries, employment contracts, pension benefits, and government entitlements (such as social security) are tied to a cost-of-living index, typically to the consumer price index. A cost-of-living adjustment (COLA) adjusts salaries based on changes in a cost-of-living index. It does not control inflation, but rather seeks to mitigate the consequences of inflation for those on fixed incomes. Salaries are typically adjusted annually in low inflation economies. During hyperinflation they are adjusted more often. They may also be tied to a cost-of-living index that varies by geographic location if the employee moves.",
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"plaintext": "Annual escalation clauses in employment contracts can specify retroactive or future percentage increases in worker pay which are not tied to any index. These negotiated increases in pay are colloquially referred to as cost-of-living adjustments (\"COLAs\") or cost-of-living increases because of their similarity to increases tied to externally determined indexes.",
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"plaintext": "Monetary policy is the policy enacted by the monetary authorities (most frequently the central bank of a nation) to control the interest rateor equivalently the money supplyso as to control inflation and ensure price stability. Higher interest rates reduce the economy's money supply because fewer people seek loans. When banks make loans, the loan proceeds are generally deposited in bank accounts that are part of the money supply, thereby expanding it. When banks make fewer loans, the amount of bank deposits and hence the money supply decrease. For example, in the early 1980s, when the US federal funds rate exceeded 15%, the quantity of Federal Reserve dollars fell 8.1%, from US$8.6trillion down to $7.9trillion.",
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"plaintext": "In the latter half of the 20th century, there was debate between Keynesians and monetarists about the appropriate instrument to use to control inflation. Monetarists emphasize a low and steady growth rate of the money supply, while Keynesians emphasize controlling aggregate demand, by reducing demand during economic expansions and increasing demand during recessions to keep inflation stable. Control of aggregate demand can be achieved by using either monetary policy or fiscal policy (increasing taxation or reducing government spending to reduce demand). Ever since the 1980s, most countries have primarily relied on monetary policy to control inflation. When inflation beyond an acceptable level takes place, the country's central bank increases the interest rate, which will tend to slow down economic growth and inflation. Some central banks have a symmetrical inflation target, while others only react when inflation rises above a certain threshold. ",
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"plaintext": "In the 21st century, most economists favor a low and steady rate of inflation. In most countries, central banks or other monetary authorities are tasked with keeping interest rates and prices stable. and inflation near a target rate. These inflation targets may be publicly disclosed or not. In most OECD countries, the inflation target is usually about 2% to 3%. Central banks target a low inflation rate because they believe that high inflation is economically costly because it would create uncertainty about differences in relative prices and about the inflation rate itself. A low positive inflation rate is targeted rather than a zero or negative one because the latter could cause or worsen recessions; low (as opposed to zero or negative) inflation reduces the severity of economic recessions by enabling the labor market to adjust more quickly in a downturn, and reduces the risk that a liquidity trap prevents monetary policy from stabilizing the economy.",
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"plaintext": "Under a fixed exchange rate currency regime, a country's currency is tied in value to another single currency or to a basket of other currencies (or sometimes to another measure of value, such as gold). A fixed exchange rate is usually used to stabilize the value of a currency, vis-a-vis the currency it is pegged to. It can also be used as a means to control inflation. However, as the value of the reference currency rises and falls, so does the currency pegged to it. This essentially means that the inflation rate in the fixed exchange rate country is determined by the inflation rate of the country the currency is pegged to. In addition, a fixed exchange rate prevents a government from using domestic monetary policy to achieve macroeconomic stability.",
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"plaintext": "Under the Bretton Woods agreement, most countries around the world had currencies that were fixed to the U.S. dollar. This limited inflation in those countries, but also exposed them to the danger of speculative attacks. After the Bretton Woods agreement broke down in the early 1970s, countries gradually turned to floating exchange rates. However, in the later part of the 20th century, some countries reverted to a fixed exchange rate as part of an attempt to control inflation. This policy of using a fixed exchange rate to control inflation was used in many countries in South America in the later part of the 20th century (e.g. Argentina (1991–2002), Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Pakistan, etc.). ",
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"plaintext": "The gold standard is a monetary system in which a region's common medium of exchange is paper notes (or other monetary token) that are normally freely convertible into pre-set, fixed quantities of gold. The standard specifies how the gold backing would be implemented, including the amount of specie per currency unit. The currency itself has no innate value, but is accepted by traders because it can be redeemed for the equivalent specie. A U.S. silver certificate, for example, could be redeemed for an actual piece of silver.",
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"plaintext": "The gold standard was partially abandoned via the international adoption of the Bretton Woods system. Under this system all other major currencies were tied at fixed rates to the US dollar, which itself was tied by the US government to gold at the rate of US$35 per ounce. The Bretton Woods system broke down in 1971, causing most countries to switch to fiat money money backed only by the laws of the country.",
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"plaintext": "Under a gold standard, the long term rate of inflation (or deflation) would be determined by the growth rate of the supply of gold relative to total output. Critics argue that this will cause arbitrary fluctuations in the inflation rate, and that monetary policy would essentially be determined by gold mining.",
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"plaintext": "Another method attempted in the past have been wage and price controls (\"incomes policies\"). Wage and price controls have been successful in wartime environments in combination with rationing. However, their use in other contexts is far more mixed. Notable failures of their use include the 1972 imposition of wage and price controls by Richard Nixon. More successful examples include the Prices and Incomes Accord in Australia and the Wassenaar Agreement in the Netherlands.",
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"plaintext": "In general, wage and price controls are regarded as a temporary and exceptional measure, only effective when coupled with policies designed to reduce the underlying causes of inflation during the wage and price control regime, for example, winning the war being fought. They often have perverse effects, due to the distorted signals they send to the market. Artificially low prices often cause rationing and shortages and discourage future investment, resulting in yet further shortages. The usual economic analysis is that any product or service that is under-priced is overconsumed. For example, if the official price of bread is too low, there will be too little bread at official prices, and too little investment in bread making by the market to satisfy future needs, thereby exacerbating the problem in the long term.",
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"plaintext": "Temporary controls may complement a recession as a way to fight inflation: the controls make the recession more efficient as a way to fight inflation (reducing the need to increase unemployment), while the recession prevents the kinds of distortions that controls cause when demand is high. However, in general the advice of economists is not to impose price controls but to liberalize prices by assuming that the economy will adjust and abandon unprofitable economic activity. The lower activity will place fewer demands on whatever commodities were driving inflation, whether labor or resources, and inflation will fall with total economic output. This often produces a severe recession, as productive capacity is reallocated and is thus often very unpopular with the people whose livelihoods are destroyed (see creative destruction).",
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"plaintext": " Bitcoin",
"section_idx": 7,
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"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bullion coin",
"section_idx": 7,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Core inflation",
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"target_page_ids": [
2774497
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1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Food prices",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
50745280
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gold",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
12240
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hyperinflation",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
13681
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Indexed unit of account",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
12260025
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Inflationism",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
25935860
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Inflation hedge",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
19927699
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Headline inflation",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
12186940
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " List of countries by inflation rate",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
20845935
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1,
36
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Measuring economic worth over time",
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"target_page_ids": [
25365210
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1,
35
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Overconsumption",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
188418
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Shrinkflation and Skimpflation",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
42998728,
42998728
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
14
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19,
31
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Real versus nominal value (economics)",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
717591
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
38
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Steady-state economy",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1517620
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
21
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Welfare cost of inflation",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
27745133
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Supply shock",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1301678
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Inflation – for price conversions in Wikipedia articles",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Measurement of inflation is discussed in Ch. 2, pp.45–50; Money growth & Inflation in Ch. 7, pp.266–269; Keynesian business cycles and inflation in Ch. 9, pp.308–348.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Measurement of inflation is discussed in Ch. 2, pp.22–32; Money growth & Inflation in Ch. 4, pp.81–107; Keynesian business cycles and inflation in Ch. 9, pp.238–255.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " World Bank, 2018. Inflation in Emerging and Developing Economies: Evolution, Drivers and Policies. Edited by Jongrim Ha, M. Ayhan Kose, and Franziska Ohnsorge.",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Auernheimer, Leonardo, \"The Honest Government's Guide to the Revenue From the Creation of Money,\" Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 82, No. 3, May/June 1974, pp.598–606.",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
30411613
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Baumol, William J. and Alan S. Blinder, Macroeconomics: Principles and Policy, Tenth edition. Thomson South-Western, 2006. ",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
1253178,
1229508
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Friedman, Milton, Nobel lecture: Inflation and unemployment 1977",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
19640
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Mishkin, Frederic S., The Economics of Money, Banking, and Financial Markets, New York, Harper Collins, 1995.",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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},
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"plaintext": " Federal Reserve Bank of Boston, \"Understanding Inflation and the Implications for Monetary Policy: A Phillips Curve Retrospective\", Conference Series 53, June 9–11, 2008, Chatham, Massachusetts. (Also cf. Phillips curve article)",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
2338329,
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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206,
220
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},
{
"plaintext": " OECD Consumer Price Index",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " United States Bureau of Labor Statistics – Consumer Price Index",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " General purpose compounded inflation calculator",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " U.S. Cost of Living Calculator (1913–present) (AIER)",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [
9199394
],
"anchor_spans": [
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48,
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},
{
"plaintext": " U.S. Inflation Calculator (1913–present) (US BLS)",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [
72528
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"anchor_spans": [
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43,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " U.S. Inflation (historical documents) (FRASER)",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [
20765159
],
"anchor_spans": [
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40,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " World Inflation (1290–2006) (Consumer Price Index) (Swedish Riksbank)",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [
217152,
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
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"plaintext": " World Bank annual inflation rates for all countries",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": " Inflation : Definition, WPI, CPI, Measurement and Causes",
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| [
"Inflation",
"Financial_economics",
"Macroeconomic_aggregates",
"Macroeconomic_problems"
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| 35,865 | 80,886 | 2,335 | 298 | 0 | 0 | inflation | rise in price level in an economy over time | []
|
38,288 | 1,103,891,057 | Jacques_Vergès | [
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"plaintext": "Jacques Vergès (5 March 1925 – 15 August 2013) was a Siamese-born French lawyer, writer and political activist, known for his defense of FLN militants during the Algerian War of Independence. He was imprisoned for his activism in 1960 and temporarily lost his license to officially practice law. A supporter of the Palestinian fedayeen in the 1960s, he disappeared from 1970 to 1978 without ever explaining his whereabouts during that period. He was later involved in legal cases for high-profile defendants charged with terrorism or war crimes, including Nazi Klaus Barbie in 1987, terrorist Carlos the Jackal in 1994, and former Khmer Rouge head of state Khieu Samphan in 2008. He also infamously defended Holocaust denier Roger Garaudy in 1998.",
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"plaintext": "Vergès attracted widespread public attention in the 1950s for his use of trials as a forum for expressing views against French rule in Algeria, questioning the authority of the prosecution and causing chaos in proceedings – a method he promoted as \"rupture defense\" in his book De la stratégie judiciaire. An outspoken anti-imperialist, he continued his vocal political activism in the 2000s, including opposing the War on Terror. The media sensationalized his activities with the sobriquet \"the Devil's advocate\", and Vergès himself contributed to his \"notorious\" public persona by such acts as titling his autobiography The Brilliant Bastard and giving provocative replies in interviews, such as \"I'd even defend Bush! But only if he agrees to plead guilty.\"",
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"plaintext": "Born on 5 March 1925 in Ubon Ratchathani, Siam, and brought up on the island of Réunion, Jacques Vergès was the son of Raymond Vergès, a French diplomat, and a Vietnamese born-teacher named Pham Thi Khang. In 1942, with his father's encouragement, he sailed to Liverpool to become part of the Free French Forces under Charles de Gaulle, and to participate in the anti-Nazi resistance. In 1945 he joined the French Communist Party. After the war he went to the University of Paris to study law (while his twin brother Paul Vergès went on to become the leader of the Reunionese Communist Party and a member of the European Parliament). In 1949 Jacques became president of the AEC (Association for Colonial Students), where he met and befriended Pol Pot. In 1950, at the request of his Communist mentors, he went to Prague to lead a youth organization for four years.",
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"plaintext": "After returning to France, Vergès became a lawyer and quickly gained fame for his willingness to take controversial cases. During the struggle in Algiers he defended many accused of terrorism by the French government. He was a supporter of the Algerian armed independence struggle against France, comparing it to French armed resistance to the Nazi German occupation in the 1940s.",
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"plaintext": "Vergès became a nationally known figure following his defence of the anti-French Algerian guerrilla Djamila Bouhired on terrorism charges: she was convicted of blowing up a café and killing eleven people inside it. This is where he pioneered the rupture strategy, in which he accused the prosecution of the same offenses as the defendants. She was sentenced to death but pardoned and freed following public pressure brought on by Vergès' efforts. After some years she married Vergès, who had by then converted to Islam. They had two children, Meriem and Liess Vergès, later followed by a granddaughter, Fatima Vergès-Habboub, daughter of Meriem and her husband Fouad. In an effort to limit Vergès' success at defending Algerian clients, he was sentenced to two months in jail in 1960 and temporarily lost his licence to officially practice law for anti-state activities. After Algeria gained its independence in 1962, Vergès obtained Algerian citizenship, going by the name of Mansour.",
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"plaintext": "In 1965, Vergès arrived in Israel, seeking to represent Mahmud Hijazi (מחמוד חיג'אזי), a Palestinian member of the Fatah movement who had at the time been sentenced to death by an Israeli military court on charges of terrorism, for crossing into Israel and setting a small demolition charge near the National Water Conduit in the Galilee. Israel's Justice Minister Dov Yosef forbade Hijazi's being represented by a foreign lawyer. Nevertheless, though Vergès did not succeed in getting to represent Hijazi in court, his initiative generated considerable publicity and controversy which were influential in Hijazi's death sentence being eventually commuted by an appeals court. (Hijazi was later released in a 1971 prisoner exchange). The Hijazi affair had a long-lasting effect: Israeli civil and military courts, since then and up to the present, refrain from imposing the death penalty on Palestinians charged with terrorism, even in the most severe cases where an accused was found guilty of multiple murder charges.",
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"plaintext": "From 1970 to 1978, Vergès disappeared from public view without explanation. He refused to comment about those years, remarking in an interview with Der Spiegel that \"It's highly amusing that no one, in our modern police state, can figure out where I was for almost ten years.\" Vergès was last seen on 24 February 1970. He left his wife, Djamila, and cut off all his ties, leaving friends and family to wonder if he had been killed. His whereabouts during these years have remained a mystery. Many of his close associates of the time assume that he was in Cambodia with the Khmer Rouge, a rumour Pol Pot (Brother #1) and Ieng Sary (Brother #3) Vergès was paid to defend Barbie by the Swiss Nazi financier François Genoud.",
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"plaintext": " Mervyn Jones, Ordeal : The Trial of Djamila Bouhired, Condemned to Death, Algiers, July 15th, 1957, \tLondon, Union of Democratic Control Publications, c. 1958, 1979. \"With the complete text of the speech for the defence, by Jacques Vergès.\"",
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"plaintext": " Pour Djamila Bouhired, with Georges Arnaud, Éditions de Minuit, 1957.",
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"plaintext": " Le droit et la colère, with Michel Zavrian & Maurice Courrégé, Éditions de Minuit, Paris, coll. « Documents », 1960.",
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"plaintext": " Le crime de colonialisme. Colloque de Rome, 2, 3, 4, février 1962, in Revue Les Temps modernes (N°190), Gallimard, Paris, March 1962.",
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"plaintext": " De la stratégie judiciaire, Éditions de Minuit, Paris, coll. « Documents », 1968.",
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"plaintext": " Pour les fidayine. La résistance palestinienne, Éditions de Minuit, Paris, coll. « Documents », Paris, 1969.",
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"plaintext": " Agenda, Paris, Simoen, 1979",
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"plaintext": " Pour en finir avec Ponce Pilate, Le Pré aux clercs, 1983",
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"plaintext": " La Face cachée du procès Barbie. Compte-rendu des débats de Ligoure (with Étienne Bloch), S. Tastet, coll. « Formule rompue », 1983",
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"plaintext": " Beauté du crime, Plon, Paris 1988",
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"plaintext": " Je défends Barbie (preface by Jean-Edern Hallier), Jean Picollec, Paris, coll. « Documents dossiers », 1988",
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{
"plaintext": " Le Salaud lumineux, Michel Lafon, 1 January 1990",
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"plaintext": " La Justice est un jeu, Éditions Albin Michel, 1992",
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"plaintext": " Lettre ouverte à des amis algériens devenus tortionnaires, Éditions Albin Michel, coll. « Lettre ouverte », 1993",
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"plaintext": " Mon Dieu pardonnez-leur, Michel Lafon, 1995",
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"plaintext": " Intelligence avec l'ennemi, Michel Lafon, 1996",
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"plaintext": " J'ai plus de souvenirs que si j'avais mille ans, Éditions 84, 1999",
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"plaintext": " Nocturne. Poésie, Éditions Olbia, 2001 (ISBN 978-2719105368)",
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"plaintext": " Avocat du diable, avocat de Dieu (entretiens avec Alain de La Morandais), Paris : Presses de la Renaissance, 2000 (ISBN 978-2-85616787-8)",
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"plaintext": " Un procès de la barbarie à Brazzaville (co-author Dior Diagne), Jean Picollec, 2000",
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"plaintext": " Noir silence, blancs mensonges, Jean Picollec, Paris, 2001",
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"plaintext": " Les Sanguinaires : sept affaires célèbres, J'ai lu, 2001",
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"plaintext": " Omar m'a tuer - histoire d'un crime, J'ai lu, 2001",
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"plaintext": " L'Apartheid judiciaire, with Pierre Marie Gallois, L'Âge d'homme, Lausanne 2002",
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"plaintext": " Le Suicide de la France, Olbia, 2002",
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"plaintext": " Dictionnaire amoureux de la justice, Plon, coll. « Dictionnaire amoureux », 2002",
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"plaintext": " Les Erreurs judiciaires, Presses universitaires de France - PUF, coll. « Que sais-je ? », 2002",
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"plaintext": " Justice pour le peuple serbe, L'Âge d'Homme, coll. « Collection Objections », 2003",
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"plaintext": " La Démocratie à visage obscène : le vrai catéchisme de George W. Bush, La Table ronde, 2004",
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"plaintext": " Les Crimes d'État et comédie judiciaire, Plon, 2004",
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"plaintext": " Passent les jours et passent les semaines : Journal de l'année 2003-2004, Plon, 2005",
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"plaintext": " Jacques Vergès, l'anticolonialiste (conversations with Philippe Karim Felissi), Paris : le Félin, coll. « Histoire et sociétés », 2005 (ISBN 2-86645-584-3)",
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"plaintext": " Malheur aux pauvres, Plon, 2006 (ISBN 978-2259199223)",
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"plaintext": " Crimes contre l'humanité massacres en Côte d’Ivoire, Pharos, 276 p., avril 2006",
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"plaintext": " Que mes guerres étaient belles !, Éditions du Rocher, 2007 (ISBN 978-2268060989)",
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"plaintext": " Journal : La passion de défendre, Éditions du Rocher, 2008 (ISBN 978-2268065069)",
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"plaintext": " Justice et littérature, Presses universitaires de France, coll. « Questions judiciaires », 2011 (ISBN 978-2130575382)",
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"plaintext": " « Crimes et fraudes » en Côte d'Ivoire, Édite, 2011 (ISBN 978-2-84608-306-5)",
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"plaintext": " Sarkozy sous BHL (with Roland Dumas), Éditions Pierre-Guillaume de Roux, 2011, 128 p.",
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"plaintext": " De mon propre aveu, Éditions Pierre-Guillaume de Roux, 2013 (ISBN 978-2-36371-053-6)",
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"plaintext": " Emmanuelle Bosc, Jacques Vergès: la plaidoirie de l'indéfendable par la dénonciation de l'inavouable, sn, 1992",
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"plaintext": " Robert Charvin, Jacques Vergès : un aristocrate de refus, Paris: Editions L'Harmattan, 2013",
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"plaintext": " François Dessy, Jacques Vergès, l’ultime plaidoyer : conversations entre confrères avec maître François Dessy, Editions de l'Aube, 2014",
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"plaintext": " Véronique Martin, Jacques Vergès envers et contre tous, Paris: Editions de Verneuil, 1999",
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"plaintext": " Bernard Violet and Robert Jégaden, Vergès: le maître de l'ombre, Paris: Seuil, 2000",
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"plaintext": " Jonathan Widell, Jacques Vergès, devil's advocate: a psychohistory of Vergès' judicial strategy, Doctor of Civil Law thesis, McGill University, 2012",
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"plaintext": "L'Avocat de la terreur (Terror's Advocate), a 2007 documentary about Vergès, directed and narrated by Barbet Schroeder.",
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"plaintext": " Nigel Kendall, Terror's Advocate, The Times, 13 September 2008",
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"plaintext": " Robert Chalmers, \"Meet Jacques Verges: the lawyer who defended dictators and terrorists for crimes against humanity\", GQ Magazine, August 2020.",
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"plaintext": " Angelique Chrisafis, \"Jacques Vergès obituary\", The Guardian, 17 August 2013",
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"plaintext": " Robert D. McFadden, \"Jacques Vergès, Defender of Terrorists And War Criminals, Is Dead at 88\", The New York Times, 16 August 2013",
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"plaintext": " \"French 'Devil’s advocate' Jacques Vergès dies\", France 24, 16 August 2013.",
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"plaintext": " \"Jacques Vergès, French lawyer who defended despised criminals, dies\", The Washington Post, 16 August 2013.",
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"plaintext": " Britta Sandberg, »Ich, der brillante Drecksack« (interview, in German). In: Der Spiegel, 1962 (2008), 47, 17 November 2008, .",
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"plaintext": "Under the second definition, depressions and recessions will always be distinct events however, having the same starting dates. This definition of depression implies that a recession and a depression will have different ending dates and thus distinct durations. Under this definition, the length of depression will always be longer than that of the recession starting the same date.",
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"plaintext": "A useful example is a difference in the chronology of the Great Depression in the U.S. under the view of alternative definitions. Using the second definition of depression, most economists refer to the Great Depression, as the period between 1929 and 1941. On the other hand, using the first definition, the depression that started in August 1929 lasted until March 1933. Note that NBER, which publishes the recession (instead of depression) dates for the U.S. economy, has identified two recessions during that period. The first between August 1929 and March 1933 and the second starting in May 1937 and ending in June 1938.",
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"plaintext": "Today the term \"depression\" is most often associated with the Great Depression of the 1930s, but the term had been in use long before then. Indeed, an early major American economic crisis, the Panic of 1819, was described by then-president James Monroe as \"a depression\", and the economic crisis immediately preceding the 1930s depression, the Depression of 1920–21, was referred to as a \"depression\" by president Calvin Coolidge.",
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"plaintext": "However, in the 19th and early 20th centuries, financial crises were traditionally referred to as \"panics\", e.g., the 'major' Panic of 1907, and the 'minor' Panic of 1910–1911, though the 1929 crisis was more commonly called \"The Crash\", and the term \"panic\" has since fallen out of use. At the time of the Great Depression (of the 1930s), the phrase \"The Great Depression\" had already been used to refer to the period 1873–96 (in the United Kingdom), or more narrowly 1873–79 (in the United States), which has since been renamed the Long Depression.",
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"plaintext": "Common use of the phrase \"The Great Depression\" for the 1930s crisis is most frequently attributed to British economist Lionel Robbins, whose 1934 book The Great Depression is credited with 'formalizing' the phrase, though US president Herbert Hoover is widely credited with having 'popularized' the term/phrase, informally referring to the downturn as a \"depression\", with such uses as \"Economic depression cannot be cured by legislative action or executive pronouncement\", (December 1930, Message to Congress) and \"I need not recount to you that the world is passing through a great depression\" (1931).",
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"plaintext": "Due to the lack of an agreed definition and the strong negative associations, the characterization of any period as a \"depression\" is contentious. The term was frequently used for regional crises from the early 19th century until the 1930s, and for the more widespread crises of the 1870s and 1930s, but economic crises since 1945 have generally been referred to as \"recessions\", with the 1970s global crisis referred to as \"stagflation\", but not a depression. The only two eras commonly referred to at the current time as \"depressions\" are the 1870s and 1930s.",
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"plaintext": "To some degree, this is simply a stylistic change, similar to the decline in the use of \"panic\" to refer to financial crises, but it does also reflect that the economic cycle – both in the United States and in most OECD countries – though not in all – has been more moderate since 1945.",
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"plaintext": "There have been many periods of prolonged economic underperformance in particular countries/regions since 1945, detailed below, but terming these as \"depressions\" is controversial. The 2008–2009 economic cycle, which has comprised the most significant global crisis since the Great Depression, has at times been termed a depression, but this terminology is not widely used, with the episode instead being referred to by other terms, such as the \"Great Recession\".",
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"plaintext": "The largest Great Depression of all time occurred during the General Crisis. The Ming Province of China went bankrupt and the Stuart Monarchy was in the civil war on three fronts in Ireland, Scotland, and England. Thomas Hobbes, an English philosopher, created the first recorded explanation of the need for a universal Social Contract in his 1652 book Leviathan based on the general misery within society during this period.",
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"plaintext": "This depression is acknowledged to be a worse Great Depression than the later Great Depression of the 1930s. This great depression ended in the United States due to the California Gold Rush and its ten-times addition to the United States' gold reserves. As with most great depressions, it was followed by a thirty-year period of a booming economy in the United States, which is now called the Second Industrial Revolution (of the 1850s).",
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"plaintext": "The Panic of 1837 was an American financial crisis, built on a speculative real estate market. The bubble burst on 10 May 1837 in New York City, when every bank stopped payment in gold and silver coinage. The Panic was followed by a five-year depression, with the failure of banks and record high unemployment levels.",
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"plaintext": "Starting with the adoption of the gold standard in Britain and the United States, the Long Depression (1873–1896) was indeed longer than what is now referred to as the Great Depression, but shallower in some sectors. Many who lived through it regarded it to have been worse than the 1930s depression at times. It was known as \"the Great Depression\" until the 1930s.",
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"plaintext": "The Great Depression of the 1930s affected most national economies in the world. This depression is generally considered to have begun with the Wall Street Crash of 1929, and the crisis quickly spread to other national economies. Between 1929 and 1933, the gross national product of the United States decreased by 33% while the rate of unemployment increased to 25% (with industrial unemployment alone rising to approximately 35% – U.S. employment was still over 25% agricultural).",
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"plaintext": "A long-term effect of the Great Depression was the departure of every major currency from the gold standard, although the initial impetus for this was World War II (see Bretton Woods Accord).",
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"plaintext": "Beginning in 2009, Greece sank into a recession that, after two years, became a depression. The country saw an almost 20% drop in economic output, and unemployment soared to near 25%. Greece's high amounts of sovereign debt precipitated the crisis, and the poor performance of its economy since the introduction of severe austerity measures has slowed the entire eurozone's recovery. Greece's continuing troubles have led to discussions about its departure from the eurozone.",
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"plaintext": "The late 1910s and early 1920s were marked by an economic depression that unraveled in particularly catastrophic circumstances: The Great War and its aftermath led to a global nosedive in commodities that ruined many developing nations, while servicemen returning from the trenches found themselves with high unemployment as businesses failed, unable to transition into a peacetime economy. Also, the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918–20 brought economic activity to a standstill as even more people became incapacitated. Most developed countries had mostly recovered by 1921–22, however Germany saw its economy crippled until 1923–24 because of the hyperinflation crisis.",
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"plaintext": "The 1973 oil crisis, coupled with the rising costs of maintenance of welfare state in most countries led to a recession between 1973 and 1975, followed by a period of almost minimal growth and rising inflation and unemployment. The 1980–82 recession marked the end of the period.",
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"plaintext": "The savings & loans and the leveraged buyout crises led to a severe depression in mid-to-late 1989, causing a recession in 1990–91 (also fueled by the oil price crisis), whose effects lasted as late as 1994. This downturn is more remembered for its political effects: British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher had to resign in November 1990; and while his approval ratings were above 60%, U.S. President George H. W. Bush lost the 1992 election to Bill Clinton because of the domestic malady marked by the depression and increasing urban decay.",
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"plaintext": "In 2005, the persistent oil price rises and economic overheating caused by deregulation led to a gradual deterioration of the world economy with inflation and unemployment rising as growth slowed: The housing bubble in the U.S. burst in 2007, and the American economy slipped into a recession. This, in turn, provoked the failure of many prominent financial institutions throughout 2008, most notably Lehman Brothers, leading to the loss of millions of jobs.",
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"plaintext": "Several Latin American countries had severe downturns in the 1980s: by the Kehoe and Prescott definition of a great depression as at least one year with output 20% below trend, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Mexico experienced great depressions in the 1980s, and Argentina experienced another in 1998–2002. South American countries fell once again into this in the early-to-mid 2010s.",
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"plaintext": "This definition also includes the economic performance of New Zealand from 1974 to 1992 and Switzerland from 1973 to the present, although this designation for Switzerland has been controversial.",
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"plaintext": "The economic crisis in the 1990s that struck former members of the Soviet Union was almost twice as intense as the Great Depression in the countries of Western Europe and the United States in the 1930s. Average standards of living registered a catastrophic fall in the early 1990s in many parts of the former Eastern Bloc, most notably in post-Soviet states. Even before Russia's financial crisis of 1998, Russia's GDP was half of what it had been in the early 1990s. Some populations are still poorer today than they were in 1989 (e.g. Ukraine, Moldova, Serbia, Central Asia, Caucasus). The collapse of the Soviet planned economy and the transition to market economy resulted in catastrophic declines in GDP of about 45% during the 1990–1996 period and poverty in the region had increased more than tenfold.",
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"plaintext": "Finnish economists refer to the Finnish economic decline around the breakup of the Soviet Union (1989–1994) as a great depression (suuri lama). However, the depression was multicausal, with its severity compounded by a coincidence of multiple sudden external shocks, including loss of Soviet trade, the savings and loan crisis and early 1990s recession in the West, with the internal overheating that had been brewing throughout the 1980s. Liberalization had resulted in the so-called \"casino economy\". Persistent structural and monetary policy problems had not been solved, leaving the economy vulnerable to even mild external shocks. The depression had lasting effects: the Finnish markka was floated and was eventually replaced by the euro in 1999, ending decades of government control of the economy, but also high, persistent unemployment. Employment has never returned even close to the pre-crisis level.",
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"plaintext": "Poznań University of Technology, PUT (Polish name: Politechnika Poznańska) is a university in Poznań, Poland. Poznań University of Technology is known as one of the best technical universities in Poland. URAP ranked PUT as in top 6% of world universities and Webometrics ranked it at no. 842 in the world by Google citations for the year 2015. In 1995 it became the first Polish university to become a member of the Conference of European Schools for Advanced Engineering Education and Research (CESAER), an organization comprising the best technical universities in Europe. The university is also a member of the Socrates-Erasmus programme for exchange students from all over Europe, promoting advanced engineering and a European dimension. The university is home to many organizations and student circles, and the radio station Afera 98.6MHz. The university has over 21,000 students and over 1100 academic staffs.",
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"plaintext": "PUT was officially founded in 1955 and the first rector was Roman Kozak. But a state school had existed in Poznań since 1919, under name of the Higher State School of Machinery. After adding a second department in 1929, its name was changed to the Higher State School of Machinery and Electrotechnics. It was supposed to become the University of Technology in 1940, but its development was interrupted by World War II. In 1945 the school received the status of Higher Engineering School and in 1955 it became the University of Technology.",
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"plaintext": "Around 1890 Machen began to publish in literary magazines, writing stories influenced by the works of Robert Louis Stevenson, some of which used gothic or fantastic themes. This led to his first major success, The Great God Pan. It was published in 1894 by John Lane in the noted Keynotes Series, which was part of the growing aesthetic movement of the time. Machen's story was widely denounced for its sexual and horrific content and consequently sold well, going into a second edition.",
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"plaintext": "This led in 1903 to a second marriage, to Dorothie Purefoy Hudleston, which brought Machen much happiness. Machen managed to find a publisher in 1902 for his earlier written work Hieroglyphics, an analysis of the nature of literature, which concluded that true literature must convey \"ecstasy\". In 1906 Machen's literary career began once more to flourish as the book The House of Souls collected his most notable works of the nineties and brought them to a new audience. He also published a satirical work, Dr Stiggins: His Views and Principles, generally considered one of his weakest works.",
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"plaintext": "Machen also was at this time investigating Celtic Christianity, the Holy Grail and King Arthur. Publishing his views in Lord Alfred Douglas's The Academy, for which he wrote regularly, Machen concluded that the legends of the Grail actually were based on dim recollections of the rites of the Celtic Church. These ideas also featured strongly in the novel The Secret Glory which he wrote at this time, marking the first use in fiction of the idea of the Grail's surviving into modern times in some form, an idea much utilised ever since, as by Charles Williams (War in Heaven), Dan Brown (The Da Vinci Code) and George Lucas (Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade). In 1907, The Hill of Dreams, generally considered Machen's masterpiece, was finally published, though it was not recognized much at the time.",
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"plaintext": "Finally Machen accepted a full-time journalist's job at Alfred Harmsworth's Evening News in 1910. In February 1912 his son Hilary was born, followed by a daughter Janet in 1917. The coming of war in 1914 saw Machen return to public prominence for the first time in twenty years due to the publication of \"The Bowmen\" and the subsequent publicity surrounding the \"Angels of Mons\" episode. He published a series of stories capitalizing on this success, most of which were morale-boosting propaganda, but the most notable, \"The Great Return\" (1915) and the novella The Terror (1917), were more accomplished. He also published a series of autobiographical articles during the war, later reprinted in book form as Far Off Things. During the war years Machen also met and championed the work of a fellow Welshman, Caradoc Evans.",
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"plaintext": "The year 1922 saw a revival in Machen's literary fortunes. The Secret Glory, considered by some to be Machen's final masterpiece, was finally published, as was his autobiography Far Off Things, and new editions of Machen's Casanova, The House of Souls and The Hill of Dreams all came out. Machen's works had now found a new audience and publishers in America, and a series of requests for republications of books started to come in. Vincent Starrett, James Branch Cabell, and Carl Van Vechten were American Machen devotees who helped in this process.",
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"plaintext": "From the beginning of his literary career, Machen espoused a mystical belief that the humdrum ordinary world hid a more mysterious and strange world beyond. His gothic and decadent works of the 1890s concluded that the lifting of this veil could lead to madness, sex, or death, and usually a combination of all three. Machen's later works became somewhat less obviously full of gothic trappings, but for him investigations into mysteries invariably resulted in life-changing transformation and sacrifice. Machen loved the medieval world view because he felt it manifested deep spirituality alongside a rambunctious earthiness.",
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"plaintext": "Machen was a great enthusiast for literature that expressed the \"rapture, beauty, adoration, wonder, awe, mystery, sense of the unknown, desire for the unknown\" that he summed up in the word ecstasy. His main passions were for writers and writing he felt achieved this, an idiosyncratic list which included the Mabinogion and other medieval romances, François Rabelais, Miguel de Cervantes, William Shakespeare, Samuel Johnson, Thomas de Quincey, Charles Dickens, Arthur Conan Doyle, Edgar Allan Poe, and Robert Louis Stevenson. Those writers who failed to achieve this, or far worse did not even attempt it, received short shrift from Machen.",
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"plaintext": "Machen's strong opposition to a materialistic viewpoint is obvious in many of his works, marking him as part of neo-romanticism. He was deeply suspicious of science, materialism, commerce, and Puritanism, all of which were anathema to Machen's conservative, bohemian, mystical, and ritualistic temperament. Machen's virulent satirical streak against things he disliked has been regarded as a weakness in his work, and rather dating, especially when it comes to the fore in works such as Dr Stiggins. Similarly, some of his propagandistic First World War stories also have little appeal to a modern audience.",
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"plaintext": "Machen, brought up as the son of a Church of England clergyman, always held Christian beliefs, though accompanied by a fascination with sensual mysticism; his interests in paganism and the occult were especially prominent in his earliest works. Machen was well read on such matters as alchemy, the kabbalah, and Hermeticism, and these occult interests formed part of his close friendship with A. E. Waite. Machen, however, was always very down-to-earth, requiring substantial proof that a supernatural event had occurred, and was thus highly sceptical of Spiritualism. Unlike many of his contemporaries, such as Oscar Wilde and Alfred Douglas, his disapproval of the Reformation and his admiration for the medieval world and its Roman Catholic ritualism did not fully tempt him away from Anglicanism—though he never fit comfortably into the Victorian Anglo-Catholic world.",
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"plaintext": "The death of his first wife led him to a spiritual crossroads, and he experienced a series of mystical events. After his experimentation with the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, the orthodox ritual of the Church became ever more important to him, gradually defining his position as a High Church Anglican who was able to incorporate elements from his own mystical experiences, Celtic Christianity, and readings in literature and legend into his thinking.",
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"plaintext": "In politics, Machen was reactionary. He stated in response to a 1937 questionnaire on the Spanish Civil War in the Left Review, \"Mr. Arthur Machen presents his compliments and begs to inform that he is, and always has been, entirely for General Franco.\"",
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"plaintext": "Machen's literary significance is substantial; his stories have been translated into many languages and reprinted in short story anthologies countless times. In the sixties, a paperback reprint in the Ballantine Adult Fantasy series brought him to the notice of a new generation. More recently, the small press has continued to keep Machen's work in print. In 2010, to mark the 150 years since Machen's birth, two volumes of Machen's work were republished in the prestigious Library of Wales series.",
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"plaintext": "Literary critics such as Wesley D. Sweetser and S. T. Joshi see Machen's works as a significant part of the late Victorian revival of the gothic novel and the decadent movement of the 1890s, bearing direct comparison to the themes found in contemporary works like Robert Louis Stevenson's Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, Bram Stoker's Dracula, and Oscar Wilde's The Picture of Dorian Gray. At the time authors like Wilde, William Butler Yeats, and Arthur Conan Doyle were all admirers of Machen's works. He is also usually noted in the better studies of Anglo-Welsh literature. The French writer Paul-Jean Toulet translated Machen's The Great God Pan into French and visited Machen in London. Charles Williams was also a devotee of Machen's work, which inspired Williams' own fiction.",
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"plaintext": "Historian of fantastic literature Brian Stableford has suggested that Machen \"was the first writer of authentically modern horror stories, and his best works must still be reckoned among the finest products of the genre\".",
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"plaintext": "Machen's popularity in 1920s America has been noted, and his work was an influence on the development of the pulp horror found in magazines like Weird Tales and on such notable fantasy writers as James Branch Cabell, Clark Ashton Smith, Robert E. Howard, Frank Belknap Long (who wrote a tribute to Machen in verse, \"On Reading Arthur Machen\"), Donald Wandrei, David Lindsay and E. Charles Vivian.",
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"plaintext": "His significance was recognized by H. P. Lovecraft, who in his essay \"Supernatural Horror in Literature\" named Machen as one of the four \"modern masters\" of supernatural horror (with Algernon Blackwood, Lord Dunsany, and M. R. James). Machen's influence on Lovecraft's own work was substantial. Lovecraft's reading of Machen in the early 1920s led him away from his earlier Dunsanian writing towards the development of what became the Cthulhu Mythos. Machen's use of a contemporary Welsh or London background in which sinister ancient horrors lurk and are capable of interbreeding with modern people obviously helped inspire Lovecraft's similar use of a New England background. Machen's story \"The White People\" includes references to curious unknown rites and beings, an idea Lovecraft uses frequently in the mythos.",
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"plaintext": "Lovecraft pays tribute to the influence by directly incorporating some of Machen's creations and references, such as Nodens and Aklo, into his Cthulhu Mythos and using similar plotlines, most notably seen by a comparison of \"The Dunwich Horror\" to The Great God Pan and of \"The Whisperer in Darkness\" to \"The Novel of the Black Seal\". Other Lovecraft tales with a debt or reference to Machen include \"The Call of Cthulhu\", \"The Festival\", \"Cool Air\", \"The Descendant\", and \"The Colour Out of Space\".",
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"plaintext": "His intense, atmospheric stories of horror and the supernatural have been read and enjoyed by many modern horror and fantasy writers, influencing directly Peter Straub, Stephen King, Ramsey Campbell, Karl Edward Wagner, \"Sarban\" (John William Wall), Joanna Russ, Graham Joyce, Simon Clark, Tim Lebbon, and T. E. D. Klein, to name but a few. Klein's novel The Ceremonies was partly based on Machen's \"The White People\", and Straub's novel Ghost Story was influenced by The Great God Pan.",
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"plaintext": "Machen's influence is not limited to genre fiction, however. Jorge Luis Borges recognized Machen as a great writer, and through him Machen has had an influence on magic realism. He was also a major influence on Paul Bowles and Javier Marías, the latter of whom dedicated a subplot of his 1989 novel All Souls to collecting the works of Machen and his circle of peers. He was one of the most significant figures in the life of the Poet Laureate Sir John Betjeman, who attributed to Machen his conversion to High Church Anglicanism, an important part of his philosophy and poetry. Sylvia Townsend Warner (a niece of Machen's second wife, Purefoy) admired Machen and was influenced by him, as is his great-granddaughter, the contemporary artist Tessa Farmer.",
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"plaintext": "Machen was also a pioneer in psychogeography, due to his interest in the interconnection between landscape and the mind. His strange wanderings in Wales and London recorded in his beautiful prose make him of great interest to writers on this subject, especially those focusing on London, such as Iain Sinclair and Peter Ackroyd. Alan Moore wrote an exploration of Machen's mystical experiences in his work Snakes and Ladders. Aleister Crowley loved Machen's works, feeling they contained \"Magickal\" truth, and put them on the reading list for his students, though Machen, who never met him, detested Crowley. Other occultists, such as Kenneth Grant, also find Machen an inspiration. Far closer to Machen's personal mystical world view was his effect on his friend Evelyn Underhill, who reflected some of Machen's thinking in her highly influential book Mysticism.",
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"plaintext": "One chapter of the French best-seller The Morning of the Magicians, by L. Pauwels and J. Berger (1960), deals extensively with Machen's thought and works. Machen's approach to reality is described as an example of the \"fantastic realism\" which the book is dedicated to.",
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"plaintext": "In music, the composer John Ireland found Machen's works to be a life-changing experience that directly influenced much of his composition. Mark E. Smith of The Fall also found Machen an inspiration. Likewise, Current 93 have drawn on the mystical and occult leanings of Machen, with songs such as \"The Inmost Light\", which shares its title with Machen's story. Some artists on the Ghost Box Music label like Belbury Poly and The Focus Group draw heavily on Machen. It is an interest also shared by film directors like Mexican Rogelio A. González who made a successful version of \"The Islington Mystery\" as El Esqueleto de la señora Morales (1960), adapted by Luis Alcoriza, a frequent collaborator in Luis Buñuel's classic films. This interest in Machen's works among filmmakers is also shared by Guillermo del Toro and Richard Stanley. Other notable figures with an enthusiasm for Machen have included Brocard Sewell, Barry Humphries, Stewart Lee and Rowan Williams, Archbishop of Canterbury.",
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"plaintext": "An Arthur Machen Society was established in 1948 in the United States and survived until the 1960s. It was followed by the Arthur Machen Society based in the UK, in 1986, which in turn was replaced by the current literary society, The Friends of Arthur Machen.",
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"plaintext": "The Friends of Arthur Machen (FoAM) is a non-profit international literary society founded in 1998 dedicated to supporting interest in Arthur Machen and his work, and to aid research. It publishes two journals: Faunus, which reprints rare Machen articles and criticism of his work, and Machenalia. It fosters interest not only in Machen but in events in which he played a key part, such as the Angels of Mons affair, and organises psychogeographic excursions.",
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"plaintext": "Prominent members include Javier Marías, Stewart Lee and R. B. Russell of Tartarus Press. The society was nominated for a Non-Professional in 2006.",
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"plaintext": "In approximate order of composition, with date of publication:",
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{
"plaintext": " The Chronicle of Clemendy (1888): fantasy tales within a frame story of a rural Welsh drinking fraternity with mystical roots.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Selected works",
"target_page_ids": [],
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{
"plaintext": " \"The Lost Club\" (1890): short story about a secret London society and its ritual disappearances of members.",
"section_idx": 4,
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{
"plaintext": " The Great God Pan (written 1890–1894; published 1894): short horror novel. First published together with \"The Inmost Light\" as Volume V in John Lane's Keynotes Series.",
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"plaintext": " \"The Inmost Light\" (1894): short horror story. A scientist imprisons his wife's soul in a shining jewel, letting something else into her untenanted body, but the jewel is stolen.",
"section_idx": 4,
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{
"plaintext": " \"The Shining Pyramid\" (1895): short horror story. Strange arrangements of stones appear at the edge of a young man's property. He and a friend attempt to decipher their meaning before it is too late.",
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"plaintext": " The Three Impostors (1895): horror novel incorporating several short stories, including \"The Novel of the White Powder\" and \"The Novel of the Black Seal\", which have often been anthologised separately. Centers on the search for a man with spectacles.",
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"plaintext": " \"The Novel of the Black Seal\": a precursor of H. P. Lovecraft in its subject matter—the protagonist gradually uncovers the secrets of a hidden pre- and non-human race hiding in the Welsh hills, and the true nature of a hybrid, idiot child fathered by one of them.",
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"plaintext": " \"The Novel of the White Powder\": a man's behaviour takes a strange turn after he starts taking a new prescription. His sister doesn't know if this is a good thing or a bad one.",
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"plaintext": " \"The Red Hand\" (1895): short detective/horror story featuring the main characters from The Three Impostors. It focuses on a murder performed with an ancient stone axe.",
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"plaintext": " The Hill of Dreams (written 1895–1897; published 1907): novel delineating the dark, mystical spiraling madness, awe, sensuality, horror and ecstasy of an artist. Generally considered Machen's masterpiece.",
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"plaintext": " Ornaments in Jade (written 1897; published 1924): prose poems, some of which hint at dark pagan powers.",
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"plaintext": " \"The White People\" (written 1899; published 1904): short horror story. Presented as a young girl's diary, detailing her increasingly deep delvings into witchcraft. Often described as one of the greatest of all horror short stories.",
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"plaintext": " Hieroglyphics: A Note upon Ecstasy in Literature (written 1899; published 1902): literary tract detailing Machen's philosophy of literature and its capacity for \"ecstasy\".",
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"plaintext": " A Fragment of Life (written 1899–1904; published 1904): short novel. A young couple repudiate the banalities of material life in favour of the spiritual.",
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"plaintext": " The House of the Hidden Light (Written in 1904 with Arthur Edward Waite. Only three copies were published. Reprinted in an edition of 350 copies by Tartarus Press, 2003): book of coded and mystical correspondence.",
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"plaintext": " The Secret Glory (written 1899–1908; published 1922): novel. A public-school boy becomes fascinated by tales of the Holy Grail and escapes from his repressive school in search of a deeper meaning to life.",
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"plaintext": " \"The Bowmen\" (1914): in this story, written and published during World War I, the ghosts of archers from the battle of Agincourt, led by Saint George, come to the aid of British troops. This is cited as the origin of the Angels of Mons legend.",
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"plaintext": " \"The Great Return\" (1915): short story. The Holy Grail returns to a Welsh village.",
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38,294 | 1,065,895,419 | Jan_Węglarz | [
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38,298 | 1,106,045,441 | George_Boole | [
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"plaintext": "George Boole (; 2 November 1815– 8 December 1864) was a largely self-taught English mathematician, philosopher, and logician, most of whose short career was spent as the first professor of mathematics at Queen's College, Cork in Ireland. He worked in the fields of differential equations and algebraic logic, and is best known as the author of The Laws of Thought (1854) which contains Boolean algebra. Boolean logic is credited with laying the foundations for the Information Age.",
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"plaintext": "Boole was born in 1815 in Lincoln, Lincolnshire, England, the son of John Boole senior (1779–1848), a shoemaker and Mary Ann Joyce. He had a primary school education, and received lessons from his father, but due to a serious decline in business, he had little further formal and academic teaching. William Brooke, a bookseller in Lincoln, may have helped him with Latin, which he may also have learned at the school of Thomas Bainbridge. He was self-taught in modern languages. In fact, when a local newspaper printed his translation of a Latin poem, a scholar accused him of plagiarism under the pretence that he was not capable of such achievements. At age 16, Boole became the breadwinner for his parents and three younger siblings, taking up a junior teaching position in Doncaster at Heigham's School. He taught briefly in Liverpool.",
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"plaintext": "Boole participated in the Lincoln Mechanics' Institute, in the Greyfriars, Lincoln, which was founded in 1833. Edward Bromhead, who knew John Boole through the institution, helped George Boole with mathematics books and he was given the calculus text of Sylvestre François Lacroix by the Rev. George Stevens Dickson of St Swithin's, Lincoln. Without a teacher, it took him many years to master calculus.",
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"plaintext": "At age 19, Boole successfully established his own school in Lincoln: Free School Lane. Four years later he took over Hall's Academy in Waddington, outside Lincoln, following the death of Robert Hall. In 1840, he moved back to Lincoln, where he ran a boarding school. Boole immediately became involved in the Lincoln Topographical Society, serving as a member of the committee, and presenting a paper entitled \"On the origin, progress, and tendencies of polytheism\", especially amongst the ancient Egyptians and Persians, and in modern India.",
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"plaintext": "Boole became a prominent local figure, an admirer of John Kaye, the bishop. He took part in the local campaign for early closing. With Edmund Larken and others he set up a building society in 1847. He associated also with the Chartist Thomas Cooper, whose wife was a relation.",
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"plaintext": "From 1838 onwards, Boole was making contacts with sympathetic British academic mathematicians and reading more widely. He studied algebra in the form of symbolic methods, as far as these were understood at the time, and began to publish research papers.",
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"plaintext": "Boole's status as a mathematician was recognised by his appointment in 1849 as the first professor of mathematics at Queen's College, Cork (now University College Cork (UCC)) in Ireland. He met his future wife, Mary Everest, there in 1850 while she was visiting her uncle John Ryall who was professor of Greek. They married some years later in 1855. He maintained his ties with Lincoln, working there with E. R. Larken in a campaign to reduce prostitution.",
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"plaintext": "In 1844, Boole's paper \"On a General Method in Analysis\" won the first gold prize for mathematics awarded by the Royal Society. He was awarded the Keith Medal by the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1855 and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1857. He received honorary degrees of LL.D. from the University of Dublin and the University of Oxford.",
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"plaintext": "Boole's first published paper was \"Researches in the theory of analytical transformations, with a special application to the reduction of the general equation of the second order\", printed in the Cambridge Mathematical Journal in February 1840 (Volume 2, No. 8, pp.64–73), and it led to a friendship between Boole and Duncan Farquharson Gregory, the editor of the journal. His works are in about 50 articles and a few separate publications.",
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"plaintext": "In 1841, Boole published an influential paper in early invariant theory. He received a medal from the Royal Society for his memoir of 1844, \"On a General Method in Analysis\". It was a contribution to the theory of linear differential equations, moving from the case of constant coefficients on which he had already published, to variable coefficients. The innovation in operational methods is to admit that operations may not commute. In 1847, Boole published The Mathematical Analysis of Logic, the first of his works on symbolic logic.",
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"plaintext": "Boole completed two systematic treatises on mathematical subjects during his lifetime. The Treatise on Differential Equations appeared in 1859, and was followed, the next year, by a Treatise on the Calculus of Finite Differences, a sequel to the former work.",
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"plaintext": "In 1857, Boole published the treatise \"On the Comparison of Transcendent, with Certain Applications to the Theory of Definite Integrals\", in which he studied the sum of residues of a rational function. Among other results, he proved what is now called Boole's identity:",
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"plaintext": "for any real numbers ak>0, bk, and t>0. Generalisations of this identity play an important role in the theory of the Hilbert transform.",
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"plaintext": "In 1847, Boole published the pamphlet Mathematical Analysis of Logic. He later regarded it as a flawed exposition of his logical system and wanted An Investigation of the Laws of Thought on Which are Founded the Mathematical Theories of Logic and Probabilities to be seen as the mature statement of his views. Contrary to widespread belief, Boole never intended to criticise or disagree with the main principles of Aristotle's logic. Rather he intended to systematise it, to provide it with a foundation, and to extend its range of applicability. Boole's initial involvement in logic was prompted by a current debate on quantification, between Sir William Hamilton who supported the theory of \"quantification of the predicate\", and Boole's supporter Augustus De Morgan who advanced a version of De Morgan duality, as it is now called. Boole's approach was ultimately much further reaching than either sides' in the controversy. It founded what was first known as the \"algebra of logic\" tradition.",
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"plaintext": "Among his many innovations is his principle of wholistic reference, which was later, and probably independently, adopted by Gottlob Frege and by logicians who subscribe to standard first-order logic. A 2003 article provides a systematic comparison and critical evaluation of Aristotelian logic and Boolean logic; it also reveals the centrality of holistic reference in Boole's philosophy of logic.",
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"plaintext": "In every discourse, whether of the mind conversing with its own thoughts, or of the individual in his intercourse with others, there is an assumed or expressed limit within which the subjects of its operation are confined. The most unfettered discourse is that in which the words we use are understood in the widest possible application, and for them, the limits of discourse are co-extensive with those of the universe itself. But more usually we confine ourselves to a less spacious field. Sometimes, in discoursing of men we imply (without expressing the limitation) that it is of men only under certain circumstances and conditions that we speak, as of civilised men, or of men in the vigour of life, or of men under some other condition or relation. Now, whatever may be the extent of the field within which all the objects of our discourse are found, that field may properly be termed the universe of discourse. Furthermore, this universe of discourse is in the strictest sense the ultimate subject of the discourse.",
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"plaintext": "Boole conceived of \"elective symbols\" of his kind as an algebraic structure. But this general concept was not available to him: he did not have the segregation standard in abstract algebra of postulated (axiomatic) properties of operations, and deduced properties. His work was a beginning to the algebra of sets, again not a concept available to Boole as a familiar model. His pioneering efforts encountered specific difficulties, and the treatment of addition was an obvious difficulty in the early days.",
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"plaintext": "Boole replaced the operation of multiplication by the word \"and\" and addition by the word \"or\". But in Boole's original system, + was a partial operation: in the language of set theory it would correspond only to disjoint union of subsets. Later authors changed the interpretation, commonly reading it as exclusive or, or in set theory terms symmetric difference; this step means that addition is always defined.",
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"plaintext": "In fact, there is the other possibility, that + should be read as disjunction. This other possibility extends from the disjoint union case, where exclusive or and non-exclusive or both give the same answer. Handling this ambiguity was an early problem of the theory, reflecting the modern use of both Boolean rings and Boolean algebras (which are simply different aspects of one type of structure). Boole and Jevons struggled over just this issue in 1863, in the form of the correct evaluation of x + x. Jevons argued for the result x, which is correct for + as disjunction. Boole kept the result as something undefined. He argued against the result 0, which is correct for exclusive or, because he saw the equation x + x = 0 as implying x = 0, a false analogy with ordinary algebra.",
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"plaintext": "The second part of the Laws of Thought contained a corresponding attempt to discover a general method in probabilities. Here the goal was algorithmic: from the given probabilities of any system of events, to determine the consequent probability of any other event logically connected with those events.",
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"plaintext": "In late November 1864, Boole walked, in heavy rain, from his home at Lichfield Cottage in Ballintemple to the university, a distance of three miles, and lectured wearing his wet clothes. He soon became ill, developing pneumonia. As his wife believed that remedies should resemble their cause, she wrapped him in wet blankets – the wet having brought on his illness. Boole's condition worsened and on 8 December 1864, he died of fever-induced pleural effusion.",
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"plaintext": "He was buried in the Church of Ireland cemetery of St Michael's, Church Road, Blackrock (a suburb of Cork). There is a commemorative plaque inside the adjoining church.",
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"plaintext": "Boole is the namesake of the branch of algebra known as Boolean algebra, as well as the namesake of the lunar crater Boole. The keyword Bool represents a Boolean datatype in many programming languages, though Pascal and Java, among others, both use the full name Boolean. The library, underground lecture theatre complex and the Boole Centre for Research in Informatics at University College Cork are named in his honour. A road called Boole Heights in Bracknell, Berkshire is named after him.",
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"plaintext": "Boole's work was extended and refined by a number of writers, beginning with William Stanley Jevons. Augustus De Morgan had worked on the logic of relations, and Charles Sanders Peirce integrated his work with Boole's during the 1870s. Other significant figures were Platon Sergeevich Poretskii, and William Ernest Johnson. The conception of a Boolean algebra structure on equivalent statements of a propositional calculus is credited to Hugh MacColl (1877), in work surveyed 15 years later by Johnson. Surveys of these developments were published by Ernst Schröder, Louis Couturat, and Clarence Irving Lewis.",
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"plaintext": "In 1921, the economist John Maynard Keynes published a book on probability theory, A Treatise of Probability. Keynes believed that Boole had made a fundamental error in his definition of independence which vitiated much of his analysis. In his book The Last Challenge Problem, David Miller provides a general method in accord with Boole's system and attempts to solve the problems recognised earlier by Keynes and others. Theodore Hailperin showed much earlier that Boole had used the correct mathematical definition of independence in his worked out problems.",
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"plaintext": "Boole's work and that of later logicians initially appeared to have no engineering uses. Claude Shannon attended a philosophy class at the University of Michigan which introduced him to Boole's studies. Shannon recognised that Boole's work could form the basis of mechanisms and processes in the real world and that it was therefore highly relevant. In 1937 Shannon went on to write a master's thesis, at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, in which he showed how Boolean algebra could optimise the design of systems of electromechanical relays then used in telephone routing switches. He also proved that circuits with relays could solve Boolean algebra problems. Employing the properties of electrical switches to process logic is the basic concept that underlies all modern electronic digital computers. Victor Shestakov at Moscow State University (1907–1987) proposed a theory of electric switches based on Boolean logic even earlier than Claude Shannon in 1935 on the testimony of Soviet logicians and mathematicians Sofya Yanovskaya, Gaaze-Rapoport, Roland Dobrushin, Lupanov, Medvedev and Uspensky, though they presented their academic theses in the same year, 1938. But the first publication of Shestakov's result took place only in 1941 (in Russian). Hence, Boolean algebra became the foundation of practical digital circuit design; and Boole, via Shannon and Shestakov, provided the theoretical grounding for the Information Age.",
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"plaintext": "The year 2015 saw the 200th anniversary of Boole's birth. To mark the bicentenary year, University College Cork joined admirers of Boole around the world to celebrate his life and legacy.",
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"plaintext": "UCC's George Boole 200 project, featured events, student outreach activities and academic conferences on Boole's legacy in the digital age, including a new edition of Desmond MacHale's 1985 biography The Life and Work of George Boole: A Prelude to the Digital Age, 2014).",
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"plaintext": "The search engine Google marked the 200th anniversary of his birth on 2 November 2015 with an algebraic reimaging of its Google Doodle.",
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"plaintext": "Boole's views were given in four published addresses: The Genius of Sir Isaac Newton; The Right Use of Leisure; The Claims of Science; and The Social Aspect of Intellectual Culture. The first of these was from 1835 when Charles Anderson-Pelham, 1st Earl of Yarborough gave a bust of Newton to the Mechanics' Institute in Lincoln. The second justified and celebrated in 1847 the outcome of the successful campaign for early closing in Lincoln, headed by Alexander Leslie-Melville, of Branston Hall. The Claims of Science was given in 1851 at Queen's College, Cork. The Social Aspect of Intellectual Culture was also given in Cork, in 1855 to the Cuvierian Society.",
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"plaintext": "Though his biographer Des MacHale describes Boole as an \"agnostic deist\", Boole read a wide variety of Christian theology. Combining his interests in mathematics and theology, he compared the Christian trinity of Father, Son, and Holy Ghost with the three dimensions of space, and was attracted to the Hebrew conception of God as an absolute unity. Boole considered converting to Judaism but in the end was said to have chosen Unitarianism.[reference?] Boole came to speak against what he saw as \"prideful\" scepticism, and instead favoured the belief in a \"Supreme Intelligent Cause\". He also declared \"I firmly believe, for the accomplishment of a purpose of the Divine Mind.\" In addition, he stated that he perceived \"teeming evidences of surrounding design\" and concluded that \"the course of this world is not abandoned to chance and inexorable fate.\"",
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"plaintext": "Two influences on Boole were later claimed by his wife, Mary Everest Boole: a universal mysticism tempered by Jewish thought, and Indian logic. Mary Boole stated that an adolescent mystical experience provided for his life's work:",
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"plaintext": "My husband told me that when he was a lad of seventeen a thought struck him suddenly, which became the foundation of all his future discoveries. It was a flash of psychological insight into the conditions under which a mind most readily accumulates knowledge [...] For a few years he supposed himself to be convinced of the truth of \"the Bible\" as a whole, and even intended to take orders as a clergyman of the English Church. But by the help of a learned Jew in Lincoln he found out the true nature of the discovery which had dawned on him. This was that man's mind works by means of some mechanism which \"functions normally towards Monism.\"",
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"plaintext": "In Ch. 13 of Laws of Thought Boole used examples of propositions from Baruch Spinoza and Samuel Clarke. The work contains some remarks on the relationship of logic to religion, but they are slight and cryptic. Boole was apparently disconcerted at the book's reception just as a mathematical toolset:",
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"plaintext": "George afterwards learned, to his great joy, that the same conception of the basis of Logic was held by Leibniz, the contemporary of Newton. De Morgan, of course, understood the formula in its true sense; he was Boole's collaborator all along. Herbert Spencer, Jowett, and Robert Leslie Ellis understood, I feel sure; and a few others, but nearly all the logicians and mathematicians ignored [953] the statement that the book was meant to throw light on the nature of the human mind; and treated the formula entirely as a wonderful new method of reducing to logical order masses of evidence about external fact.",
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"plaintext": "For Activision, while they survived the crash, they felt its effects in the following years. These third-party developers folded, leaving warehouses full of unsold games, which savvy retailers purchased and sold at a mass discount ( compared to Activision's manufacturer's suggested retail price). While there was still a demand for Activision games, uneducated consumers were more drawn to the heavily discounted titles instead, reducing their income. Their quarterly revenue dropped from in mid-1983 to about by the end of 1984, according to Levy, and were forced to lay off staff, going from about 400 employees to 95 in that period. Because of this, Activision decided that they needed to diversify their games onto home computers such as the Commodore 64, Apple, and Atari 8-bit family to avoid completely going out of business like other third-party developers. There still was a drain of talent through 1985 from the crash. Miller and Whitehead left in 1984 due to the large devaluation of their stock and went to form Accolade.",
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"plaintext": "With the video game crash making console game development a risky proposition, the company focused on developing for home computers with games like Little Computer People and Hacker, while Levy tried to keep expenditures in check as they recovered. Looking to expand further, Activision acquired, through a corporate merger, the struggling text adventure pioneer Infocom in June 1986. This acquisition was spearheaded by Levy, who was a big fan of Infocom's titles and felt the company was in a similar position as Activision. About six months after the \"Infocom Wedding\", Activision's board decided to replace Levy with Bruce Davis. Davis was against the purchase of Infocom from the start and was heavy-handed in its management, and even attempted to seek a lawsuit to recover their purchase from Infocom's shareholders. Crane also found Davis difficult to work with and was concerned with how Davis managed the closure of Imagic, one of the third-party development studios formed in Activision's success in 1981. Crane left Activision in 1986 and helped Garry Kitchen found Absolute Entertainment.",
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"plaintext": "In 1988, Activision began involvement in software besides video games, such as business applications. As a result, Activision changed its corporate name to Mediagenic to better represent all of its activities.",
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"plaintext": " Activision: video game publisher for various platforms, notably the Nintendo Entertainment System, the Sega Master System, the Atari 7800, Atari ST, Commodore 64 and Amiga",
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"plaintext": " Ten Point O: business application software",
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"plaintext": "In 1989, after several years of losses, Activision closed down the Infocom studios, extending to only 11 of the 26 employees an offer to relocate to Activision's Silicon Valley headquarters. Five of them accepted this offer.",
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"plaintext": "Notably during this time, Mediagenic was known to have worked on the early version of a football game that would be the basis for Joe Montana Football. Sega of America's Michael Katz had been able to get Sega to pay Mediagenic around early 1990 to develop this into the branded version after securing the rights to Joe Montana's name, but was unaware of internal troubles that had been going on within the company, which had left the state of the game mostly unfinished. Katz and Sega were forced to take the incomplete game to Electronic Arts, which had been developing its own John Madden Football series for personal computers, to complete the game.",
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"plaintext": "During this period Mediagenic, via Activision, secured the rights to distribute games from Cyan Worlds. The first game published by Activision from Cyan was The Manhole, on CD-ROM for personal computers, the first major game distributed in this format.",
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"plaintext": "Davis' management of Mediagenic failed to produce a profitable company; in 1991, Mediagenic reported a loss of on only of revenue and had over in debt. Cyan severed their contract with Activision, and turned to Broderbund for publishing, including what would become one of the most significant computer games of the 1990s, Myst.",
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"plaintext": "Bobby Kotick had become interested in the value of the video game industry following the crash, and he and three other investors worked to buy Commodore International in an effort to gain access to the Commodore Amiga line of personal computers. After failing to complete purchase, the group bought a company that licensed Nintendo characters, and through Nintendo was directed to the failing Mediagenic. Kotick was drawn to buy out Mediagenic not for its current offerings but for the Activision name, given its past successes with Pitfall!, with hopes to restore Activision to its former glory. Crane said that Kotick has recognized the Activision brand name could be valued around and rather than start a new company and spend that amount to obtain the same reputation, he saw the opportunity to buy the failing Mediagenic at a bargain price and gain Activision's reputation with minimal cost. Kotick and additional investors bought Mediagenic for approximately in 1991. This group of investors included real estate businessman Steve Wynn and Philips Electronics.",
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"plaintext": "Kotick became CEO of Mediagenic on its purchase and made several immediate changes: He let go of all but 8 of the companies' 150 employees, performed a full restructuring of the company, developed a bankruptcy restructuring plan, and reincorporated the company in Los Angeles, California. In the bankruptcy plan, Kotick recognized that Mediagenic still had valuable assets, which included the Infocom library as well as its authoring tools to make games, Activision's distribution network, and licenses to develop on Nintendo and Sega home consoles. Kotick offset some debt by giving stock in the company to its distributors as to keep them vested in the company's success. Kotick also had the company reissue several of its past console and Infocom titles as compilations for personal computers. Kotick had also recognized the value of the Zork property from Infocom, and had the company develop a sequel, Return to Zork. Combined, these steps allowed Mediagenic to fulfill on the bankruptcy plan, and by the end of 1992, Kotick renamed Mediagenic to the original Activision name. The new Activision went public in October 1993, raising about , and was listed on NASDAQ under its new ticker symbol ATVI.",
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"plaintext": "Activision published the first-person perspective MechWarrior in 1989, based on FASA's pen-and-paper game BattleTech. A sequel, MechWarrior 2, was released in 1995 after two years of delays and internal struggles, prompting FASA not to renew their licensing deal with Activision. To counter, Activision released several more games bearing the MechWarrior 2 name, which did not violate their licensing agreement. These included NetMech, Ghost Bear's Legacy, and Mercenaries. The entire MechWarrior 2 game series accounted for more than in sales.",
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"plaintext": "With several of its own successfully developed games helping to turn a profit, Kotick led Activision to start seeking acquisitions of video game development studios, guided by market surveys to determine what areas of content to focus on. It is estimated that between 1997 and 2008, Activision made 25 acquisitions, several for undisclosed amounts. Several of these came prior to 2001, in the midst of the Dot-com bubble, enabling the company to acquire studios at a lower valuation. On June 16, 2000, Activision reorganized as a holding company, Activision Holdings, to manage Activision and its subsidiaries more effectively. Activision changed its corporate name from \"Activision, Inc.\" to \"Activision Publishing, Inc.\", while Activision Holdings took Activision's former \"Activision, Inc.\" name. Activision Publishing became a wholly owned subsidiary of Activision, which in turn became the publicly traded company, with all outstanding shares of capital stock converted.",
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"plaintext": " Raven Software: Raven was founded in 1990; because of their close proximity, Raven frequently collaborated with id Software, and one of the studio's early successes was the Heretic series using id's Doom engine. Around 1997, Raven's founders Brian and Steve Raffel felt the need to seek a parent company. They arranged a publishing deal with Activision in 1997, which not only served to provide Raven additional financial support, but also gave Activision the opportunity to work closely with id Software and gain business relationships with them. By the end of 1997, Activision acquired Raven as one of its first subsidiaries under Kotick. The acquisition price was $12 million. ",
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"plaintext": " Neversoft: Prior to its acquisition in 2000, Activision had arranged a development deal with Neversoft to re-develop Apocalypse, a title that failed to be completed within Activision. Subsequently, Activision had Neversoft work on a prototype for a skateboarding game, which would end up becoming the first in the Tony Hawk's series of skateboarding video games. Tony Hawk's Pro Skater was a critical success, leading Activision to acquire Neversoft in April 2000. After eight games, the series has brought in .",
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"plaintext": " Infinity Ward: After Electronic Arts released Allied Assault in 2002, several of the developers from 2015, Inc., disenchanted with their current contracts, left to form a new studio, Infinity Ward. Kotick himself provided the group with startup funding, as they were seeking to develop a similar title to Medal of Honor. Activision acquired the studio for in January 2003, and later publish their first title, Call of Duty, directly competing with Electronic Arts. The Call of Duty series has since seen nearly yearly releases and as of 2016 had sold more than 250 million units and brought in more than in revenue.",
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"plaintext": " Gray Matter Interactive: While Gray Matter was originally founded in 1993 as Xatrix Entertainment, it was rebranded to Gray Matter in 1999 as they began work on Return to Castle Wolfenstein, in conjunction with Nerve Software and oversight by id Software who owned the Castle Wolfenstein IP. Activision, the game's publisher, acquired a portion of Gray Matter's stock during this time. Return to Castle Wolfenstein was a critical and financial success, and led Activision to acquire the remaining shares of Gray Matter in 2002 for about , with the intent to help Infinity Ward expand out the Call of Duty franchise. In 2005, Activision made the decision to merge the smaller Gray Matter into the larger Treyarch to put their combined talents towards Call of Duty 3.",
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"plaintext": " RedOctane: Around 2005, Red Octane was co-developing Guitar Hero, a console game based on the arcade game GuitarFreaks, with Harmonix; Harmonix was developing the software while RedOctane developed the instrument controllers. Guitar Hero was a major success. Activision purchased RedOctane for nearly in June 2006. The series has since earned more than in revenues.",
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"plaintext": " Toys for Bob: Toys for Bob was founded by Paul Reiche III, Fred Ford, and Terry Falls in 1989 and gained success in developing the first two Star Control games, and later made film-to-video game adaptions. Activision purchased the studio in 2005, and had given them work on some of the Tony Hawk's games as well as other licensed properties. Following Activision's merger with Vivendi, Activision gained the Spyro intellectual property and assigned Toys for Bob to develop the series in a new direction, leading to the toys-to-life Skylanders series.",
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"plaintext": "While Activision was highly successful with its range of developers and successful series, Kotick was concerned that they did not have a title for the growing massively multiplayer online market, which presented the opportunity for continued revenues from subscription models and microtransactions instead of the revenue from a single sale. Around 2006, Kotick contacted Jean-Bernard Lévy, the new CEO of Vivendi, a French media conglomerate. Vivendi had a games division, Vivendi Games, that was struggling to be viable at the time, but its principal feature was that it owned Blizzard Entertainment and its highly successful World of Warcraft game, which was drawing in a year in subscription fees. Vivendi Games also owned Sierra Entertainment.",
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"plaintext": "Lévy recognized Kotick wanted control of World of Warcraft, and offered to allow the companies to merge, but only if Lévy held the majority shares in the merged group, forcing Kotick to cede control. Kotick fretted about this decision for a while, according to friends and investors. During this time in 2006–2007, some of Activision's former successful properties began to wane, such as Tony Hawk's, so Activision bought RedOctane, the publisher of the Guitar Hero franchise. Kotick met with Blizzard's president Mike Morhaime, and learned that Blizzard also had a successful inroad into getting their games into China, a potentially lucrative market. Given this potential opportunity, Kotick agreed to the merger.",
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"plaintext": "Activision's board signed on to the merger by December 2007. The merger was completed in July 2008. The new company was called Activision Blizzard and was headed by Kotick, while Vivendi maintained a 52% share in the company. The new company was estimated to be worth , ahead of Electronic Arts, which was valued at .",
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"plaintext": "Activision Publishing remains a subsidiary of Activision Blizzard following the merger, and is responsible for developing, producing, and distributing games from its internal and subsidiary studios. Eric Hirshberg was announced as Activision Publishing's CEO in 2010.",
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"plaintext": "Activision Publishing established Sledgehammer Games in November 2009. Formed earlier in 2009 by Glen Schofield and Michael Condrey, former Visceral Games leads that had worked on Dead Space, Sledgehammer intended to develop a Call of Duty spin-off title fashioned after the gameplay in Dead Space. However, in early 2010, legal issues between Infinity Ward and Activision Blizzard led to several members of Infinity Ward leaving, and Activision assigned Sledgehammer to assist Infinity Ward in the next major Call of Duty title, Modern Warfare 3. Since then, Sledgehammer, Infinity Ward, and Treyarch share development duties for the flagship series, with support from Raven and other studios as necessary.",
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"plaintext": "In February 2010, Activision Blizzard reported significant losses in revenue stemming from a slow down in Guitar Hero sales and from its more casual games. Subsequently, Activision Publishing shuttered Red Octane, Luxoflux and Underground Development as well as laid off about 25% of the staff at Neversoft. Within the same year, Activision shuttered Budcat Creations in November 2010, and Bizarre Creations in February 2011.",
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"plaintext": "Into the 2020s, Activision put more focus on the Call of Duty franchise, including the release of the free-to-play Warzone in 2020. By April 2021, the company had assigned all of its internal studios to work on some part of the Call of Duty franchise. This includes a new studio, Activision Mobile, devoted to the Call of Duty Mobile title as reported in August 2021.",
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5
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1,
11
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1,
11
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"plaintext": "Inflammation of the pancreas is known as pancreatitis, with common causes including chronic alcohol use and gallstones. Because of its role in the regulation of blood sugar, the pancreas is also a key organ in diabetes mellitus. Pancreatic cancer can arise following chronic pancreatitis or due to other reasons, and carries a very poor prognosis, as it is often identified when it has spread to other areas of the body.",
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"plaintext": "The word pancreas comes from the Greek πᾶν (pân, “all”) & κρέας (kréas, “flesh”). The function of the pancreas in diabetes has been known since at least 1889, with its role in insulin production identified in 1921.",
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"plaintext": "The pancreas is an organ that in humans lies in the abdomen, stretching from behind the stomach to the left upper abdomen near the spleen. In adults, it is about long, , and salmon-coloured in appearance.",
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"plaintext": "Anatomically, the pancreas is divided into a head, neck, body, and tail. The pancreas stretches from the inner curvature of the duodenum, where the head surrounds two blood vessels: the superior mesenteric artery and vein. The longest part of the pancreas, the body, stretches across behind the stomach, and the tail of the pancreas ends adjacent to the spleen.",
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"plaintext": "Two ducts, the main pancreatic duct and a smaller accessory pancreatic duct run through the body of the pancreas. The main pancreatic duct joins with the common bile duct forming a small ballooning called the ampulla of Vater (hepatopancreatic ampulla). This ampulla is surrounded by a muscle, the sphincter of Oddi. This ampulla opens into the descending part of the duodenum. The opening of the common bile duct into main pancreatic duct is controlled by sphincter of Boyden. The accessory pancreatic duct opens into duodenum with separate openings located above the opening of the main pancreatic duct.",
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"plaintext": "The head of the pancreas sits within the curvature of the duodenum, and wraps around the superior mesenteric artery and vein. To the right sits the descending part of the duodenum, and between these travel the superior and inferior pancreaticoduodenal arteries. Behind rests the inferior vena cava, and the common bile duct. In front sits the peritoneal membrane and the transverse colon. A small uncinate process emerges from below the head, situated behind the superior mesenteric vein and sometimes artery.",
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"plaintext": "The neck of the pancreas separates the head of the pancreas, located in the curvature of the duodenum, from the body. The neck is about wide, and sits in front of where the portal vein is formed. The neck lies mostly behind the pylorus of the stomach, and is covered with peritoneum. The anterior superior pancreaticoduodenal artery travels in front of the neck of the pancreas.",
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"plaintext": "The body is the largest part of the pancreas, and mostly lies behind the stomach, tapering along its length. The peritoneum sits on top of the body of the pancreas, and the transverse colon in front of the peritoneum. Behind the pancreas are several blood vessels, including the aorta, the splenic vein, and the left renal vein, as well as the beginning of the superior mesenteric artery. Below the body of the pancreas sits some of the small intestine, specifically the last part of the duodenum and the jejunum to which it connects, as well as the suspensory ligament of the duodenum which falls between these two. In front of the pancreas sits the transverse colon.",
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"plaintext": "The pancreas narrows towards the tail, which sits near to the spleen. It is usually between long, and sits between the layers of the ligament between the spleen and the left kidney. The splenic artery and vein, which also passes behind the body of the pancreas, pass behind the tail of the pancreas.",
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"plaintext": "The pancreas has a rich blood supply, with vessels originating as branches of both the coeliac artery and superior mesenteric artery. The splenic artery runs along the top of the pancreas, and supplies the left part of the body and the tail of the pancreas through its pancreatic branches, the largest of which is called the greater pancreatic artery. The superior and inferior pancreaticoduodenal arteries run along the back and front surfaces of the head of the pancreas adjacent to the duodenum. These supply the head of the pancreas. These vessels join together () in the middle.",
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"plaintext": "The body and neck of the pancreas drain into the splenic vein, which sits behind the pancreas. The head drains into, and wraps around, the superior mesenteric and portal veins, via the pancreaticoduodenal veins.",
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"plaintext": "The pancreas drains into lymphatic vessels that travel alongside its arteries, and has a rich lymphatic supply. The lymphatic vessels of the body and tail drain into splenic lymph nodes, and eventually into lymph nodes that lie in front of the aorta, between the coeliac and superior mesenteric arteries. The lymphatic vessels of the head and neck drain into intermediate lymphatic vessels around the pancreaticoduodenal, mesenteric and hepatic arteries, and from there into the lymph nodes that lie in front of the aorta.",
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"plaintext": "The pancreas contains tissue with an endocrine and exocrine role, and this division is also visible when the pancreas is viewed under a microscope.",
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"plaintext": "The majority of pancreatic tissue has a digestive role. The cells with this role form clusters () around small ducts, and are arranged in lobes that have thin fibrous walls. The cells of each acinus secrete inactive digestive enzymes called zymogens into the small intercalated ducts which they surround. In each acinus, the cells are pyramid-shaped and situated around the intercalated ducts, with the nuclei resting on the basement membrane, a large endoplasmic reticulum, and a number of zymogen granules visible within the cytoplasm. The intercalated ducts drain into larger intralobular ducts within the lobule, and finally interlobular ducts. The ducts are lined by a single layer of column-shaped cells. There is more than one layer of cells as the diameter of the ducts increases.",
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"plaintext": "The tissues with an endocrine role within the pancreas exist as clusters of cells called pancreatic islets (also called islets of Langerhans) that are distributed throughout the pancreas. Pancreatic islets contain alpha cells, beta cells, and delta cells, each of which releases a different hormone. These cells have characteristic positions, with alpha cells (secreting glucagon) tending to be situated around the periphery of the islet, and beta cells (secreting insulin) more numerous and found throughout the islet. Enterochromaffin cells are also scattered throughout the islets. Islets are composed of up to 3,000 secretory cells, and contain several small arterioles to receive blood, and venules that allow the hormones secreted by the cells to enter the systemic circulation.",
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"plaintext": "The size of the pancreas varies considerably. Several anatomical variations exist, relating to the embryological development of the two pancreatic buds. The pancreas develops from these buds on either side of the duodenum. The ventral bud rotates to lie next to the dorsal bud, eventually fusing. In about 10% of adults, an accessory pancreatic duct may be present if the main duct of the dorsal bud of the pancreas does not regress; this duct opens into the minor duodenal papilla. If the two buds themselves, each having a duct, do not fuse, a pancreas may exist with two separate ducts, a condition known as a pancreas divisum. This condition has no physiologic consequence. If the ventral bud does not fully rotate, an annular pancreas may exist, where part or all of the duodenum is encircled by the pancreas. This may be associated with duodenal atresia.",
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"plaintext": "10,000 protein coding genes (50% of all genes) are expressed in the normal human pancreas. Less than 100 of these genes are specifically expressed in the pancreas. Similar to the salivary glands, most pancreas-specific genes encode for secreted proteins. Corresponding pancreas-specific proteins are either expressed in the exocrine cellular compartment and have functions related to digestion or food uptake such as digestive chymotrypsinogen enzymes and pancreatic lipase PNLIP, or are expressed in the various cells of the endocrine pancreatic islets and have functions related to secreted hormones such as insulin, glucagon, somatostatin and pancreatic polypeptide.",
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"plaintext": "The pancreas forms during development from two buds that arise from the duodenal part of the foregut, an embryonic tube that is a precursor to the gastrointestinal tract. It is of endodermal origin. Pancreatic development begins with the formation of a dorsal and ventral pancreatic bud. Each joins with the foregut through a duct. The dorsal pancreatic bud forms the neck, body, and tail of the developed pancreas, and the ventral pancreatic bud forms the head and uncinate process.",
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"plaintext": "The definitive pancreas results from rotation of the ventral bud and the fusion of the two buds. During development, the duodenum rotates to the right, and the ventral bud rotates with it, moving to a position that becomes more dorsal. Upon reaching its final destination, the ventral pancreatic bud is below the larger dorsal bud, and eventually fuses with it. At this point of fusion, the main ducts of the ventral and dorsal pancreatic buds fuse, forming the main pancreatic duct. Usually, the duct of the dorsal bud regresses, leaving the main pancreatic duct.",
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"plaintext": "Pancreatic progenitor cells are precursor cells that differentiate into the functional pancreatic cells, including exocrine acinar cells, endocrine islet cells, and ductal cells. These progenitor cells are characterised by the co-expression of the transcription factors PDX1 and NKX6-1.",
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"plaintext": "The cells of the exocrine pancreas differentiate through molecules that induce differentiation including follistatin, fibroblast growth factors, and activation of the Notch receptor system. Development of the exocrine acini progresses through three successive stages. These are the predifferentiated, protodifferentiated, and differentiated stages, which correspond to undetectable, low, and high levels of digestive enzyme activity, respectively.",
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"plaintext": "Pancreatic progenitor cells differentiate into endocrine islet cells under the influence of neurogenin-3 and ISL1, but only in the absence of notch receptor signaling. Under the direction of a Pax gene, the endocrine precursor cells differentiate to form alpha and gamma cells. Under the direction of Pax-6, the endocrine precursor cells differentiate to form beta and delta cells. The pancreatic islets form as the endocrine cells migrate from the duct system to form small clusters around capillaries. This occurs around the third month of development, and insulin and glucagon can be detected in the human fetal circulation by the fourth or fifth month of development.",
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"plaintext": "The pancreas is involved in blood sugar control and metabolism within the body, and also in the secretion of substances (collectively pancreatic juice) that help digestion. These are divided into an \"endocrine\" role, relating to the secretion of insulin and other substances within pancreatic islets that help control blood sugar levels and metabolism within the body, and an \"exocrine\" role, relating to the secretion of enzymes involved in digesting substances in the digestive tract.",
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"plaintext": "Cells within the pancreas help to maintain blood glucose levels (homeostasis). The cells that do this are located within the pancreatic islets that are present throughout the pancreas. When blood glucose levels are low, alpha cells secrete glucagon, which increases blood glucose levels. When blood glucose levels are high beta cells secrete insulin to decrease glucose in blood. Delta cells in the islet also secrete somatostatin which decreases the release of insulin and glucagon.",
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"plaintext": "Glucagon acts to increase glucose levels by promoting the creation of glucose and the breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the liver. It also decreases the uptake of glucose in fat and muscle. Glucagon release is stimulated by low blood glucose or insulin levels, and during exercise. Insulin acts to decrease blood glucose levels by facilitating uptake by cells (particularly skeletal muscle), and promoting its use in the creation of proteins, fats and carbohydrates. Insulin is initially created as a precursor form called preproinsulin. This is converted to proinsulin and cleaved by C-peptide to insulin which is then stored in granules in beta cells. Glucose is taken into the beta cells and degraded. The end effect of this is to cause depolarisation of the cell membrane which stimulates the release of the insulin.",
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"plaintext": "The pancreas plays a vital role in the digestive system. It does this by secreting a fluid that contains digestive enzymes into the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine that receives food from the stomach. These enzymes help to break down carbohydrates, proteins and lipids (fats). This role is called the \"exocrine\" role of the pancreas. The cells that do this are arranged in clusters called acini. Secretions into the middle of the acinus accumulate in intralobular ducts, which drain to the main pancreatic duct, which drains directly into the duodenum. About 1.5 - 3 liters of fluid are secreted in this manner every day.",
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"plaintext": "The cells in each acinus are filled with granules containing the digestive enzymes. These are secreted in an inactive form termed zymogens or proenzymes. When released into the duodenum, they are activated by the enzyme enterokinase present in the lining of the duodenum. The proenzymes are cleaved, creating a cascade of activating enzymes.",
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"plaintext": " Enzymes that break down proteins begin with activation of trypsinogen to trypsin. The free trypsin then cleaves the rest of the trypsinogen, as well as chymotrypsinogen to its active form chymotrypsin.",
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"plaintext": " Enzymes secreted involved in the digestion of fats include lipase, phospholipase A2, lysophospholipase, and cholesterol esterase.",
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"plaintext": " Enzymes that break down starch and other carbohydrates include amylase.",
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"plaintext": "These enzymes are secreted in a fluid rich in bicarbonate. Bicarbonate helps maintain an alkaline pH for the fluid, a pH in which most of the enzymes act most efficiently, and also helps to neutralise the stomach acids that enter the duodenum. Secretion is influenced by hormones including secretin, cholecystokinin, and VIP, as well as acetylcholine stimulation from the vagus nerve. Secretin is released from the S cells which form part of the lining of the duodenum in response to stimulation by gastric acid. Along with VIP, it increases the secretion of enzymes and bicarbonate. Cholecystokinin is released from Ito cells of the lining of the duodenum and jejunum mostly in response to long chain fatty acids, and increases the effects of secretin. At a cellular level, bicarbonate is secreted from centroacinar and ductal cells through a sodium and bicarbonate cotransporter that acts because of membrane depolarisation caused by the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator. Secretin and VIP act to increase the opening of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator, which leads to more membrane depolarisation and more secretion of bicarbonate.",
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"plaintext": "A variety of mechanisms act to ensure that the digestive action of the pancreas does not act to digest pancreatic tissue itself. These include the secretion of inactive enzymes (zymogens), the secretion of the protective enzyme trypsin inhibitor, which inactivates trypsin, the changes in pH that occur with bicarbonate secretion that stimulate digestion only when the pancreas is stimulated, and the fact that the low calcium within cells causes inactivation of trypsin.",
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"plaintext": "The pancreas also secretes vasoactive intestinal peptide and pancreatic polypeptide. Enterochromaffin cells of the pancreas secrete the hormones motilin, serotonin, and substance P.",
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"plaintext": "Inflammation of the pancreas is known as pancreatitis. Pancreatitis is most often associated with recurrent gallstones or chronic alcohol use, with other common causes including traumatic damage, damage following an ERCP, some medications, infections such as mumps and very high blood triglyceride levels. Acute pancreatitis is likely to cause intense pain in the central abdomen, that often radiates to the back, and may be associated with nausea or vomiting. Severe pancreatitis may lead to bleeding or perforation of the pancreas resulting in shock or a systemic inflammatory response syndrome, bruising of the flanks or the region around the belly button. These severe complications are often managed in an intensive care unit.",
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"plaintext": "In pancreatitis, enzymes of the exocrine pancreas damage the structure and tissue of the pancreas. Detection of some of these enzymes, such as amylase and lipase in the blood, along with symptoms and findings on medical imaging such as ultrasound or a CT scan, are often used to indicate that a person has pancreatitis. Pancreatitis is often managed medically with pain reliefs, and monitoring to prevent or manage shock, and management of any identified underlying causes. This may include removal of gallstones, lowering of blood triglyceride or glucose levels, the use of corticosteroids for autoimmune pancreatitis, and the cessation of any medication triggers.",
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"plaintext": "Chronic pancreatitis refers to the development of pancreatitis over time. It shares many similar causes, with the most common being chronic alcohol use, with other causes including recurrent acute episodes and cystic fibrosis. Abdominal pain, characteristically relieved by sitting forward or drinking alcohol, is the most common symptom. When the digestive function of the pancreas is severely affected, this may lead to problems with fat digestion and the development of steatorrhoea; when the endocrine function is affected, this may lead to diabetes. Chronic pancreatitis is investigated in a similar way to acute pancreatitis. In addition to management of pain and nausea, and management of any identified causes (which may include alcohol cessation), because of the digestive role of the pancreas, enzyme replacement may be needed to prevent malabsorption.",
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"plaintext": "Pancreatic cancers, particularly the most common type, pancreatic adenocarcinoma, remain very difficult to treat, and are mostly diagnosed only at a stage that is too late for surgery, which is the only curative treatment. Pancreatic cancer is rare in people younger than 40 and the median age of diagnosis is 71. Risk factors include chronic pancreatitis, older age, smoking, obesity, diabetes, and certain rare genetic conditions including multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1, hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer and dysplastic nevus syndrome among others. About 25% of cases are attributable to tobacco smoking, while 5–10% of cases are linked to inherited genes.",
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"plaintext": "Pancreatic adenocarcinoma is the most common form of pancreatic cancer, and is cancer arising from the exocrine digestive part of the pancreas. Most occur in the head of the pancreas. Symptoms tend to arise late in the course of the cancer, when it causes abdominal pain, weight loss, or yellowing of the skin (jaundice). Jaundice occurs when the outflow of bile is blocked by the cancer. Other less common symptoms include nausea, vomiting, pancreatitis, diabetes or recurrent venous thrombosis. Pancreatic cancer is usually diagnosed by medical imaging in the form of an ultrasound or CT scan with contrast enhancement. An endoscopic ultrasound may be used if a tumour is being considered for surgical removal, and biopsy guided by ERCP or ultrasound can be used to confirm an uncertain diagnosis.",
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"plaintext": "Because of the late development of symptoms, most cancer presents at an advanced stage. Only 10 to 15% of tumours are suitable for surgical resection. , when chemotherapy is given the FOLFIRINOX regimen containing fluorouracil, irinotecan, oxaliplatin and leucovorin has been shown to extend survival beyond traditional gemcitabine regimens. For the most part, treatment is palliative, focus on the management of symptoms that develop. This may include management of itch, a choledochojejunostomy or the insertion of stents with ERCP to facilitate the drainage of bile, and medications to help control pain. In the United States pancreatic cancer is the fourth most common cause of deaths due to cancer. The disease occurs more often in the developed world, which had 68% of new cases in 2012. Pancreatic adenocarcinoma typically has poor outcomes with the average percentage alive for at least one and five years after diagnosis being 25% and 5% respectively. In localized disease where the cancer is small (< 2cm) the number alive at five years is approximately 20%.",
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"plaintext": "There are several types of pancreatic cancer, involving both the endocrine and exocrine tissue. The many types of pancreatic endocrine tumors are all uncommon or rare, and have varied outlooks. However the incidence of these cancers has been rising sharply; it is not clear to what extent this reflects increased detection, especially through medical imaging, of tumors that would be very slow to develop. Insulinomas (largely benign) and gastrinomas are the most common types. For those with neuroendocrine cancers the number alive after five years is much better at 65%, varying considerably with type.",
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"plaintext": "A solid pseudopapillary tumour is a low-grade malignant tumour of the pancreas of papillary architecture that typically afflicts young women.",
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"plaintext": "Diabetes mellitus type 1 is a chronic autoimmune disease in which the immune system attacks the insulin-secreting beta cells of the pancreas. Insulin is needed to keep blood sugar levels within optimal ranges, and its lack can lead to high blood sugar. As an untreated chronic condition, complications including accelerated vascular disease, diabetic retinopathy, kidney disease and neuropathy can result. In addition, if there is not enough insulin for glucose to be used within cells, the medical emergency diabetic ketoacidosis, which is often the first symptom that a person with type 1 diabetes may have, can result. Type 1 diabetes can develop at any age but is most often diagnosed before age 40. For people living with type 1 diabetes, insulin injections are critical for survival. An experimental procedure to treat type 1 diabetes is pancreas transplantation or isolated transplantation of islet cells to supply a person with functioning beta cells.",
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"plaintext": "Diabetes mellitus type 2 is the most common form of diabetes. The causes for high blood sugar in this form of diabetes usually are a combination of insulin resistance and impaired insulin secretion, with both genetic and environmental factors playing a role in the development of the disease. Over time, pancreatic beta cells may become \"exhausted\" and less functional. The management of type 2 diabetes involves a combination of lifestyle measures, medications if required and potentially insulin. ",
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"plaintext": "With relevance to the pancreas, several medications act to enhance the secretion of insulin from beta cells, particularly sulphonylureas, which act directly on beta cells; incretins which replicate the action of the hormones glucagon-like peptide 1, increasing the secretion of insulin from beta cells after meals, and are more resistant to breakdown; and DPP-4 inhibitors, which slow the breakdown of incretins.",
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"plaintext": "It is possible for a person to live without a pancreas, provided that the person takes insulin for proper regulation of blood glucose concentration and pancreatic enzyme supplements to aid digestion.",
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"plaintext": "The pancreas was first identified by Herophilus (335–280 BC), a Greek anatomist and surgeon. A few hundred years later, Rufus of Ephesus, another Greek anatomist, gave the pancreas its name. Etymologically, the term \"pancreas\", a modern Latin adaptation of Greek πάγκρεας, [πᾶν (\"all\", \"whole\"), and κρέας (\"flesh\")], originally means sweetbread, although literally meaning all-flesh, presumably because of its fleshy consistency. It was only in 1889 when Oskar Minkowski discovered that removing the pancreas from a dog caused it to become diabetic. Insulin was later isolated from pancreatic islets by Frederick Banting and Charles Herbert Best in 1921.",
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"plaintext": "The way the tissue of the pancreas has been viewed has also changed. Previously, it was viewed using simple staining methods such as H&E stains. Now, immunohistochemistry can be used to more easily differentiate cell types. This involves visible antibodies to the products of certain cell types, and helps identify with greater ease cell types such as alpha and beta cells.",
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"plaintext": "Pancreatic tissue is present in all vertebrates, but its precise form and arrangement varies widely. There may be up to three separate pancreases, two of which arise from ventral buds, and the other dorsally. In most species (including humans), these \"fuse\" in the adult, but there are several exceptions. Even when a single pancreas is present, two or three pancreatic ducts may persist, each draining separately into the duodenum (or equivalent part of the foregut). Birds, for example, typically have three such ducts.",
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"plaintext": "In teleost fish, and a few other species (such as rabbits), there is no discrete pancreas at all, with pancreatic tissue being distributed diffusely across the mesentery and even within other nearby organs, such as the liver or spleen. In a few teleost species, the endocrine tissue has fused to form a distinct gland within the abdominal cavity, but otherwise it is distributed among the exocrine components. The most primitive arrangement, however, appears to be that of lampreys and lungfish, in which pancreatic tissue is found as a number of discrete nodules within the wall of the gut itself, with the exocrine portions being little different from other glandular structures of the intestine.",
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"plaintext": "The pancreas of calf (ris de veau) or lamb (ris d'agneau), and, less commonly, of beef or pork, are used as food under the culinary name of sweetbread.",
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"plaintext": " Pancreas at the Human Protein Atlas",
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"plaintext": " Pancreatic Diseases – English – The Gastro Specialist",
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| [
"Pancreas"
]
| 9,618 | 60,124 | 1,090 | 324 | 1 | 0 | pancreas | glandular organ that plays a role in the digestive and endocrine systems of vertebrates | []
|
38,301 | 1,106,450,968 | Fidel_Castro | [
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"plaintext": "Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (; ; 13 August 1926 – 25 November 2016) was a Cuban revolutionary and politician who was the leader of Cuba from 1959 to 2008, serving as the prime minister of Cuba from 1959 to 1976 and president from 1976 to 2008. Ideologically a Marxist–Leninist and Cuban nationalist, he also served as the first secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba from 1961 until 2011. Under his administration, Cuba became a one-party communist state; industry and business were nationalized, and state socialist reforms were implemented throughout society.",
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"plaintext": "Born in Birán, Oriente, the son of a wealthy Spanish farmer, Castro adopted leftist and anti-imperialist ideas while studying law at the University of Havana. After participating in rebellions against right-wing governments in the Dominican Republic and Colombia, he planned the overthrow of Cuban President Fulgencio Batista, launching a failed attack on the Moncada Barracks in 1953. After a year's imprisonment, Castro traveled to Mexico where he formed a revolutionary group, the 26th of July Movement, with his brother Raúl Castro and Ernesto \"Che\" Guevara. Returning to Cuba, Castro took a key role in the Cuban Revolution by leading the Movement in a guerrilla war against Batista's forces from the Sierra Maestra. After Batista's overthrow in 1959, Castro assumed military and political power as Cuba's prime minister. The United States came to oppose Castro's government and unsuccessfully attempted to remove him by assassination, economic embargo, and counter-revolution, including the Bay of Pigs Invasion of 1961. Countering these threats, Castro aligned with the Soviet Union and allowed the Soviets to place nuclear weapons in Cuba, resulting in the Cuban Missile Crisis– a defining incident of the Cold War– in 1962.",
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"plaintext": "Adopting a Marxist–Leninist model of development, Castro converted Cuba into a one-party, socialist state under Communist Party rule, the first in the Western Hemisphere. Policies introducing central economic planning and expanding healthcare and education were accompanied by state control of the press and the suppression of internal dissent. Abroad, Castro supported anti-imperialist revolutionary groups, backing the establishment of Marxist governments in Chile, Nicaragua, and Grenada, as well as sending troops to aid allies in the Yom Kippur, Ogaden, and Angolan Civil War. These actions, coupled with Castro's leadership of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1979 to 1983 and Cuba's medical internationalism, increased Cuba's profile on the world stage. Following the Dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Castro led Cuba through the economic downturn of the \"Special Period\", embracing environmentalist and anti-globalization ideas. In the 2000s, Castro forged alliances in the Latin American \"pink tide\"– namely with Hugo Chávez's Venezuela– and formed the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas. In 2006, Castro transferred his responsibilities to Vice President Raúl Castro, who was elected to the presidency by the National Assembly in 2008.",
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"plaintext": "The longest-serving non-royal head of state in the 20th and 21st centuries, Castro polarized opinion throughout the world. His supporters view him as a champion of socialism and anti-imperialism whose revolutionary government advanced economic and social justice while securing Cuba's independence from U.S. hegemony. Critics call him a dictator whose administration oversaw human rights abuses, the exodus of many Cubans, and the impoverishment of the country's economy.",
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"plaintext": "Castro was born out of wedlock at his father's farm on 13 August 1926. His father, Ángel Castro y Argiz, a veteran of the Spanish–American War, was a migrant to Cuba from Galicia, in the northwest of Spain. He had become financially successful by growing sugar cane at Las Manacas farm in Birán, Oriente Province. After the collapse of his first marriage he took his household servant, Lina Ruz González– of Canarian ancestry– as his mistress and later second wife; together they had seven children, among them Fidel. At age six, Castro was sent to live with his teacher in Santiago de Cuba, before being baptized into the Roman Catholic Church at the age of eight. Being baptized enabled Castro to attend the La Salle boarding school in Santiago, where he regularly misbehaved; he was next sent to the privately funded, Jesuit-run Dolores School in Santiago.",
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"plaintext": "In 1945, Castro transferred to the Jesuit-run El Colegio de Belén in Havana. Although Castro took an interest in history, geography, and debate at Belén, he did not excel academically, instead devoting much of his time to playing sports.",
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"plaintext": "In 1945, Castro began studying law at the University of Havana. Admitting he was \"politically illiterate\", Castro became embroiled in student activism and the violent gangsterismo culture within the university. After becoming passionate about anti-imperialism and opposing U.S. intervention in the Caribbean, he unsuccessfully campaigned for the presidency of the Federation of University Students on a platform of \"honesty, decency and justice\". Castro became critical of the corruption and violence of President Ramón Grau's government, delivering a public speech on the subject in November 1946 that received coverage on the front page of several newspapers.",
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"plaintext": "In 1947, Castro joined the Party of the Cuban People (or Orthodox Party; Partido Ortodoxo), founded by veteran politician Eduardo Chibás. A charismatic figure, Chibás advocated social justice, honest government, and political freedom, while his party exposed corruption and demanded reform. Though Chibás came third in the 1948 general election, Castro remained committed to working on his behalf. Student violence escalated after Grau employed gang leaders as police officers, and Castro soon received a death threat urging him to leave the university. However, he refused to do so and began to carry a gun and surround himself with armed friends. In later years, anti-Castro dissidents accused him of committing gang-related assassinations at the time, but these accusations remain unproven. The American historian John Lewis Gaddis wrote that Castro \"...began his career as a revolutionary with no ideology at all: he was a student politician turned street fighter turned guerrilla, a voracious reader, an interminable speaker, and a pretty good baseball player. The only ideas that appear to have driven him were a lust for power, a willingness to use violent means to get it, and an unwillingness to share it once he had it. If he had followed any example, it was that of Napoleon, not Marx\".",
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"plaintext": "In June 1947, Castro learned of a planned expedition to overthrow the right-wing government of Rafael Trujillo, a U.S. ally, in the Dominican Republic. Being President of the University Committee for Democracy in the Dominican Republic, Castro joined the expedition. The military force consisted of around 1,200 troops, mostly Cubans and exiled Dominicans, and they intended to sail from Cuba in July 1947. Grau's government stopped the invasion under U.S. pressure, although Castro and many of his comrades evaded arrest. Returning to Havana, Castro took a leading role in student protests against the killing of a high school pupil by government bodyguards. The protests, accompanied by a crackdown on those considered communists, led to violent clashes between activists and police in February 1948, in which Castro was badly beaten. At this point, his public speeches took on a distinctly leftist slant by condemning social and economic inequality in Cuba. In contrast, his former public criticisms had centered on condemning corruption and U.S. imperialism.",
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"plaintext": "In April 1948, Castro traveled to Bogotá, Colombia, leading a Cuban student group sponsored by President Juan Perón's Argentine government. There, the assassination of popular leftist leader Jorge Eliécer Gaitán Ayala led to widespread rioting and clashes between the governing Conservatives– backed by the army– and leftist Liberals. Castro joined the Liberal cause by stealing guns from a police station, but subsequent police investigations concluded that he had not been involved in any killings. In April 1948, the Organization of American States was founded at a summit in Bogotá, leading to protests, which Castro joined.",
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"plaintext": "Returning to Cuba, Castro became a prominent figure in protests against government attempts to raise bus fares. That year, he married Mirta Díaz Balart, a student from a wealthy family, through whom he was exposed to the lifestyle of the Cuban elite. The relationship was a love match, disapproved of by both families, but Díaz Balart's father gave them tens of thousands of dollars, along with Batista, to spend on a three-month New York City honeymoon.",
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"plaintext": "That same year, Grau decided not to stand for re-election, which was instead won by his Partido Auténticos new candidate, Carlos Prío Socarrás. Prío faced widespread protests when members of the MSR, now allied to the police force, assassinated Justo Fuentes, a socialist friend of Castro's. In response, Prío agreed to quell the gangs, but found them too powerful to control. Castro had moved further to the left, influenced by the Marxist writings of Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, and Vladimir Lenin. He came to interpret Cuba's problems as an integral part of capitalist society, or the \"dictatorship of the bourgeoisie\", rather than the failings of corrupt politicians, and adopted the Marxist view that meaningful political change could only be brought about by proletariat revolution. Visiting Havana's poorest neighborhoods, he became active in the student anti-racist campaign.",
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"plaintext": "In September 1949, Mirta gave birth to a son, Fidelito, so the couple moved to a larger Havana flat. Castro continued to put himself at risk, staying active in the city's politics and joining the 30 September Movement, which contained within it both communists and members of the Partido Ortodoxo. The group's purpose was to oppose the influence of the violent gangs within the university; despite his promises, Prío had failed to control the situation, instead offering many of their senior members jobs in government ministries. Castro volunteered to deliver a speech for the Movement on 13 November, exposing the government's secret deals with the gangs and identifying key members. Attracting the attention of the national press, the speech angered the gangs and Castro fled into hiding, first in the countryside and then in the U.S. Returning to Havana several weeks later, Castro laid low and focused on his university studies, graduating as a Doctor of Law in September 1950.",
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"plaintext": "Castro co-founded a legal partnership that primarily catered to poor Cubans, although it proved a financial failure. Caring little for money or material goods, Castro failed to pay his bills; his furniture was repossessed and electricity cut off, distressing his wife. He took part in a high school protest in Cienfuegos in November 1950, fighting with police to protest the Education Ministry's ban on student associations; he was arrested and charged for violent conduct, but the magistrate dismissed the charges. His hopes for Cuba still centered on Chibás and the Partido Ortodoxo, and he was present at Chibás' politically motivated suicide in 1951. Seeing himself as Chibás' heir, Castro wanted to run for Congress in the June 1952 elections, though senior Ortodoxo members feared his radical reputation and refused to nominate him. He was instead nominated as a candidate for the House of Representatives by party members in Havana's poorest districts, and began campaigning. The Ortodoxo had considerable support and was predicted to do well in the election.",
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"plaintext": "During his campaign, Castro met with General Fulgencio Batista, the former president who had returned to politics with the Unitary Action Party. Batista offered him a place in his administration if he was successful; although both opposed Prío's administration, their meeting never got beyond polite generalities. On 10 March 1952, Batista seized power in a military coup, with Prío fleeing to Mexico. Declaring himself president, Batista cancelled the planned presidential elections, describing his new system as \"disciplined democracy\"; Castro was deprived of being elected in his run for office by Batista's move, and like many others, considered it a one-man dictatorship. Batista moved to the right, solidifying ties with both the wealthy elite and the United States, severing diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union, suppressing trade unions and persecuting Cuban socialist groups. Intent on opposing Batista, Castro brought several legal cases against the government, but these came to nothing, and Castro began thinking of alternate ways to oust the regime.",
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"plaintext": "Castro formed a group called \"The Movement\" which operated along a clandestine cell system, publishing underground newspaper El Acusador (The Accuser), while arming and training anti-Batista recruits. From July 1952 they went on a recruitment drive, gaining around 1,200 members in a year, the majority from Havana's poorer districts. Although a revolutionary socialist, Castro avoided an alliance with the communist Popular Socialist Party (PSP), fearing it would frighten away political moderates, but kept in contact with PSP members like his brother Raúl. Castro stockpiled weapons for a planned attack on the Moncada Barracks, a military garrison outside Santiago de Cuba, Oriente. Castro's militants intended to dress in army uniforms and arrive at the base on 25 July, seizing control and raiding the armory before reinforcements arrived. Supplied with new weaponry, Castro intended to spark a revolution among Oriente's impoverished cane cutters and promote further uprisings. Castro's plan emulated those of the 19th-century Cuban independence fighters who had raided Spanish barracks; Castro saw himself as the heir to independence leader José Martí.",
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"plaintext": "Castro gathered 165 revolutionaries for the mission, ordering his troops not to cause bloodshed unless they met armed resistance. The attack took place on 26 July 1953, but ran into trouble; 3 of the 16 cars that had set out from Santiago failed to get there. Reaching the barracks, the alarm was raised, with most of the rebels pinned down by machine gun fire. Four were killed before Castro ordered a retreat. The rebels suffered 6 fatalities and 15 other casualties, whilst the army suffered 19 dead and 27 wounded. Meanwhile, some rebels took over a civilian hospital; subsequently stormed by government soldiers, the rebels were rounded up, tortured and 22 were executed without trial. Accompanied by 19 comrades, Castro set out for Gran Piedra in the rugged Sierra Maestra mountains several kilometres to the north, where they could establish a guerrilla base. Responding to the attack, Batista's government proclaimed martial law, ordering a violent crackdown on dissent, and imposing strict media censorship. The government broadcast misinformation about the event, claiming that the rebels were communists who had killed hospital patients, although news and photographs of the army's use of torture and summary executions in Oriente soon spread, causing widespread public and some governmental disapproval.",
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"plaintext": "Over the following days, the rebels were rounded up; some were executed and others – including Castro – transported to a prison north of Santiago. Believing Castro incapable of planning the attack alone, the government accused Ortodoxo and PSP politicians of involvement, putting 122 defendants on trial on 21 September at the Palace of Justice, Santiago. Acting as his own defense counsel, Castro cited Martí as the intellectual author of the attack and convinced the three judges to overrule the army's decision to keep all defendants handcuffed in court, proceeding to argue that the charge with which they were accused – of \"organizing an uprising of armed persons against the Constitutional Powers of the State\" – was incorrect, for they had risen up against Batista, who had seized power in an unconstitutional manner. The trial embarrassed the army by revealing that they had tortured suspects, after which they tried unsuccessfully to prevent Castro from testifying any further, claiming he was too ill. The trial ended on 5 October, with the acquittal of most defendants; 55 were sentenced to prison terms of between 7 months and 13 years. Castro was sentenced on 16 October, during which he delivered a speech that would be printed under the title of History Will Absolve Me. Castro was sentenced to 15 years' imprisonment in the hospital wing of the Model Prison (Presidio Modelo), a relatively comfortable and modern institution on the Isla de Pinos.",
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"plaintext": "Imprisoned with 25 comrades, Castro renamed his group the \"26th of July Movement\" (MR-26-7) in memory of the Moncada attack's date, and formed a school for prisoners. He read widely, enjoying the works of Marx, Lenin, and Martí but also reading books by Freud, Kant, Shakespeare, Munthe, Maugham, and Dostoyevsky, analyzing them within a Marxist framework. Corresponding with supporters, he maintained control over the Movement and organized the publication of History Will Absolve Me. Initially permitted a relative amount of freedom within the prison, he was locked up in solitary confinement after inmates sang anti-Batista songs on a visit by the president in February 1954. Meanwhile, Castro's wife Mirta gained employment in the Ministry of the Interior, something he discovered through a radio announcement. Appalled, he raged that he would rather die \"a thousand times\" than \"suffer impotently from such an insult\". Both Fidel and Mirta initiated divorce proceedings, with Mirta taking custody of their son Fidelito; this angered Castro, who did not want his son growing up in a bourgeois environment.",
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"plaintext": "In 1954, Batista's government held presidential elections, but no politician stood against him; the election was widely considered fraudulent. It had allowed some political opposition to be voiced, and Castro's supporters had agitated for an amnesty for the Moncada incident's perpetrators. Some politicians suggested an amnesty would be good publicity, and the Congress and Batista agreed. Backed by the U.S. and major corporations, Batista believed Castro to be no threat, and on 15 May 1955, the prisoners were released. Returning to Havana, Castro gave radio interviews and press conferences; the government closely monitored him, curtailing his activities. Now divorced, Castro had sexual affairs with two female supporters, Naty Revuelta and Maria Laborde, each conceiving him a child. Setting about strengthening the MR-26-7, he established an 11-person National Directorate but retained autocratic control, with some dissenters labeling him a caudillo (dictator); he argued that a successful revolution could not be run by committee and required a strong leader.",
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"plaintext": "In 1955, bombings and violent demonstrations led to a crackdown on dissent, with Castro and Raúl fleeing the country to evade arrest. Castro sent a letter to the press, declaring that he was \"leaving Cuba because all doors of peaceful struggle have been closed to me... As a follower of Martí, I believe the hour has come to take our rights and not beg for them, to fight instead of pleading for them.\" The Castros and several comrades traveled to Mexico, where Raúl befriended an Argentine doctor and Marxist–Leninist named Ernesto \"Che\" Guevara, who was working as a journalist and photographer for \"Agencia Latina de Noticias\". Fidel liked him, later describing him as \"a more advanced revolutionary than I was\". Castro also associated with the Spaniard Alberto Bayo, who agreed to teach Castro's rebels the necessary skills in guerrilla warfare. Requiring funding, Castro toured the U.S. in search of wealthy sympathizers, there being monitored by Batista's agents, who allegedly orchestrated a failed assassination attempt against him. Castro kept in contact with the MR-26-7 in Cuba, where they had gained a large support base in Oriente. Other militant anti-Batista groups had sprung up, primarily from the student movement; most notable was the Directorio Revolucionario Estudiantil (DRE), founded by José Antonio Echeverría. Antonio met with Castro in Mexico City, but Castro opposed the student's support for indiscriminate assassination.",
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"plaintext": "After purchasing the decrepit yacht Granma, on 25 November 1956, Castro set sail from Tuxpan, Veracruz, with 81 armed revolutionaries. The crossing to Cuba was harsh, with food running low and many suffering seasickness. At some points, they had to bail water caused by a leak, and at another, a man fell overboard, delaying their journey. The plan had been for the crossing to take five days, and on the Granmas scheduled day of arrival, 30 November, MR-26-7 members under Frank País led an armed uprising in Santiago and Manzanillo. However, the Granmas journey ultimately lasted seven days, and with Castro and his men unable to provide reinforcements, País and his militants dispersed after two days of intermittent attacks.",
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"plaintext": "The Granma ran aground in a mangrove swamp at Playa Las Coloradas, close to Los Cayuelos, on 2 December 1956. Fleeing inland, its crew headed for the forested mountain range of Oriente's Sierra Maestra, being repeatedly attacked by Batista's troops. Upon arrival, Castro discovered that only 19 rebels had made it to their destination, the rest having been killed or captured. Setting up an encampment, the survivors included the Castros, Che Guevara, and Camilo Cienfuegos. They began launching raids on small army posts to obtain weaponry, and in January 1957 they overran the outpost at La Plata, treating any soldiers that they wounded but executing Chicho Osorio, the local mayoral (land company overseer), who was despised by the local peasants and who boasted of killing one of Castro's rebels. Osorio's execution aided the rebels in gaining the trust of locals, although they largely remained unenthusiastic and suspicious of the revolutionaries. As trust grew, some locals joined the rebels, although most new recruits came from urban areas. With volunteers boosting the rebel forces to over 200, in July 1957 Castro divided his army into three columns, commanded by himself, his brother, and Guevara. The MR-26-7 members operating in urban areas continued agitation, sending supplies to Castro, and on 16 February 1957, he met with other senior members to discuss tactics; here he met Celia Sánchez, who would become a close friend.",
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"plaintext": "Across Cuba, anti-Batista groups carried out bombings and sabotage; police responded with mass arrests, torture, and extrajudicial executions. In March 1957, the DRE launched a failed attack on the presidential palace, during which Antonio was shot dead. Batista's government often resorted to brutal methods to keep Cuba's cities under control. In the Sierra Maestra mountains, Castro was joined by Frank Sturgis who offered to train Castro's troops in guerrilla warfare. Castro accepted the offer, but he also had an immediate need for guns and ammunition, so Sturgis became a gunrunner. Sturgis purchased boatloads of weapons and ammunition from Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) weapons expert Samuel Cummings' International Armament Corporation in Alexandria, Virginia. Sturgis opened a training camp in the Sierra Maestra mountains, where he taught Che Guevara and other 26 July Movement rebel soldiers guerrilla warfare. Frank País was also killed, leaving Castro the MR-26-7's unchallenged leader. Although Guevara and Raúl were well known for their Marxist–Leninist views, Castro hid his, hoping to gain the support of less radical revolutionaries. In 1957 he met with leading members of the Partido Ortodoxo, Raúl Chibás and Felipe Pazos, authoring the Sierra Maestra Manifesto, in which they demanded that a provisional civilian government be set up to implement moderate agrarian reform, industrialization, and a literacy campaign before holding multiparty elections. As Cuba's press was censored, Castro contacted foreign media to spread his message; he became a celebrity after being interviewed by Herbert Matthews, a journalist from The New York Times. Reporters from CBS and Paris Match soon followed.",
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"plaintext": "Castro's guerrillas increased their attacks on military outposts, forcing the government to withdraw from the Sierra Maestra region, and by spring 1958, the rebels controlled a hospital, schools, a printing press, slaughterhouse, land-mine factory and a cigar-making factory. By 1958, Batista was under increasing pressure, a result of his military failures coupled with increasing domestic and foreign criticism surrounding his administration's press censorship, torture, and extrajudicial executions. Influenced by anti-Batista sentiment among their citizens, the U.S. government ceased supplying him with weaponry. The opposition called a general strike, accompanied by armed attacks from the MR-26-7. Beginning on 9 April, it received strong support in central and eastern Cuba, but little elsewhere.",
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"plaintext": "Batista responded with an all-out-attack, Operation Verano, in which the army aerially bombarded forested areas and villages suspected of aiding the militants, while 10,000 soldiers commanded by General Eulogio Cantillo surrounded the Sierra Maestra, driving north to the rebel encampments. Despite their numerical and technological superiority, the army had no experience with guerrilla warfare, and Castro halted their offensive using land mines and ambushes. Many of Batista's soldiers defected to Castro's rebels, who also benefited from local popular support. In the summer, the MR-26-7 went on the offensive, pushing the army out of the mountains, with Castro using his columns in a pincer movement to surround the main army concentration in Santiago. By November, Castro's forces controlled most of Oriente and Las Villas, and divided Cuba in two by closing major roads and rail lines, severely disadvantaging Batista.",
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"plaintext": "Fearing Castro was a socialist, the U.S. instructed Cantillo to oust Batista. By this time the great majority of Cuban people had turned against the Batista regime. Ambassador to Cuba, E. T. Smith, who felt the whole CIA mission had become too close to the MR-26-7 movement, personally went to Batista and informed him that the U.S. would no longer support him and felt he no longer could control the situation in Cuba. General Cantillo secretly agreed to a ceasefire with Castro, promising that Batista would be tried as a war criminal; however, Batista was warned, and fled into exile with over US$300,000,000 on 31 December 1958. Cantillo entered Havana's Presidential Palace, proclaimed the Supreme Court judge Carlos Piedra to be president, and began appointing the new government. Furious, Castro ended the ceasefire, and ordered Cantillo's arrest by sympathetic figures in the army. Accompanying celebrations at news of Batista's downfall on 1 January 1959, Castro ordered the MR-26-7 to prevent widespread looting and vandalism. Cienfuegos and Guevara led their columns into Havana on 2 January, while Castro entered Santiago and gave a speech invoking the wars of independence. Heading toward Havana, he greeted cheering crowds at every town, giving press conferences and interviews. Castro reached Havana on 9 January 1959.",
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"plaintext": "At Castro's command, the politically moderate lawyer Manuel Urrutia Lleó was proclaimed provisional president but Castro announced (falsely) that Urrutia had been selected by \"popular election\". Most of Urrutia's cabinet were MR-26-7 members. Entering Havana, Castro proclaimed himself Representative of the Rebel Armed Forces of the Presidency, setting up home and office in the penthouse of the Havana Hilton Hotel. Castro exercised a great deal of influence over Urrutia's regime, which was now ruling by decree. He ensured that the government implemented policies to cut corruption and fight illiteracy and that it attempted to remove Batistanos from positions of power by dismissing Congress and barring all those elected in the rigged elections of 1954 and 1958 from future office. He then pushed Urrutia to issue a temporary ban on political parties; he repeatedly said that they would eventually hold multiparty elections. Although repeatedly denying that he was a communist to the press, he began clandestinely meeting members of the PSP to discuss the creation of a socialist state.",
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"plaintext": "In suppressing the revolution, Batista's government had killed thousands of Cubans; Castro and influential sectors of the press put the death toll at 20,000, but a list of victims published shortly after the revolution contained only 898 names—over half of them combatants. More recent estimates place the death toll between 1,000 and 4,000. In response to popular uproar, which demanded that those responsible be brought to justice, Castro helped to set up many trials, resulting in hundreds of executions. Although popular domestically, critics—in particular the U.S. press, argued that many were not fair trials. Castro responded that \"revolutionary justice is not based on legal precepts, but on moral conviction.\"",
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"plaintext": "Acclaimed by many across Latin America, he traveled to Venezuela where he met with President-elect Rómulo Betancourt, unsuccessfully requesting a loan and a new deal for Venezuelan oil. Returning home, an argument between Castro and senior government figures broke out. He was infuriated that the government had left thousands unemployed by closing down casinos and brothels. As a result, Prime Minister José Miró Cardona resigned, going into exile in the U.S. and joining the anti-Castro movement.",
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"plaintext": "On 16 February 1959, Castro was sworn in as Prime Minister of Cuba. In April, he visited the U.S. on a charm offensive where President Dwight D. Eisenhower would not meet with him, but instead sent Vice President Richard Nixon, whom Castro instantly disliked. After meeting Castro, Nixon described him to Eisenhower as: \"The one fact we can be sure of is that Castro has those indefinable qualities which made him a leader of men. Whatever we may think of him he is going to be a great factor in the development of Cuba and very possibly in Latin American affairs generally. He seems to be sincere. He is either incredibly naive about Communism or under Communist discipline-my guess is the former...His ideas as to how to run a government or an economy are less developed than those of almost any world figure I have met in fifty countries. But because he has the power to lead...we have no choice but at least try to orient him in the right direction\".",
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"plaintext": "Proceeding to Canada, Trinidad, Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina, Castro attended an economic conference in Buenos Aires, unsuccessfully proposing a $30billion U.S.-funded \"Marshall Plan\" for Latin America. In May 1959, Castro signed into law the First Agrarian Reform, setting a cap for landholdings to per owner and prohibiting foreigners from obtaining Cuban land ownership. Around 200,000 peasants received title deeds as large land holdings were broken up; popular among the working class, it alienated the richer landowners, including Castro's own mother, whose farmlands were taken. Within a year, Castro and his government had effectively redistributed 15 percent of the nation's wealth, declaring that \"the revolution is the dictatorship of the exploited against the exploiters.\"",
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"plaintext": "Castro appointed himself president of the National Tourist Industry, introducing unsuccessful measures to encourage African-American tourists to visit, advertising Cuba as a tropical paradise free of racial discrimination. Judges and politicians had their pay reduced while low-level civil servants saw theirs raised, and in March 1959, Castro declared rents for those who paid less than $100 a month halved. The Cuban government also began to expropriate the casinos and properties from mafia leaders and taking millions in cash. Before he died Meyer Lansky said Cuba \"ruined\" him.",
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"plaintext": "In the summer of 1959, Fidel began nationalizing plantation lands owned by American investors as well as confiscating the property of foreign landowners. He also seized property previously held by wealthy Cubans who had fled. He nationalized sugar production and oil refinement, over the objection of foreign investors who owned stakes in these commodities.",
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"plaintext": "Although then refusing to categorize his regime as socialist and repeatedly denying being a communist, Castro appointed Marxists to senior government and military positions. Most significantly, Che Guevara became Governor of the Central Bank and then Minister of Industries. President Urrutia increasingly expressed concern with the rising influence of Marxism. Angered, Castro in turn announced his resignation as prime minister on 18 July—blaming Urrutia for complicating government with his \"fevered anti-Communism\". Over 500,000 Castro-supporters surrounded the Presidential Palace demanding Urrutia's resignation, which he submitted. On 23 July, Castro resumed his premiership and appointed Marxist Osvaldo Dorticós as president.",
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"plaintext": "Castro's government emphasised social projects to improve Cuba's standard of living, often to the detriment of economic development. Major emphasis was placed on education, and during the first 30 months of Castro's government, more classrooms were opened than in the previous 30 years. The Cuban primary education system offered a work-study program, with half of the time spent in the classroom, and the other half in a productive activity. Health care was nationalized and expanded, with rural health centers and urban polyclinics opening up across the island to offer free medical aid. Universal vaccination against childhood diseases was implemented, and infant mortality rates were reduced dramatically. A third part of this social program was the improvement of infrastructure. Within the first six months of Castro's government, of roads were built across the island, while $300million was spent on water and sanitation projects. Over 800 houses were constructed every month in the early years of the administration in an effort to cut homelessness, while nurseries and day-care centers were opened for children and other centers opened for the disabled and elderly.",
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"plaintext": "Castro used radio and television to develop a \"dialogue with the people\", posing questions and making provocative statements. His regime remained popular with workers, peasants, and students, who constituted the majority of the country's population, while opposition came primarily from the middle class; thousands of doctors, engineers and other professionals emigrated to Florida in the U.S., causing an economic brain drain. Productivity decreased and the country's financial reserves were drained within two years. After conservative press expressed hostility towards the government, the pro-Castro printers' trade union disrupted editorial staff, and in January 1960 the government ordered them to publish a \"clarification\" written by the printers' union at the end of articles critical of the government. Castro's government arrested hundreds of counter-revolutionaries, many of whom were subjected to solitary confinement, rough treatment, and threatening behavior. Militant anti-Castro groups, funded by exiles, the CIA, and the Dominican government, undertook armed attacks and set up guerrilla bases in Cuba's mountains, leading to the six-year Escambray Rebellion.",
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"plaintext": "At the time, 1960, the Cold War raged between two superpowers: the United States, a capitalist liberal democracy, and the Soviet Union (USSR), a Marxist–Leninist socialist state ruled by the Communist Party. Expressing contempt for the U.S., Castro shared the ideological views of the USSR, establishing relations with several Marxist–Leninist states. Meeting with Soviet First Deputy Premier Anastas Mikoyan, Castro agreed to provide the USSR with sugar, fruit, fibers, and hides in return for crude oil, fertilizers, industrial goods, and a $100million loan. Cuba's government ordered the country's refineries – then controlled by the U.S. corporations Shell and Esso – to process Soviet oil, but under U.S. pressure they refused. Castro responded by expropriating and nationalizing the refineries. Retaliating, the U.S. cancelled its import of Cuban sugar, provoking Castro to nationalize most U.S.-owned assets on the island, including banks and sugar mills.",
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"plaintext": "Relations between Cuba and the U.S. were further strained following the explosion of a French vessel, the La Coubre, in Havana harbor in March 1960. The ship carried weapons purchased from Belgium, and the cause of the explosion was never determined, but Castro publicly insinuated that the U.S. government was guilty of sabotage. He ended this speech with \"¡Patria o Muerte!\" (\"Fatherland or Death\"), a proclamation that he made much use of in ensuing years. Inspired by their earlier success with the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état, in March 1960, U.S. President Eisenhower authorized the CIA to overthrow Castro's government. He provided them with a budget of $13million and permitted them to ally with the Mafia, who were aggrieved that Castro's government closed down their brothel and casino businesses in Cuba. On 13 October 1960, the U.S. prohibited the majority of exports to Cuba, initiating an economic embargo. In retaliation, the National Institute for Agrarian Reform INRA took control of 383 private-run businesses on 14 October, and on 25 October a further 166 U.S. companies operating in Cuba had their premises seized and nationalized. On 16 December, the U.S. ended its import quota of Cuban sugar, the country's primary export.",
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"plaintext": "In September 1960, Castro flew to New York City for the General Assembly of the United Nations. Staying at the Hotel Theresa in Harlem, he met with journalists and anti-establishment figures like Malcolm X. Castro had decided to stay in Harlem as a way of expressing solidarity with the poor African-American population living there, thus leading to an assortment of world leaders such as Nasser of Egypt and Nehru of India having to drive out to Harlem to see him. He also met Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, with the two publicly condemning the poverty and racism faced by Americans in areas like Harlem. Relations between Castro and Khrushchev were warm; they led the applause to one another's speeches at the General Assembly. The opening session of the United Nations General Assembly in September 1960 was a highly rancorous one with Khrushchev famously banging his shoe against his desk to interrupt a speech by Filipino delegate Lorenzo Sumulong, which set the general tone for the debates and speeches. Castro delivered the longest speech ever held before the United Nations General Assembly, speaking for four and a half hours in a speech mostly given over to denouncing American policies towards Latin America. Subsequently, visited by Polish First Secretary Władysław Gomułka, Bulgarian First Secretary Todor Zhivkov, Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser, and Indian Premier Jawaharlal Nehru, Castro also received an evening's reception from the Fair Play for Cuba Committee.",
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"plaintext": "Back in Cuba, Castro feared a U.S.-backed coup; in 1959 his regime spent $120million on Soviet, French, and Belgian weaponry and by early 1960 had doubled the size of Cuba's armed forces. Fearing counter-revolutionary elements in the army, the government created a People's Militia to arm citizens favorable to the revolution, training at least 50,000 civilians in combat techniques. In September 1960, they created the Committees for the Defense of the Revolution (CDR), a nationwide civilian organization which implemented neighborhood spying to detect counter-revolutionary activities as well as organizing health and education campaigns, becoming a conduit for public complaints. By 1970, a third of the population would be involved in the CDR, and this would eventually rise to 80%.",
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"plaintext": "Despite the fear of a coup, Castro garnered support in New York City. On 18 February 1961, 400 people – mainly Cubans, Puerto Ricans, and college students – picketed in the rain outside of the United Nations rallying for Castro's anti-colonial values and his effort to reduce the United States' power over Cuba. The protesters held up signs that read, \"Mr. Kennedy, Cuba is Not For Sale.\", \"Viva Fidel Castro!\" and \"Down With Yankee Imperialism!\". Around 200 policemen were on the scene, but the protesters continued to chant slogans and throw pennies in support of Fidel Castro's socialist movement. Some Americans disagreed with President John F. Kennedy's decision to ban trade with Cuba, and outwardly supported his nationalist revolutionary tactics.",
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"plaintext": "Castro proclaimed the new administration a direct democracy, in which Cubans could assemble at demonstrations to express their democratic will. As a result, he rejected the need for elections, claiming that representative democratic systems served the interests of socio-economic elites. U.S. Secretary of State Christian Herter announced that Cuba was adopting the Soviet model of rule, with a one-party state, government control of trade unions, suppression of civil liberties, and the absence of freedom of speech and press.",
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"plaintext": "In January 1961, Castro ordered Havana's U.S. Embassy to reduce its 300-member staff, suspecting that many of them were spies. The U.S. responded by ending diplomatic relations, and it increased CIA funding for exiled dissidents; these militants began attacking ships that traded with Cuba, and bombed factories, shops, and sugar mills. Both President Eisenhower and his successor President Kennedy supported a CIA plan to aid a dissident militia, the Democratic Revolutionary Front, to invade Cuba and overthrow Castro; the plan resulted in the Bay of Pigs Invasion in April 1961. On 15 April, CIA-supplied B-26s bombed three Cuban military airfields; the U.S. announced that the perpetrators were defecting Cuban air force pilots, but Castro exposed these claims as false flag misinformation. Fearing invasion, he ordered the arrest of between 20,000 and 100,000 suspected counter-revolutionaries, publicly proclaiming, \"What the imperialists cannot forgive us, is that we have made a Socialist revolution under their noses\", his first announcement that the government was socialist.",
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"plaintext": "The CIA and the Democratic Revolutionary Front had based a 1,400-strong army, Brigade 2506, in Nicaragua. On the night of 16 to 17 April, Brigade 2506 landed along Cuba's Bay of Pigs and engaged in a firefight with a local revolutionary militia. Castro ordered Captain José Ramón Fernández to launch the counter-offensive, before taking personal control of it. After bombing the invaders' ships and bringing in reinforcements, Castro forced the Brigade to surrender on 20 April. He ordered the 1189 captured rebels to be interrogated by a panel of journalists on live television, personally taking over the questioning on 25 April. Fourteen were put on trial for crimes allegedly committed before the revolution, while the others were returned to the U.S. in exchange for medicine and food valued at U.S. $25million. Castro's victory reverberated around the world, especially in Latin America, but it also increased internal opposition primarily among the middle-class Cubans who had been detained in the run-up to the invasion. Although most were freed within a few days, many fled to the U.S., establishing themselves in Florida.",
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"plaintext": "Consolidating \"Socialist Cuba\", Castro united the MR-26-7, PSP and Revolutionary Directorate into a governing party based on the Leninist principle of democratic centralism: the Integrated Revolutionary Organizations (Organizaciones Revolucionarias Integradas – ORI), renamed the United Party of the Cuban Socialist Revolution (PURSC) in 1962. Although the USSR was hesitant regarding Castro's embrace of socialism, relations with the Soviets deepened. Castro sent Fidelito for a Moscow schooling, Soviet technicians arrived on the island, and Castro was awarded the Lenin Peace Prize. In December 1961, Castro admitted that he had been a Marxist–Leninist for years, and in his Second Declaration of Havana he called on Latin America to rise up in revolution. In response, the U.S. successfully pushed the Organization of American States to expel Cuba; the Soviets privately reprimanded Castro for recklessness, although he received praise from China. Despite their ideological affinity with China, in the Sino-Soviet split, Cuba allied with the wealthier Soviets, who offered economic and military aid.",
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"plaintext": "The ORI began shaping Cuba using the Soviet model, persecuting political opponents and perceived social deviants such as prostitutes and homosexuals; Castro considered same-sex sexual activity a bourgeois trait. Gay men were forced into the Military Units to Aid Production (Unidades Militares de Ayuda a la Producción – UMAP); after many revolutionary intellectuals decried this move, the UMAP camps were closed in 1967, although gay men continued to be imprisoned. By 1962, Cuba's economy was in steep decline, a result of poor economic management and low productivity coupled with the U.S. trade embargo. Food shortages led to rationing, resulting in protests in Cárdenas. Security reports indicated that many Cubans associated austerity with the \"Old Communists\" of the PSP, while Castro considered a number of them– namely Aníbal Escalante and Blas Roca– unduly loyal to Moscow. In March 1962 Castro removed the most prominent \"Old Communists\" from office, labelling them \"sectarian\". On a personal level, Castro was increasingly lonely, and his relations with Guevara became strained as the latter became increasingly anti-Soviet and pro-Chinese.",
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"plaintext": "Militarily weaker than NATO, Khrushchev wanted to install Soviet R-12 MRBM nuclear missiles on Cuba to even the power balance. Although conflicted, Castro agreed, believing it would guarantee Cuba's safety and enhance the cause of socialism. Undertaken in secrecy, only the Castro brothers, Guevara, Dorticós and security chief Ramiro Valdés knew the full plan. Upon discovering it through aerial reconnaissance, in October the U.S. implemented an island-wide quarantine to search vessels headed to Cuba, sparking the Cuban Missile Crisis. The U.S. saw the missiles as offensive; Castro insisted they were for defense only. Castro urged that Khrushchev should launch a nuclear strike on the U.S. if Cuba were invaded, but Khrushchev was desperate to avoid nuclear war. Castro was left out of the negotiations, in which Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles in exchange for a U.S. commitment not to invade Cuba and an understanding that the U.S. would remove their MRBMs from Turkey and Italy. Feeling betrayed by Khrushchev, Castro was furious and soon fell ill. Proposing a five-point plan, Castro demanded that the U.S. end its embargo, withdraw from Guantanamo Bay Naval Base, cease supporting dissidents, and stop violating Cuban air space and territorial waters. He presented these demands to U Thant, visiting Secretary-General of the United Nations, but the U.S. ignored them. In turn Castro refused to allow the U.N.'s inspection team into Cuba.",
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"plaintext": "In May 1963, Castro visited the USSR at Khrushchev's personal invitation, touring 14 cities, addressing a Red Square rally, and being awarded both the Order of Lenin and an honorary doctorate from Moscow State University. Castro returned to Cuba with new ideas; inspired by Soviet newspaper Pravda, he amalgamated Hoy and Revolución into a new daily, Granma, and oversaw large investment into Cuban sport that resulted in an increased international sporting reputation. Seeking to further consolidate control, in 1963 the government cracked down on Protestant sects in Cuba, with Castro labeling them counter-revolutionary \"instruments of imperialism\"; many preachers were found guilty of illegal U.S. links and imprisoned. Measures were implemented to force perceived idle and delinquent youths to work, primarily through the introduction of mandatory military service. In September, the government temporarily permitted emigration for anyone other than males aged between 15 and 26, thereby ridding the government of thousands of critics, most of whom were from upper and middle-class backgrounds. In 1963, Castro's mother died. This was the last time his private life was reported in Cuba's press. In January 1964, Castro returned to Moscow, officially to sign a new five-year sugar trade agreement, but also to discuss the ramifications of the assassination of John F. Kennedy. Castro was deeply concerned by the assassination, believing that a far-right conspiracy was behind it but that the Cubans would be blamed. In October 1965, the Integrated Revolutionary Organizations was officially renamed the \"Cuban Communist Party\" and published the membership of its Central Committee.",
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"plaintext": "Despite Soviet misgivings, Castro continued to call for global revolution, funding militant leftists and those engaged in national liberation struggles. Cuba's foreign policy was strongly anti-imperialist, believing that every nation should control its own natural resources. He supported Che Guevara's \"Andean project\", an unsuccessful plan to set up a guerrilla movement in the highlands of Bolivia, Peru and Argentina. He allowed revolutionary groups from around the world, from the Viet Cong to the Black Panthers, to train in Cuba. ",
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"plaintext": "He considered Western-dominated Africa to be ripe for revolution, and sent troops and medics to aid Ahmed Ben Bella's socialist regime in Algeria during the Sand War. He also allied with Alphonse Massamba-Débat's socialist government in Congo-Brazzaville. In 1965, Castro authorized Che Guevara to travel to Congo-Kinshasa to train revolutionaries against the Western-backed government. Castro was personally devastated when Guevara was killed by CIA-backed troops in Bolivia in October 1967 and publicly attributed it to Guevara's disregard for his own safety.",
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"plaintext": "In 1966, Castro staged a Tri-Continental Conference of Africa, Asia and Latin America in Havana, further establishing himself as a significant player on the world stage. From this conference, Castro created the Latin American Solidarity Organization (OLAS), which adopted the slogan of \"The duty of a revolution is to make revolution\", signifying Havana's leadership of Latin America's revolutionary movement.",
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"plaintext": "Castro's increasing role on the world stage strained his relationship with the USSR, now under the leadership of Leonid Brezhnev. Asserting Cuba's independence, Castro refused to sign the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, declaring it a Soviet-U.S. attempt to dominate the Third World. Diverting from Soviet Marxist doctrine, he suggested that Cuban society could evolve straight to pure communism rather than gradually progress through various stages of socialism. In turn, the Soviet-loyalist Aníbal Escalante began organizing a government network of opposition to Castro, though in January 1968, he and his supporters were arrested for allegedly passing state secrets to Moscow. Recognising Cuba's economic dependence on the Soviets, Castro relented to Brezhnev's pressure to be obedient, and in August 1968 he denounced the leaders of the Prague Spring and praised the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia.",
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"plaintext": "Influenced by China's Great Leap Forward, in 1968 Castro proclaimed a Great Revolutionary Offensive, closing all remaining privately owned shops and businesses and denouncing their owners as capitalist counter-revolutionaries. The severe lack of consumer goods for purchase led productivity to decline, as large sectors of the population felt little incentive to work hard. This was exacerbated by the perception that a revolutionary elite had emerged, consisting of those connected to the administration; they had access to better housing, private transportation, servants, and the ability to purchase luxury goods abroad.",
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"plaintext": "Castro publicly celebrated his administration's 10th anniversary in January 1969; in his celebratory speech he warned of sugar rations, reflecting the nation's economic problems. The 1969 crop was heavily damaged by a hurricane, and to meet its export quota, the government drafted in the army, implemented a seven-day working week, and postponed public holidays to lengthen the harvest. When that year's production quota was not met, Castro offered to resign during a public speech, but assembled crowds insisted he remain. Despite the economic issues, many of Castro's social reforms were popular, with the population largely supportive of the \"Achievements of the Revolution\" in education, medical care, housing, and road construction, as well as the policies of \"direct democratic\" public consultation. Seeking Soviet help, from 1970 to 1972 Soviet economists re-organized Cuba's economy, founding the Cuban-Soviet Commission of Economic, Scientific and Technical Collaboration, while Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin visited in October 1971. In July 1972, Cuba joined the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon), an economic organization of socialist states, although this further limited Cuba's economy to agricultural production.",
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"plaintext": "In May 1970, the crews of two Cuban fishing boats were kidnapped by Florida-based dissident group Alpha 66, who demanded that Cuba release imprisoned militants. Under U.S. pressure, the hostages were released, and Castro welcomed them back as heroes. In April 1971, Castro was internationally condemned for ordering the arrest of dissident poet Heberto Padilla who had been arrested 20 March; Padilla was freed, but the government established the National Cultural Council to ensure that intellectuals and artists supported the administration.",
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"plaintext": "In November 1971, Castro visited Chile, where Marxist President Salvador Allende had been elected as the head of a left-wing coalition. Castro supported Allende's socialist reforms, but warned him of right-wing elements in Chile's military. In 1973, the military led a coup d'état and established a military junta led by Augusto Pinochet. Castro proceeded to Guinea to meet socialist President Sékou Touré, praising him as Africa's greatest leader, and there received the Order of Fidelity to the People. He then went on a seven-week tour visiting leftist allies: Algeria, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union, where he was given further awards. On each trip, he was eager to visit factory and farm workers, publicly praising their governments; privately, he urged the regimes to aid revolutionary movements elsewhere, particularly those fighting the Vietnam War.",
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"plaintext": "In September 1973, he returned to Algiers to attend the Fourth Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). Various NAM members were critical of Castro's attendance, claiming that Cuba was aligned to the Warsaw Pact and therefore should not be at the conference. At the conference he publicly broke off relations with Israel, citing its government's close relationship with the U.S. and its treatment of Palestinians during the Israel–Palestine conflict. This earned Castro respect throughout the Arab world, in particular from the Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi, who became a friend and ally. As the Yom Kippur War broke out in October 1973 between Israel and an Arab coalition led by Egypt and Syria, Cuba sent 4,000 troops to aid Syria. Leaving Algiers, Castro visited Iraq and North Vietnam.",
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"plaintext": "Cuba's economy grew in 1974 as a result of high international sugar prices and new credits with Argentina, Canada, and parts of Western Europe. A number of Latin American states called for Cuba's re-admittance into the Organization of American States (OAS), with the U.S. finally conceding in 1975 on Henry Kissinger's advice. Cuba's government underwent a restructuring along Soviet lines, claiming that this would further democratization and decentralize power away from Castro. Officially announcing Cuba's identity as a socialist state, the first National Congress of the Cuban Communist Party was held, and a new constitution drafted that abolished the position of president and prime minister. Castro remained the dominant figure in governance, taking the presidency of the newly created Council of State and Council of Ministers, making him both head of state and head of government.",
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"plaintext": "Castro considered Africa to be \"the weakest link in the imperialist chain\", and at the request of Agostinho Neto he ordered 230 military advisers into Angola in November 1975 to aid Neto's Marxist MPLA in the Angolan Civil War. When the U.S. and South Africa stepped up their support of the opposition FLNA and UNITA, Castro ordered a further 18,000 troops to Angola, which played a major role in forcing a South African and UNITA retreat. The decision to intervene in Angola has been a controversial one, all the more so as Castro's critics have charged that it was not his decision at all, contending that the Soviets ordered him to do so. Castro always maintained that he took the decision to launch Operation Carlota himself in response to an appeal from Neto and that the Soviets were in fact opposed to Cuban intervention in Angola, which took place over their opposition.",
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"plaintext": "Traveling to Angola, Castro celebrated with Neto, Sékou Touré and Guinea-Bissaun President Luís Cabral, where they agreed to support Mozambique's Marxist–Leninist government against RENAMO in the Mozambican Civil War. In February, Castro visited Algeria and then Libya, where he spent ten days with Gaddafi and oversaw the establishment of the Jamahariya system of governance, before attending talks with the Marxist government of South Yemen. From there he proceeded to Somalia, Tanzania, Mozambique and Angola where he was greeted by crowds as a hero for Cuba's role in opposing apartheid South Africa. Throughout much of Africa he was hailed as a friend to national liberation from foreign dominance. This was followed with visits to East Berlin and Moscow.",
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"plaintext": "In 1977, the Ogaden War broke out over the disputed Ogaden region as Somalia invaded Ethiopia; although a former ally of Somali President Siad Barre, Castro had warned him against such action, and Cuba sided with Mengistu Haile Mariam's Marxist government of Ethiopia. In an desperate attempt to stop the war, Castro had a summit with Barre where he proposed a federation of Ethiopia, Somalia, and South Yemen as an alternative to war. Barre who saw seizing the Ogaden as the first step towards creating a greater Somalia that would unite all of the Somalis into one state rejected the federation offer, and decided upon war. Castro sent troops under the command of General Arnaldo Ochoa to aid the overwhelmed Ethiopian army. Mengistu's regime was barely hanging on by 1977, having lost one-third of its army in Eritrea at the time of the Somali invasion. The intervention of 17, 000 Cuban troops into the Ogaden was by all accounts decisive in altering a war that Ethiopia was on the brink of losing into a victory.",
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"plaintext": "After forcing back the Somalis, Mengistu then ordered the Ethiopians to suppress the Eritrean People's Liberation Front, a measure Castro refused to support. Castro extended support to Latin American revolutionary movements, namely the Sandinista National Liberation Front in its overthrow of the Nicaraguan rightist government of Anastasio Somoza Debayle in July 1979. Castro's critics accused the government of wasting Cuban lives in these military endeavors; the anti-Castro Center for a Free Cuba has claimed that an estimated 14,000 Cubans were killed in foreign Cuban military actions. When American critics claimed that Castro had no right to interfere in these nations, he countered that Cuba had been invited into them, pointing out the U.S.' own involvement in various foreign nations. Between 1979 and 1991 about 370, 000 Cuban troops together with 50, 000 Cuban civilians (mostly teachers and doctors) served in Angola, representing about 5% of Cuba's population. The Cuban intervention in Angola was envisioned as a short-term commitment, but the Angolan government used the profits from the oil industry to subsidize Cuba's economy, making Cuba as economically dependent upon Angola as Angola was militarily dependent upon Cuba.",
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"plaintext": "In the late 1970s, Cuba's relations with North American states improved during the period with Mexican President Luis Echeverría, Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, and U.S. President Jimmy Carter in power. Carter continued criticizing Cuba's human rights abuses, but adopted a respectful approach which gained Castro's attention. Considering Carter well-meaning and sincere, Castro freed certain political prisoners and allowed some Cuban exiles to visit relatives on the island, hoping that in turn Carter would abolish the economic embargo and stop CIA support for militant dissidents. Conversely, his relationship with China declined, as he accused Deng Xiaoping's Chinese government of betraying their revolutionary principles by initiating trade links with the U.S. and attacking Vietnam. In 1979, the Conference of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) was held in Havana, where Castro was selected as NAM president, a position he held until 1982. In his capacity as both president of the NAM and of Cuba he appeared at the United Nations General Assembly in October 1979 and gave a speech on the disparity between the world's rich and poor. His speech was greeted with much applause from other world leaders, though his standing in NAM was damaged by Cuba's refusal to condemn the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan.",
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"plaintext": "By the 1980s, Cuba's economy was again in trouble, following a decline in the market price of sugar and 1979's decimated harvest. For the first time, unemployment became a serious problem in Castro's Cuba, with the government sending unemployed youth to other countries, primarily East Germany, to work there. Desperate for money, Cuba's government secretly sold off paintings from national collections and illicitly traded for U.S. electronic goods through Panama. Increasing numbers of Cubans fled to Florida, but were labelled \"scum\" and \"lumpen\" by Castro and his CDR supporters. In one incident, 10,000 Cubans stormed the Peruvian Embassy requesting asylum, and so the U.S. agreed that it would accept 3,500 refugees. Castro conceded that those who wanted to leave could do so from Mariel port. In what was known as the Mariel boatlift, hundreds of boats arrived from the U.S., leading to a mass exodus of 120,000; Castro's government took advantage of the situation by loading criminals, the mentally ill, and homosexuals onto the boats destined for Florida. The event destabilized Carter's administration, and later, in 1980, Ronald Reagan was elected U.S. president.",
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"plaintext": "Reagan's administration adopted a hard-line approach against Castro, making its desire to overthrow his regime clear. In late 1981, Castro publicly accused the U.S. of biological warfare against Cuba by orchestrating a dengue fever epidemic. Cuba's economy became even more dependent on Soviet aid, with Soviet subsidies (mainly in the form of supplies of low-cost oil and voluntarily buying Cuban sugar at inflated prices) averaging $4–5billion a year by the late 1980s. This accounted for 30–38% of the country's entire GDP. Soviet economic assistance had not helped Cuba's long-term growth prospects by promoting diversification or sustainability. Although described as a \"relatively highly developed Latin American export economy\" in 1959 and the early 1960s, Cuba's basic economic structure changed very little between then and the 1980s. Tobacco products such as cigars and cigarettes were the only manufactured products among Cuba's leading exports, and even these are produced by a pre-industrial process. The Cuban economy remained highly inefficient and over-specialized in a few highly subsidized commodities provided by the Soviet bloc countries.",
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"plaintext": "Although despising Argentina's right-wing military junta, Castro supported them in the 1982 Falklands War against Britain and offered military aid to the Argentinians. Castro supported the leftist New Jewel Movement that seized power in Grenada in 1979, befriending Grenadine President Maurice Bishop and sending doctors, teachers, and technicians to aid the country's development. When Bishop was executed in a Soviet-backed coup by hard-line Marxist Bernard Coard in October 1983, Castro condemned the killing but cautiously retained support for Grenada's government. However, the U.S. used the coup as a basis for invading the island. Cuban soldiers died in the conflict, with Castro denouncing the invasion and comparing the U.S. to Nazi Germany. In a July 1983 speech marking the 30th anniversary of the Cuban Revolution, Castro condemned Reagan's administration as a \"reactionary, extremist clique\" who were waging an \"openly warmongering and fascist foreign policy\". Castro feared a U.S. invasion of Nicaragua and sent Ochoa to train the governing Sandinistas in guerrilla warfare, but received little support from the USSR.",
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"plaintext": "In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became Secretary-General of the Soviet Communist Party; a reformer, he implemented measures to increase freedom of the press (glasnost) and economic decentralization (perestroika) in an attempt to strengthen socialism. Like many orthodox Marxist critics, Castro feared that the reforms would weaken the socialist state and allow capitalist elements to regain control. Gorbachev conceded to U.S. demands to reduce support for Cuba, with Soviet-Cuban relations deteriorating. On medical advice given him in October 1985, Castro gave up regularly smoking Cuban cigars, helping to set an example for the rest of the populace. Castro became passionate in his denunciation of the Third World debt problem, arguing that the Third World would never escape the debt that First World banks and governments imposed upon it. In 1985, Havana hosted five international conferences on the world debt problem.",
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"plaintext": "By November 1987, Castro began spending more time on the Angolan Civil War, in which the Marxist MPLA government had fallen into retreat. Angolan President José Eduardo dos Santos successfully appealed for more Cuban troops, with Castro later admitting that he devoted more time to Angola than to the domestic situation, believing that a victory would lead to the collapse of apartheid. In response to the siege of Cuito Cuanavale in 1987–1988 by South African-UNITA forces, Castro sent an additional 12,000 Cuban Army troops to Angola in late 1987. From afar in Havana, Castro was closely involved in the decision-making about the defense of Cuito Cuanavle and came into conflict with Ochoa, whom he criticized for almost losing Cuito Cuanavle to a South African-UNITA assault on 13 January 1988 despite warning for almost two months prior that such an attack was coming. On 30 January 1988, Ochoa was summoned to a meeting with Castro in Havana where he was told that Cuito Cuanavale must not fall and to execute Castro's plans for a pull-back to more defensible positions over the objections of the Angolans. The Cuban troops played a decisive role in the relief of Cuito Cuanavale, breaking the siege in March 1988, which led to the withdrawal of most of the South African troops from Angola. Cuban propaganda turned the siege of Cuito Cuanavle into a decisive victory that changed the course of African history and Castro awarded 82 soldiers medals of the newly created Medal of Merit for the Defense of Cuito Cuanavle on 1 April 1988. Tensions were increased with the Cubans advancing close to the border of Namibia, which led to warnings from the South African government that they considered this an extremely unfriendly act, causing South Africa to mobilize and call up its reserves. In the spring of 1988, the intensity of South African-Cuban fighting drastically increased with both sides taking heavy losses.",
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"plaintext": "The prospect of an all-out Cuban-South African war served to concentrate minds in both Moscow and Washington and led to an increased push for a diplomatic solution to the Angolan war. The cost of Cuba's wars in Africa were paid for with Soviet subsidies at a time when the Soviet economy was badly hurt by low oil prices while the apartheid government of South Africa had by the 1980s become a very awkward American ally as much of the American population, especially black Americans, objected to apartheid. From the viewpoint of both Moscow and Washington, having both Cuba and South Africa disengage in Angola was the best possible outcome. The low oil prices of the 1980s had also changed the Angolan attitude about subsidizing the Cuban economy as dos Santos found the promises made in the 1970s when oil prices were high to be a serious drain upon Angola's economy in the 1980s. South African whites were vastly outnumbered by South African blacks, and accordingly the South African Army could not take heavy losses with its white troops as that would fatally weaken the ability of the South African state to uphold apartheid. The Cubans had also taken heavy losses while the increasing difficult relations with dos Santos who become less generous in subsidizing the Cuban economy suggested that such losses were not worth the cost. Gorbachev called for a negotiated end to the conflict and in 1988 organized a quadripartite talks between the USSR, U.S., Cuba and South Africa; they agreed that all foreign troops would pull out of Angola while South Africa agreed to grant independence to Namibia. Castro was angered by Gorbachev's approach, believing that he was abandoning the plight of the world's poor in favor of détente.",
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"plaintext": "When Gorbachev visited Cuba in April 1989, he informed Castro that perestroika meant an end to subsidies for Cuba. Ignoring calls for liberalization in accordance with the Soviet example, Castro continued to clamp down on internal dissidents and in particular kept tabs on the military, the primary threat to the government. A number of senior military officers, including Ochoa and Tony de la Guardia, were investigated for corruption and complicity in cocaine smuggling, tried, and executed in 1989, despite calls for leniency. In Eastern Europe, socialist governments fell to capitalist reformers between 1989 and 1991 and many Western observers expected the same in Cuba. Increasingly isolated, Cuba improved relations with Manuel Noriega's right-wing government in Panama – despite Castro's personal hatred of Noriega – but it was overthrown in a U.S. invasion in December 1989. In February 1990, Castro's allies in Nicaragua, President Daniel Ortega and the Sandinistas, were defeated by the U.S.-funded National Opposition Union in an election. With the collapse of the Soviet bloc, the U.S. secured a majority vote for a resolution condemning Cuba's human rights violations at the United Nations Human Rights Commission in Geneva, Switzerland. Cuba asserted that this was a manifestation of U.S. hegemony, and refused to allow an investigative delegation to enter the country.",
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"plaintext": "With favourable trade from the Soviet bloc ended, Castro publicly declared that Cuba was entering a \"Special Period in Time of Peace\". Petrol rations were dramatically reduced, Chinese bicycles were imported to replace cars, and factories performing non-essential tasks were shut down. Oxen began to replace tractors, firewood began being used for cooking and electricity cuts were introduced that lasted 16 hours a day. Castro admitted that Cuba faced the worst situation short of open war, and that the country might have to resort to subsistence farming. By 1992, Cuba's economy had declined by over 40% in under two years, with major food shortages, widespread malnutrition and a lack of basic goods. Castro hoped for a restoration of Marxism–Leninism in the USSR, but refrained from backing the 1991 coup in that country. When Gorbachev regained control, Cuba-Soviet relations deteriorated further and Soviet troops were withdrawn in September 1991. In December, the Soviet Union was officially dissolved as Boris Yeltsin abolished the Soviet Communist Party and introducing a capitalist multiparty democracy. Yeltsin despised Castro and developed links with the Miami-based Cuban American National Foundation. Castro tried improving relations with the capitalist nations. He welcomed Western politicians and investors to Cuba, befriended Manuel Fraga and took a particular interest in Margaret Thatcher's policies in the UK, believing that Cuban socialism could learn from her emphasis on low taxation and personal initiative. He ceased support for foreign militants, refrained from praising FARC on a 1994 visit to Colombia and called for a negotiated settlement between the Zapatistas and Mexican government in 1995. Publicly, he presented himself as a moderate on the world stage.",
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"plaintext": "In 1991, Havana hosted the Pan American Games, which involved construction of a stadium and accommodation for the athletes; Castro admitted that it was an expensive error, but it was a success for Cuba's government. Crowds regularly shouted \"Fidel! Fidel!\" in front of foreign journalists, while Cuba became the first Latin American nation to beat the U.S. to the top of the gold-medal table. Support for Castro remained strong, and although there were small anti-government demonstrations, the Cuban opposition rejected the exile community's calls for an armed uprising. In August 1994, Havana witnessed the largest anti-Castro demonstration in Cuban history, as 200 to 300 young men threw stones at police, demanding that they be allowed to emigrate to Miami. A larger pro-Castro crowd confronted them, who were joined by Castro; he informed media that the men were anti-socials misled by the U.S. The protests dispersed with no recorded injuries. Fearing that dissident groups would invade, the government organised the \"War of All the People\" defense strategy, planning a widespread guerrilla warfare campaign, and the unemployed were given jobs building a network of bunkers and tunnels across the country.",
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"plaintext": "Castro believed in the need for reform if Cuban socialism was to survive in a world now dominated by capitalist free markets. In October 1991, the Fourth Congress of the Cuban Communist Party was held in Santiago, at which a number of important changes to the government were announced. Castro would step down as head of government, to be replaced by the much younger Carlos Lage, although Castro would remain the head of the Communist Party and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Many older members of government were to be retired and replaced by their younger counterparts. A number of economic changes were proposed, and subsequently put to a national referendum. Free farmers' markets and small-scale private enterprises would be legalized in an attempt to stimulate economic growth, while U.S. dollars were also made legal tender. Certain restrictions on emigration were eased, allowing more discontented Cuban citizens to move to the United States. Further democratization was to be brought in by having the National Assembly's members elected directly by the people, rather than through municipal and provincial assemblies. Castro welcomed debate between proponents and opponents of the economics reforms—although over time he began to increasingly sympathise with the opponent's positions, arguing that such reforms must be delayed.",
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"plaintext": "Castro's government diversified its economy into biotechnology and tourism, the latter outstripping Cuba's sugar industry as its primary source of revenue in 1995. The arrival of thousands of Mexican and Spanish tourists led to increasing numbers of Cubans turning to prostitution; officially illegal, Castro refrained from cracking down on prostitution in Cuba, fearing a political backlash. Economic hardship led many Cubans toward religion, both in the form of Roman Catholicism and Santería. Although long thinking religious belief to be backward, Castro softened his approach to religious institutions and religious people were permitted for the first time to join the Communist Party. Although he viewed the Roman Catholic Church as a reactionary, pro-capitalist institution, Castro organized a visit to Cuba by Pope John Paul II for January 1998; it strengthened the position of both the Cuban Church and Castro's government.",
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"plaintext": "In the early 1990s Castro embraced environmentalism, campaigning against global warming and the waste of natural resources, and accusing the U.S. of being the world's primary polluter. In 1994 a ministry dedicated to the environment was established, and new laws established in 1997 that promoted awareness of environmental issues throughout Cuba and stressed the sustainable use of natural resources. By 2006, Cuba was the world's only nation which met the United Nations Development Programme's definition of sustainable development, with an ecological footprint of less than 1.8 hectares per capita and a Human Development Index of over 0.8. Castro also became a proponent of the anti-globalization movement, criticizing U.S. global hegemony and the control exerted by multinationals. Castro maintained his strong stance against apartheid, and at the 26 July celebrations in 1991, he was joined onstage by Nelson Mandela, recently released from prison. Mandela praised Cuba's involvement in battling South Africa during the Angolan Civil War and thanked Castro personally. Castro later attended Mandela's inauguration as President of South Africa in 1994. In 2001, Castro attended the Conference Against Racism in South Africa at which he lectured on the global spread of racial stereotypes through U.S. film.",
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"plaintext": "Mired in economic problems, Cuba was aided by the election of socialist and anti-imperialist Hugo Chávez to the Venezuelan Presidency in 1999. Castro and Chávez developed a close friendship, with the former acting as a mentor and father-figure to the latter, and together they built an alliance that had repercussions throughout Latin America. In 2000, they signed an agreement through which Cuba would send 20,000 medics to Venezuela, in return receiving 53,000 barrels of oil per day at preferential rates; in 2004, this trade was stepped up, with Cuba sending 40,000 medics and Venezuela providing 90,000 barrels a day. That same year, Castro initiated Misión Milagro, a joint medical project which aimed to provide free eye operations on 300,000 individuals from each nation. The alliance boosted the Cuban economy, and in May 2005 Castro doubled the minimum wage for 1.6million workers, raised pensions, and delivered new kitchen appliances to Cuba's poorest residents. Some economic problems remained; in 2004, Castro shut down 118 factories, including steel plants, sugar mills and paper processors to compensate for a critical shortage of fuel. In September 2005, Castro established a group of medical professionals, known as the Henry Reeve Brigade, with the mission of international medical solidarity. The group were sent throughout the world to carry out humanitarian missions on behalf of the Cuban government.",
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"plaintext": "Cuba and Venezuela were the founding members of the Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas (ALBA). ALBA sought to redistribute wealth evenly throughout member countries, to protect the region's agriculture, and to oppose economic liberalization and privatization. ALBA's origins lay in a December 2004 agreement signed between the two countries, and was formalized through a People's Trade Agreement also signed by Evo Morales' Bolivia in April 2006. Castro had also been calling for greater Caribbean integration since the late 1990s, saying that only strengthened cooperation between Caribbean countries would prevent their domination by rich nations in a global economy. Cuba has opened four additional embassies in the Caribbean Community including: Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Suriname, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. This development makes Cuba the only country to have embassies in all independent countries of the Caribbean Community.",
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"plaintext": "In contrast to the improved relations between Cuba and a number of leftist Latin American states, in 2004 it broke off diplomatic ties with Panama after centrist President Mireya Moscoso pardoned four Cuban exiles accused of attempting to assassinate Castro in 2000. Diplomatic ties were reinstalled in 2005 following the election of leftist President Martín Torrijos.",
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"plaintext": "Castro's improving relations across Latin America were accompanied by continuing animosity towards the U.S. However, after massive damage caused by Hurricane Michelle in 2001, Castro successfully proposed a one-time cash purchase of food from the U.S. while declining its government's offer of humanitarian aid. Castro expressed solidarity with the U.S. following the 2001 September 11 attacks, condemning Al-Qaeda and offering Cuban airports for the emergency diversion of any U.S. planes. He recognized that the attacks would make U.S. foreign policy more aggressive, which he believed was counter-productive. Castro criticized the 2003 invasion of Iraq, saying that the U.S.-led war had imposed an international \"law of the jungle\".",
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"plaintext": "Meanwhile, in 1998, Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien arrived in Cuba to meet Castro and highlight their close ties. He was the first Canadian government leader to visit the island since Pierre Trudeau was in Havana in 1976. In 2002, former U.S. President Jimmy Carter visited Cuba, where he highlighted the lack of civil liberties in the country and urged the government to pay attention to the Varela Project of Oswaldo Payá.",
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"plaintext": "Castro underwent surgery for intestinal bleeding, and on 31 July 2006, delegated his presidential duties to Raúl Castro. In February 2007, Raúl announced that Fidel's health was improving and that he was taking part in important issues of government. Later that month, Fidel called into Hugo Chávez's radio show Aló Presidente. On 21 April, Castro met Wu Guanzheng of the Chinese Communist Party's Politburo Standing member, with Chávez visiting in August, and Morales in September. That month, the Non-Aligned Movement held its 14th Summit in Havana, there agreeing to appoint Castro as the organisation's president for a year's term.",
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"plaintext": "Commenting on Castro's recovery, U.S. President George W. Bush said: \"One day the good Lord will take Fidel Castro away.\" Hearing about this, the atheist Castro replied: \"Now I understand why I survived Bush's plans and the plans of other presidents who ordered my assassination: the good Lord protected me.\" The quote was picked up on by the world's media.",
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"plaintext": "In a February 2008 letter, Castro announced that he would not accept the positions of President of the Council of State and Commander in Chief at that month's National Assembly meetings, remarking, \"It would betray my conscience to take up a responsibility that requires mobility and total devotion, that I am not in a physical condition to offer\". On 24 February 2008, the National Assembly of People's Power unanimously voted Raúl as president. Describing his brother as \"not substitutable\", Raúl proposed that Fidel continue to be consulted on matters of great importance, a motion unanimously approved by the 597 National Assembly members.",
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"plaintext": "Following his retirement, Castro's health deteriorated; international press speculated that he had diverticulitis, but Cuba's government refused to corroborate this. He continued to interact with the Cuban people, published an opinion column titled \"Reflections\" in Granma, used a Twitter account, and gave occasional public lectures. In January 2009 Castro asked Cubans not to worry about his lack of recent news columns and failing health, and not to be disturbed by his future death. He continued meeting foreign leaders and dignitaries, and that month photographs were released of Castro's meeting with Argentine President Cristina Fernández.",
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"plaintext": "In July 2010, he made his first public appearance since falling ill, greeting science center workers and giving a television interview to Mesa Redonda in which he discussed U.S. tensions with Iran and North Korea. On 7 August 2010, Castro gave his first speech to the National Assembly in four years, urging the U.S. not to take military actions against those nations and warning of a nuclear holocaust. When asked whether Castro may be re-entering government, culture minister Abel Prieto told the BBC, \"I think that he has always been in Cuba's political life but he is not in the government... He has been very careful about that. His big battle is international affairs.\"",
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"plaintext": "On 19 April 2011, Castro resigned from the Communist Party central committee, thus stepping down as First Secretary. Raúl was selected as his successor. Now without any official role in the country's government, he took on the role of an elder statesman. In March 2011, Castro condemned the NATO-led military intervention in Libya. In March 2012, Pope Benedict XVI visited Cuba for three days, during which time he briefly met with Castro despite the Pope's vocal opposition to Cuba's government. Later that year it was revealed that along with Hugo Chávez, Castro had played a significant behind-the-scenes role in orchestrating peace talks between the Colombian government and the far left FARC guerrilla movement to end the conflict which had raged since 1964. During the North Korea crisis of 2013, he urged both the North Korean and U.S. governments to show restraint. Calling the situation \"incredible and absurd\", he maintained that war would not benefit either side, and that it represented \"one of the gravest risks of nuclear war\" since the Cuban missile crisis.",
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"plaintext": "In December 2014, Castro was awarded the Chinese Confucius Peace Prize for seeking peaceful solutions to his nation's conflict with the U.S. and for his post-retirement efforts to prevent nuclear war. In January 2015, he publicly commented on the \"Cuban Thaw\", an increased normalization between Cuba-U.S. relations, by stating that while it was a positive move for establishing peace in the region, he mistrusted the U.S. government. He did not meet with U.S. President Barack Obama on the latter's visit to Cuba in March 2016, although sent him a letter stating that Cuba \"has no need of gifts from the empire\". That April, he gave his most extensive public appearance in many years when addressing the Communist Party. Highlighting that he was soon to turn 90 years old, he noted that he would die in the near future but urged those assembled to retain their communist ideals. In September 2016, Castro was visited at his Havana home by the Iranian President Hassan Rouhani, and later that month was visited by Japanese Prime Minister Shinzō Abe. In late October 2016, Castro met with the Portuguese president Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa, who became one of the last foreign leaders to meet him.",
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"plaintext": "Castro died in Havana on the night of 25 November 2016. The cause of death was not disclosed. His brother, President Raúl Castro, confirmed the news in a brief speech: \"The commander in chief of the Cuban revolution died at 22:29 EST this evening.\" His death came 9 months after his older brother Ramón died at the age of 91 in February. Fidel Castro was cremated on 26 November 2016. A funeral procession travelled along the island's central highway from Havana to Santiago de Cuba, tracing in reverse, the route of the \"Freedom Caravan\" of January 1959, and after nine days of public mourning, his ashes were entombed in the Santa Ifigenia Cemetery in Santiago de Cuba.",
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"plaintext": "Castro proclaimed himself to be \"a Socialist, a Marxist, and a Leninist\", and publicly identified as a Marxist–Leninist from December 1961 onward. As a Marxist, Castro sought to transform Cuba from a capitalist state which was dominated by foreign imperialism to a socialist society and ultimately to a communist society. Influenced by Guevara, he suggested that Cuba could evade most stages of socialism and progress straight to communism. The Cuban Revolution nevertheless did not meet the Marxist assumption that socialism would be achieved through proletariat revolution, for most of the forces involved in Batista's overthrow were led by members of the Cuban middle-class. According to Castro, a country could be regarded as socialist if its means of production were controlled by the state. In this way, his understanding of socialism was less about who controlled power in a country and more about the method of distribution.",
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"plaintext": "Castro's government was also nationalistic, with Castro declaring, \"We are not only Marxist-Leninists, but also nationalists and patriots\". In this it drew upon a longstanding tradition of Cuban nationalism. Castro biographer Sebastian Balfour noted that \"the vein of moral regeneration and voluntarism that runs through\" Castro's thought owes far more to \"Hispanic nationalism\" than European socialism or Marxism–Leninism. Historian Richard Gott remarked that one of the keys to Castro's success was his ability to use the \"twin themes of socialism and nationalism\" and keep them \"endlessly in play\". Castro described Karl Marx and Cuban nationalist José Martí as his main political influences, although Gott believed that Martí ultimately remained more important than Marx in Castro's politics. Castro described Martí's political ideas as \"a philosophy of independence and an exceptional humanistic philosophy\", and his supporters and apologists repeatedly claimed that there were great similarities between the two figures.",
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"plaintext": "Biographer Volka Skierka described Castro's government as a \"highly individual, socialist-nationalist fidelista system\", with Theodore Draper terming his approach \"Castroism\", viewing it as a blend of European socialism with the Latin American revolutionary tradition.",
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"plaintext": "Political scientist Paul C. Sondrol has described Castro's approach to politics as \"totalitarian utopianism\", with a style of leadership that drew upon the wider Latin American phenomenon of the caudillo. He drew inspiration from the wider Latin American anti-imperialist movements of the 1930s and 1940s, including Argentina's Perón and Guatemala's Jacobo Árbenz. Castro took a relatively socially conservative stance on many issues, opposing drug use, gambling, and prostitution, which he viewed as moral evils. Instead, he advocated hard work, family values, integrity, and self-discipline. Although his government repressed homosexual activity for decades, later in his life he took responsibility for this persecution, regretting it as a \"great injustice\", as he himself put it.",
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"plaintext": "Juan Reynaldo Sánchez, Castro's former bodyguard, detailed much of his personal and private life in his book The Double Life of Fidel Castro. He described Castro as \"Nothing ordinary about him at all, he is unique, special, and different\". He profiled him as an egocentric who loved being the center of attention, and with his almost electric charisma, grabbing the attention of the people around him. He was also extremely manipulative; with his formidable intelligence, he was capable of manipulating a person or a group of people without much difficulty. In addition, he was repetitive and obsessive. In discussions with his colleagues or foreigners, he would repeat the same things over again on a continuous loop until they were convinced he was right. It was absolutely impossible to contradict him on any subject whatsoever. Anyone who attempted to convince him that he was wrong or even making a suggestion that it could be improved slightly was making a \"fatal error\". Fidel would then make a mental mark of the individual as an \"idiot\", and would wait for the right time to retaliate against them. Nobody, not even Raúl was exempt from this; despite being the minister of the armed forces, he would bring seemingly minor military decisions to Castro for his final approval in order to avoid inadvertently contradicting him. Sánchez believed that General Arnaldo Ochoa's downfall was significantly related to his willingness to contradict Fidel's orders in Angola.",
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"plaintext": "Biographer Leycester Coltman described Castro as \"fiercely hard-working, dedicated, loyal... generous and magnanimous\" but noted that he could be \"vindictive and unforgiving\". He asserted that Castro \"always had a keen sense of humor and could laugh at himself\" but could equally be \"a bad loser\" who would act with \"ferocious rage if he thought that he was being humiliated\". Publicly he was known for throwing tantrums, and could make \"snap judgements\" which he refused to back down from. In private though, Castro was actually skilled at keeping his anger in check and not allowing it to affect his judgement, simply becoming cold and withdrawn; Sánchez stated that in 17 years he had only seen Castro explode in anger twice, one upon being informed of his daughter Alina's defection in 1993.",
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"plaintext": "Castro was known for working long hours; he primarily woke up late – rarely before 10 or 11 am – and started his working day around noon, and would work until late at night, often only going to bed at 3 or 4am. He preferred to meet foreign diplomats in these early hours, believing that they would be tired and he could gain the upper hand in negotiations. Castro liked to meet with ordinary citizens, both in Cuba and abroad, but took a particularly paternal attitude toward Cubans, treating them as if \"they were a part of his own giant family\". British historian Alex von Tunzelmann commented that \"though ruthless, [Castro] was a patriot, a man with a profound sense that it was his mission to save the Cuban people\". Political scientist Paul C. Sondrol characterized Castro as \"quintessentially totalitarian in his charismatic appeal, utopian functional role and public, transformative utilisation of power\".",
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"plaintext": "Balfour described Castro as having a \"voracity for knowledge\" and \"elephantine memory\" that allowed him to speak for hours on a variety of different subjects. His hero was Alexander the Great, whose Spanish equivalent Alejandro he adopted as his nom de guerre. Castro was a voracious reader; amongst his favorite authors were Ernest Hemingway, Franz Kafka, William Shakespeare, and Maxim Gorky, and he named For Whom the Bell Tolls as his favorite book, committing several portions of the novel to memory and even utilizing some of its lessons as a guerilla fighter. He enjoyed art and photography and was known as a patron of both within Cuba but was uninterested in music and disliked dancing. He was also an avid fan of cinema, particularly Soviet films. His favorite film was the five hour long 1967 adaption of Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace. Castro had a lifelong passion, almost obsession, with cows and, starting in 1966, with bovine genetics and breeding. State media frequently published details of his attempts to breed cows with increased milk yields. This interest reached its peak in 1982 when a cow that Fidel had bred, \"Ubre Blanca\", broke the Guinness World Record for producing 29 gallons of milk live on national television. She was promoted into a national celebrity and propaganda tool, and when the cow died in 1985, Granma published an official obituary for her on the front page, and the postal service issued stamps in her honor as well.",
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"plaintext": "Fidel Castro's religious beliefs have been a matter of some debate; he was baptized and raised as a Roman Catholic. He criticized use of the Bible to justify the oppression of women and Africans, but commented that Christianity exhibited \"a group of very humane precepts\" which gave the world \"ethical values\" and a \"sense of social justice\", relating, \"If people call me Christian, not from the standpoint of religion but from the standpoint of social vision, I declare that I am a Christian.\" During a visit of Jesse Jackson, Castro accompanied him to a Methodist Church service where he even spoke from the pulpit with a Bible before him, an event that marked a beginning of increased openness towards Christianity in Cuba. He promoted the idea that Jesus Christ was a communist, citing the feeding of the 5,000 and the story of Jesus and the rich young man as evidence.",
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"plaintext": "Within Cuba, Castro was primarily referred to by his official military title Comandante El Jefe; he was usually addressed as Comandante (The Commander) in general discourse as well as in person but could also be addressed as El Jefe (the Chief) in the third person, particularly within the party and military command. Castro was often nicknamed \"El Caballo\" (\"The Horse\"), a label attributed to Cuban entertainer Benny Moré which alludes to Castro's well known philandering during the 1950s and early 1960s.",
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"plaintext": "With his logorrheic oratorical abilities and profound charisma, Castro was extremely skilled at the art of manipulation and deception, easily whipping up his audience and even entire segments of the population into support for him. Large throngs of supporters gathered to cheer at Castro's fiery speeches, which typically lasted for hours (even outdoors in inclement weather) and without the use of written notes. During speeches, Castro regularly cited reports and books he had read on a wide variety of subjects, including military matters, plant cultivation, filmmaking, and chess strategies. Officially, the Cuban government did maintain a cult of personality, but unlike other Soviet-era leaders and his allies, it was less widespread and took on a more subtle and discreet form. There were no statues or large portraits of him but rather signs with \"thoughts\" of the Comandante. Although his popularity among segments of the Cuban populace nevertheless led to one developing without the government's involvement and would be used to judge each individual's devotion to his \"revolutionary cause\" (judged by their contribution to the revolution). Indeed, by 2006 Castro's image could frequently be found in Cuban stores, classrooms, taxicabs, and on national television. In private, however, Castro hated such idolization campaigns and believed that he had intellectual ascendancy over leaders who engaged in such behavior, such as his friend Kim Il-sung of North Korea whose cult of personality he considered excessive, outlandish, and unreasonable.",
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"plaintext": "He gave no importance to his appearance or clothing; for 37 years, he wore only his trademark olive-green military fatigues or the standard dress uniform for formal events and special occasions, emphasizing his role as the perpetual revolutionary, but in the mid-1990s began wearing dark civilian suits and guayabera in public. At over tall with a few inches added from his combat boots, Castro usually towered over most foreign leaders he met with, giving him a dominating presence in any room or photo that was taken, which he used to his advantage (for comparison, Abraham Lincoln and Charles De Gaulle, both well known for their tall heights, stood at 6'4 and 6'5 respectively). Until his uprising against Batista, Castro typically kept a pencil-thin moustache along with combed back hair, typical of Upper-class Cuban men in the 1950s but grew out both during his years as a guerilla fighter and retaining them afterwards. Castro also disliked worrying about his appearance and hated shaving, making the beard and uniform all the more convenient for him. His uniform was also kept simple, he never wore any medals or decorations and his only marker of rank was the Comandante El Jefe insignia stitched on the shoulder straps. Until the 1990s, he wore combat boots, but due to orthopedic issues, abandoned them for sneakers and tennis shoes instead. Around his waist, he often carried a 9mm Browning pistol in a brown leather holster with an additional three clips. His personal weapon of choice was a 7.62 Kalashnikov AKM which Castro occasionally carried with him during the 1960s but was later kept stored in a suitcase carried by one of the members of his escort or kept placed between his feet while driving along with five cartridges; he frequently used it during shooting exercises and practice. Castro had a lifelong love of guns and was considered an expert sharpshooter, impressing foreign visitors and even holding up against members of his own elite bodyguards who engaged in frequent competition with him.",
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"plaintext": "Castro's most iconic public feature eventually became the Cuban cigar that he smoked on a daily basis. Introduced to it by his father at the age of 15, Castro continued the habit for almost 44 years with the exception of a brief period during the 1950s while a guerilla fighter and boycotting against Batista linked tobacco firms. Castro claimed that he quit around 1985 during an anti-smoking campaign promoted by the Communist Party. Sánchez disputes this, saying that his doctor had Castro reduce his cigar usage starting in 1980 and quit entirely in 1983 after a cancerous ulcer was found in his intestine. Prior to the Revolution, Castro smoked various brands including Romeo y Julieta Churchill, H. Upmann, Bauza, and Partagás. In the early 1960s, Castro saw one of his bodyguards smoking a noticeably aromatic but unbranded cigar. Castro and the bodyguard located the cigar maker, Eduardo Ribera, who agreed to establish the El Laguito Factory and branded the cigars as Cohiba which became Castro's signature brand and elevating its profile internationally. Initially restricted for his own private use and other members of the Politburo, it was later presented as diplomatic gifts for allied countries and friends of Castro, most notably seen smoked by Che Guevara, Josip Broz Tito, Houari Boumédiène, Sukarno, and Saddam Hussein.",
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"plaintext": "Castro's primary residence was at Punto Cero, a large and vegetative estate approximately 6km from the Palacio de la Revolution in the Siboney neighborhood. The main house is a L-Shaped two story family mansion with a 600-square-yard footprint, 50-foot-long swimming pool, six greenhouses providing fruit and vegetables for Fidel and Raúl's families as well as their bodyguard units, and a large lawn with free-range chickens and cows. Close by is a second two-story building used to house the bodyguards and the domestic staff. The house itself was decorated in a classical Caribbean style, with local wicker and wood furniture, porcelain plates, watercolor paintings, and art books. Sánchez described the estate as naturally beautiful and tastefully decorated, and while considered luxurious for the average Cuban, was not lavish or over-the-top compared to the residences of the Somoza clan or the Kim dynasty of North Korea. Raúl and Vilma's house La Rinconada is located close by on 222nd street. Raúl usually hosted large family barbecues on Sundays where Fidel would sometimes come, giving his extended family, sisters, and his elder brother Ramón a rare opportunity to see him. Next to Punto Cero is Unit 160 which was the base of Fidel's bodyguard units. The base was over five acres large and surrounded by high walls, essentially a \"city within a city\" consisting of support personnel for transportation, communications, electronics, food, and an extensive armory of Kalashnikovs, Makarovs, and Browning's. Members of that unit also assisted in Fidel's passion for Bovine breeding and a stable was kept for some of Fidel's most prized cows.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to \"Punto Cero\", Castro had 5 other residences in Havana: Casa Cojimar, his initial home after 1959 but disused by the 1970s; a house on 160th Street near the Playa district; Casa Carbonell, maintained by Cuban Intelligence for his covert meetings with representatives of foreign groups or intelligence assets; A beach house in Santa Maria del Mar (next to the Tropico Hotel); and two houses retrofitted with air-raid shelters and connected to the MINFAR command bunkers for use in war: Casa Punta Brava (Dalia's old house before meeting Fidel) and Casa Gallego, near the bodyguards base at Unit 160. In the west of Cuba, he had three residences: Casa Americana (confiscated from an American businessman connected to Batista); Rancho la Tranquilidad in the locality of Mil Cumbres; and La Deseada, a hunting lodge utilized in the winter for duck hunting and fishing trips. He also had two homes in Matanzas, one in Ciego de Avila, a horse ranch Hacienda San Cayetano in Camaguey along with another house in a vacation compound for the Politburo nearby, Casa Guardalavaca in Holguin, and two residences in Santiago de Cuba (One of which is shared with Ramiro Valdes).",
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"plaintext": "Castro's main vacation destination was Cayo de Piedra, a small key island formerly the site of a lighthouse, approximately a mile long and divided into two by a cyclone in the 1960s. He came upon the island by accident while reviewing the region in the aftermath of the failed Bay of Pigs invasion. Instantly falling in love with the island, he ordered it closed off and had the lighthouse demolished. Osmany Cienfuegos designed the a private bungalow, guesthouse, bridge, marina, and a building for the use of the bodyguards and support staff. He arrived here from his inaccessible private marina located near the Bay of Pigs, La Caleta del Rosario, which also housed another residence and guesthouse. Castro utilized two yachts, Aquarama I, confiscated from a Batista Government official and later in the 1970s, the 90-foot white hull Aquarama II. Aquarama II, which was decorated with wood donated from Angola, had two double cabins, one for Fidel's personal use, a main sitting room, two bathrooms, a bar, a secure communications suite, and was equipped with four Osa-class missile boat engines gifted from Brezhnev allowing for top speeds of over 42 Knots. Aquarama II had two companion speedboats utilized by his escort, Pioniera I and Pioniera II; one was equipped with a large cache of weapons and another was equipped with medical equipment.",
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"plaintext": "Castro also had a keen interest in gastronomy and was known to wander into his kitchen to discuss cookery with his chefs. His diet was quintessentially Cuban, based on traditional pescatarian cuisine but also the additional influence from his native Galicia. All of his food was sourced from Punto Cero or fished from his private island of Cayo Piedra, with the exception of cases of Algerian Red Wine gifted initially from Houari Boumediene and continued by successive Algerian governments and Iraqi figs and fruit jams from Saddam Hussein. Castro, who typically woke up in the late morning, usually had tea or fish bouillon for breakfast accompanied by milk provided from one of the cows that grazed on Punto Cero; they were all bred to provide milk which suited Castro's demanding taste. His lunches were also frugal and consisted of fish or seafood soup with fresh produce. Dinner was his primary meal, consisting of grilled fish, chicken, mutton, or even pata negra ham on special occasions along with a large serving of green vegetables, but was prevented from eating beef or coffee by his dietician.",
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"plaintext": "Until 1979, Castro's primary vehicle was a black ZiL limousine, first an armored convertible ZIL-111 from Khrushchev, a ZIL-114 and briefly a ZIL-4104 gifted to him by Leonid Brezhnev, while his escort would accompany him in several Alfa Romeo 1750s and 2000s. In 1979, during the Non-Aligned movement summit at Havana, Saddam Hussein gave Castro his Armored Mercedes-Benz 560 SEL which he had brought from Baghdad and became his sole transport for the rest of his life. Subsequently, Fidel ordered two mechanics from his bodyguard unit to West Germany to purchase several second-hand Mercedes-Benz 500's to replace the obsolete Alfa Romeos. Castro always travelled with at least fourteen guards and four of his aides, spread out over four vehicles; three Mercedes-Benz's and one Soviet Lada which trailed the main convoy (to keep the military presence at a minimal). Whenever he would leave Havana, a fifth Mercedes would join the procession carrying his doctor, nurse, and photographer.",
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"plaintext": "In his personal life, Castro was known for being distant, withdrawn, and confided in very few people. His closest and most trusted friend was Raúl Castro, his younger brother by five years and longtime armed forces minister. Although Raúl has a vastly contrasting, almost polar opposite personality to Castro, Sánchez describes Raúl as complementing Castro's personality in all the ways that he is not. Whereas Fidel was \"charismatic, energetic, visionary but extremely impulsive and totally disorganized\", Raúl was described as a \"natural, methodical, and uncompromising organizer\". Castro spoke nearly every day with Raúl, met several times a week, and was a frequent visitor at Raúl and Vilma's house; Vilma was also considered close to Castro and often appeared in public with him at national events. Besides Raúl, Castro was not close to any of his other siblings, although he did have friendly relations with his elder brother Ramón and sister Angelita. His sister Juanita Castro has been living in the United States since the early 1960s, and is a public opponent of the Cuban regime.",
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"plaintext": "Outside of his immediate family, Castro's closest friend was fellow revolutionary Celia Sánchez, who accompanied him almost everywhere during the 1960s, and controlled almost all access to the leader. Reynaldo Sánchez confirmed that Celia was indeed Castro's mistress and regarded her as the \"true love of his life\". Castro provided a large apartment for Celia on 11th Street near Vedado, El Once whom Fidel visited every day before returning home. Over the years, Castro added an elevator, fitness room, and a bowling alley for his and Celia's personal use. He even provided bodyguards from his own escort to Celia for her own protection.",
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"plaintext": "Castro's closest male friends were the members of his immediate bodyguard unit, Escolta or the \"Escort\". His security was provided by Department 1 of the Personal Security Directorate of MININT (Ministry of the Interior). Department 1 was for Fidel's security, Department 2 was Raúl and Vilma's, and Department 3 was for the members of the Politburo and so on. Unlike the other MININT Departments, both his and Raúl's units bypassed the normal chain of command and reported to them directly. Castro's security consisted of three concentric anillos or rings. The third ring consisted of thousands of soldiers both in MININT and MINFAR who provided support for Logistics, Air-Defense, Intelligence, etc.; The second ring consisted of eighty to one hundred soldiers who provided the outer perimeter security; And the first ring, the Elite Escolta or \"The Escort\", which provided his immediate security and consisted of two teams of 15 elite soldiers who worked 24 hour shifts, along with around 10 support staff.",
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"plaintext": "A soldier at heart, Castro had more affinity with his escort than his civilian family. He spent most of his time under their protection and were usually his companions in his personal interests. A sports fan, he also spent much of his time trying to keep fit, undertaking regular exercise such as hunting, fly fishing, underwater fishing, scuba diving, and playing basketball. They were also his companions on special events, such as his birthday or during national holidays, which they would regularly exchange gifts and engage in one-sided discussions with Castro where he would recall his life stories. The members of the Escort Castro was closest to was the former Mayor of Havana Jose \"Pepín\" Naranjo who became his official aide until his death in 1995 and his own personal physician, Eugenio Selman. Outside of his escort, Castro was also close to Manuel \"Barbarroja\" Pineiro, the head of the American Department of the DGI, Antonio Núñez Jiménez, and the Colombian novelist Gabriel García Márquez.",
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"plaintext": "The Cuban government has never published an official marital history of Castro, with most information coming from defectors and scarce details published in state media and pieced together over the years. In his earlier years in power, he showcased some of his family life, in particular his eldest son Fidelito in order to portray himself as a normal \"family man\" to the apprehensive American audience, but eventually abandoned that as he became more concerned about his personal safety. Throughout his rule, Castro never named an official \"First Lady\" and when the need for such a public female companion was necessary, Celia Sánchez or Raúl's wife, Vilma Espín, would play such a role of la primera dama.",
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"plaintext": "Overall, Sánchez described Castro as a compulsive lover or \"womanizer\"; he has been officially married twice but has carried on numerous affairs, including many one-night stands. Popular with women and often recognized as a sex symbol in Cuba, Castro never had difficulty in finding love and seduction, and Sánchez denies that Castro ever engaged in any unusual or un-consensual behavior. Castro was also described as a poor father; often absent from their lives, he had little interest in the activities of his children and was more interested in his work. Raúl, who had much more stronger paternal feelings towards his family, was often the one who played the role of surrogate father to Castro's children, in particular Fidelito and Alina.",
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"plaintext": " Castro's first wife was Mirta Díaz-Balart, whom he married in October 1948. She is the only spouse of Castro acknowledged by the Cuban government. Diaz-Balart, the daughter of a powerful Cuban politician and brother of Batista's Minister of Interior, was a student at the University of Havana where she met and married Castro. She divorced him later in 1955 while he was in prison due to the attacks on the Moncada Barracks. They had one son:",
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"plaintext": "Fidel Ángel \"Fidelito\" Castro Díaz-Balart, born in September 1949. Fidelito grew up at various times between Havana and Miami; he later went to the Soviet Union to study Nuclear Physics. For a time, he ran Cuba's atomic-energy commission before being removed from the post by his father. He took his own life in February 2018, over a year after his father's death.",
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"plaintext": " During his first marriage, Castro had a brief encounter with Maria Laborde, an admirer from Camaguey whom very little is known and has long been deceased. They had one son:",
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"plaintext": "Jorge Ángel Castro, born on 23 March 1949. It was long believed that his birth was in 1956, but Sánchez and another defector uncovered that he was in fact born earlier than Fidelito.",
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"plaintext": "While Castro was married to Mirta, he had an affair with Natalia \"Naty\" Revuelta Clews. Widely regarded in Havana for her beauty, Natalia herself was married to Dr. Orlando Fernandez but sympathized with the aims of the Revolutionary movement. She initially joined the movement as a friend of Castro but later became his mistress and visited him while he was imprisoned on Isla de Pinos. She would give birth to his daughter: ",
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"plaintext": "Alina Fernández Revuelta, born in 1956, is Castro's only daughter. She did not know her true parentage until she was 10. Castro showed little interest in her but sent her to a boarding school in Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France. One of the few people willing to stand up to Castro, several defectors have described her personality as the most similar to her father. Alina became a public relations director for a State-owned fashion company and a model for Havana Club. Her father inadvertently found out about the latter job while reading Cuba magazine, coming across an advertisement showing Alina posing in a bikini on a boat with two other models; he nearly exploded with rage. Alina left Cuba in 1993, disguised as a Spanish tourist, and sought asylum in the U.S., from where she has criticized her father's policies.",
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"plaintext": "Castro's second and longest wife was with Dalia Soto Del Valle, another admirer who met Castro during a speech in Villa Clara in 1961. She was a teacher who was part of the government's literacy campaign who moved to Havana on Castro's initiative and later moved in with him at Punto Cero as his permanent family. Her relationship with Castro was kept secret until 2006, when she was photographed with an increasingly frail Castro during the Party Congress, although no other information has been released by the Cuban Government. Castro and Dalia had five sons, each of them starting with the letter A and three of them a variation of \"Alexander\" (in homage to Alexander the Great, his pseudonym while a guerilla fighter):",
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"plaintext": "Alexis Castro Del Valle, born in 1962. Described as a loner with few friends, he eventually got a degree in computer science but has since become a mechanic.",
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"plaintext": "Alex Castro Del Valle, born in 1963. Much more affable and outgoing, he was initially trained as an engineer as well but instead became a photographer and cameraman for Granma and Cubavisión respectively. He later became the official photographer of his father and published several books and hosted the exhibitions Fidel Castro:Photografia Intimidade. ",
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"plaintext": "Alejandro Castro Del Valle, born in 1969. Considered a \"computer geek\", like his brothers, he also studied computer science and engineering but was passionate about the subject. Around 1990, he wrote software that allowed Russian programs to be run on Japanese ones; the product was purchased by NEC of Japan, which raised his national profile in the engineering community of Cuba and even public praise from his father.",
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"plaintext": "Antonio Castro Del Valle, born in 1971. A national youth baseball champion, he studied sports medicine in the University of Havana and became an Orthopedic surgeon. He is currently the head of the Surgery unit at the Elite Frank Pais Orthopedic Hospital, Doctor to the National Baseball team and President of the Cuban Baseball Federation.",
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"plaintext": "Angelito Castro Del Valle, born in 1974. Considered spoiled by his parents from a young age, he was long considered the \"trouble child\" of the family. He was passionate about cars and frequently earned the ire of his father's escort unit for disrupting the work of the mechanics. Angelito never obtained any higher education, but later became the senior executive of the Mercedes-Benz concession of Cuba. ",
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"plaintext": "After the 1970s, Castro began a long relationship with Juanita Vera, a Colonel in the foreign intelligence service who joined his escort unit as his English interpreter. She often appeared in public with Castro, in particular in Oliver Stone's Comandante as his translator and interpreter. Her and Castro had one son, Abel Castro Vera, born in 1983.",
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"plaintext": "Castro had another daughter, Francisca Pupo (born 1953), the result of a one-night affair. Pupo and her husband now live in Miami. Another son known as Ciro was also born in the early 1960s, the result of another brief fling, his existence confirmed by Celia Sánchez.",
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"plaintext": "One of the most controversial political leaders of his era, Castro both inspired and dismayed people around the world during his lifetime. The London Observer stated that he proved to be \"as divisive in death as he was in life\", and that the only thing that his \"enemies and admirers\" agreed upon was that he was \"a towering figure\" who \"transformed a small Caribbean island into a major force in world affairs\". The Daily Telegraph noted that around the world he was \"either praised as a brave champion of the people, or derided as a power-mad dictator.\"",
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"plaintext": "According to political scientists, Castro ruled a single-party authoritarian regime in Cuba. Political opposition was not permitted. According to political scientists Steven Levitsky and Lucan Way, the Cuban regime entailed \"full authoritarianism ... (like China and Saudi Arabia)\", as there were \"no viable channels... for opposition to contest legally for executive power.\" Censorship of information was extensive, and independent journalism was repressed; ",
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"plaintext": "Despite its small size and limited economic weight, Castro's Cuba gained a large role in world affairs. The Castro government relied heavily on its appeals to nationalistic sentiment, in particular the widespread hostility to the U.S. government. According to Balfour, Castro's domestic popularity stemmed from the fact that he symbolised \"a long-cherished hope of national liberation and social justice\" for much of the population. Balfour also noted that throughout Latin America, Castro served as \"a symbol of defiance against the continued economic and cultural imperialism of the United States\". Similarly, Wayne S. Smith– the former Chief of the United States Interests Section in Havana– noted that Castro's opposition to U.S. dominance and transformation of Cuba into a significant world player resulted in him receiving \"warm applause\" throughout the Western Hemisphere.",
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"plaintext": "Various Western governments and human rights organizations nevertheless heavily criticized Castro and he was widely reviled in the U.S. Following Castro's death, U.S. President-elect Donald Trump called him a \"brutal dictator\", while the Cuban-American politician Marco Rubio called him \"an evil, murderous dictator\" who turned Cuba into \"an impoverished island prison\". Castro publicly rejected the \"dictator\" label, stating that he constitutionally held less power than most heads of state and insisting that his regime allowed for greater democratic involvement in policy making than Western liberal democracies. Nevertheless, critics claim that Castro wielded significant unofficial influence aside from his official duties. Quirk stated that Castro wielded \"absolute power\" in Cuba, albeit not in a legal or constitutional manner, while Bourne claimed that power in Cuba was \"completely invested\" in Castro, adding that it was very rare for \"a country and a people\" to have been so completely dominated by \"the personality of one man\". Balfour stated that Castro's \"moral and political hegemony\" within Cuba diminished the opportunities for democratic debate and decision making. Describing Castro as a \"totalitarian dictator\", Sondrol suggested that in leading \"a political system largely [of] his own creation and bearing his indelible stamp\", Castro's leadership style warranted comparisons with totalitarian leaders like Mao Zedong, Hideki Tojo, Joseph Stalin, Adolf Hitler, and Benito Mussolini. ",
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"plaintext": "Noting that there were \"few more polarising political figures\" than Castro, Amnesty International described him as \"a progressive but deeply flawed leader\". In their view, he should be \"applauded\" for his regime's \"substantial improvements\" to healthcare and education, but criticised for its \"ruthless suppression of freedom of expression.\" Human Rights Watch stated that his government constructed a \"repressive machinery\" which deprived Cubans of their \"basic rights\". Castro defended his government's record on human rights, stating that the state was forced to limit the freedoms of individuals and imprison those involved in counter-revolutionary activities in order to protect the rights of the collective populace, such as the right to employment, education, and health care.",
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"plaintext": "Historian and journalist Richard Gott considered Castro to be \"one of the most extraordinary political figures of the twentieth century\", commenting that he had become a \"world hero in the mould\" of Giuseppe Garibaldi to people throughout the developing world for his anti-imperialist efforts. Balfour stated that Castro's story had \"few parallels in contemporary history\", for there existed no other \"Third World leader\" in the second half of the twentieth century who held \"such a prominent and restless part on the international stage\" or remained head of state for such a long period. Bourne described Castro as \"an influential world leader\" who commanded \"great respect\" from individuals of all political ideologies across the developing world. Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau described Castro as a \"remarkable leader\" and a \"larger than life leader who served his people.\" The European Commission President Jean-Claude Juncker said that Castro \"was a hero for many.\" Russian President Vladimir Putin described Castro as both \"a sincere and reliable friend of Russia\" and a \"symbol of an era\", while Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping similarly referred to him as \"a close comrade and a sincere friend\" to China. Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi termed him \"one of the most iconic personalities of the 20th century\" and a \"great friend\", while South African President Jacob Zuma praised Castro for aiding black South Africans in \"our struggle against apartheid\". He was awarded a wide variety of awards and honors from foreign governments and was cited as an inspiration for foreign leaders like Ahmed Ben Bella and Nelson Mandela, who subsequently awarded him South Africa's highest civilian award for foreigners, the Order of Good Hope. The biographer Volka Skierka stated that \"he will go down in history as one of the few revolutionaries who remained true to his principles\".",
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"plaintext": "Following Castro's death, Cuba's government announced that it would be passing a law prohibiting the naming of \"institutions, streets, parks or other public sites, or erecting busts, statues or other forms of tribute\" in honor of the late Cuban leader in keeping with his wishes to prevent an extensive cult of personality from developing around him.",
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38,304 | 1,105,807,246 | Sexual_abstinence | [
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"plaintext": "Sexual abstinence or sexual restraint is the practice of refraining from some or all aspects of sexual activity for medical, psychological, legal, social, financial, philosophical, moral, or religious reasons. Sexual abstinence is distinct from asexuality, which is a sexual orientation where people do not feel sexual attraction. Celibacy is sexual abstinence generally motivated by factors such as an individual's personal or religious beliefs. Sexual abstinence before marriage is required in some societies by social norms, or by law in some countries. It is a part of chastity.",
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"plaintext": "Abstinence may be voluntary (when an individual chooses not to engage in sexual activity due to moral, religious, philosophical, or other reasons), an involuntary result of social circumstances (when one cannot find any willing sexual partners), or legally mandated (e.g. in countries where sexual activity outside marriage is illegal, in prisons etc.).",
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"plaintext": "The ancient world discouraged promiscuity for both health and social reasons. According to Pythagoras (6th century BCE) sex should be practiced in the winter, but not the summer, but was harmful to male health in every season because the loss of semen was dangerous, hard to control and both physically and spiritually exhausting, but had no effect on females. This idea may have been merged with Zoroastrian ideas of good and evil in a philosophy known as Gnosticism, which influenced Christian and Islamic attitudes to sexual activity. But others stated that the Christian religion's hold on to the ideal of sexual abstinence prior to the appearing of gnosticism and Zoroastrianism and its roots are to be found in the Old Testament (which is the base of the New Testament) in which virginity was required by law and marriage was especially protected (see Deuteronomy chapter 22).",
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"plaintext": "Throughout history, and especially prior to the 20th century, there have been those who have held that sexual abstinence confers numerous health benefits. For males, lack of abstinence was thought to cause a reduction of vitality. In modern times, the argument has been phrased in biological terms, claiming that loss of semen through ejaculation results in a depletion of vital nutrients such as lecithin and phosphorus, which are also found at high levels in the brain. Conservation of the semen allegedly allows it to be reabsorbed back into the bloodstream and aid in the healthy development of the body. Along these lines, the noted German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche spoke of the positive physiological effects of abstinence: \"The reabsorption of semen by the blood ... perhaps prompts the stimulus of power, the unrest of all forces towards the overcoming of resistances ... The feeling of power has so far mounted highest in abstinent priests and hermits\" (quoted by Walter Kaufman in his classic, Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist, p.222). Before the \"sexual revolution\" of the 1960s, it was commonly believed by members of the medical profession that numerous mental and physical diseases in men were caused primarily by loss of nutrients through seminal discharge, and that the deliberate conservation of this substance would lead to increased health, vitality, and intellectual prowess. This also applied to masturbation, which was also thought to lead to bedwetting and hairy palms.",
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"plaintext": "Some advantages in favor of sexual abstinence were also claimed by Walter Siegmeister, better known as Dr. Raymond W. Bernard, an early 20th-century American alternative health, esoteric writer, author and mystic, who formed part of the alternative reality subculture. In his essay entitled \"Science discovers the physiological value of continence\" (1957) he states:",
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"plaintext": " \"[I]t is clear that there is an important internal physiological relation between the secretions of the sex glands and the central nervous system, that the loss of these secretions, voluntarily or involuntarily, exercises a detrimental effect on the nutrition and vitality of the nerves and brain, while, on the other hand, the conservation of these secretions has a vitalizing effect on the nervous system, a regenerating effect on the endocrine glands [,] and a rejuvenating effect on the organism as a whole.\"",
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"plaintext": "Historically, there has been a swing from the sexually liberal end of the Industrial Revolution to the chaste values of the early Victorian period. This was then followed by a new puritanism from the late Victorian era to the mid-1900s. This important transformation often colors discussion of sexual behavior in the later 20th century. World War I began a return to sexual freedom and indulgence, but more often than not, the appearance of conforming to the earlier moral values of abstinence before marriage was retained. With the conclusion of World War II, the societal importance of abstinence declined. The advent of the first oral contraceptive pill and widely available antibiotics suppressed many consequences of wide and free sexual behavior, while social morals were also changing. By the 1970s, abandonment of premarital chastity was no longer taboo in the majority of western societies, and the reverse became true. Some cultural groups continued to place a value on the moral purity of an abstainer, but abstinence was caught up in a wider reevaluation of moral values.",
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"plaintext": "During the early 20th century, prominent feminist and birth control advocate Margaret Sanger argued that abstinence from sexual activity led to greater endurance and strength, and was a sign of the best of the species:",
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"plaintext": " \"Though sex cells are placed in a part of the anatomy for the essential purpose of easily expelling them into the female for the purpose of reproduction, there are other elements in the sexual fluid which are the essence of blood, nerve, brain, and muscle. When redirected into the building and strengthening of these, we find men or women of the greatest endurance and greatest magnetic power. A girl can waste her creative powers by brooding over a love affair to the extent of exhausting her system, with the results not unlike the effects of masturbation and debauchery.\"",
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"plaintext": "J. D. Unwin was a British ethnologist and social anthropologist at Oxford University and Cambridge University. Unwin wrote several books including Sex and Culture, (1934). In Sex and Culture Unwin studied 80 primitive tribes and 6 known civilizations through 5,000 years of history and found a positive correlation between the cultural achievement of a people and the amount of sexual restraint which they observed. The author finds that the most culturally successful groups always exhibit lifelong monogamous relationships which include sexual abstinence outside of marriage. According to Unwin, after a nation becomes prosperous it becomes increasingly liberal with regard to sexual morality and as a result loses its cohesion, its impetus and its purpose, ultimately having a negative effect on society: \"The whole of human history does not contain a single instance of a group becoming civilized unless it has been absolutely monogamous, nor is there any example of a group retaining its culture after it has adopted less rigorous customs.\"",
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"plaintext": "Sexual abstinence can be practiced during the period in which the woman is fertile.",
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"plaintext": "In most cultural, ethical, and religious contexts, sex within marriage is not considered to be contrary to notions of chastity. Some religious systems prohibit sexual activities between a person and anyone other than a spouse of that person, as have, in the past, legal systems and societal norms. In such contexts, sexual abstinence was prescribed for unmarried individuals for the purpose of chastity. Chastity has been used as a synonym for sexual abstinence, they are similar but with different behavior and restrictions.",
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"plaintext": "In some countries any sexual activity outside marriage is illegal. Such laws are mostly tied to religion and the legal and political traditions within the particular jurisdiction. Laws differ greatly from country to country. In some Muslim countries, such as Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, Kuwait, Maldives, Morocco, Mauritania, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Sudan, Yemen, any form of sexual activity outside marriage is illegal.",
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"plaintext": "In some parts of the world, people suspected of engaging in premarital or same-sex sexual activity can become victims of honor killings committed by their families. Stoning for sexual activity outside marriage is also a punishment in some places.",
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"plaintext": "Abstinence-only sex education is a form of sex education that teaches abstinence from sex, and often excludes many other types of sexual and reproductive health education, particularly regarding birth control and safe sex. Education programs which focus exclusively on abstinence have hardly been shown to delay sexual activity. Such programs promote sexual abstinence until marriage and often also condemn the use of contraceptives as an alternative. Comprehensive sex education, by contrast, covers the use of contraceptives as well as abstinence.",
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"plaintext": "Organizations such as SIECUS have called abstinence-only programs \"fear-based,\" and \"designed to control young people's sexual behavior by instilling fear, shame, and guilt.\" Author Judith Levine has argued that there might be a natural tendency of abstinence educators to escalate their messages: \"Like advertising, which must continually jack up its seduction just to stay visible as other advertising proliferates, abstinence education had to make sex scarier and scarier and, at the same time, chastity sweeter.\"",
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"plaintext": "In spite of these criticisms, federal government support has made abstinence the de facto focus of sex education in the United States, so that opponents frequently adopt the line that abstinence education is acceptable only if it is combined with other methods, such as instruction in the use of condoms, and easy availability thereof. Most nations of Western Europe use more comprehensive measures, and in sharp contrast to the heated discussion in the U.S., abstinence is hardly discussed as an educational measure.",
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"plaintext": "A U.S. federal government-promoted abstinence-only program was aimed at teens in 1981 in order to discourage premarital sex and unwanted pregnancies. However, recent studies conducted by Mathematica Policy Research showed ineffectiveness of this program. The Responsible Education About Life Act was introduced by Senator Frank Lautenberg (D-NJ) and Representatives Barbara Lee (D-CA) and Christopher Shays (R-CT) to support age-appropriate sexual education. This program is focused to provide teenagers with science-based information on sexual health, so that they can make a sound decision regarding their sex-life.",
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"plaintext": "In 2006, the George W. Bush administration expanded abstinence programs from teens to adults, by introducing programs to encourage unmarried adults to remain abstinent until marriage. Family-planning advocates and researchers denounced the program as unrealistic, due to the rising age of first-time marriage in the United States. In 2009, the Barack Obama administration removed most of the funding from sexual-abstinence education, and instead used the money to fund the Office of Adolescent Health, designed to prevent teenage pregnancy through evidence-based programs. During the Obama administration, between the years 2007 and 2017, the teen pregnancy rate in the US dropped by 50%, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.",
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"plaintext": "The advent of AIDS helped build a more favorable view of abstinence. However, a review of 13 U.S. sex-abstinence programs involving over 15,000 people by Oxford University found that they do not stop risky sexual behavior, or help in the prevention of unwanted pregnancy. Other studies have found that abstinence-only education does little to affect the \"age of sexual initiation; number of sexual partners; and rates of sexual abstinence, condom use, vaginal sex, pregnancy, and sexually transmitted infections (STIs)\". Recently, the United States Congress also found similar results in a study conducted by Mathematica Policy Research on abstinence. Currently, there are also issues as to what abstinence means: is it an abstinence from sexual intercourse, or from sexual behavior? Movements such as True Love Waits in America, which ask teenagers to refrain from sex before marriage, are heavily subscribed, but surveys of sexual behavior indicate an increase in the popularity of oral sex.",
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"plaintext": "Alfred Kinsey is widely regarded as the first and among the most influential figures in American sexology; his research is cited as having paved the way for a deeper exploration into sexuality among sexologists and the general public, and as having liberated female sexuality. According to Alfred Kinsey sexual ignorance led to real suffering in society and that sexual liberation, as opposed to sexual abstinence, was the key to both a strong marriage and a happy life. Kinsey believed that abstinence was a sexual dysfunction: \"The only kinds of sexual dysfunction are abstinence, celibacy and delayed marriage.\"",
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"plaintext": "Lifelong (or at least long-term) abstinence, often associated with philosophical or religious asceticism, is distinguished from chastity before marriage. Abstinence is often viewed as an act of self-control over the natural desire to have sex. The display of the strength of character allows the abstainer to set an example for those not able to contain their \"base urges\". At other times, abstinence has been seen as a great social skill practiced by those who refuse to engage with the material and physical world. Some groups and teachers that propose sexual abstinence consider it an essential means to reach a particular intellectual or spiritual condition, or that chastity allows one to achieve a required self-control or self-consciousness.",
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"plaintext": "Some religions regard chastity as a virtue expected of faithful adherents. This usually includes abstinence from sex for the unmarried, and fidelity to a marriage partner.",
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"plaintext": "In some religions, some groups of people are expected to remain unmarried and to abstain from sex completely. These groups include monks, nuns, and priests in various sects of Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Christianity. Chastity is required of the respective sacerdotal orders. The Shakers, on the other hand, impose chastity in the form of celibacy for all members, even forgoing procreation such as the case with the castration cult.",
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"plaintext": "Most Christians teach that sexual intercourse should occur exclusively within marriage, and that sexual abstinence is the norm outside of that. Sex between people not married to each other is either fornication or adultery. But for married couples, Paul of Tarsus wrote that they should not deprive each other, except for a short time for devotion to prayer.",
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"plaintext": "Catholicism defines chastity as the virtue that moderates the sexual appetite. Unmarried Catholics express chastity through sexual abstinence. Sexual intercourse within marriage is considered chaste when it retains the twofold significance of union and procreation. See also the Evangelical counsels. The Methodist Church teaches that \"Although all persons are sexual beings whether or not they are married, sexual relations are only clearly affirmed in the marriage bond.\" The Eastern Orthodox Church teaches chastity until marriage. But even then, in accordance with the teaching of the Apostle Paul, periods of abstinence are encouraged among married couples. Traditionally, Orthodox spouses abstain from physical relations on Wednesdays, Fridays, Saturdays the eves of Great Feasts and throughout the four lenten periods (Great Lent, Nativity Fast, Apostles' Fast and Dormition Fast).",
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"plaintext": "However, the United Church of Christ, are \"liberal in their approaches, believing that individuals must decide for themselves how to express their sexual nature.\"",
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"plaintext": "The Indian tradition of Brahmacharya places great emphasis on abstinence as a way of harnessing the energy of body and mind towards the goal of spiritual realization. In males, the semen (Vīrya) is considered sacred, and its preservation (except when used for procreation) and conversion into higher life-energy (Ojas) is considered essential for the development of enhanced intellectual and spiritual capacities.",
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"plaintext": "The blending of sexual and spiritual is portrayed in Hindu iconography, as seen in ubiquitous phallic and vaginal iconography in Hindu temples and for instance in the Kharjuraho and Konarak medieval temples, where thousands of couples having sex in endless positions, and with the gods, are carved in deep bas-relief. However, these depictions of sex are not generally understood to be a license for free sexual practices, but are instead meant to celebrate procreation as an integral part of existence in the universe. In actual practice, it is highly encouraged that both males and females abstain from pre-marital sex and exercise chastity, which still exists today in Hindu cultures.",
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"plaintext": "Islam forbids intercourse outside of marriage (zina). However, maintaining celibacy as an act of piety is not recognized, while marriage for all who are able is strongly encouraged. Abstinence is practiced during the time of a woman's menstruation or istihadha. Abstinence from sexual intercourse is also practiced from dawn to dusk during days where fasting is observed. Also in the time of Hajj people are not allowed to have sexual relationships, because their body has to stay pure while performing pilgrimage.",
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"plaintext": "Brahmacharya is one of the five major vows prescribed for the śrāvakā (layman) and ascetics in Jainism. For those Jains who adopt the path of monks, celibacy in action, words and thoughts is expected. For lay Jains who are married, the virtue of brahmacharya requires remaining sexually faithful to one's chosen partner (fidelity). For lay Jains who are unmarried, chaste living requires Jains to avoid sex before marriage.",
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"plaintext": "In the Jain monastic tradition, brahmacharya implies, among other things, the mandatory renunciation of sex and marriage. For a lay Jain, it represents a virtuous lifestyle devoid of constant sexual urges, that also includes simple living, meditation and other behaviors.",
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"plaintext": "Judaism forbids intercourse outside marriage (which is termed or promiscuity), but has no ideal of chastity. Within marriage abstinence is also required during and following a woman's menstruation. The husband is not allowed to deprive sex from his wife, even if she is not fertile (known as ).",
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"plaintext": "Among some groups of people, the wearing of a purity ring is a reminder to oneself and others, that they are practicing sexual abstinence. In order to aid their sobriety, some sexual abstinents partake in the usage of anaphrodisiacs.",
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"plaintext": "Historically, some individuals were said to wear a chastity belt, a locking item of clothing designed to prevent sexual intercourse. They were used to protect the wearer from rape or temptation. Some devices have been designed with additional features to prevent masturbation. Chastity belts have been created for males and females, ostensibly for the purpose of chastity.",
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"plaintext": "Abstinence can help prevent the spread of sexually transmitted infections such as HIV, HPV, syphilis, etc. However, abstinence-only education has been found to be less effective at preventing sexually transmitted infections and teenage pregnancy among adolescents than comprehensive sex education.",
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"plaintext": " Abstinence, be faithful, use a condom",
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"plaintext": " Antisexualism",
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"plaintext": " Harmful to Minors, a book by Judith Levine which deals with sexual morality in the United States",
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"plaintext": " Making Sense of Abstinence",
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"plaintext": " Benjamin Brown, \"Kedushah: The Sexual Abstinence of Married Men in Gur, Slonim and Toldos Ahron\", Jewish History 2013, pp. 475-522",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Chastityproject.com",
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},
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"plaintext": " Chastity.com",
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},
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"plaintext": " National Abstinence Clearinghouse",
"section_idx": 11,
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},
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"plaintext": " Science discovers the physiological value of continence by Dr. R. W. Bernard, A.B., M.A., Ph.D.",
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| [
"Sexual_abstinence",
"Asceticism",
"Celibacy",
"Human_sexuality",
"Fertility",
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| 598,443 | 12,538 | 218 | 138 | 0 | 0 | sexual abstinence | act of refraining from sexual activity | []
|
38,306 | 1,101,203,092 | Pegmatite | [
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"plaintext": "A pegmatite is an igneous rock showing a very coarse texture, with large interlocking crystals usually greater in size than and sometimes greater than . Most pegmatites are composed of quartz, feldspar, and mica, having a similar silicic composition to granite. However, rarer intermediate composition and mafic pegmatites are known.",
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"plaintext": "Many of the world's largest crystals are found within pegmatites. These include crystals of microcline, quartz, mica, spodumene, beryl, and tourmaline. Some individual crystals are over long.",
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"plaintext": "Most pegmatites are thought to form from the last fluid fraction of a large crystallizing magma body. This residual fluid is highly enriched in volatiles and trace elements, and its very low viscosity allows molecules to migrate rapidly to join an existing crystal rather than coming together to form new crystals. This allows a few very large crystals to form. While most pegmatites have a simple composition of minerals common in ordinary igneous rock, a few pegmatites have a complex composition, with numerous unusual minerals of rare elements. These complex pegmatites are mined for lithium, beryllium, boron, fluorine, tin, tantalum, niobium, rare earth elements, uranium, and other valuable commodities.",
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"plaintext": "The word pegmatite derives from Homeric Greek, πήγνυμι (pēgnymi), which means “to bind together”, in reference to the intertwined crystals of quartz and feldspar in the texture known as graphic granite. The term was first used by René Just Haüy in 1822 as a synonym for graphic granite. Wilhelm Karl Ritter von Haidinger first used the term in its present meaning in 1845.",
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"plaintext": "Pegmatites are exceptionally coarse-grained igneous rocks composed of interlocking crystals, with individual crystals usually over in size and sometimes exceeding . Most pegmatites have a composition similar to granite, so that their most common minerals are quartz, feldspar, and mica. However, other pegmatite compositions are known, including compositions similar to nepheline syenite or gabbro. The term pegmatite is thus purely a textural description. Geologists typically prefix the term with a compositional description, so that granitic pegmatite is a pegmatite with the composition of granite while nepheline syenite pegmatite is a pegmatite with the composition of nepheline syenite. However, the British Geological Survey discourages this usage, preferring terms like biotite-quartz-feldspar pegmatite for a pegmatite with a typical granitic composition, dominated by feldspar with lesser quartz and biotite. Under BGS terminology, a pegmatitic rock (for example, a pegmatitic gabbro) is a coarse-grained rock containing patches of much coarser-grained rock of essentially the same composition.",
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"plaintext": "Individual crystals in pegmatites can be enormous in size. It is likely that the largest crystals ever found were feldspar crystals in pegmatites from Karelia with masses of thousands of tons. Quartz crystals with masses measured in thousands of pounds and micas over across and thick have been found. Spodumene crystals over long have been found in the Black Hills of South Dakota, and beryl crystals long and in diameter have been found at Albany, Maine. The largest beryl crystal ever found was from Malakialina on Madagascar, weighing about 380tons, with a length of and a crosscut of .",
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"plaintext": "Pegmatite bodies are usually of minor size compared to typical intrusive rock bodies. Pegmatite body size is on the order of magnitude of one to a few hundred meters. Compared to typical igneous rocks they are rather inhomogeneous and may show zones with different mineral assemblages. Crystal size and mineral assemblages are usually oriented parallel to the wall rock or even concentric for pegmatite lenses.",
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"plaintext": "Pegmatites form under conditions in which the rate of new crystal nucleation is much less than the rate of crystal growth. In other words, molecules in the fluid from which the crystals are growing are much more likely to join an existing crystal than to come together to start a new crystal. This favors growth of a few very large crystals. In normal igneous rocks, coarse texture is a result of slow cooling deep underground. However, the extraordinarily coarse texture of pegmatites must be a result of more than just slow cooling. In fact, it is not clear if pegmatite forms by slow or rapid cooling.",
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"plaintext": "Pegmatites are widely believed to form from the last part of a magma body to crystallize. This final fluid fraction is highly enriched in volatile and trace elements. The residual magma undergoes phase separation into a melt phase and a hydrous fluid phase saturated with silica, alkalis, and other elements. Such phase separation requires formation from a wet magma, rich enough in water to saturate before more than two-thirds of the magma is crystallized. Otherwise, the separation of the fluid phase is difficult to explain. Granite requires a water content of 4 wt% at a pressure of 0.5 GPa, but only 1.5 wt% at 0.1 GPa, for phase separation to take place. ",
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"plaintext": "The volatiles (primarily water, boron, fluorine, chlorine, and phosphorus) are concentrated in the hydrous phase, greatly lowering its viscosity. The silica in the hydrous phase is completely depolymerized, existing almost entirely as orthosilicate, with all oxygen bridges between silicon ions broken. The very low viscosity promotes rapid diffusion of molecules through the fluid, enhancing crystal growth rates and allowing very large crystals to grow. ",
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"plaintext": "When this hydrous fluid is injected into the surrounding country rock, minerals crystallize from the outside in to form a zoned pegmatite, with different minerals predominating in concentric zones. A typical sequence of deposition begins with microcline and quartz, with minor schorl and garnet. This is followed by deposition of albite, lepidolite, gem tourmaline, beryl, spodumene, amblygonite, topaz, apatite, and fluorite, which may partially replace some of the minerals in the earlier zone. The center of the pegmatite may have cavities lined with spectacular gemstone crystals.",
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"plaintext": "Some pegmatites have more complex zoning. Five distinct zones are recognized in the Harding Pegmatite in the Picuris Mountains of northern New Mexico, US. These are:",
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"plaintext": " A white border rind of fine-grained quartz-albite muscovite pegmatite.",
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"plaintext": " A continuous layer of very coarse quartz, albite, and muscovite. This zone also contains microcline, and has abundant accessory apatite, beryl, and tantalite. Beryl is occasionally very coarse and abundant.",
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"plaintext": " A continuous layer of massive quartz. This zone is also rich in muscovite, microcline, and cleavelandite.",
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"plaintext": " A spectacular quartz and lath-spodumene zone. The spodumene occurs as blade-like crystals, sometimes of enormous size, mostly oriented at random but sometimes arranged to form a comb-like structure. Accessory minerals are beryl, apatite, microcline, and tantalum-niobium minerals, especially in the lower part of this zone. There is some pseudomorphic replacement of spodumene by rose muscovite and quartz by cleavelandite.",
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"plaintext": " The core of the pegmatite, known as \"spotted rock\", which is relatively fine-grained spodumene, microcline, and quartz, with accompanying finer-grained albite, lithium-bearing muscovite, lepidolite, microlite, and tantalite. Much of the spodumene and microcline have been extensively corroded and replaced by fine-grained micas.",
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"plaintext": "Large crystals nucleate on the margins of pegmatites, becoming larger as they grow inward. These include very large conical alkali feldspar crystals. Aplites are commonly present. These may cut across the pegmatite, but also form zones or irregular patches around coarser material. The aplites are often layered, showing evidence of deformation. Xenoliths may be found in the body of the pegmatite, but their original mineral content is replaced by quartz and alkali feldspar, so that they are difficult to distinguish from the surrounding pegmatite. Pegmatite also commonly replaces part of the surrounding country rock.",
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"plaintext": "Because pegmatites likely crystallize from a fluid-dominated phase, rather than a melt phase, they straddle the boundary between hydrothermal mineral deposits and igneous intrusions. Although there is broad agreement on the basic mechanisms by which they form, the details of pegmatite formation remain enigmatic. Pegmatites have characteristics inconsistent with other igneous intrusions. They are not porphyritic, and show no chilled margin. On the contrary, the largest crystals are often found on the margins of the pegmatite body. While aplites are sometimes found on the margins, they are as likely to occur within the body of the pegmatite. The crystals are never aligned in a way that would indicate flow, but are perpendicular to the walls. This implies formation in a static environment. Some pegmatities take the form of isolated pods, with no obvious feeder conduit. As a result, metamorphic or metasomatic origins have sometimes been suggested for pegmatites. A metamorphic pegmatite would be formed by removal of volatiles from metamorphic rocks, particularly felsic gneiss, to liberate the right constituents and water, at the right temperature. A metasomatic pegmatite would be formed by hydrothermal circulation of hot alteration fluids upon a rock mass, with bulk chemical and textural change. Metasomatism is currently not favored as a mechanism for pegmatite formation and it is likely that metamorphism and magmatism are both contributors toward the conditions necessary for pegmatite genesis.",
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"plaintext": "Most pegmatites have a simple composition, often being composed entirely of minerals common in granite, such as feldspar, mica, and quartz. The feldspar and quartz often show graphic texture. Rarely, pegmatites are extremely enriched in incompatible elements, such as lithium, caesium, beryllium, tin, niobium, zirconium, uranium, thorium, boron, phosphorus, and fluorine. These complex pegmatites contain unusual minerals of these elements, such as beryl, spodumene, lepidolite, amblygonite, topaz, apatite, fluorite, tourmaline, triphylite, columbite, monazite, and molybdenite. Some of these can be important ore minerals. Some gemstones, such as emerald, are found almost exclusively in pegmatites. ",
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"plaintext": "Nepheline syenite pegmatites typically contain zirconium, titanium, and rare earth element minerals.",
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"plaintext": "Gabbroic pegmatites typically consist of exceptionally coarse interlocking pyroxene and plagioclase.",
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"plaintext": "Pegmatites are enriched in volatile and incompatible elements, consistent with their likely origin as the final melt fraction of a crystallizing body of magma. However, it is difficult to get a representative composition of a pegmatite, due to the large size of the constituent mineral crystals. Hence, pegmatite is often characterised by sampling the individual minerals that compose the pegmatite, and comparisons are made according to mineral chemistry. A common error is to assume that the wall zone is a chilled margin whose composition is representative of the original melt.",
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"plaintext": "Pegmatites derived from batholiths can be divided into a family of NYF pegmatites, characterized by progressive enrichment in niobium, yttrium, and fluorine as well as enrichment in beryllium, rare earth elements, scandium, titanium, zirconium, thorium, and uranium; and a family of LCT pegmatites, characterized by progressive accumulation of lithium, caesium, and tantalum, as well as enrichment in rubidium, beryllium, tin, barium, phosphorus, and fluorine. ",
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"plaintext": "The NYF pegmatites likely fractionated from A- to I-type granites that were relatively low in aluminium (subaluminous to metaluminous granites). These granites originated from depleted crust or mantle rock. LCT pegmatites most likely formed from S-type granites or possibly I-type granites, with a higher aluminium content (peraluminous granites). ",
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"plaintext": "Intermediate pegmatites (NYF + LCT pegmatites) are known and may have formed by contamination of an initially NYF magma body with melted undepleted supracrustral rock.",
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"plaintext": "Pegmatites are important because they often contain rare earth minerals and gemstones, such as aquamarine, tourmaline, topaz, fluorite, apatite and corundum, often along with tin, rare earth, and tungsten minerals, among others. Pegmatites have been mined for both quartz and feldspar. For quartz mining, pegmatites with central quartz masses have been of particular interest. ",
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"plaintext": "Pegmatites are the primary source of lithium either as spodumene, lithiophyllite or usually from lepidolite. The primary source for caesium is pollucite, a mineral from a zoned pegmatite. The majority of the world's beryllium is sourced from non-gem quality beryl within pegmatite. Tantalum, niobium, and rare-earth elements are sourced from a few pegmatites worldwide, such as the Greenbushes Pegmatite, the Kibara Belt of Rwanda and Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Kenticha mine of Ethiopia the Alto Ligonha Province of Mozambique, and the Mibra (Volta) mine of Minas Gerais, Brazil.",
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"plaintext": "Notable pegmatite occurrences are found worldwide within the major cratons, and within greenschist-facies metamorphic belts. However, pegmatite localities are only well recorded when economic mineralisation is found.",
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"plaintext": "Pegmatites are found as irregular dikes, sills, or veins, and are most common at the margins of batholiths (great masses of intrusive igneous rock). Most are closely related spatially and genetically to large intrusions. They may take the form of veins or dikes in the intrusion itself, but more commonly, they extend into the surrounding country rock, especially above the intrusion.",
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"plaintext": "Some pegmatites surrounded by metamorphic rock have no obvious connection to a larger intrusion. Pegmatites in low-grade metamorphic rock tend to be dominated by quartz and carbonate minerals. Pegmatites in metamorphic rock of higher grade are dominted by alkali feldspar.",
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"plaintext": "Gabbroic pegmatites typically occur as lenses within bodies of gabbro or diabase. Nepheline syenite pegmatites are common in alkaline igneous complexes.",
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"plaintext": "London, D. (2008): Pegmatites. Canadian Mineralogist Special Publication 10, 347 pp. ",
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| 105,630 | 5,930 | 488 | 146 | 0 | 0 | pegmatite | very coarse grained plutonic rock | []
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"plaintext": "In the session , the University had students, making it the largest university in the UK (out of ). The University employs 4,810 staff, comprising 1,610 full-time and 1,115 part-time academic staff and 2,090 support staff.",
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"plaintext": "MMU has admitted applications from a broad range of UCAS tariff points, with an average of 343.7 in 2015, and 132.6 in 2018 under the new system.",
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| 1,888,771 | 5,752 | 702 | 166 | 0 | 0 | Manchester Metropolitan University | university in Manchester, UK | [
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|
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"plaintext": "The Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 (c.23) (RIP or RIPA) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, regulating the powers of public bodies to carry out surveillance and investigation, and covering the interception of communications. It was introduced by the Tony Blair Labour government ostensibly to take account of technological change such as the growth of the Internet and strong encryption.",
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"plaintext": "Critics claim that the spectres of terrorism, internet crime and paedophilia were used to push the act through and that there was little substantive debate in the House of Commons. The act has numerous critics, many of whom regard the RIPA regulations as excessive and a threat to civil liberties in the UK. Campaign group Big Brother Watch published a report in 2010 investigating the improper use of RIPA by local councils. Critics such as Keith Vaz, the chairman of the House of Commons home affairs committee, have expressed concern that the act is being abused for \"petty and vindictive\" cases. Similarly, Brian Binley, Member of Parliament (MP) for Northampton South has urged councils to stop using the law, accusing them of acting like comic strip detective Dick Tracy.",
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"plaintext": "The Trading Standards Institute has been very critical of these views, stating that the use of surveillance is critical to their success (see TSI press release).",
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"plaintext": "The \"deniable encryption\" features in free software such as FreeOTFE, TrueCrypt and BestCrypt could be said to make the task of investigations featuring RIPA much more difficult.",
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"plaintext": "Another concern is that the Act requires sufficiently large UK Internet Service Providers to install technical systems to assist law enforcement agencies with interception activity. Although this equipment must be installed at the ISPs' expense, RIPA does provide that Parliament will examine appropriate funding for ISPs if the cost burden became unfairly high.",
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"plaintext": "In April 2008, it became known that council officials in Poole put three children and their parents under surveillance, at home and in their daily movements, to check whether they lived in a particular school catchment area. Council officials carried out directed surveillance on the family a total of 21 times. Tim Martin, the council's head of legal services, had authorised the surveillance and tried to argue that it was justified under RIPA, but in a subsequent ruling by the Investigatory Powers Tribunal – its first ever ruling – the surveillance was deemed to be unlawful. The same council put fishermen under covert surveillance to check for the illegal harvesting of cockles and clams in ways that are regulated by RIPA. David Smith, deputy commissioner at the ICO (Information Commissioner's Office) stated that he was concerned about the surveillance which took place in Poole. Other councils in the UK have conducted undercover operations regulated by RIPA against dog fouling and fly-tipping. In April 2016, 12 councils said that they use unmanned aerial vehicles for \"covert operations\", and that such flights are covered by the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000.",
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"plaintext": "Despite claims in the press that local councils are conducting over a thousand RIPA-based covert surveillance operations every month for petty offences such as under-age smoking and breaches of planning regulations, the Office of Surveillance Commissioners' last report shows that public bodies granted 8,477 requests for Directed Surveillance, down over 1,400 on the previous year. Less than half of those were granted by Local Authorities, and the commissioner reported that, \"Generally speaking, local authorities use their powers sparingly with over half of them granting five or fewer authorisations for directed surveillance. Some sixteen per cent granted none at all.\"",
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"plaintext": "In June 2008, the chairman of the Local Government Association, Sir Simon Milton, sent out a letter to the leaders of every council in England, urging local governments not to use the new powers granted by RIPA \"for trivial matters\", and suggested \"reviewing these powers annually by an appropriate scrutiny committee\".",
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"plaintext": "Especially contentious was Part III of the Act, which requires persons to (allegedly) self-incriminate by disclosing a password to government representatives. Failure to do so is a criminal offence, with a penalty of two years in jail or five years in cases involving national security or child indecency. Using the mechanism of secondary legislation, some parts of the Act required activation by a ministerial order before attaining legal force. Such orders have been made in respect of the relevant sections of Part I and Part II of the RIP Act and Part III. The latter became active in October 2007. The first case where the powers were used was against animal rights activists in November 2007.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2014, it was revealed that RIPA had been used by UK police forces to obtain information about journalists' sources in at least two cases. These related to the so-called Plebgate inquiry and the prosecution of Chris Huhne for perversion of the course of justice. In both cases, journalists' telephone records were obtained using the powers of the act in order to identify their sources, bypassing the usual court proceedings needed to obtain such information.",
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"plaintext": "The UK newspaper The Sun made an official written complaint to the Investigatory Powers Tribunal to seek a public review of the London Metropolitan Police's use of anti-terror laws to obtain the phone records of Tom Newton Dunn, its political editor, in relation to its inquiry into the \"Plebgate\" affair. The Sun’s complaint coincided with confirmation that the phone records of the news editor of the Mail on Sunday and one of its freelance journalists had also been obtained by Kent police force when they investigated Chris Huhne's speeding fraud. Journalists' sources are usually agreed to be privileged and protected from disclosure under European laws with which the UK complies. However, by using RIPA an investigating office just needs approval from a senior officer rather than the formal approval of a court hearing. Media lawyers and press freedom groups are concerned by the use of RIPA because it happens in secret and the press have no way of knowing whether their sources have been compromised. Responding to The Sun's complaint Sir Paul Kennedy, the interception of communications commissioner, launched a full inquiry and urged Home Office ministers to accelerate the introduction of promised protections for journalists, lawyers and others who handle privileged information, including confidential helplines, from such police surveillance operations. He said: \"I fully understand and share the concerns raised by the protection of journalistic sources so as to enable a free press. Today I have written to all chief constables and directed them under section 58 (1) of the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act (Ripa) to provide me with full details of all investigations that have used Ripa powers to acquire communications data to identify journalistic sources. My office will undertake a full inquiry into these matters and report our findings to the prime minister\".",
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"plaintext": "On 12 October 2014, the justice minister, Simon Hughes, confirmed on Sky News's Murnaghan programme that the UK government will reform RIPA to prevent the police using surveillance powers to discover journalists' sources. He said that the police's use of RIPA's powers had been \"entirely inappropriate\" and in future the authorisation of a judge would be needed for police forces to be given approval to access journalists' phone records in pursuit of a criminal investigation. The presumption would be that if a journalist was acting in the public interest, they would be protected, he added. Hughes further said that if the police made an application to a court he would assume a journalist would be informed that the authorities were seeking to access his phone records. More than 100,000 RIPA requests are made every year for access to communications data against targets including private citizens. It is not known how many have involved journalists' phones.",
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"plaintext": "A number of offences have been prosecuted involving the abuse of investigatory powers. Widely reported cases include the Stanford/Liddell case, the Goodman/Mulcaire Royal voicemail interception, and Operation Barbatus.",
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"plaintext": "Cliff Stanford, and George Nelson Liddell pleaded guilty to offences under the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act in 2005. They were found to have intercepted emails at the company Redbus Interhouse. Stanford was sentenced to six months' imprisonment suspended for two years, and fined £20,000. It was alleged Stanford had intercepted emails between Dame Shirley Porter and John Porter (Chairman of Redbus Interhouse).",
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"plaintext": "In 2007, News of the World royal editor Clive Goodman was sentenced to four months in jail for intercepting the voicemail of members of the Royal Family. His associate Glenn Mulcaire received a six-month sentence.",
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"plaintext": "In 2007, Operation Barbatus exposed a sophisticated criminal surveillance business organised by corrupt police officers. A former Metropolitan Police officer, Jeremy Young, was jailed for 27 months for various offences including six counts of conspiracy to intercept communications unlawfully. A second former policeman, Scott Gelsthorpe, was sentenced to 24 months for offences including conspiracy to intercept communications unlawfully. 3 other former police officers and a private detective were also jailed for their part in running a private detective agency called Active Investigation Services.",
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"plaintext": "In 2008, four people were cautioned for 'Unlawful intercepting of a postal, public or private telecommunications scheme', under S.1(1), (2) & (7). The circumstances of the offences are not known at the time of writing. Three people were tried for 'Failure to disclose key to protected information' under S.53 (of which 2 were tried). One person was tried for 'Disclosing details of Section 49 Notice' under S.54.",
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"plaintext": "In August 2009 it was announced that two people had been prosecuted and convicted for refusing to provide British authorities with their encryption keys, under Part III of the Act. The first of these was sentenced to a term of 9 months' imprisonment. In a 2010 case, Oliver Drage, a 19-year-old takeaway worker being investigated as part of a police investigation into a child exploitation network, was sentenced, at Preston Crown Court, to four months imprisonment. Mr Drage was arrested in May 2009, after investigating officers searched his home near Blackpool. He had been required, under this act, to provide his 50-character encryption key but had not complied.",
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"plaintext": "In a further case in 2010 Poole Borough Council was accused of spying unfairly on a family. Although the Council invoked powers under RIPA to establish whether a family fell into a certain school catchment area, when taken before the Investigatory Powers Tribunal it was found guilty of improper use of surveillance powers.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2020 the Government introduced the Covert Human Intelligence Sources (Criminal Conduct) Bill which would permit, in certain circumstances, to authorise security, intelligence and police agencies to participate in criminal conduct during their operations. This Bill would amend the RIPA where required.",
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"plaintext": "The 2000 Act established the Investigatory Powers Tribunal to hear complaints about surveillance by public bodies. The Tribunal replaced the Interception of Communications Tribunal, the Security Service Tribunal, and the Intelligence Services Tribunal with effect from 2 October 2000.",
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"plaintext": "Between 2000 and 2009 the tribunal upheld only 4 out of 956 complaints.",
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"plaintext": " Human Rights Act 1998",
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"plaintext": " Investigatory Powers Act 2016",
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"plaintext": " Mass surveillance in the United Kingdom",
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"plaintext": " Phone hacking",
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"plaintext": " Rubber-hose cryptanalysis",
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"plaintext": " Plausible deniability",
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"plaintext": " Interception Modernisation Programme",
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"plaintext": " United States v. Boucher, a case in the US courts which determined that a criminal defendant cannot be forced to reveal his encryption passphrase but can be forced to provide a plaintext (decrypted) copy of their encrypted data, if the defendant had previously willingly shown the authorities the drive's contents (i.e., having previously incriminated himself with those contents)",
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"plaintext": " Regulation of Investigatory Powers Information Centre (against RIP)",
"section_idx": 10,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Parliament \"didn't understand RIP Act\"",
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},
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"plaintext": " Articles on aspects of RIPA and Surveillance Law",
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},
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"plaintext": " BBC News Website (April 2008) – RIPA Spy law 'used in dog fouling war'",
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| [
"Computing_legislation",
"Cryptography_law",
"History_of_telecommunications_in_the_United_Kingdom",
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"United_Kingdom_Acts_of_Parliament_2000",
"Law_enforcement_in_the_United_Kingdom",
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| 2,138,784 | 2,041 | 108 | 163 | 0 | 0 | Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 | Public General Act of Parliament of the United Kingdom | [
"2000 c. 23",
"2000 c23"
]
|
38,310 | 1,100,311,865 | Cannabis | [
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"plaintext": "Cannabis () is a genus of flowering plants in the family Cannabaceae. The number of species within the genus is disputed. Three species may be recognized: Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica, and Cannabis ruderalis; C. ruderalis may be included within C. sativa; all three may be treated as subspecies of a single species, C. sativa; or C.sativa may be accepted as a single undivided species. The genus is widely accepted as being indigenous to and originating from Asia.",
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"plaintext": "The plant is also known as hemp, although this term is often used to refer only to varieties of Cannabis cultivated for non-drug use. Cannabis has long been used for hemp fibre, hemp seeds and their oils, hemp leaves for use as vegetables and as juice, medicinal purposes, and as a recreational drug. Industrial hemp products are made from cannabis plants selected to produce an abundance of fiber. To satisfy the UN Narcotics Convention, some cannabis strains have been bred to produce minimal levels of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the principal psychoactive constituent. Some strains have been selectively bred to produce a maximum of THC (a cannabinoid), the strength of which is enhanced by curing the fruits. Various compounds, including hashish and hash oil, are extracted from the plant.",
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"plaintext": "In the US, \"industrial hemp\" is classified by the federal government as cannabis containing no more than 0.3% THC by dry weight. This classification was established in the 2018 Farm Bill and was refined to include hemp-sourced extracts, cannabinoids, and derivatives in the definition of hemp.",
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"plaintext": "Globally, in 2013, 60,400 kilograms of cannabis were produced legally. In 2014 there were an estimated 182.5 million cannabis users (3.8% of the population aged 15–64). This percentage did not change significantly between 1998 and 2014.",
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"plaintext": "Cannabis is an annual, dioecious, flowering herb. The leaves are palmately compound or digitate, with serrate leaflets. The first pair of leaves usually have a single leaflet, the number gradually increasing up to a maximum of about thirteen leaflets per leaf (usually seven or nine), depending on variety and growing conditions. At the top of a flowering plant, this number again diminishes to a single leaflet per leaf. The lower leaf pairs usually occur in an opposite leaf arrangement and the upper leaf pairs in an alternate arrangement on the main stem of a mature plant.",
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"plaintext": "The leaves have a peculiar and diagnostic venation pattern that enables persons poorly familiar with the plant to distinguish a cannabis leaf from unrelated species that have confusingly similar leaves (see illustration). As is common in serrated leaves, each serration has a central vein extending to its tip. However, the serration vein originates from lower down the central vein of the leaflet, typically opposite to the position of, not the first notch down, but the next notch. This means that on its way from the midrib of the leaflet to the point of the serration, the vein serving the tip of the serration passes close by the intervening notch. Sometimes the vein will actually pass tangent to the notch, but often it will pass by at a small distance, and when that happens a spur vein (occasionally a pair of such spur veins) branches off and joins the leaf margin at the deepest point of the notch. This venation pattern varies slightly among varieties, but in general it enables one to tell Cannabis leaves from superficially similar leaves without difficulty and without special equipment. Tiny samples of Cannabis plants also can be identified with precision by microscopic examination of leaf cells and similar features, but that requires special expertise and equipment.",
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"plaintext": "All known strains of Cannabis are wind-pollinated and the fruit is an achene. Most strains of Cannabis are short day plants, with the possible exception of C. sativa subsp. sativa var. spontanea (= C. ruderalis), which is commonly described as \"auto-flowering\" and may be day-neutral.",
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"plaintext": "Cannabis is predominantly dioecious, having imperfect flowers, with staminate \"male\" and pistillate \"female\" flowers occurring on separate plants. \"At a very early period the Chinese recognized the Cannabis plant as dioecious\", and the (c. 3rd century BCE) Erya dictionary defined xi 枲 \"male Cannabis\" and fu 莩 (or ju 苴) \"female Cannabis\". Male flowers are normally borne on loose panicles, and female flowers are borne on racemes.",
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"plaintext": "Many monoecious varieties have also been described, in which individual plants bear both male and female flowers. (Although monoecious plants are often referred to as \"hermaphrodites\", true hermaphrodites – which are less common in Cannabis – bear staminate and pistillate structures together on individual flowers, whereas monoecious plants bear male and female flowers at different locations on the same plant.) Subdioecy (the occurrence of monoecious individuals and dioecious individuals within the same population) is widespread. Many populations have been described as sexually labile.",
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"plaintext": "As a result of intensive selection in cultivation, Cannabis exhibits many sexual phenotypes that can be described in terms of the ratio of female to male flowers occurring in the individual, or typical in the cultivar. Dioecious varieties are preferred for drug production, where the fruits (produced by female flowers) are used. Dioecious varieties are also preferred for textile fiber production, whereas monoecious varieties are preferred for pulp and paper production. It has been suggested that the presence of monoecy can be used to differentiate licit crops of monoecious hemp from illicit drug crops, but sativa strains often produce monoecious individuals, which is possibly as a result of inbreeding.",
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"plaintext": "Cannabis has been described as having one of the most complicated mechanisms of sex determination among the dioecious plants. Many models have been proposed to explain sex determination in Cannabis.",
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"plaintext": "Based on studies of sex reversal in hemp, it was first reported by K. Hirata in 1924 that an XY sex-determination system is present. At the time, the XY system was the only known system of sex determination. The A system was first described in Drosophila spp in 1925. Soon thereafter, Schaffner disputed Hirata's interpretation, and published results from his own studies of sex reversal in hemp, concluding that an X:A system was in use and that furthermore sex was strongly influenced by environmental conditions.",
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"plaintext": "Since then, many different types of sex determination systems have been discovered, particularly in plants. Dioecy is relatively uncommon in the plant kingdom, and a very low percentage of dioecious plant species have been determined to use the XY system. In most cases where the XY system is found it is believed to have evolved recently and independently.",
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"plaintext": "Since the 1920s, a number of sex determination models have been proposed for Cannabis. Ainsworth describes sex determination in the genus as using \"an X/autosome dosage type\".",
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"plaintext": "The question of whether heteromorphic sex chromosomes are indeed present is most conveniently answered if such chromosomes were clearly visible in a karyotype. Cannabis was one of the first plant species to be karyotyped; however, this was in a period when karyotype preparation was primitive by modern standards (see History of Cytogenetics). Heteromorphic sex chromosomes were reported to occur in staminate individuals of dioecious \"Kentucky\" hemp, but were not found in pistillate individuals of the same variety. Dioecious \"Kentucky\" hemp was assumed to use an XY mechanism. Heterosomes were not observed in analyzed individuals of monoecious \"Kentucky\" hemp, nor in an unidentified German cultivar. These varieties were assumed to have sex chromosome composition XX. According to other researchers, no modern karyotype of Cannabis had been published as of 1996. Proponents of the XY system state that Y chromosome is slightly larger than the X, but difficult to differentiate cytologically.",
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"plaintext": "More recently, Sakamoto and various co-authors have used RAPD to isolate several genetic marker sequences that they name Male-Associated DNA in Cannabis (MADC), and which they interpret as indirect evidence of a male chromosome. Several other research groups have reported identification of male-associated markers using RAPD and AFLP. Ainsworth commented on these findings, stating,",
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"plaintext": "Environmental sex determination is known to occur in a variety of species. Many researchers have suggested that sex in Cannabis is determined or strongly influenced by environmental factors. Ainsworth reviews that treatment with auxin and Ethylene as a plant hormone have feminizing effects, and that treatment with cytokinins and gibberellins have masculinizing effects. It has been reported that sex can be reversed in Cannabis using chemical treatment. A PCR-based method for the detection of female-associated DNA polymorphisms by genotyping has been developed.",
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"plaintext": "Cannabis plants produce a large number of chemicals as part of their defense against herbivory, see Chemical defenses in Cannabis. One group of these is called cannabinoids, which induce mental and physical effects when consumed.",
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"plaintext": "Cannabinoids, terpenoids, and other compounds are secreted by glandular trichomes that occur most abundantly on the floral calyxes and bracts of female plants. As a drug it usually comes in the form of dried infructescences (\"buds\" or \"marijuana\"), resin (hashish), or various extracts collectively known as hashish oil. During the 20th century, it became illegal in most of the world to cultivate or possess Cannabis for sale, and even sometimes for personal use.",
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"plaintext": "Cannabis, like many organisms, is diploid, having a chromosome complement of 2n=20, although polyploid individuals have been artificially produced. The first genome sequence of Cannabis, which is estimated to be 820 Mb in size, was published in 2011 by a team of Canadian scientists.",
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"plaintext": "The genus Cannabis was formerly placed in the nettle family (Urticaceae) or mulberry family (Moraceae), and later, along with the genus Humulus (hops), in a separate family, the hemp family (Cannabaceae sensu stricto). Recent phylogenetic studies based on cpDNA restriction site analysis and gene sequencing strongly suggest that the Cannabaceae sensu stricto arose from within the former family Celtidaceae, and that the two families should be merged to form a single monophyletic family, the Cannabaceae sensu lato.",
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"plaintext": "Various types of Cannabis have been described, and variously classified as species, subspecies, or varieties:",
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"plaintext": " plants cultivated for fiber and seed production, described as low-intoxicant, non-drug, or fiber types.",
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"plaintext": " plants cultivated for drug production, described as high-intoxicant or drug types.",
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"plaintext": " escaped, hybridised, or wild forms of either of the above types.",
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"plaintext": "Cannabis plants produce a unique family of terpeno-phenolic compounds called cannabinoids, some of which produce the \"high\" which may be experienced from consuming marijuana. There are 483 identifiable chemical constituents known to exist in the cannabis plant, and at least 85 different cannabinoids have been isolated from the plant. The two cannabinoids usually produced in greatest abundance are cannabidiol (CBD) and/or Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), but only THC is psychoactive. Since the early 1970s, Cannabis plants have been categorized by their chemical phenotype or \"chemotype\", based on the overall amount of THC produced, and on the ratio of THC to CBD. Although overall cannabinoid production is influenced by environmental factors, the THC/CBD ratio is genetically determined and remains fixed throughout the life of a plant. Non-drug plants produce relatively low levels of THC and high levels of CBD, while drug plants produce high levels of THC and low levels of CBD. When plants of these two chemotypes cross-pollinate, the plants in the first filial (F1) generation have an intermediate chemotype and produce intermediate amounts of CBD and THC. Female plants of this chemotype may produce enough THC to be utilized for drug production.",
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"plaintext": "Whether the drug and non-drug, cultivated and wild types of Cannabis constitute a single, highly variable species, or the genus is polytypic with more than one species, has been a subject of debate for well over two centuries. This is a contentious issue because there is no universally accepted definition of a species. One widely applied criterion for species recognition is that species are \"groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups.\" Populations that are physiologically capable of interbreeding, but morphologically or genetically divergent and isolated by geography or ecology, are sometimes considered to be separate species. Physiological barriers to reproduction are not known to occur within Cannabis, and plants from widely divergent sources are interfertile. However, physical barriers to gene exchange (such as the Himalayan mountain range) might have enabled Cannabis gene pools to diverge before the onset of human intervention, resulting in speciation. It remains controversial whether sufficient morphological and genetic divergence occurs within the genus as a result of geographical or ecological isolation to justify recognition of more than one species.",
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"plaintext": "The genus Cannabis was first classified using the \"modern\" system of taxonomic nomenclature by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, who devised the system still in use for the naming of species. He considered the genus to be monotypic, having just a single species that he named Cannabis sativa L. (L. stands for Linnaeus, and indicates the authority who first named the species). Linnaeus was familiar with European hemp, which was widely cultivated at the time. In 1785, noted evolutionary biologist Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck published a description of a second species of Cannabis, which he named Cannabis indica Lam. Lamarck based his description of the newly named species on plant specimens collected in India. He described C. indica as having poorer fiber quality than C. sativa, but greater utility as an inebriant. Additional Cannabis species were proposed in the 19th century, including strains from China and Vietnam (Indo-China) assigned the names Cannabis chinensis Delile, and Cannabis gigantea Delile ex Vilmorin. However, many taxonomists found these putative species difficult to distinguish. In the early 20th century, the single-species concept was still widely accepted, except in the Soviet Union where Cannabis continued to be the subject of active taxonomic study. The name Cannabis indica was listed in various Pharmacopoeias, and was widely used to designate Cannabis suitable for the manufacture of medicinal preparations.",
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"plaintext": "In 1924, Russian botanist D.E. Janichevsky concluded that ruderal Cannabis in central Russia is either a variety of C. sativa or a separate species, and proposed C. sativa L. var. ruderalis Janisch, and Cannabis ruderalis Janisch, as alternative names. In 1929, renowned plant explorer Nikolai Vavilov assigned wild or feral populations of Cannabis in Afghanistan to C. indica Lam. var. kafiristanica Vav., and ruderal populations in Europe to C. sativa L. var. spontanea Vav. In 1940, Russian botanists Serebriakova and Sizov proposed a complex classification in which they also recognized C. sativa and C. indica as separate species. Within C. sativa they recognized two subspecies: C. sativa L. subsp. culta Serebr. (consisting of cultivated plants), and C. sativa L. subsp. spontanea (Vav.) Serebr. (consisting of wild or feral plants). Serebriakova and Sizov split the two C. sativa subspecies into 13 varieties, including four distinct groups within subspecies culta. However, they did not divide C. indica into subspecies or varieties.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1970s, the taxonomic classification of Cannabis took on added significance in North America. Laws prohibiting Cannabis in the United States and Canada specifically named products of C. sativa as prohibited materials. Enterprising attorneys for the defense in a few drug busts argued that the seized Cannabis material may not have been C. sativa, and was therefore not prohibited by law. Attorneys on both sides recruited botanists to provide expert testimony. Among those testifying for the prosecution was Dr. Ernest Small, while Dr. Richard E. Schultes and others testified for the defense. The botanists engaged in heated debate (outside of court), and both camps impugned the other's integrity. The defense attorneys were not often successful in winning their case, because the intent of the law was clear.",
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"plaintext": "In 1976, Canadian botanist Ernest Small and American taxonomist Arthur Cronquist published a taxonomic revision that recognizes a single species of Cannabis with two subspecies and two varieties in each. The framework is thus:",
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"plaintext": " C. sativa L. subsp. sativa, presumably selected for traits that enhance fiber or seed production.",
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"plaintext": " C. sativa L. subsp. sativa var. sativa, domesticated variety.",
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"plaintext": " C. sativa L. subsp. sativa var. spontanea Vav., wild or escaped variety.",
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"plaintext": " C. sativa L. subsp. indica (Lam.) Small & Cronq., primarily selected for drug production.",
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"plaintext": " C. sativa L. subsp. indica var. indica, domesticated variety.",
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"plaintext": " C. sativa subsp. indica var. kafiristanica (Vav.) Small & Cronq, wild or escaped variety.",
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"plaintext": "This classification was based on several factors including interfertility, chromosome uniformity, chemotype, and numerical analysis of phenotypic characters.",
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"plaintext": "Professors William Emboden, Loran Anderson, and Harvard botanist Richard E. Schultes and coworkers also conducted taxonomic studies of Cannabis in the 1970s, and concluded that stable morphological differences exist that support recognition of at least three species, C. sativa, C. indica, and C. ruderalis. For Schultes, this was a reversal of his previous interpretation that Cannabis is monotypic, with only a single species.<ref name=\"schultes1970a\">{{cite book | vauthors = Schultes RE | date = 1970 | chapter = Random thoughts and queries on the botany of Cannabis | veditors = Joyce CR, Curry SH | title = The Botany and Chemistry of Cannabis | publisher = J. & A. Churchill | location = London | pages = 11–38 }}</ref> According to Schultes' and Anderson's descriptions, C. sativa is tall and laxly branched with relatively narrow leaflets, C. indica is shorter, conical in shape, and has relatively wide leaflets, and C. ruderalis is short, branchless, and grows wild in Central Asia. This taxonomic interpretation was embraced by Cannabis aficionados who commonly distinguish narrow-leafed \"Sativa\" strains from wide-leafed \"Indica\" strains. McPartland's review finds the Schultes taxonomy inconsistent with prior work (protologs) and partly responsible for the popular usage.",
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"plaintext": "Molecular analytical techniques developed in the late 20th century are being applied to questions of taxonomic classification. This has resulted in many reclassifications based on evolutionary systematics. Several studies of Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and other types of genetic markers have been conducted on drug and fiber strains of Cannabis, primarily for plant breeding and forensic purposes. Dutch Cannabis researcher E.P.M. de Meijer and coworkers described some of their RAPD studies as showing an \"extremely high\" degree of genetic polymorphism between and within populations, suggesting a high degree of potential variation for selection, even in heavily selected hemp cultivars. They also commented that these analyses confirm the continuity of the Cannabis gene pool throughout the studied accessions, and provide further confirmation that the genus consists of a single species, although theirs was not a systematic study per se.",
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"plaintext": "An investigation of genetic, morphological, and chemotaxonomic variation among 157 Cannabis accessions of known geographic origin, including fiber, drug, and feral populations showed cannabinoid variation in Cannabis germplasm. The patterns of cannabinoid variation support recognition of C. sativa and C. indica as separate species, but not C. ruderalis. C. sativa contains fiber and seed landraces, and feral populations, derived from Europe, Central Asia, and Turkey. Narrow-leaflet and wide-leaflet drug accessions, southern and eastern Asian hemp accessions, and feral Himalayan populations were assigned to C. indica. In 2005, a genetic analysis of the same set of accessions led to a three-species classification, recognizing C. sativa, C. indica, and (tentatively) C. ruderalis. Another paper in the series on chemotaxonomic variation in the terpenoid content of the essential oil of Cannabis revealed that several wide-leaflet drug strains in the collection had relatively high levels of certain sesquiterpene alcohols, including guaiol and isomers of eudesmol, that set them apart from the other putative taxa.",
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"plaintext": "An 2020 analysis of single-nucleotide polymorphisms reports five clusters of Cannabis, roughly corresponding to hemps (including folk \"Ruderalis\"), folk \"Indica\", and folk \"Sativa\".",
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"plaintext": "Despite advanced analytical techniques, much of the cannabis used recreationally is inaccurately classified. One laboratory at the University of British Columbia found that Jamaican Lamb's Bread, claimed to be 100% sativa, was in fact almost 100% indica (the opposite strain). Legalization of cannabis in Canada () may help spur private-sector research, especially in terms of diversification of strains. It should also improve classification accuracy for cannabis used recreationally. Legalization coupled with Canadian government (Health Canada) oversight of production and labelling will likely result in more—and more accurate—testing to determine exact strains and content. Furthermore, the rise of craft cannabis growers in Canada should ensure quality, experimentation/research, and diversification of strains among private-sector producers.",
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"plaintext": "The scientific debate regarding taxonomy has had little effect on the terminology in widespread use among cultivators and users of drug-type Cannabis. Cannabis aficionados recognize three distinct types based on such factors as morphology, native range, aroma, and subjective psychoactive characteristics. \"Sativa\" is the most widespread variety, which is usually tall, laxly branched, and found in warm lowland regions. \"Indica\" designates shorter, bushier plants adapted to cooler climates and highland environments. \"Ruderalis\" is the informal name for the short plants that grow wild in Europe and Central Asia.",
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"plaintext": "Mapping the morphological concepts to scientific names in the Small 1976 framework, \"Sativa\" generally refers to C. sativa subsp. indica var. indica, \"Indica\" generally refers to C. s. subsp. i. kafiristanica (also known as afghanica), and \"Ruderalis\", being lower in THC, is the one that can fall into C. sativa subsp. sativa. The three names fit in Schultes's framework better, if one overlooks its inconsistencies with prior work. Definitions of the three terms using factors other than morphology produces different, often conflicting results.",
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"plaintext": "Breeders, seed companies, and cultivators of drug type Cannabis often describe the ancestry or gross phenotypic characteristics of cultivars by categorizing them as \"pure indica\", \"mostly indica\", \"indica/sativa\", \"mostly sativa\", or \"pure sativa\". These categories are highly arbitrary, however: one \"AK-47\" hybrid strain has received both \"Best Sativa\" and \"Best Indica\" awards.",
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"plaintext": "Cannabis likely split from its closest relative, Humulus (hops), during the mid Oligocene, around 27.8 million years ago according to molecular clock estimates. The centre of origin of Cannabis is likely in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau. The pollen of Humulus and Cannabis are very similar and difficult to distinguish. The oldest pollen thought to be from Cannabis is from Ningxia, China, on the boundary between the Tibetan Plateau and the Loess Plateau, dating to the early Miocene, around 19.6 million years ago. Cannabis was widely distributed over Asia by the Late Pleistocene. The oldest known Cannabis in South Asia dates to around 32,000 years ago.",
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"plaintext": "Cannabis is used for a wide variety of purposes.",
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"plaintext": "According to genetic and archaeological evidence, cannabis was first domesticated about 12,000 years ago in East Asia during the early Neolithic period. The use of cannabis as a mind-altering drug has been documented by archaeological finds in prehistoric societies in Eurasia and Africa. The oldest written record of cannabis usage is the Greek historian Herodotus's reference to the central Eurasian Scythians taking cannabis steam baths. His () Histories records, \"The Scythians, as I said, take some of this hemp-seed [presumably, flowers], and, creeping under the felt coverings, throw it upon the red-hot stones; immediately it smokes, and gives out such a vapour as no Greek vapour-bath can exceed; the Scyths, delighted, shout for joy.\" Classical Greeks and Romans also used cannabis.",
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"plaintext": "In China, the psychoactive properties of cannabis are described in the Shennong Bencaojing (3rd century AD). Cannabis smoke was inhaled by Daoists, who burned it in incense burners.",
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"plaintext": "In the Middle East, use spread throughout the Islamic empire to North Africa. In 1545, cannabis spread to the western hemisphere where Spaniards imported it to Chile for its use as fiber. In North America, cannabis, in the form of hemp, was grown for use in rope, cloth and paper.",
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"plaintext": "Cannabis is a popular recreational drug around the world, only behind alcohol, caffeine, and tobacco. In the United States alone, it is believed that over 100 million Americans have tried cannabis, with 25 million Americans having used it within the past year.",
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"plaintext": "The psychoactive effects of cannabis are known to have a triphasic nature. Primary psychoactive effects include a state of relaxation, and to a lesser degree, euphoria from its main psychoactive compound, tetrahydrocannabinol. Secondary psychoactive effects, such as a facility for philosophical thinking, introspection and metacognition have been reported among cases of anxiety and paranoia. Finally, the tertiary psychoactive effects of the drug cannabis, can include an increase in heart rate and hunger, believed to be caused by 11-OH-THC, a psychoactive metabolite of THC produced in the liver.",
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"plaintext": "Normal cognition is restored after approximately three hours for larger doses via a smoking pipe, bong or vaporizer. However, if a large amount is taken orally the effects may last much longer. After 24 hours to a few days, minuscule psychoactive effects may be felt, depending on dosage, frequency and tolerance to the drug.",
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"plaintext": "Various forms of the drug cannabis exist, including extracts such as hashish and hash oil which, because of appearance, are more susceptible to adulterants when left unregulated.",
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"plaintext": "Cannabidiol (CBD), which has no psychotropic effects by itself (although sometimes showing a small stimulant effect, similar to caffeine), attenuates, or reduces the higher anxiety levels caused by THC alone.",
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"plaintext": "According to Delphic analysis by British researchers in 2007, cannabis has a lower risk factor for dependence compared to both nicotine and alcohol. However, everyday use of cannabis may be correlated with psychological withdrawal symptoms, such as irritability or insomnia, and susceptibility to a panic attack may increase as levels of THC metabolites rise. Cannabis withdrawal symptoms are typically mild and are not life-threatening. Risk of adverse outcomes from cannabis use may be reduced by implementation of evidence-based education and intervention tools communicated to the public with practical regulation measures.",
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"plaintext": "Medical cannabis (or medical marijuana) refers to the use of cannabis and its constituent cannabinoids, in an effort to treat disease or improve symptoms. Cannabis is used to reduce nausea and vomiting during chemotherapy, to improve appetite in people with HIV/AIDS, and to treat chronic pain and muscle spasms. Cannabinoids are under preliminary research for their potential to affect stroke. Evidence is lacking for depression, anxiety, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, Tourette syndrome, post-traumatic stress disorder, and psychosis. Two extracts of cannabis dronabinol and nabilone are approved by the FDA as medications in pill form for treating the side effects of chemotherapy and AIDS.",
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"plaintext": "Short-term use increases both minor and major adverse effects. Common side effects include dizziness, feeling tired, vomiting, and hallucinations. Long-term effects of cannabis are not clear. Concerns including memory and cognition problems, risk of addiction, schizophrenia in young people, and the risk of children taking it by accident.",
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"plaintext": "The term hemp is used to name the durable soft fiber from the Cannabis plant stem (stalk). Cannabis sativa cultivars are used for fibers due to their long stems; Sativa varieties may grow more than six metres tall. However, hemp can refer to any industrial or foodstuff product that is not intended for use as a drug. Many countries regulate limits for psychoactive compound (THC) concentrations in products labeled as hemp.",
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"plaintext": "Cannabis for industrial uses is valuable in tens of thousands of commercial products, especially as fibre ranging from paper, cordage, construction material and textiles in general, to clothing. Hemp is stronger and longer-lasting than cotton. It also is a useful source of foodstuffs (hemp milk, hemp seed, hemp oil) and biofuels. Hemp has been used by many civilizations, from China to Europe (and later North America) during the last 12,000 years. In modern times novel applications and improvements have been explored with modest commercial success.",
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"plaintext": "The Cannabis plant has a history of medicinal use dating back thousands of years across many cultures. The Yanghai Tombs, a vast ancient cemetery (54 000 m2) situated in the Turfan district of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in northwest China, have revealed the 2700-year-old grave of a shaman. He is thought to have belonged to the Jushi culture recorded in the area centuries later in the Hanshu, Chap 96B. Near the head and foot of the shaman was a large leather basket and wooden bowl filled with 789g of cannabis, superbly preserved by climatic and burial conditions. An international team demonstrated that this material contained tetrahydrocannabinol, the psychoactive component of cannabis. The cannabis was presumably employed by this culture as a medicinal or psychoactive agent, or an aid to divination. This is the oldest documentation of cannabis as a pharmacologically active agent. The earliest evidence of cannabis smoking has been found in the 2,500-year-old tombs of Jirzankal Cemetery in the Pamir Mountains in Western China, where cannabis residue were found in burners with charred pebbles possibly used during funeral rituals.",
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"plaintext": "Settlements which date from c. 2200–1700 BCE in the Bactria and Margiana contained elaborate ritual structures with rooms containing everything needed for making drinks containing extracts from poppy (opium), hemp (cannabis), and ephedra (which contains ephedrine). Although there is no evidence of ephedra being used by steppe tribes, they engaged in cultic use of hemp. Cultic use ranged from Romania to the Yenisei River and had begun by 3rd millennium BC Smoking hemp has been found at Pazyryk.",
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"plaintext": "Cannabis is first referred to in Hindu Vedas between 2000 and 1400 BCE, in the Atharvaveda. By the 10th century CE, it has been suggested that it was referred to by some in India as \"food of the gods\". Cannabis use eventually became a ritual part of the Hindu festival of Holi. One of the earliest to use this plant in medical purposes was Korakkar, one of the 18 Siddhas. The plant is called Korakkar Mooli in the Tamil language, meaning Korakkar's herb.",
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"plaintext": "In Buddhism, cannabis is generally regarded as an intoxicant and may be a hindrance to development of meditation and clear awareness. In ancient Germanic culture, Cannabis was associated with the Norse love goddess, Freya. An anointing oil mentioned in Exodus is, by some translators, said to contain Cannabis. Sufis have used Cannabis in a spiritual context since the 13th century CE.",
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"plaintext": "In modern times, the Rastafari movement has embraced Cannabis as a sacrament. Elders of the Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church, a religious movement founded in the United States in 1975 with no ties to either Ethiopia or the Coptic Church, consider Cannabis to be the Eucharist, claiming it as an oral tradition from Ethiopia dating back to the time of Christ. Like the Rastafari, some modern Gnostic Christian sects have asserted that Cannabis is the Tree of Life. Other organized religions founded in the 20th century that treat Cannabis as a sacrament are the THC Ministry, Cantheism, the Cannabis Assembly and the Church of Cognizance.",
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"plaintext": "Cannabis is frequently used among Sufis – the mystical interpretation of Islam that exerts strong influence over local Muslim practices in Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Turkey, and Pakistan. Cannabis preparations are frequently used at Sufi festivals in those countries. Pakistan's Shrine of Lal Shahbaz Qalandar in Sindh province is particularly renowned for the widespread use of cannabis at the shrine's celebrations, especially its annual Urs festival and Thursday evening dhamaal sessions - or meditative dancing sessions.",
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"plaintext": "The word cannabis is from Greek () (see Latin ), which was originally Scythian or Thracian. It is related to the Persian kanab, the English canvas and possibly the English hemp (Old English '').",
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"plaintext": " Indian Hemp Drugs Commission",
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"plaintext": " Legal history of cannabis in the United States",
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"plaintext": " Occupational health concerns of cannabis use",
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"plaintext": " International Plant Names Index (IPNI)",
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38,311 | 1,106,640,532 | Robert_Ross_(blues_singer) | [
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"plaintext": "As co-leader of the Dicey Ross Band with harmonica player Bill Dicey, Ross recorded with Big Joe Turner in 1976 for Spivey Records. Ross has also worked with John Lee Hooker, Lightnin' Hopkins, Brownie McGhee, Memphis Slim, Sunnyland Slim, Otis Rush, Dr. John, Bobby Lewis, Pinetop Perkins, Cyril Neville, Big Mama Thornton, Louisiana Red, J.B. Hutto, Eddie Kirkland, Floyd Jones, and Homesick James. The Robert Ross Band tours frequently and has released seven recordings including two albums in Europe on Brambus Records.",
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"plaintext": " When You Needed Me by The City Boys Allstars featuring Ross singing his original song, \"Last Night the Bottle Let Me Down\"",
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"plaintext": " Lightness....To Dark (USA title: It's Alive on Blue Planet Records) on Brambus Records (1999) by Robert Ross ",
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"plaintext": " New York Really Has The Blues (LP-1018) with Victoria Spivey, Dicey Ross Band (featuring Robert Ross), Washboard Doc, Sugar Blue, Brooklyn Slim (Paul Oscher) on Spivey Records (1976).",
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|
38,314 | 1,102,690,853 | Bong | [
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"plaintext": "A bong (also known as a water pipe) is a filtration device generally used for smoking cannabis, tobacco, or other herbal substances. In the bong shown in the photo, the gas flows from the lower port on the left to the upper port on the right.",
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"plaintext": "In construction and function, a bong is similar to a hookah, except smaller and especially more portable. A bong may be constructed from any air- and water-tight vessel by adding a bowl and stem apparatus (or slide) which guides air downward to below water level whence it bubbles upward (\"bubbler\") during use. To get fresh air into the bong and harvest the last remaining smoke, a hole known as the \"carburetor\", \"carb\", \"choke\", \"bink\", \"rush\", \"shotty\", \"kick hole\", or simply \"hole\", somewhere on the lower part of the bong above water level, is first kept covered during the smoking process, then opened to allow the smoke to be drawn into the respiratory system. On bongs without such a hole, the bowl and/or the stem are removed to allow air from the hole that holds the stem.",
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"plaintext": "Bongs have been in use by the Hmong in Laos and Thailand, as well all over Africa, for centuries. One of the earliest recorded uses of the word in the West is in the McFarland Thai-English Dictionary, published in 1944, which describes one of the meanings of bong in the Thai language as, \"a bamboo waterpipe for smoking kancha, tree, hashish, or the hemp-plant\". A January 1971 issue of the Marijuana Review also used the term.",
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"plaintext": "The word bong is an adaptation of the Thai word bong or baung (, ), which refers to a cylindrical wooden tube, pipe, or container cut from bamboo, and which also refers to the bong used for smoking.",
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"plaintext": "Excavations of a kurgan in Russia in 2013 revealed that Scythian tribal chiefs used gold vessels 2400 years ago to smoke cannabis and opium. The kurgan was discovered when construction workers were clearing land for the construction of a power line.",
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"plaintext": "During the reign of Emperor Akbar, physician Hakim Abul Fath invented the waterpipe in India, and discovered tobacco. Abul suggested that tobacco \"smoke should be first passed through a small receptacle of water so that it would be rendered harmless\". Other sources also show evidence of the invention of the waterpipe in China during the late Ming Dynasty (16th century), along with tobacco, through Persia and the Silk Road. By the Qing Dynasty, it became the most popular method to smoke tobacco, but became less popular since the Republic era. While typically employed by commoners, the water pipe is known to have been preferred by Empress Dowager Cixi over snuff bottles or other methods of intake. According to the Imperial Household Department, she was buried with at least three water pipes; some of her collections can be seen in the Palace Museum.",
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"plaintext": "The water pipe employed since the Qing dynasty can be divided into two types: the homemade bamboo bong commonly made and used by country people, and a more elegant metal version employed by Chinese merchants, urbanites, and nobility. Metal utensils are typically made out of bronze or brass, the nobility version of silver and decorated with jewels. Typically, the metal version is made out of the following components:",
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"plaintext": "The water pipe itself, a single-piece construct consisting of the bowl-stem, the water container, and a drawtube at least 3inches, but some can be up to 12inches in length. Some are straight with a \"Joint\" (Sandblasted top part of stem, usually about 1inch long, and all the way around, tapered or cone shaped, so the tapered, or \"cone shaped\" bowl will fit in)some are bent to resemble a crane. The size of the bowl is similar to that of a one-hitter, typically the width of a thumbnail or smaller.",
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"plaintext": "A pipe rack small enough to be held by one hand, and consisting of two large holes for the tobacco container and the water pipe. It may have smaller holes to hold various pipe tools.",
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"plaintext": "During a smoking session, the user may keep all equipment inside the rack and just hold the entire assembly (rack, pipe, and container) in one hand, lighting the bowl with a slow-burning paper wick (纸煤) lit over a coal stove.",
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"plaintext": "Unlike in North America and the Southern Hemisphere, the water pipe is typically employed by older generations.",
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"plaintext": "The water can trap some heavier particles and water-soluble molecules, preventing them from entering the smoker's airways. The mechanics of a bong are compared to those of a laboratory gas washing bottle. The user puts their mouth at the top and places the cannabis in the tube, as shown in the picture.",
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"plaintext": "Bongs are often either glass or plastic that use a bowl, stem, and water to produce smoke. Most glass bongs are made from heat resistant borosilicate glass, allowing the bong to withstand repeated use and heat exposure without breaking. After the bowl has been packed and water has been inserted into the bong, the substance is lit and the smoke is drawn through water to produce a smoother smoke than other methods of smoking do. To smoke a bong, the smoker must inhale in the bong so bubbles containing smoke begin to come from the stem. Once the bong has a fair amount of smoke built up, either the carb is uncovered or the stem is separated from the bong, allowing the remaining smoke to be inhaled.",
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"plaintext": "However, a 2000 NORML-MAPS cannabis study found that \"water pipes filter out more psychoactive THC than they do other tars, thereby requiring users to smoke more to reach their desired effect\". In the study, smoke from cannabis supplied by the NIDA was drawn through a number of smoking devices and analyzed. This study looked at the tar to cannabinoid ratio in the gas in output by various bongs, as well as unfiltered and filtered joints, and vaporizers. The results showed that only vaporizers produced a better tar to cannabinoid ratio than unfiltered joints, but that within the cannabinoids produced, even vaporizers warped the ratio of THC (the psychoactive component of the smoke) to CBN (capable of producing medical benefits but is not psychoactive) in favor of CBN. This showed an unfiltered joint had the best tar to THC ratio of all, and bongs were actually seriously detrimental in this respect.",
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"plaintext": "MAPS also reviewed a study that examined the effects and composition of water-filtered and non-filtered cannabis and tobacco smoke. It found that when alveolar macrophages were exposed to unfiltered smoke, their ability to fight bacteria was reduced, unlike exposure to water-filtered smoke. It also found substantial epidemiological evidence of a lower incidence of carcinoma among tobacco smokers who used water-pipes, as opposed to cigarettes, cigars, and regular pipes. \"It appears that water filtration can be effective in removing components from cannabis smoke that are known toxicants... The effectiveness of toxicant removal is related to the smoke's water contact area.\"",
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"plaintext": "Erika Dugas, Michèle Tremblay, Nancy C.P. Low, Daniel Cournoyer, Jennifer O'Loughlin: Water-Pipe Smoking Among North American Youths, Pediatrics, Published online May 10, 2010, (Full Text free)",
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"plaintext": " Erickson, William V. et al. Water pipe or bong. US Patent 4,216,785.",
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"plaintext": " 2400-year-old Scythian bongs excavated",
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38,316 | 1,085,727,541 | Belisario | [
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"plaintext": "Belisario (Belisarius) is a tragedia lirica (tragic opera) in three acts by Gaetano Donizetti. Salvadore Cammarano wrote the Italian libretto after Luigi Marchionni's adaptation of play, Belisarius, first staged in Munich in 1820 and then (in Italian) in Naples in 1826. The plot is loosely based on the life of the famous general Belisarius of the 6th century Byzantine Empire.",
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"plaintext": "It premiered to critical and popular success on 4 February 1836 at the Teatro La Fenice, Venice, and was given many additional performances that season, although Donizetti scholar William Ashbrook notes that there would have been more had the opera not been presented so late in the season.",
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"plaintext": "However, in spite of its initial short-term success and critical reaction, as represented by a review in La Gazzetta privilegiata which stated that \"A new masterwork has been added to Italian music.....Belisario not only pleased and delighted, but also conquered, enflamed and ravished the full auditorium\", in the long run, had \"Donizetti poured music of the calibre of his Lucia di Lammermoor into the score of Belisario the shortcomings of its wayward plot and dramatic structure would matter less\". By April 1836, even the composer himself recognized that the work stood below Lucia in accomplishment.",
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"plaintext": "With the success of Lucia di Lammermoor in September 1835, Donizetti moved on to stagings of Maria Stuarda, the first under that name at La Scala in late 1835. He had signed the contract in July 1835 to present Belisario in Venice, for what would be the first visit to that city since 1819, but it was not until October that the subject was finally agreed upon.",
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"plaintext": "There followed discussions with impresario Natale Fabbrici about employing a Venetian librettist, Pietro Beltrame. However, not only did the composer prefer to work with a librettist known to him and with whom he could work in close proximity, but he had already begun working with Cammarano who was revising - to the composer's satisfaction - an earlier version of Belisario which the librettist had submitted to the Teatro San Carlo management in 1832.",
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"plaintext": "Of greater concern to Donizetti was the singers who were to be engaged. Primarily, he was concerned about the identity of the leading tenor: \"Until I know for sure, I cannot compose duets, finales and trios\", he writes in October. By the time Donizetti arrived in Venice on 6 January 1836, the score of Belisario was almost finished, and because of delays, he had time to hear several of the proposed singers in a performance of Rossini's L'assedio di Corinto given on 12 January, the day before rehearsals of Belisario were to begin.",
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"plaintext": "In the case of Antonietta Vial (who was to sing the role of Irene and whom he described on first hearing her as \"both a bastard soprano and a veiled contralto\", he was able to make adjustments to suit her vocal limitations. By the time of the first performance, which was well received, Donizetti reported to his publisher the audience's reaction to most of the numbers, specifically that \"in the duet for Vial and Salvatore, many shouts of bravi, but at the end (so they say) the situation is so moving that they were weeping\".",
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"plaintext": "In a review of a 2011 London performance, some of the strengths of Donizetti's score are outlined:",
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"plaintext": "\"The central couple are played by bass and soprano, which brings Verdi's Macbeth immediately to mind. But Donizetti's score has none of Verdi's furious compression, and dramatically we are in very different territory. Belisario and Antonina, the latter more Regan than Lady Macbeth, are at each others' throats rather than united by desire for power. Her machinations lead to his being blinded then expelled from Byzantium into the natural world beyond. The emotional centre lies, however, in Donizetti's forceful depiction of Belisario's relationship with his strong-willed daughter Irene – you think at once of Cordelia – and his eventual reunion with Alamiro, the son who vanished in infancy and in whose supposed murder Belisario is implicated.\"",
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"plaintext": "19th century",
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"plaintext": "The opera's popularity continued through the 19th century, with stagings in 31 cities both in Europe and America. Its first performance in London took place on 1 April 1837, but it only reached the United States on 29 July 1843 in Philadelphia and later in New York on 14 February 1844.",
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"plaintext": "After an 1899 performance in Coblenz, the opera disappeared.",
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"plaintext": "20th century and beyond",
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"plaintext": "Modern productions have been rare. Revivals took place in 1969 at La Fenice,",
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"plaintext": " in 1970 at Bergamo, in 1972 in London, in 1973 in Naples, in 1981 in Buenos Aires, and in 1990 at Rutgers University in New Jersey. Most notable amongst performers in the leading female role has been Leyla Gencer.",
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"plaintext": "The opera was presented in January 2005 by the North Carolina School for Arts",
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"plaintext": " using a then brand-new performance score prepared by Ottavio Sbragia. Realizing close to the beginning of rehearsals that a performance score was not available, NCSA enlisted the help of musicologist Philip Gossett, who was able to put them in touch with Sbragia, and his version, which was based on the original 1836 performances in Venice, became the work's critical edition.",
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"plaintext": "The same year saw stagings by Turkish State Opera and Ballet in Istanbul.",
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"plaintext": "In July 2010, the opera was performed by the Buenos Aires Lirica",
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"plaintext": " and ",
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"plaintext": "a concert performance, starring Nelly Miricioiu with London's Chelsea Opera Group under conductor Richard Bonynge, was given at Queen Elizabeth Hall on 13 February 2011",
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"plaintext": "Belisario was given a new production at the Teatro Donizetti in Bergamo as part of the Donizetti Festival in September 2012 using the critical edition, while the BBC Symphony Orchestra presented a concert performance in London on 28 October 2012 with Canadian soprano Joyce El-Khoury as Antonina and Sicilian baritone Nicola Alaimo as the title character.",
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"plaintext": " The cast recorded the opera for Opera Rara.",
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"plaintext": "Place: Byzantium and the Haemus mountains.",
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"plaintext": "Time: sixth century A.D.",
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"plaintext": "Il Trionfo (Triumph)",
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"plaintext": "The hall in the emperor's palace",
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"plaintext": "Irene and the populace greet the victor Belisarius. Antonina hates her husband because Proclus, the slave of Belisarius, has confessed on his deathbed, that upon command of his master he had exposed her son on the shore of the ocean, thus causing his death. The Emperor Justinian greets his commander and grants his prayer for the release of the prisoners. The captive, Alamiro, who adores Belisarius, refuses to leave him (Recitative and duet: Che veggio!... Il don sprezzi forse, Alamiro? / \"What do I see, you Alamiro reject my gift?\"). The general adopts him in place of his long lost son. Irene congratulates her father, but Antonina has already begun her work of hate, by traducing Belisarius to Justinian, and the innocent man is accused of high treason and thrown into prison on the evidence of his wife.",
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"plaintext": "L'Esilio (Exile)",
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"plaintext": "Before the prison",
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"plaintext": "Alamiro and his friends lament the fate of Belisarius, whose eyes have been put out by his enemies, falsely construing and disobeying the commands of the emperor. Alamiro swears vengeance (Aria: Trema, Bisanzio! sterminatrice, Su te la guerra discenderà / \"Tremble, murderous Byzantium, war shall descend upon thee\"). Irene clad as a youth arrives to act as guide to her father, who is about to be released from prison (Duet: Oh tu, che della eterna, orribil notte /\"Oh thou, who in terrible darkness\").",
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"plaintext": "La Morte (Death)",
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"plaintext": "In the mountains",
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"plaintext": "As the clang of weapons is heard, Irene leads Belisarius to a cave for safety. Alamiro now leads the army of the Alanni against Byzantium to avenge Belisarius. Belisarius confronts him and recognizes him as his son through an amulet. At his father's request, the son leaves the ranks of the enemies of Byzantium, and the Alanni, now under the command of Ottavio, march to Byzantium, having no fear, as the emperor's army is bereft of its leader.",
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"plaintext": "Hall in Byzantium",
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"plaintext": "Antonina, in remorse, tells the emperor that her testimony against Belisarius was false. Irene approaches with news of the victory and informs Antonina that Alamiro is her son, and that it was the slave, not Belisarius, who had planned his death. Meanwhile, the blind Belisarius has led the Byzantine army and defeated the Alanni, who had threatened Byzantium, but an arrow has mortally wounded him. He is carried in dying, and the sorrowing emperor promises to be a father to Alamiro and Irene.",
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"plaintext": "Notes",
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"plaintext": "Cited sources",
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"plaintext": " Ashbrook, William (1982), Donizetti and His Operas. Cambridge University Press. ",
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"plaintext": " Ashbrook, William; Hibberd, Sarah (2001). \"Gaetano Donizetti\", pp.237 in The New Penguin Opera Guide, edited by Amanda Holden. New York: Penguin Putnam. .",
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"plaintext": " Osborne, Charles (1994). The Bel Canto Operas of Rossini, Donizetti, and Bellini. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press .",
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"plaintext": " Weinstock, Herbert (1963). Donizetti and the World of Opera in Italy, Paris, and Vienna in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century. New York: Pantheon Books. .",
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"plaintext": "Allitt, John Stewart (1991), Donizetti: in the light of Romanticism and the teaching of Johann Simon Mayr, Shaftesbury: Element Books, Ltd (UK); Rockport, MA: Element, Inc.(USA)",
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"plaintext": "Black, John (1982), Donizetti’s Operas in Naples, 1822—1848. London: The Donizetti Society.",
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"plaintext": "Loewenberg, Alfred (1970). Annals of Opera, 1597-1940, 2nd edition. Rowman and Littlefield",
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"plaintext": " Melitz, Leo (1921). The Opera Goer's Complete Guide, 1921 on books.google.com. (Source of the synopsis)",
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"plaintext": " Sadie, Stanley, Ed; (John Tyrell; Exec. Ed.) (2001). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd edition. London: Macmillan. (hardcover). (eBook).",
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"plaintext": " Donizetti Society (London) website",
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"plaintext": " Hugill, Robert, \"Stylish and Powerful: Donizetti's Belisario\" on chelseaoperagroup.org.uk",
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| 792,443 | 229 | 42 | 40 | 0 | 0 | Belisario | opera seria in three acts by Gaetano Donizetti | []
|
38,317 | 1,093,339,519 | La_fille_du_régiment | [
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"plaintext": " (The Daughter of the Regiment) is an opéra comique in two acts by Gaetano Donizetti, set to a French libretto by Jules-Henri Vernoy de Saint-Georges and Jean-François Bayard. It was first performed on 11 February 1840 by the Paris Opéra-Comique at the Salle de la Bourse.",
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"plaintext": "The opera was written by Donizetti while he was living in Paris between 1838 and 1840 preparing a revised version of his then-unperformed Italian opera, Poliuto, as Les martyrs for the Paris Opéra. Since Martyrs was delayed, the composer had time to write the music for La fille du régiment, his first opera set to a French text, as well as to stage the French version of Lucia di Lammermoor as Lucie de Lammermoor.",
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"plaintext": "La fille du régiment quickly became a popular success partly because of the famous aria \"Ah! mes amis, quel jour de fête!\", which requires the tenor to sing no fewer than eight high Cs – a frequently sung ninth is not written. , a slightly different Italian-language version (in translation by Calisto Bassi), was adapted to the tastes of the Italian public.",
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"plaintext": "The opening night was \"a barely averted disaster.\" Apparently the lead tenor was frequently off pitch. The noted French tenor Gilbert Duprez, who was present, later observed in his Souvenirs d'un chanteur: \"Donizetti often swore to me how his self-esteem as a composer had suffered in Paris. He was never treated there according to his merits. I myself saw the unsuccess, almost the collapse, of La fille du régiment.\"",
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"plaintext": "It received a highly negative review from the French critic and composer Hector Berlioz (Journal des débats, 16 February 1840), who claimed it could not be taken seriously by either the public or its composer, although Berlioz did concede that some of the music, \"the little waltz that serves as the entr'acte and the trio dialogué ... lack neither vivacity nor freshness.\" The source of Berlioz's hostility is revealed later in his review:",
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"plaintext": "What, two major scores for the Opéra, Les martyrs and Le duc d'Albe, two others at the Théâtre de la Renaissance, Lucie de Lammermoor and L'ange de Nisida, two at the Opéra-Comique, La fille du régiment and another whose title is still unknown, and yet another for the Théâtre-Italien, will have been written or transcribed in one year by the same composer! M[onsieur] Donizetti seems to treat us like a conquered country; it is a veritable invasion. One can no longer speak of the opera houses of Paris, but only of the opera houses of M[onsieur] Donizetti.",
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"plaintext": "The critic and poet Théophile Gautier, who was not a rival composer, had a somewhat different point of view: \"M[onsieur] Donizetti is capable of paying with music that is beautiful and worthy for the cordial hospitality which France offers him in all her theatres, subsidized or not.\"",
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"plaintext": "Despite its bumpy start, the opera soon became hugely popular at the Opéra-Comique. During its first 80 years, it reached its 500th performance at the theatre in 1871 and its 1,000th in 1908.",
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"plaintext": "The opera was first performed in Italy at La Scala, Milan, on 3 October 1840, in Italian with recitatives by Donizetti replacing the spoken dialogue. It was thought \"worthless\" and received only six performances. It was not until 1928 when Toti Dal Monte sang Marie that the opera began to be appreciated in Italy.",
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"plaintext": "La fille du régiment received its first performance in America on 7 March 1843 at the Théâtre d'Orléans in New Orleans. The New Orleans company premiered the work in New York City on 19 July 1843 with Julie Calvé as Marie. The Spirit of the Times (22 July) counted it a great success, and, although the score was \"thin\" and not up to the level of Anna Bolena or L'elisir d'amore, some of Donizetti's \"gems\" were to be found in it. The Herald (21 July) was highly enthusiastic, especially in its praise of Calvé: \"Applause is an inadequate term, ... vehement cheering rewarded this talented prima donna.\" Subsequently the opera was performed frequently in New York, the role of Marie being a favorite with Jenny Lind, Henriette Sontag, Pauline Lucca, Anna Thillon and Adelina Patti.",
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"plaintext": "First given in England in Italian, it appeared on 27 May 1847 at Her Majesty's Theatre in London (with Jenny Lind and Luigi Lablache). Later—on 21 December 1847 in English—it was presented at the Surrey Theatre in London.",
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"plaintext": "W. S. Gilbert wrote a burlesque adaptation of the opera La Vivandière in 1867.",
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"plaintext": "The Metropolitan Opera gave the first performances with Marcella Sembrich, and Charles Gilibert (Sulpice) during the 1902/03 season. It was then followed by performances at the Manhattan Opera House in 1909 with Luisa Tetrazzini, John McCormack, and Charles Gilibert, and again with Frieda Hempel and Antonio Scotti in the same roles at the Met on 17 December 1917.",
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"plaintext": "It was revived at the Royal Opera, London, in 1966 for Joan Sutherland. On 13 February 1970, in concert at Carnegie Hall, Beverly Sills sang the first performance in New York since Lily Pons performed it at the Metropolitan Opera House in 1943.",
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"plaintext": "This opera is famous for the aria \"\" (sometimes referred to as \"\"), which has been called the \"Mount Everest\" for tenors. It features eight high Cs (a ninth, frequently inserted, is not written). Luciano Pavarotti broke through to stardom via his 1972 performance alongside Joan Sutherland at the Met, when he \"leapt over the 'Becher's Brook' of the string of high Cs with an aplomb that left everyone gasping.\"",
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"plaintext": "More recently, in a 20 February 2007 performance of the opera at La Scala, Juan Diego Flórez sang \"\", and then, on popular demand, repeated it, breaking a tradition against encores at La Scala that had lasted nearly three-quarters of a century. Flórez repeated this feat on 21 April 2008, the opening night of Laurent Pelly's production (which had been originally staged in 2007 at Covent Garden in London) at the Metropolitan Opera in New York, with Natalie Dessay as Marie. A live performance of this Met production, without an encore of \"Ah! mes amis\", was cinecast via Metropolitan Opera Live in HD to movie theaters worldwide on 26 April 2008. On 3 March 2019, Mexican tenor Javier Camarena also sang an encore of the aria at the Met, singing 18 high Cs in a performance which was broadcast live worldwide via Metropolitan Opera radio and cinecast worldwide via Metropolitan Opera Live in HD.",
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"plaintext": "As a non-singing role, the Duchess of Crakenthorp is often played by non-operatic celebrities, including actresses such as Dawn French, Bea Arthur, Hermione Gingold, and Kathleen Turner, or by retired opera greats such as Kiri Te Kanawa and Montserrat Caballé. In 2016, US Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg, a lifelong opera fan, played the Duchess on opening night of the Washington National Opera's production.",
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"plaintext": "The opera was filmed in a silent film in 1929; a sound film with Anny Ondra in 1933 in German and separately in French; in 1953; and in 1962 with John van Kesteren as Tonio.",
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"plaintext": "Time: The Napoleonic Wars, early 19th century",
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"plaintext": "Place: The Swiss Tyrol",
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"plaintext": "War is raging in the Tyrols and the Marquise of Berkenfield, who is traveling in the area, is alarmed to the point of needing smelling salts to be administered by her faithful steward, Hortensius. While a chorus of villagers express their fear, the Marquise does the same: Pour une femme de mon nom / \"For a lady of my family, what a time, alas, is war-time\". As the French can be seen to be moving away, all express their relief. Suddenly, and provoking the fear of the remaining women who scatter, Sergeant Sulpice of the Twenty-First Regiment of the French army [in the Italian version it is the Eleventh] arrives and assures everyone that the regiment will restore order.",
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"plaintext": "Marie, the vivandière (canteen girl) of the Regiment, enters, and Sulpice is happy to see her: (duet: Sulpice and Marie: Mais, qui vient? Tiens, Marie, notre fille / \"But who is this? Well, well, if it isn't our daughter Marie\"). Then, as he questions her about a young man she has been seen with, she identifies him as Tonio, a Tyrolean [in the Italian version: Swiss]. At that moment, Tonio is brought in as a prisoner, because he has been seen prowling around the camp. Marie saves him from the soldiers, who demand that he must die, by explaining that he had saved her life when she nearly fell while mountain-climbing. All toast Tonio, who pledges allegiance to France, and Marie is encouraged to sing the regimental song: (aria: Chacun le sait, chacun le dit / \"Everyone knows it, everyone says it\"). Sulpice leads the soldiers off, taking Tonio with them, but he runs back to join her. She quickly tells him that he must gain the approval of her \"fathers\": the soldiers of the Regiment, who found her on the battlefield as an abandoned baby, and adopted her. He proclaims his love for her (aria, then love duet with Marie: Depuis l'instant où, dans mes bras / \"Ever since that moment when you fell and / I caught you, all trembling in my arms...\"), and then the couple express their love for each other.",
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"plaintext": "At that point, Sulpice returns, surprising the young couple, who leave. The Marquise arrives with Hortensius, initially afraid of the soldier, but is calmed by him. The Marquise explains that they are trying to return to her castle and asks for an escort. When hearing the name Berkenfield, Sulpice immediately recognizes it from a letter found with Marie as an infant. It is discovered that Marie is actually the Marquise's long-lost niece. Marie returns and is surprised to be introduced to her aunt. The Marquise commands that Marie accompany her and that she will be taught to be a proper lady. Marie bids farewell to her beloved regiment just as Tonio enters announcing that he has enlisted in their ranks: (aria: Ah! mes amis, quel jour de fête / \"Ah, my friends, what an exciting day\"). When he proclaims his love for Marie, the soldiers are horrified, but agree to his pleading for her hand. However, they tell him that she is about to leave with her aunt: (Marie, aria: Il faut partir / \"I must leave you!\"). In a choral finale in which all join, she leaves with the Marquise and Tonio is enraged.",
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"plaintext": "Marie has been living in the Marquise's castle for several months. In a conversation with Sulpice, the Marquise describes how she has sought to modify most of Marie's military manners and make her into a lady of fashion, suitable to be married to her nephew, the Duke of Crakenthorp. Although reluctant, Marie has agreed and Sulpice is asked to encourage her. Marie enters and is asked to play the piano, but appears to prefer more martial music when encouraged by Sulpice and sings the regimental song. The Marquise sits down at the piano and attempts to work through the piece with Marie who becomes more and more distracted and, along with Sulpice, takes up the regimental song.",
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"plaintext": "Marie is left alone: (aria: Par le rang et par l'opulence / \"They have tried in vain to dazzle me\"). As she is almost reconciled to her fate, she hears martial music and is joyously happy (cabaletta: Oh! transport! oh! douce ivresse / \"Oh bliss! oh ectasy!\"), and the Regiment arrives. With it is Tonio, now an officer. The soldiers express their joy at seeing Marie, and Marie, Tonio and Sulpice are joyfully reunited (trio, Marie, Sulpice, Tonio: Tous les trois réunis / \"We three are reunited\"). Tonio mentions he has just learned a secret, via his uncle the burgermeister, that he cannot reveal. ",
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"plaintext": "The Marquise enters, horrified to see soldiers. Tonio asks for Marie's hand, explaining that he risked his life for her (aria, Tonio: Pour me rapprocher de Marie, je m'enrôlai, pauvre soldat / \"In order to woo Marie, I enlisted in the ranks\"), but she dismisses him scornfully. Tonio reveals that he knows that the Marquise never had a niece. She orders him to leave and Marie to return to her chambers; after they leave, the Marquise confesses the truth to Sulpice: Marie is her own illegitimate daughter. In the circumstances, Sulpice promises that Marie will agree to her mother's wishes.",
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"plaintext": "The Duchess of Crakenthorp, her son the groom-to-be, and the wedding entourage arrive at the Marquise's castle. Marie enters with Sulpice, who has given her the news that the Marquise is her mother. Marie embraces her and decides she must obey. But at the last minute the soldiers of the Regiment storm in (chorus: soldiers, then Tonio: Au secours de notre fille / \"Our daughter needs our help\") and reveal that Marie was a canteen girl. The wedding guests are offended by that fact, but are then impressed when Marie sings of her debt to the soldiers (aria, Marie: Quand le destin, au milieu de la guerre / \"When fate, in the confusion of war, threw me, a baby, into their arms\"). The Marquise is deeply moved, admits she is Marie's mother, and gives her consent to Marie and Tonio's marriage, amid universal rejoicing (final chorus: Salut à la France! / \"Hurrah for France! For happy times!\").",
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"plaintext": " Osborne, Charles (1994). The Bel Canto Operas of Rossini, Donizetti, and Bellini. Portland, OR: Amadeus Press. ",
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"plaintext": " Ashbrook, William; Hibberd, Sarah (2001). \"Gaetano Donizetti\", pp.224–247 in The New Penguin Opera Guide, edited by Amanda Holden. New York: Penguin Putnam. .",
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"plaintext": " Lawrence, Vera Brodsky (1995). Strong on Music: The New York Music Scene in the Days of George Templeton Strong. Volume II. Reverberations, 1850–1856. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. .",
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"plaintext": " Melitz, Leo (2015) [1921]. The Opera Goer's Complete Guide. . (Source of synopsis)",
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"plaintext": " Sadie, Stanley, (Ed.); John Tyrell (Exec. Ed.) (2004). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. 2nd edition. London: Macmillan. (hardcover). (eBook).",
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"plaintext": " Donizetti Society (London) website",
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"1840_operas",
"Operas",
"Opera_world_premieres_at_the_Opéra-Comique",
"Operas_set_in_Switzerland",
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| 729,568 | 3,736 | 321 | 98 | 0 | 0 | La fille du régiment | opéra-comique in two acts by Gaetano Donizetti | [
"The Daughter of the Regiment",
"La fille du regiment"
]
|
38,322 | 1,094,679,129 | Continental_Congress | [
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"plaintext": "The Continental Congress was a series of legislative bodies, with some executive function, for thirteen of Britain's colonies in North America, and the newly declared United States just before, during, and after the American Revolutionary War. The term \"Continental Congress\" most specifically refers to the First and Second Congresses of 1774–1781 and, at the time, was also used to refer to the Congress of the Confederation of 1781–1789, which operated as the first national government of the United States until being replaced under the Constitution of the United States. Thus, the term covers the three congressional bodies of the Thirteen Colonies and the new United States that met between 1774 and 1789.",
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"plaintext": "The First Continental Congress was called in 1774 in response to growing tensions between the colonies culminating in the passage of the Intolerable Acts by the British Parliament. It met for about six weeks and sought to repair the fraying relationship between Britain and colonies, while asserting the rights of colonists, proclaiming and passing the Continental Association (a unified trade embargo against Britain), and calling for a second congress. The Second Continental Congress convened in 1775 in the wake of the breakout of hostilities in Massachusetts. Soon after meeting, this second Congress sent the Olive Branch Petition to King George III while also selecting George Washington as the head of the new Continental Army. After peace was not forthcoming, the same congress drafted and adopted the Independence resolution and the Declaration of Independence in July 1776, proclaiming that the former colonies were now independent sovereign states.",
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"plaintext": "Both the First and Second Continental Congresses convened in Philadelphia, though with the city's capture during the Revolutionary War, the Second Congress was forced to meet in other locations for a time. The Congress of Confederation was also established in Philadelphia and later moved to New York City when it briefly became the U.S. capital beginning in 1785.",
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"plaintext": "Much of what is known today about the daily activities of these congresses comes from the journals kept by the secretary for all three congresses, Charles Thomson. Printed contemporaneously, the Journals of the Continental Congress contain the official congressional papers, letters, treaties, reports and records. The delegates to the Continental and Confederation congresses had extensive experience in deliberative bodies, with \"a cumulative total of nearly 500 years of experience in their Colonial assemblies, and fully a dozen of them had served as speakers of the houses of their legislatures.\"",
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"plaintext": "The idea of a congress of British American Colonies was first broached in 1754 at the start of the French and Indian War, which started as the North American front of the Seven Years' War between Great Britain and France. Known as the Albany Congress, it met in Albany, New York from June 18 to July 11, 1754, and representatives from seven colonies attended. Among the delegates was Benjamin Franklin of Philadelphia, who proposed that the colonies join in a confederation. Though this idea was rejected, Franklin and others continued to argue that the colonies should act more cohesively. Though participants did not meet in person, the intermittent activation of committees of correspondence during times of crisis would further bring the colonies together.",
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"plaintext": "The colonists' resistance to the Stamp Act served as a catalyst for subsequent acts of resistance. The Townshend Acts (which imposed indirect taxes on various items not produced within the colonies, and created a more effective means of enforcing compliance with trade regulations), passed by Parliament passed in 1767 and 1768, sparked renewed animosity in the colonies, which eventually resulted in the Boston Massacre of 1770. Three years later, the Tea Act (which granted the British East India company the right to directly ship its tea to North America and the right to the duty-free export of tea from Great Britain) became law, exacerbating the colonists' resentment toward the British government, inciting the December 1773 Boston Tea Party, and inspiring the September 1774 Suffolk Resolves.",
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"plaintext": "The First Continental Congress met briefly in Carpenter's Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, from September 5 to October 26, 1774. Delegates from twelve of the thirteen colonies that would ultimately join in the Revolutionary War participated. Only Georgia, where Loyalist feelings still outweighed Patriotic emotion, and which relied upon Great Britain for military supplies to defend settlers against possible Indian attacks, did not. Altogether, 56 delegates attended, including George Washington, Patrick Henry, and John Adams. Other notable delegates included Samuel Adams from Massachusetts Bay, along with Joseph Galloway and John Dickinson from the Pennsylvania. Peyton Randolph of Virginia was its president.",
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"plaintext": "Benjamin Franklin had put forth the idea of such a meeting the year before, but he was unable to convince the colonies of its necessity until the British Navy instituted a blockade of Boston Harbor and Parliament passed the punitive Intolerable Acts in 1774 in response to the Boston Tea Party. During the congress, delegates organized an economic boycott of Great Britain in protest and petitioned the King for a redress of grievances. The colonies were united in their effort to demonstrate to the mother country their authority by virtue of their common causes and their unity; but their ultimate objectives were not consistent. Most delegates were not yet ready to break away from Great Britain, but they most definitely wanted the king and parliament to act in what they considered a fairer manner. Delegates from the provinces of Pennsylvania and New York were given firm instructions to pursue a resolution with Great Britain. While the other colonies all held the idea of colonial rights as paramount, they were split between those who sought legislative equality with Britain and those who instead favored independence and a break from the Crown and its excesses.",
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"plaintext": "In London, Parliament debated the merits of meeting the demands made by the colonies; however, it took no official notice of Congress's petitions and addresses. On November 30, 1774, King George III opened Parliament with a speech condemning Massachusetts and the Suffolk Resolves. At that point it became clear that the Continental Congress would have to convene once again.",
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"plaintext": "The Second Continental Congress convened on May 10, 1775, at Pennsylvania's State House in Philadelphia shortly after the start of the Revolutionary War. Initially, it functioned as a de facto national government by raising armies, directing strategy, appointing diplomats, and making formal treaties. The following year it adopted a resolution for independence on July 2, 1776, and two days later approved the Declaration of Independence. Thomas Jefferson drafted the declaration, and John Adams was a leader in the debates in favor of its adoption. Afterward, the Congress functioned as the provisional government of the United States of America through March 1, 1781.",
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"plaintext": "To govern the war effort and to foster unity among the states, Congress created various standing committees to handle war-related activities, such as the committee of secret correspondence, the treasury board, the board of war and ordnance, and the navy board. Much work was also done in small ad hoc committees. One such small group was tasked with developing a constitution to perpetuate the new Union. Such an agreement, the Articles of Confederation was approved by Congress on November 15, 1777, and sent to the states for ratification.",
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"plaintext": "The Articles of Confederation came into force on March 1, 1781, after being ratified by all 13 states, and the Second Continental Congress became the Congress of the Confederation (officially styled the \"United States in Congress Assembled\"), a unicameral body composed of delegates from the several states. A guiding principle of the Articles was to preserve the independence and sovereignty of the states. The weak central government established by the Articles received only those powers which the former colonies had recognized as belonging to king and parliament. Congress had the power to declare war, sign treaties, and settle disputes between the states. It could also borrow or print money, but did not have the power to tax. It helped guide the United States through the final stages of the Revolutionary War, but steeply declined in authority afterward.",
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"plaintext": " The passage of the Northwest Ordinance in 1787. This ordinance accepted the abolition of all claims to the land west of Pennsylvania and north of the Ohio River by the states of Pennsylvania, Virginia, New York, Connecticut, and Massachusetts, and the ordinance established Federal control over all of this land in the Northwest Territory—with the goal that several new states should be created there. In the course of time, this land was divided over the course of many decades into Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota.",
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"plaintext": " After years of frustration, an agreement was reached in 1786 at the Annapolis Convention to call another convention in May 1787 in Philadelphia with the mission of writing and proposing several amendments to the Articles of Confederation to improve the form of government. The report was sent to the Confederation Congress and the State. The result was the Philadelphia Convention of 1787, which was authorized by all the States thus fulfilling the unanimous requirement of the Articles of Confederation to allow changes to the Articles.",
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"plaintext": "Under the Articles of Confederation, the Confederation Congress had little power to compel the individual states to comply with its decisions. More and more prospective delegates elected to the Confederation Congress declined to serve in it. The leading men in each State preferred to serve in the state governments, and thus the Continental Congress had frequent difficulties in establishing a quorum. When the Articles of Confederation were superseded by the Constitution of the United States, the Confederation Congress was superseded by the United States Congress.",
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"plaintext": "The Confederation Congress finally set up a suitable administrative structure for the Federal government. It put into operation a departmental system, with ministers of finance, of war, and of foreign affairs. Robert Morris was selected as the new Superintendent of Finance, and then Morris used some ingenuity and initiative—along with a loan from the French Government—to deal with his empty treasury and also runaway inflation, for a number of years, in the supply of paper money.",
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"plaintext": "As the ambassador to France, Benjamin Franklin not only secured the \"bridge loan\" for the national budget, but he also persuaded France to send an army of about 6,000 soldiers across the Atlantic Ocean to America—and also to dispatch a large squadron of French warships under Comte de Grasse to the coasts of Virginia and North Carolina. These French warships were decisive at the Battle of Yorktown along the coast of Virginia by preventing Lord Cornwallis's British troops from receiving supplies, reinforcements, or evacuation via the James River and Hampton Roads, Virginia.",
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"plaintext": "Robert Morris, the Minister of Finance, persuaded Congress to charter the Bank of North America on December 31, 1781. Although a private bank, the Federal Government acquired partial ownership with money lent by France. The Bank of North America played a major role in financing the war against Great Britain. The combined armies of George Washington and Nathanael Greene, with the help of the French Army and Navy, defeated the British in the Battle of Yorktown during October 1781. Lord Cornwallis was forced to sue for peace and to surrender his entire army to General Washington. During 1783, the Americans secured the official recognition of the independence of the United States from the United Kingdom via negotiations with British diplomats in Paris, France. These negotiations culminated with the signing of the Treaty of Paris of 1783, and this treaty was soon ratified by the British Parliament.",
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"plaintext": "Both the British Parliament and many of their own Colonial assemblies had powerful speakers of the house and standing committees with strong chairmen, with executive power held by the British Monarch or the colonial Governor. However, the organization of the Continental Congress was based less on the British Parliament or on local colonial assemblies than on the 1765 Stamp Act Congress. Nine delegates to that congress were in attendance at the First Congress in 1774, and their perspective on governance influenced the direction of both the Continental Congresses and the later Confederation Congress. Congress took on powers normally held by the British King-in-Council, such as foreign and military affairs. However, the right to tax and regulate trade was reserved for the states, not Congress. Congress had no formal way to enforce its ordinances on the state governments. Delegates were responsible to and reported directly to their home state assemblies; an organizational structure that Neil Olsen has described as \"an extreme form of matrix management\".",
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"plaintext": "Delegates chose a presiding president to monitor the debate, maintain order, and make sure journals were kept and documents and letters were published and delivered. After the colonies declared their independence in 1776 and united as a quasi-federation to fight for their freedom, the president functioned as head of state (not of the country, but of its central government); Otherwise, the office was \"more honorable than powerful\". Congress also elected a secretary, scribe, doorman, messenger, and Chaplain.",
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"plaintext": "The rules of Congress guaranteed the right to debate and open access to the floor for each delegate. Additionally, to ensure that each state would be on an equal footing with the others, voting on ordinances was done en bloc, with each state having a single vote. Prior to casting its yay or nay vote, preliminary votes were taken within each state delegation. The majority vote determined vote here was considered the vote of the state on a motion; in cases of a tie the vote for the state was marked as \"divided,\" and thus not counted.",
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"plaintext": "Turnover of delegates was high, with an average year-to-year turnover rate of 37% by one calculation, and 39% by session-to-session. Of the 343 serving delegates, only 55% (187 delegates) spent 12 or more months in attendance. Only 25 of the delegates served longer than 35 months. This high rate of turnover was not just a characteristic, it was due to a deliberate policy of term limits. In the Confederation phase of the Congress \"no delegate was permitted to serve more than three years in any six\". Attendance was variable: while in session, between 54 and 22 delegates were in attendance at any one time, with an average of only 35.5 members attending between 1774 and 1788.",
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"plaintext": "There is a long-running debate on how effective the Congress was as an organization. The first critic may have been General George Washington. In an address to his officers, at Newburgh, New York, on March 15, 1783, responding to complaints that Congress had not funded their pay and pensions, he stated that he believed that Congress would do the army \"complete justice\" and eventually pay the soldiers. \"But, like all other large Bodies, where there is a variety of different Interests to reconcile, their deliberations are slow.\"",
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"plaintext": "Many commentators take for granted that the leaderless, weak, slow, and small-committee driven, Continental Congress was a failure, largely because after the end of the war the Articles of Confederation no longer suited the needs of a peacetime nation, and the Congress itself, following Madison's recommendations, called for its revision and replacement. Some also suggest that the Congress was inhibited by the formation of contentious partisan alignments based on regional differences. Others claim that Congress was less ideological than event-driven. Others note that the Congress was successful in that the American people \"came to accept Congress as their legitimate institution of Government\", but the \"rather poor governmental record\" of the Congress forced the constitutional convention of 1787.",
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"plaintext": "Political scientists Calvin Jillson and Rick Wilson in the 1980s accepted the conventional interpretation on the weakness of the Congress due to the lack of coercive power. They explored the role of leadership, or rather the lack of it, in the Continental Congress. Going beyond even Madison's harsh critique, they used the \"analytical stance of what has come to be called the new institutionalism\" to demonstrate that \"the norms, rules, and institutional structures of the Continental Congress\" were equally to blame \"for the institution's eventual failure\", and that the \"institutional structure worked against, rather than with, the delegates in tackling the crucial issues of the day.\"",
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"plaintext": "The historian Richard P. McCormick rendered a more nuanced judgment. He suggested that Madison's \"extreme judgment\" on the Congress was \"motivated no doubt by Madison's overriding desire to create a new central government that would be empowered veto the acts of state legislatures,\" but that it fails \"to take any notice of the fact that while the authority of the Confederation Congress was ambiguous, it was not a nullity\".",
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"plaintext": "Benjamin Irvin in his social and cultural history of the Continental Congress, praised \"the invented traditions by which Congress endeavored to fortify the resistance movement and to make meaning of American independence.\" But he noted that after the war's end, \"Rather than passively adopting the Congress's creations, the American people embraced, rejected, reworked, ridiculed, or simply ignored them as they saw fit.\"",
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"plaintext": "An organizational culture analysis of the Continental Congress by Neil Olsen, looking for the values, norms, and underlying assumptions that drive an organization's decisions, noted that \"the leaderless Continental Congress outperformed not only the modern congress run by powerful partisan hierarchies, but modern government and corporate entities, for all their coercive power and vaunted skills as 'leaders'.\" Looking at their mission as defined by state resolutions and petitions entered into the Congressional Journal on its first day, it found that on the common issues of the relief of Boston, securing Colonial rights, eventually restoring harmonious relations with Great Britain, and repealing taxes, they overachieved their mission goals, defeated the largest army and navy in the world, and created two new types of republic. Olsen suggests that the Congress, if slow, when judged by its many achievements – not the least being recognizing its flaws, then replacing and terminating itself – was a success.",
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"plaintext": "1774",
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"plaintext": " September 5: First Continental Congress convenes at Philadelphia's Carpenter's Hall",
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"plaintext": " October 14: Declaration and Resolves of the First Continental Congress is adopted",
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"plaintext": " October 18: Continental Association is adopted",
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"plaintext": " October 25: First Petition to the King is signed",
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"plaintext": " October 26: Congress adjourns, resolving to reconvene the following May if grievances were not redressed",
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{
"plaintext": "1775",
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{
"plaintext": " April 19: War begins at the Battles of Lexington and Concord",
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"plaintext": " May 10: Second Continental Congress convenes at Philadelphia's State House",
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"plaintext": " June 14: Congress establishes the Continental Army",
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"plaintext": " June 15: Congress appoints one of its members, George Washington, as commander of the Continental Army",
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"plaintext": " July 1: King George III addresses Parliament, stating they will \"put a speedy end\" to the rebellion",
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"plaintext": " July 6: Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms is approved",
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"plaintext": " July 8: Second petition to the king (the Olive Branch Petition) is signed and sent to London",
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"plaintext": " August 23: In his Proclamation of Rebellion (officially titled \"A Proclamation for Suppressing Rebellion and Sedition\"), King George III declares elements of the American colonies in \"open and avowed rebellion\" and orders officials of the British Empire \"to use their utmost endeavours to withstand and suppress such rebellion\" ",
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"plaintext": " October 13: Congress establishes the Continental Navy",
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"plaintext": " November 10: Congress establishes the Continental Marines",
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{
"plaintext": "1776",
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{
"plaintext": " January 10: Thomas Paine publishes Common Sense",
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"plaintext": " June 7: Richard Henry Lee of Virginia presents a three-part resolution to Congress, calling on Congress to declare independence, form foreign alliances, and prepare a plan of colonial confederation",
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"plaintext": " June 10: Congress votes on June 10 to postpone further discussion of Lee's resolution for three weeks to allow time for the delegates to confer with their state assemblies",
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{
"plaintext": " June 11: Congress appoints a \"Committee of Five\", Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, John Adams of Massachusetts, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Roger Sherman of Connecticut and Robert R. Livingston of New York, to draft a declaration justifying independence.",
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{
"plaintext": " June 12: Congress appoints a Committee of Thirteen to draft of a constitution for a union of the states",
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{
"plaintext": " July 2: Lee Resolution (also known as \"The Resolution for Independence\"), asserting the independence of the 13 colonies from Great Britain, is adopted",
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{
"plaintext": " July 4: Final text of the Declaration of Independence is adopted",
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{
"plaintext": " July 12: John Dickinson presents the Committee of Thirteen's draft constitution to Congress",
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{
"plaintext": " August 2: Delegates sign an engrossed copy of the Declaration of Independence",
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{
"plaintext": " December 12: Congress adjourns to move to Baltimore, Maryland",
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{
"plaintext": " December 20: Congress convenes in Baltimore at the Henry Fite House",
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{
"plaintext": "1777",
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{
"plaintext": " February 27: Congress adjourns to return to Philadelphia",
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{
"plaintext": " March 4: Congress reconvenes at Philadelphia's State House",
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{
"plaintext": " June 14: Flag Resolution, defining the design of the flag of the United States of America, is adopted",
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"plaintext": " September 18: Congress adjourns in order to move to Lancaster, Pennsylvania",
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{
"plaintext": " September 27: Congress convenes for one day in Lancaster, at the Court House",
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 30: Congress reconvenes at York, Pennsylvania at the Court House",
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},
{
"plaintext": " November 15: Final text of the Articles of Confederation is approved and sent to the states for ratification",
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"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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32,
57
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "1778",
"section_idx": 7,
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},
{
"plaintext": " June 27: Congress adjourns to return to Philadelphia",
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{
"plaintext": " July 2: Congress reconvenes in Philadelphia, first at College Hall, then at the State House",
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},
{
"plaintext": "1780",
"section_idx": 7,
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{
"plaintext": " January 15: Congress establishes the Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture",
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"anchor_spans": [
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38,
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},
{
"plaintext": "1781",
"section_idx": 7,
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},
{
"plaintext": " March 1: Having been ratified by all 13 states, the Articles of Confederation becomes effective; Continental Congress becomes the Congress of the Confederation",
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},
{
"plaintext": " May 26: Proposed plan from Robert Morris to establish Bank of North America approved by Congress",
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},
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"plaintext": " October 17: Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown, Virginia",
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26,
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"plaintext": " December 31: Bank of North America chartered by Congress",
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14,
35
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},
{
"plaintext": "1783",
"section_idx": 7,
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},
{
"plaintext": " June 21: The Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783 forces congress to flee Philadelphia.",
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"plaintext": " June 30: Congress reconvenes in Princeton, New Jersey, first at a house named \"Prospect,\" then Nassau Hall",
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"plaintext": " November 4: Congress adjourns to move to Annapolis, Maryland",
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{
"plaintext": " November 26: Congress reconvenes at Annapolis, in the State House",
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"plaintext": " December 23: George Washington resigns from the Army",
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{
"plaintext": "1784",
"section_idx": 7,
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{
"plaintext": " January 14: The Treaty of Paris is ratified",
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17,
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{
"plaintext": " May 7: Thomas Jefferson is appointed as a minister to France",
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{
"plaintext": " August 19: Congress adjourns to move to Trenton, New Jersey",
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{
"plaintext": " November 1: Congress reconvenes at Trenton, at the French Arms Tavern",
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{
"plaintext": " December 24: Congress adjourns to move to New York City",
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{
"plaintext": "1785",
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{
"plaintext": " January 11: Congress reconvenes in New York City, first at City Hall, then at Fraunces Tavern",
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"plaintext": " March 25–28: Maryland–Virginia Conference held at Mount Vernon",
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14,
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"plaintext": " March 28: Mount Vernon Compact is signed between Maryland and Virginia covering the use of the Potomac River",
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{
"plaintext": "1786",
"section_idx": 7,
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{
"plaintext": " August 29: Shays' Rebellion begins",
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"plaintext": " September 11–14: 1786 Annapolis Convention held; delegates issues a report calling for another meeting in the spring with delegates from all states",
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"plaintext": "1787",
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"plaintext": " February 21: Congress calls a constitutional convention \"for the sole and express purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation and reporting to Congress and the several legislatures such alterations and provisions therein and when agreed to in Congress and confirmed by the States render the Federal Constitution adequate to the exigencies of Government and the preservation of the Union\"",
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"plaintext": " May 25: Constitutional Convention convenes in Philadelphia; every state except for Rhode Island sends delegates",
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"plaintext": " July 13: Congress passes the Northwest Ordinance",
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"plaintext": " September 17: Constitutional Convention adjourns after completing work on the United States Constitution",
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"plaintext": " September 28: Congress votes to transmit the proposed Constitution to the 13 states for ratification",
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"plaintext": "1788",
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"plaintext": " July 2: Congress President Cyrus Griffin informs Congress that New Hampshire has ratified the Constitution and notes that it is the ninth ratification, thereby allowing for the establishment of the new government",
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"plaintext": " July 8: A committee is formed to examine all ratifications received and to develop a plan for putting the new Constitution into operation.",
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"plaintext": " September 13: Congress certifies that the new constitution has been duly ratified and sets date for first meeting of the new federal government and the presidential election",
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"plaintext": " October 10: The last session during which the Continental Congress succeeded in achieving a quorum; and passes its last ordinance",
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{
"plaintext": " November 15: Cyrus Griffin, the 10th president of Congress under the Articles of Confederation, resigns",
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{
"plaintext": "1789",
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"plaintext": " March 2: Last meeting of the Continental Congress, held at Fraunces Tavern, is adjourned sine die; Philip Pell is the only member in attendance",
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"plaintext": " Grossman, Mark. Encyclopedia of The Continental Congress (two volumes, 2015)",
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"plaintext": " Irvin, Benjamin H. Clothed in Robes of Sovereignty: The Continental Congress and the People Out of Doors (Oxford University Press; 2011) 378 pages; analyzes the ritual and material culture used by the Continental Congress to assert its legitimacy and rally a wary public.",
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"plaintext": " Resch, John P., ed. Americans at War: Society, Culture and the Homefront vol 1 (2005), articles by scholars",
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"plaintext": " Documents from the Continental Congress and the Constitutional Convention, 1774 to 1789, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.",
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38,323 | 1,106,558,286 | Cigar | [
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"plaintext": "A cigar is a rolled bundle of dried and fermented tobacco leaves made to be smoked. Cigars are produced in a variety of sizes and shapes. Since the 20th century, almost all cigars are made of three distinct components: the filler, the binder leaf which holds the filler together, and a wrapper leaf, which is often the highest quality leaf used. Often there will be a cigar band printed with the cigar manufacturer's logo. Modern cigars often come with two bands, especially Cuban cigar bands, showing Limited Edition (Edición Limitada) bands displaying the year of production.",
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"plaintext": "Cigar tobacco is grown in significant quantities primarily in Central America and the islands of the Caribbean, including Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Ecuador, Nicaragua, Guatemala, Costa Rica, Panama, and Puerto Rico; it is also produced in the Eastern United States, Brazil and in the Mediterranean countries of Italy and Spain (in the Canary Islands), and in Indonesia and the Philippines of Southeast Asia.",
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"plaintext": "The word cigar originally derives from the Mayan sikar (\"to smoke rolled tobacco leaves\"—from si'c, \"tobacco\"). The Spanish word, \"cigarro\" spans the gap between the Mayan and modern use. The English word came into general use in 1730.",
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"plaintext": "Although the origins of cigar smoking are unknown, cigar smoking was first observed by European explorers when encountering the indigenous Taino people of Cuba. A Mayan ceramic pot from Guatemala dating back to the 10th century depicts people smoking tobacco leaves tied with a string. While tobacco was widely diffused among many of the Indigenous peoples of the islands of the Caribbean, it was completely unfamiliar to Europeans before the discovery of the New World in the 15th century. The Spanish historian, landowner, and Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas vividly described how the first scouts sent by Christopher Columbus into the interior of Cuba found",
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"plaintext": "Following the arrival of Europeans with the first wave of European colonization, tobacco became one of the primary products fueling European colonialism, and also became a driving factor in the incorporation of African slave labor. The Spanish introduced tobacco to Europeans in about 1528, and by 1533, Diego Columbus mentioned a tobacco merchant of Lisbon in his will, showing how quickly the traffic had sprung up. The French, Spanish, and Portuguese initially referred to the plant as the \"sacred herb\" because of its alleged medicinal properties.",
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"plaintext": "In time, Spanish and other European sailors adopted the practice of smoking rolls of leaves, as did the Spanish and Portuguese conquistadors. Smoking primitive cigars spread to Spain, Portugal, and eventually France, most probably through Jean Nicot, the French ambassador to Portugal, who gave his name to nicotine. Later, tobacco use spread to the Italian kingdoms, the Dutch Empire, and, after Sir Walter Raleigh's voyages to the Americas, to Great Britain. Tobacco smoking became familiar throughout Europe—in pipes in Britain—by the mid-16th century.",
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"plaintext": "Spanish cultivation of tobacco began in earnest in 1531 on the islands of Hispaniola and Santo Domingo. In 1542, tobacco started to be grown commercially in North America, when Spaniards established the first cigar factory in Cuba. Tobacco was originally thought to have medicinal qualities, but some considered it evil. It was denounced by Philip II of Spain and James I of England.",
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"plaintext": "Around 1592, the Spanish galleon San Clemente brought of tobacco seed to the Philippines over the Acapulco-Manila trade route. It was distributed among Roman Catholic missionaries, who found excellent climates and soils for growing high-quality tobacco there. The use of the cigar did not become popular until the mid 18th century, and although there are few drawings from this era, there are some reports.",
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"plaintext": "In Seven Years' War it is believed Israel Putnam brought back a cache of Havana cigars, making cigar smoking popular in the US after the American Revolution. He also brought Cuban tobacco seeds, which he planted in the Hartford area of New England. This reportedly resulted in the development of the renowned shade-grown Connecticut wrapper.",
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"plaintext": "Towards the end of the 18th century and in the 19th century, cigar smoking was common, while cigarettes were comparatively rare. Towards the end of the 19th century, Rudyard Kipling wrote his famous smoking poem, The Betrothed (1886). The cigar business was an important industry and factories employed many people before mechanized manufacturing of cigars became practical. Cigar workers in both Cuba and the US were active in labor strikes and disputes from early in the 19th century, and the rise of modern labor unions can be traced to the CMIU and other cigar worker unions.",
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"plaintext": "In 1869, Spanish cigar manufacturer Vicente Martinez Ybor moved his Principe de Gales (Prince of Wales) operations from the cigar manufacturing center of Havana, Cuba to Key West, Florida to escape the turmoil of the Ten Years' War. Other manufacturers followed, and Key West became an important cigar manufacturing center. In 1885, Ybor moved again, buying land near the small city of Tampa, Florida and building the largest cigar factory in the world at the time in the new company town of Ybor City. Friendly rival and Flor de Sánchez y Haya owner Ignacio Haya built his factory nearby the same year, and many other cigar manufacturers followed, especially after an 1886 fire that gutted much of Key West. Thousands of Cuban and Spanish tabaqueros came to the area from Key West, Cuba and New York to produce hundreds of millions of cigars annually. Local output peaked in 1929, when workers in Ybor City and West Tampa rolled over 500 million \"clear Havana\" cigars, earning the town the nickname \"Cigar Capital of the World\". At its peak, there were 150 cigar factories in Ybor city, but by early in the next decade, the factories had closed.",
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"plaintext": "In New York, cigars were made by rollers working in their homes. It was reported that as of 1883, cigars were being manufactured in 127 apartment houses in New York, employing 1,962 families and 7,924 individuals. A state statute banning the practice, passed late that year at the urging of trade unions on the basis that the practice suppressed wages, was ruled unconstitutional less than four months later. The industry, which had relocated to Brooklyn (then a separate municipality) and other places on Long Island while the law was in effect, then returned to New York.",
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"plaintext": "As of 1905, there were 80,000 cigar-making operations in the US, most of them small, family-operated shops where cigars were rolled and sold immediately. While most cigars are now made by machine, some, as a matter of prestige and quality, are rolled by hand—especially in Central America and Cuba, as well as in small chinchales in sizable cities in the US. Boxes of hand-rolled cigars bear the phrase totalmente a mano (totally by hand) or hecho a mano (made by hand). These premium hand-rolled cigars are significantly different from the machine-made cigars sold in packs at drugstores and gas stations. Since the 1990s there has been severe contention between producers and aficionados of premium handmade cigars and cigarette manufacturing companies that create machine-made cigars.",
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"plaintext": "Tobacco leaves are harvested and aged using a curing process that combines heat and shade to reduce sugar and water content without causing the larger leaves to rot. This takes between 25 and 45 days, depending upon climatic conditions and the nature of sheds used to store harvested tobacco. Curing varies by type of tobacco and desired leaf color. A slow fermentation follows, where temperature and humidity are controlled to enhance flavor, aroma, and burning characteristics while forestalling rot or disintegration.",
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"plaintext": "The leaf will continue to be baled, inspected, un-baled, re-inspected, and baled again during the aging cycle. When it has matured to manufacturer's specifications it is sorted for appearance and overall quality, and used as filler or wrapper accordingly. During this process, leaves are continually moistened to prevent damage.",
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"plaintext": "Quality cigars are still handmade. An experienced cigar-roller can produce hundreds of good, nearly identical cigars per day. The rollers keep the tobacco moist—especially the wrapper—and use specially designed crescent-shaped knives, called chavetas, to form the filler and wrapper leaves quickly and accurately. Once rolled, the cigars are stored in wooden forms as they dry, in which their uncapped ends are cut to a uniform size. From this stage, the cigar is a complete product that can be \"laid down\" and aged for decades if kept as close to 21°C (70°F) and 70% relative humidity as possible. Once purchased, proper storage is typically in a specialized cedar-lined wooden humidor.",
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"plaintext": "Some cigars, especially premium brands, use different varieties of tobacco for the filler and the wrapper. Long filler cigars are a far higher quality of cigar, using long leaves throughout. These cigars also use a third variety of tobacco leaf, called a \"binder\", between the filler and the outer wrapper. This permits the makers to use more delicate and attractive leaves as a wrapper. These high-quality cigars almost always blend varieties of tobacco. Even Cuban long-filler cigars will combine tobaccos from different parts of the island to incorporate several different flavors.",
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"plaintext": "In low-grade and machine-made cigars, chopped tobacco leaves are used for the filler, and long leaves or a type of \"paper\" made from reconstituted tobacco pulp is used for the wrapper. Chopped leaves and a pulp wrapper alter the flavor and burning characteristics of the result vis-a-vis handmade cigars.",
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"plaintext": "Historically, a lector or reader was employed to entertain cigar factory workers. This practice became obsolete once audiobooks for portable music players became available, but it is still practiced in some Cuban factories.",
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"plaintext": "Two firms dominate the cigar industry, Altadis and the Scandinavian Tobacco Group. ",
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"plaintext": "Altadis, a Spanish-owned private concern, produces cigars in the US, the Dominican Republic, and Honduras, and owns a 50% stake in Corporación Habanos S.A., the state owned national Cuban tobacco company. It also makes cigarettes. The Scandinavian Tobacco Group produces cigars in the Dominican Republic, Honduras, Nicaragua, Indonesia, the Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark and the United States; it also makes pipe tobacco and fine cut tobacco. The Group includes General Cigar Co.",
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"plaintext": "The town of Tamboril in Santiago, Dominican Republic is considered by many as today's \"Cigar Capital of the World\" housing more cigar factories and rollers than anywhere else in the world. According to Cigar Aficionado magazine, 44% of the world's most traded cigars come from the Dominican Republic, the world's largest producer of cigars, especially from the fertile lands of the Cibao capital, where 90% of the factories are located. The area has also been the largest supplier of cigars to the US in the last decades.",
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"plaintext": "Nearly all modern premium cigar makers are members of long-established cigar families, or purport to be, most originally rooted in the historic Cuban cigar industry. The art and skill of hand-making premium cigars has been passed from generation to generation. Families are often shown in many cigar advertisements and packaging.",
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"plaintext": "In 1992, Cigar Aficionado magazine created the \"Cigar Hall of Fame\" and recognized the following six individuals:",
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"plaintext": " Edgar M. Cullman, Chairman, General Cigar Company, New York, United States",
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"plaintext": " Zino Davidoff, Founder, Davidoff et Cie., Geneva, Switzerland",
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"plaintext": " Carlos Fuente Sr., Chairman, Tabacalera A. Fuente y Cia., Santiago de los Caballeros, Dominican Republic",
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"plaintext": " Stanford J. Newman, Chairman, J.C. Newman Cigar Company, Tampa, Florida, United States",
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"plaintext": " Ángel Oliva Sr. (founder); Oliva Tobacco Co., Tampa, Florida, United States",
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"plaintext": " Manuel Quesada (MATASA Current CEO) Fonseca, Casa Magna, Quesada cigars, Dominican Republic",
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"plaintext": " Don José \"Pepín\" Garcia, Chairman, El Rey de Los Habanos, Miami, Florida, United States",
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"plaintext": " Aray Family – Daniel Aray Jr, Grandson of Founder (1952) Jose Aray, ACC Cigars, Guayaquil Ecuador, San Francisco, CA, Miami Florida, Macau SAR, Shanghai China.",
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"plaintext": " EPC – Ernesto Perez-Carillo, Founder EPC Cigar Company (2009), Miami, Florida, United States",
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"plaintext": " Nestor Miranda – Founder, Miami Cigar Company (1989) Miami, FL, United States",
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"plaintext": " Blanco family – Jose \"Jochy\" Blanco, son of Founder (1936) Jose Arnaldo Blanco Polanco, Tabacalera La Palma, Santiago, Dominican Republic",
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"plaintext": " Hermann Dietrich Upmann, founder of the H. Upmann brand 1844 in Cuba",
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"plaintext": "Pure tobacco, hand rolled cigars are marketed via advertisements, product placement in movies and other media, sporting events, cigar-friendly magazines such as Cigar Aficionado, and cigar dinners. Since handmade cigars are a premium product with a hefty price, advertisements often include depictions of affluence, sensual imagery, and explicit or implied celebrity endorsement.",
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"plaintext": "Cigar Aficionado, launched in 1992, presents cigars as symbols of a successful lifestyle, and is a major conduit of advertisements that do not conform to the tobacco industry's voluntary advertisement restrictions since 1965, such as a restriction not to associate smoking with glamour. The magazine also presents pro-smoking arguments at length, and argues that cigars are safer than cigarettes, since they do not have the thousands of chemical additives that cigarette manufactures add to the cutting floor scraps of tobacco used as cigarette filler. The publication also presents arguments that risks are a part of daily life and that (contrary to the evidence discussed in Health effects) cigar smoking has health benefits, that moderation eliminates most or all health risk, and that cigar smokers live to old age, that health research is flawed, and that several health-research results support claims of safety. Like its competitor Smoke, Cigar Aficionado differs from marketing vehicles used for other tobacco products in that it makes cigars the main (but not sole) focus of the magazine, creating a symbiosis between product and lifestyle.",
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"plaintext": "In the US, cigars have historically been exempt from many of the marketing regulations that govern cigarettes. For example, the Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act of 1970 exempted cigars from its advertising ban, and cigar ads, unlike cigarette ads, need not mention health risks. As of 2007, cigars were taxed far less than cigarettes, so much so that in many US states, a pack of Little cigars cost less than half as much as a pack of cigarettes. It is illegal for minors to purchase cigars and other tobacco products in the US, but laws are unevenly enforced: a 2000 study found that three-quarters of web cigar sites allowed minors to purchase them.",
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"plaintext": "In 2009, the US Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act provided the Food and Drug Administration regulatory authority over the manufacturing, distribution, and marketing of cigarettes, roll-your-own tobacco and smokeless tobacco. In 2016, a deeming rule extended the FDA's authority to additional tobacco products including cigars, e-cigarettes and hookah. The objective of the law is to reduce the impact of tobacco on public health by preventing Americans from starting to use tobacco products, encourage current users to quit, and decrease the harms of tobacco product use.",
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"plaintext": "In the US, inexpensive cigars are sold in convenience stores, gas stations, grocery stores, and pharmacies. Premium cigars are sold in tobacconists, cigar bars, and other specialized establishments. Some cigar stores are part of chains, which have varied in size: in the US, United Cigar Stores was one of only three outstanding examples of national chains in the early 1920s, the others being A&P and Woolworth's. Non-traditional outlets for cigars include hotel shops, restaurants, vending machines and the Internet.",
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"plaintext": "Cigars are composed of three types of tobacco leaves, whose variations determine smoking and flavor characteristics:",
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"plaintext": "A cigar's outermost layer, or wrapper (Spanish: ), is the most expensive component of a cigar. The wrapper determines much of the cigar's character and flavor, and as such its color is often used to describe the cigar as a whole. Wrappers are frequently grown underneath huge canopies made of gauze so as to diffuse direct sunlight and are fermented separately from other rougher cigar components, with a view to the production of a thinly-veined, smooth, supple leaf.",
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"plaintext": "Wrapper tobacco produced without the gauze canopies under which \"shade grown\" leaf is grown, generally more coarse in texture and stronger in flavor, is commonly known as \"sun grown\". A number of different countries are used for the production of wrapper tobacco, including Cuba, Ecuador, Indonesia, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Brazil, Mexico, Cameroon, and the United States.",
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"plaintext": "While dozens of minor wrapper shades have been touted by manufacturers, the seven most common classifications are as follows, ranging from lightest to darkest:",
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"plaintext": "Some manufacturers use an alternate designation:",
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"plaintext": "In general, dark wrappers add a touch of sweetness, while light ones add a hint of dryness to the taste.",
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"plaintext": "Beneath the wrapper is a small bunch of \"filler\" leaves bound together inside of a leaf called a \"binder\" (Spanish: ). The binder leaf is typically the sun-saturated leaf from the top part of a tobacco plant and is selected for its elasticity and durability in the rolling process. Unlike the wrapper leaf, which must be uniform in appearance and smooth in texture, the binder leaf may show evidence of physical blemishes or lack uniform coloration. The binder leaf is generally considerably thicker and hardier than the wrapper leaf surrounding it.",
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"plaintext": "The bulk of a cigar is \"filler\"—a bound bunch of tobacco leaves. These leaves are folded by hand to allow air passageways down the length of the cigar, through which smoke is drawn after the cigar is lit. A cigar rolled with insufficient air passage is referred to by a smoker as \"too tight\"; one with excessive airflow creating an excessively fast, hot burn is regarded as \"too loose\". Considerable skill and dexterity on the part of the cigar roller is needed to avoid these opposing pitfalls—a primary factor in the superiority of hand-rolled cigars over their machine-made counterparts.",
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"plaintext": "By blending various varieties of filler tobacco, cigar makers create distinctive strength, odor, and flavor profiles for their various branded products. In general, fatter cigars hold more filler leaves, allowing a greater potential for the creation of complex flavors. In addition to the variety of tobacco employed, the country of origin can be one important determinant of taste, with different growing environments producing distinctive flavors.",
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"plaintext": "The fermentation and aging process adds to this variety, as does the particular part of the tobacco plant harvested, with bottom leaves (Spanish: ) having a mild flavor and burning easily, middle leaves (Spanish: ) having a somewhat stronger flavor, with potent and spicy ligero leaves taken from the sun-drenched top of the plant. When used, ligero is always folded into the middle of the filler bunch due to its slow-burning characteristics.",
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"plaintext": "Some cigar manufacturers purposely place different types of tobacco from one end to the other to give the cigar smokers a variety of tastes, body, and strength from start to finish.",
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"plaintext": "If full leaves are used as filler, a cigar is said to be composed of \"long filler\". Cigars made from smaller bits of leaf, including many machine-made cigars, are said to be made of \"short filler\".",
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"plaintext": "If a cigar is completely constructed (filler, binder, and wrapper) of tobacco produced in only one country, it is referred to in the cigar industry as a \"puro\", from the Spanish word for \"pure\".",
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"plaintext": "Cigars are commonly categorized by their size and shape, which together are known as the vitola.",
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"plaintext": "The size of a cigar is measured by two dimensions: its ring gauge (its diameter in sixty-fourths of an inch) and its length (in inches). In Cuba, next to Havana, there is a display of the world's longest rolled cigars.",
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"plaintext": "The most common shape is the parejo, sometimes referred to as simply \"coronas\", which have traditionally been the benchmark against which all other cigar formats are measured. They have a cylindrical shape their entire length, one end open, and a round tobacco-leaf \"cap\" on the other end that must be sliced off, notched, or pierced before smoking.",
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"plaintext": "Parejos are designated by the following terms:",
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"plaintext": "These dimensions are, at best, idealized. Actual dimensions can vary considerably.",
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"plaintext": "Irregularly shaped cigars are known as figurados and are often priced higher than generally similar sized parejos of a like combination of tobaccos because they are more difficult to make.",
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"plaintext": "Historically, especially during the 19th century, figurados were the most popular shapes, but by the 1930s they had fallen out of fashion and all but disappeared.",
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"plaintext": "They have recently received a small resurgence in popularity, and currently many manufacturers produce figurados alongside the simpler parejos. The Cuban cigar brand Cuaba only has figurados in their range.",
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"plaintext": "Figurados include the following:",
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"plaintext": "In practice, the terms Torpedo and Pyramid are often used interchangeably, even among knowledgeable cigar smokers. Min Ron Nee, the Hong Kong-based cigar expert whose work An Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Post-Revolution Havana Cigars is generally considered to be the definitive work on cigars and cigar terms, defines Torpedo as \"cigar slang\". Nee regards the majority usage of torpedoes as pyramids by another name as acceptable.",
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"plaintext": "Arturo Fuente, a large cigar manufacturer based in the Dominican Republic, has also manufactured figurados in exotic shapes ranging from chili peppers to baseball bats and American footballs. They are highly collectible and extremely expensive, when available to the public.",
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"plaintext": "A cigarillo is a machine-made cigar that is shorter and narrower than a traditional cigar but larger than little cigars, filtered cigars, and cigarettes, thus similar in size and composition to small panatela sized cigars, cheroots, and traditional blunts. Cigarillos are usually not filtered, although some have plastic or wood tips, and unlike other cigars, some are inhaled when used. Cigarillos are sold in varying quantities: singles, two-packs, three-packs, and five-packs. Cigarillos are very inexpensive: in the United States, usually sold for less than a dollar. Sometimes they are informally called small cigars, mini cigars, or club cigars. Some famous cigar brands, such as Cohiba or Davidoff, also make cigarillos—Cohiba Mini and Davidoff Club Cigarillos, for example. And there are purely cigarillo brands, such as Café Crème, Dannemann Moods, Mehari's, Al Capone, and Swisher Sweets. Cigarillos are often used in making marijuana cigars.",
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"plaintext": "Little cigars (sometimes called small cigars or miniatures in the UK) differ greatly from regular cigars. They weigh less than cigars and cigarillos, but, more importantly, they resemble cigarettes in size, shape, packaging, and filters. Sales of little cigars quadrupled in the US from 1971 to 1973 in response to the Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act, which banned the broadcast of cigarette advertisements and required stronger health warnings on cigarette packs. Cigars were exempt from the ban, and perhaps more importantly, were Marketing and distribution at a far lower rate. Little cigars are sometimes called \"cigarettes in disguise\", and unsuccessful attempts have been made to reclassify them as cigarettes. In the US, sales of little cigars reached an all-time high in 2006, fueled in great part by favorable taxation. In some states, little cigars have successfully been taxed at the rate of cigarettes, such as Illinois, as well as other states. This has caused yet another loophole, in which manufacturers classify their products as \"filtered cigars\" instead to avoid the higher tax rate. Yet, many continue to argue that there is in fact a distinction between little cigars and filtered cigars. Little cigars offer a similar draw and overall feel to cigarettes, but with aged and fermented tobaccos, while filtered cigars are said to be more closely related to traditional cigars, and are not meant to be inhaled. Research shows that people do inhale smoke from little cigars.",
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"plaintext": "Most machine-made cigars have pre-formed holes in one end or a wood or plastic tip for drawing in the smoke. Hand-rolled cigars require the blunt end to be pierced before lighting. The usual way to smoke a cigar is to not inhale, but to draw the smoke into the mouth. Some smokers inhale the smoke into the lungs, particularly with Little cigars. A smoker may swirl the smoke around in the mouth before exhaling it, and may exhale part of the smoke through the nose in order to smell the cigar better as well as to taste it.",
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"plaintext": "Although a handful of cigars are cut or twirled on both ends, the vast majority come with one straight cut end and the other capped with one or more small pieces of wrapper adhered with either a natural tobacco paste or with a mixture of flour and water. The cap end of a cigar must be cut or pierced for the cigar smoke to be drawn properly. ",
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"plaintext": "The basic types of cigar cutter include: ",
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"plaintext": " Guillotine (straight cut)",
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"plaintext": " Punch ",
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"plaintext": " V-cut (a.k.a. notch cut, cat's eye, wedge cut, English cut)",
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"plaintext": " Grip cutters",
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"plaintext": " Cigar Scissors",
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"plaintext": "The head, or cap, of the cigar is usually the end closest to the cigar band, the other the \"foot\". The band identifies the type of the cigar and may be removed or left on. The smoker cuts or pierces the cap before lighting.",
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"plaintext": "The cigar should be rotated during lighting to achieve an even burn while slowly drawn with gentle puffs. If a match is used it should be allowed to burn past its head before being put to the cigar, to avoid imparting unwelcome flavors or chemicals to the smoke. Many specialized gas and fluid lighters are made for lighting cigars. The tip of the cigar should minimally touch any flame, with special care used with torch lighters to avoid charring the tobacco leaves.",
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"plaintext": "A third and most traditional way to light a cigar is to use a splinter of cedar known as a spill, which is lit separately before using. The thin cedar wrapping from cigars with one may be used.",
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"plaintext": "Each brand and type of cigar has its unique taste. Whether a cigar is mild, medium, or full bodied does not correlate with quality.",
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"plaintext": "Among the factors which contribute to the scent and flavor of cigar smoke are tobacco types and qualities used for filler, binder, and wrapper, age and aging method, humidity, production techniques (handmade vs. machine-made), and added flavors. Among wrappers, darker tend to produce a sweetness, while lighter usually have a \"drier\", more neutral taste.",
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"plaintext": "Evaluating the flavor of cigars is in some respects similar to wine-tasting. Journals are available for recording personal ratings, description of flavors observed, sizes, brands, etc. Some words used to describe cigar flavor and texture include; spicy, peppery (red or black), sweet, harsh, burnt, green, earthy, woody, cocoa, chestnut, roasted, aged, nutty, creamy, cedar, oak, chewy, fruity, and leathery.",
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"plaintext": "Smoke is produced by incomplete combustion of tobacco during which at least three kinds of chemical reactions occur: pyrolysis breaks down organic molecules into simpler ones, pyrosynthesis recombines these newly formed fragments into chemicals not originally present, and distillation moves compounds such as nicotine from the tobacco into the smoke. For every gram of tobacco smoked, a cigar emits about 120–140mg of carbon dioxide, 40–60mg of carbon monoxide, 3–4mg of isoprene, 1mg each of hydrogen cyanide and acetaldehyde, and smaller quantities of a large spectrum of volatile N-nitrosamines and volatile organic compounds, with the detailed composition unknown.",
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"plaintext": "The most odorous chemicals in cigar smoke are pyridines. Along with pyrazines, they are also the most odorous chemicals in cigar smokers' breath. These substances are noticeable even at extremely low concentrations of a few parts per billion. During smoking, it is not known whether these chemicals are generated by splitting the chemical bonds of nicotine or by Maillard reaction between amino acids and sugars in the tobacco.",
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"plaintext": "Cigar smoke is more alkaline than cigarette smoke, and is absorbed more readily by the mucous membrane of the mouth, making it easier for the smoker to absorb nicotine without having to inhale. A single premium cigar may contain as much nicotine as a pack of cigarettes.",
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"plaintext": "Cigars, alongside other tobacco products, can be infested by parasites such as the Lasioderma serricorne (tobacco beetle) and the Ephestia elutella (tobacco moth), which are the most widespread and damaging parasites to the tobacco industry. Infestation can range from the tobacco cultivated in the fields to the leaves used for manufacturing cigars, cigarillos, cigarettes, etc. Both the larvae of Lasioderma serricorne and caterpillars of Ephestia elutella are considered a pest.",
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"plaintext": "The level of humidity in which cigars are kept has a significant effect on their taste and evenness of burn. It is believed that a cigar's flavor best evolves when stored at a relative humidity similar to where the tobacco is grown, and in most cases, the cigars rolled, of approximately 65–70% and a temperature of . Dry cigars become fragile and burn faster while damp cigars burn unevenly and take on a heavy acidic flavor.",
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"plaintext": "Humidors are used to maintain an even humidity level. Without one, cigars will lose moisture and acquire the ambient humidity within 2 to 3 days. A humidor's interior lining is typically constructed with three types of wood: Spanish cedar, American (or Canadian) red cedar, and Honduran mahogany. Other materials used for making or lining a humidor are acrylic, tin (mainly seen in older early humidors) and copper, used widely in the 1920s–1950s.",
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"plaintext": "Most humidors come with a plastic or metal case with a sponge that works as the humidifier, although most recent versions are of polymer acryl. The latter are filled only with distilled water; the former may use a solution of propylene glycol and distilled water. Humidifiers, and the cigars within them, may become contaminated with bacteria if they are kept too moist. New technologies employing plastic beads or gels which stabilize humidity are becoming widely available.",
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"plaintext": "A new humidor requires seasoning, after which a constant humidity must be maintained. The thicker the cedar lining the better. Many humidors contain an analog or digital hygrometer to aid in maintaining a desired humidity level. There are three types of analog: metal spring, natural hair, and synthetic hair.",
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"plaintext": "In recent times Electric Humidors, which feature a thermoelectric humidification system have become popular for larger cigar collections.",
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"plaintext": "A wide variety of cigar accessories are available, in varying qualities.",
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"plaintext": "Travel cases protect cigars from direct exposure to the elements and minimize potential damage. Most come in expandable or sturdy leather, although metal leather and plastic lined cases are found. Some feature cardboard or metal tubes for additional protection.",
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"plaintext": "Cigar Tubes are used to carry small numbers of cigars, typically one or five, referred to by their number of \"fingers\". They are usually made from stainless steel, and used for short durations. For longer, a built in humidifier and hygrometer is used.",
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"plaintext": "Ashtrays are used for collecting the ash produced by the cigar. Such ashtrays are typically larger than those used for cigarette smoking.",
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"plaintext": "A cigar holder is small tube in which the end of the cigar is held while smoked, to protect the hand from acquiring the odor of a burning cigar, historically used by women (for cigarettes as well). A cigar stand is a device used to keep a lit cigar out of an ashtray.",
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"plaintext": "Like other forms of tobacco use, cigar smoking poses a significant health risk depending on dosage: risks are greater for those who smoke more cigars, smoke them longer, or inhale more. A review of 22 studies found that cigar smoking is associated with lung cancer, oral cancer, esophageal cancer, pancreatic cancer, oropharyngeal cancer, laryngeal cancer, coronary heart disease (CHD), and aortic aneurysm. Among cigar smokers who reported that they did not inhale, relative mortality (likelihood of death) risk was still highly elevated for oral, esophageal, and laryngeal cancers.",
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"plaintext": "Danger of mortality increases proportionally to use, with smokers of one to two cigars per day showing a 2% increase in death rate, compared to non-smokers. The precise statistical health risks to those who smoke less than daily is not established.",
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"plaintext": "The depth of inhalation of cigar smoke into the lungs appears to be an important determinant of lung cancer risk:",
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"plaintext": "When cigar smokers don't inhale or smoke few cigars per day, the risks are only slightly above those of never smokers. Risks of lung cancer increase with increasing inhalation and with increasing number of cigars smoked per day, but the effect of inhalation is more powerful than that for number of cigars per day. When 5 or more cigars are smoked per day and there is moderate inhalation, the lung cancer risks of cigar smoking approximate those of a one pack per day cigarette smoker. As the tobacco smoke exposure of the lung in cigar smokers increases to approximate the frequency of smoking and depth of inhalation found in cigarette smokers, the difference in lung cancer risks produced by these two behaviors disappears.",
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"plaintext": "Cigar smoking can lead to nicotine addiction and cigarette usage. For those who inhale and smoke several cigars a day, the health risk is similar to cigarette smokers. Cigar smoking can also increase the risk of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).",
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"plaintext": "So-called \"little cigars\" are commonly inhaled and likely pose the same health risks as cigarettes, while premium cigars are not commonly inhaled or habitually used.",
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"plaintext": "The prevalence of cigar smoking varies depending on location, historical period, and population surveyed. The United States is the top consuming country by total sales by a considerable margin, followed by Germany and the United Kingdom. The U.S. and Western European countries account for about 75% of cigar sales worldwide.",
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"plaintext": "Consumption of cigars in the U.S. rose from 6.2 billion in 2000 to the peak of an enormous \"cigar boom\" of 13.8 billion in 2012, which had receded to 11.4 billion by 2015. ",
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"plaintext": "Among US adults ages 18 and older, 3% reported that they smoke cigars some days or every day (6% of men, 1% of women) in the 2015 National Health Interview Survey.",
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"plaintext": "Cigar use among youth declined sharply from 12% reporting having smoked a cigar within the past 30 days approaching the peak of the cigar boom in 2011 to 8% by 2016. Among high school students, cigar use is more common among males (10%) than females (6%). For African American high school students, cigar use is more prevalent (10%) than cigarette use (4%).",
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"plaintext": "In a reversal of previous decades' portrayal, beginning in the 1980s and 1990s major U.S. print media began to feature cigars favorably. Cigar use was generally framed as a lucrative business or trendy habit, rather than as a major health risk. It is an item whose highest quality is still something most can afford, at least for special occasions. Historic portrayals of the wealthy often caricatured cigar smokers as wearing top hats and tailcoats. Cigars are often given out and smoked to celebrate special occasions, such as the birth of a baby, but also graduations, promotions, and other totems of success. The expression \"close but no cigar\" comes from the practice of giving away cigars as prizes in fairground games which require the player to hit a target (e.g., a bullseye).",
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"plaintext": " Box-pressed",
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"plaintext": " Cabinet selection",
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"plaintext": " Cigar ash",
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"plaintext": " Cigar etiquette",
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"plaintext": " Cigar makers strike of 1877",
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"plaintext": " Cigarette",
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"plaintext": " Cigarillo",
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"plaintext": " List of cigar brands",
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"plaintext": " Smoking jacket",
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"plaintext": "Edith Abbott, \"Employment of Women in Industries: Cigar-Making: Its History and Present Tendencies,\" Journal of Political Economy, vol. 15, no. 1 (January 1907), pp.1–25. In JSTOR ",
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"plaintext": "Patricia A. Cooper, Once a Cigar Maker: Men, Women, and Work Culture in American Cigar Factories, 1900–1919 Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1987.",
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| [
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| 1,576 | 26,494 | 794 | 241 | 0 | 0 | cigar | rolled bundle of dried and fermented tobacco leaves made to be smoked | [
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|
38,325 | 1,107,520,547 | Descent | [
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"plaintext": " Inquisition – The Descent, a 2015 downloadable content pack for Dragon Age: Inquisition",
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"plaintext": " The Next Generation), a two-part 1993 episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation",
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"plaintext": " \"Descent\" (The Outer Limits), a 1999 episode of The Outer Limits",
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"plaintext": " \"The Descent\" (The Vampire Diaries), a 2011 episode of The Vampire Diaries",
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"plaintext": " \"Descent\", a 2013 episode of Los Angeles",
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"plaintext": " Dissent (homophone)",
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| 439,988 | 520 | 2 | 40 | 0 | 0 | Descent | Wikimedia disambiguation page | []
|
38,326 | 1,107,269,601 | United_Nations_Interim_Administration_Mission_in_Kosovo | [
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"plaintext": "The United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) is the officially mandated mission of the United Nations in Kosovo. The UNMIK describes its mandate as being to \"help the United Nations Security Council achieve an overall objective, namely, to ensure conditions for a peaceful and normal life for all inhabitants of Kosovo and advance regional stability in the Western Balkans.\"",
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"plaintext": "The UNMIK was established pursuant to Security Council Resolution 1244, which was passed on 10 June 1999. In that Resolution, the UN decided to \"[deploy] in Kosovo, under United Nations auspices, [an] international civil and security [presence]\".",
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"plaintext": "The UNMIK still exists today, but its day-to-day functions are relatively minor since Kosovo declared independence and adopted a new constitution, and following the creation of the European Union Rule of Law Mission in Kosovo (EULEX), which itself operates within the framework of Security Council Resolution 1244. EULEX assists and supports the Kosovo authorities in the rule of law area, specifically in the police, judiciary and customs areas. In September 2012, international supervision ended, and Kosovo became responsible for its own governance.",
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"plaintext": "The Assembly of Kosovo adopted the declaration of independence on 17 February 2008; Kosovo Serb parliamentarians boycotted the session.",
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"plaintext": "Kosovo is the subject of a long-running political and territorial dispute between the Serbian (and previously, the Yugoslav) government and Kosovo's largely ethnic Albanian population. Public opinion polls indicate that a clear majority of the Kosovo's population support Kosovo's independence. Internationally, of the United Nations 193 member states (including a majority of European countries) have recognised Kosovo's independence, but 15 countries have later revoked their recognition.",
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"plaintext": "The head of the UNMIK is the Special Representative of the Secretary-General ('SRSG') and is appointed by the Secretary-General under the advice of UN member states. Caroline Ziadeh was appointed SRSG in November 2021 and arrived in Kosovo in January 2022.",
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"plaintext": "UNMIK has been divided into four sections which it calls \"pillars\". These are:",
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"plaintext": " Pillar I: Police and justice (United Nations-led)",
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"plaintext": " Pillar II: Civil administration (United Nations-led)",
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"plaintext": " Pillar III: Democratization and institution building (led by the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe)",
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"plaintext": " Pillar IV: Reconstruction and economic development (European Union-led)",
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"plaintext": "Responsibility for enforcement of Pillars I and II had been transferred to the provisional institutions of self-government in Kosovo. The UN, however, still monitored this enforcement.",
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"plaintext": "Following a major internal restructuring of its activities, this Pillar structure underwent a change. Pillar I was dissolved causing Police Commissioner and the Director of the Department of Justice to report to SRSG instead of DSRSG as previously. Pillar II was reduced to a Department of Civil Administration and its Director also reporting directly to the SRSG. UNMIK oversees a substantial UN International Police force numbered at approximately 1,985 including Formed Police Units.",
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"plaintext": "A NATO-led force called the Kosovo Force (KFOR) provides an international security presence in support of UNMIK's work, but is not subordinate to the UN.",
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"plaintext": "The European Union led economic development includes the privatisation of former government enterprises. This policy has been opposed by Belgrade. This was formerly carried out by the KTA (Kosovo Trust Agency) an EU organisation with Jasper Dick as Managing Director. Since 2008 this role of the KTA has been taken over by The Privatisation Agency of Kosovo.",
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"plaintext": "Resolution 1244 directed the UNMIK to:",
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"plaintext": " perform basic civilian administrative functions;",
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"plaintext": " promote the establishment of substantial autonomy and self-government in Kosovo;",
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"plaintext": " facilitate a political process to determine Kosovo's future status;",
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"plaintext": " coordinate humanitarian and disaster relief of all international agencies;",
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"plaintext": " support the reconstruction of key infrastructure;",
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"plaintext": " maintain civil law and order;",
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"plaintext": " promote human rights; and",
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"plaintext": " assure the safe and unimpeded return of all refugees and displaced persons to their homes in Kosovo.",
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"plaintext": "As described above, the UNMIK no longer performs all of these functions.",
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"plaintext": "The UNMIK has been criticized for failing to achieve many of its stated objectives and is widely resented by both Kosovo Serbs and Kosovo Albanians. After seven years of work ():",
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"plaintext": " Key infrastructure is not reconstructed; specifically, electric distribution is still very problematic;",
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"plaintext": " The UNMIK created constitutional framework for Kosovo, while authorised to create only legal framework;",
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"plaintext": " The UNMIK has been slow to transfer competencies to the provisional Kosovo institutions;",
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"plaintext": " Ethnic violence has occasionally flared (most notably in March 2004);",
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"plaintext": " Corruption, including allegations of corruption within UNMIK, remains endemic;",
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"plaintext": " Human rights have been problematic, especially with Kosovo's minority communities;",
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"plaintext": " There has been a failure to eliminate parallel structures, insofar as health and education within the Kosovo Serbian community remain dependent on Serbian budgets;",
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"plaintext": " UNMIK has been accused of failing to implement an economic development strategy;",
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"plaintext": " The government of Serbia claims there are around 250,000. refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs) from Kosovo, the vast majority of whom are Serbs, who still do not feel safe returning to their homes. Kosovo Albanians displaced from the divided town of Mitrovica have yet to be granted the right to return.",
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"plaintext": " Amongst other things, according to SC Resolution 1244, Serbia is authorised to send a specific amount of its troops back into Kosovo. The UNMIK so far has prevented Serbia from doing so, thus in fact breaching the resolution.",
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"plaintext": " Since the establishment of the United Nations Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) in 1999, according to some international organizations Kosovo has become a major destination country for women and young girls trafficked into forced prostitution. There have also been allegations that the presence of UN/NATO peacekeeping troops helps \"fuel the sex trafficking trade.\" According to Amnesty International, most of these women are trafficked from Moldova, Romania, Bulgaria and Ukraine.",
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"plaintext": " On 10 February 2007 UN police fired rubber bullets at unarmed demonstrators in Pristina, killing two and injuring 82. The Chief Constable resigned; however, the police unit that fired the rubber bullets returned to Romania, where it has not been investigated. Meanwhile, in Pristina, UNMIK arrested and detained the demonstration organiser, Albin Kurti of VETËVENDOSJE! (Albanian for self-determination). He remained in detention without trial until July 2007 and was subsequently placed under house arrest. Amnesty International has criticised UNMIK's conduct of his prosecution.",
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"plaintext": "In June 2005, a BBC article suggested that the European Roma Rights Centre were to sue UNMIK over the treatment of Roma refugees.",
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"plaintext": "In July 2006, a book, Peace at Any Price: How the World Failed Kosovo, written by two former senior staffers at UNMIK, exposed a catalogue of errors and incompetence in the institution over its seven-year history.",
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"plaintext": "A UN-led political process began in late 2005 to determine Kosovo's future status. Belgrade proposed that Kosovo be highly autonomous and remain a part of Serbia — Belgrade officials repeatedly said that an imposition of Kosovo's independence would be a violation of Serbia's sovereignty and therefore contrary to international law and the UN Charter. Representatives of Kosovo's ethnic-Albanian majority asserted that Kosovo must become independent, arguing that the violence of the Milošević years made continued union between Kosovo and Serbia impossible.",
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"plaintext": "UN Special Envoy Martti Ahtisaari, a former president of Finland, led the status process with Austrian diplomat Albert Rohan as his deputy. Ahtisaari's office — the UN Office of the Special Envoy for Kosovo (UNOSEK) — was located in Vienna and includes liaison staff from the NATO, the European Union and the United States.",
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"plaintext": "The initial status negotiations focused on technical issues important for Kosovo's long-term stability, particularly the rights and protection of Kosovo's minorities (and especially the Kosovo Serbs). Ahtisaari brought the parties together for the first direct dialogue in February 2006 to discuss decentralization of local government, an important measure in the protection of Kosovo Serb communities. Subsequent meetings addressed economic issues, property rights, protection of Serbian Orthodox Church heritage and institutional guarantees for the rights of Kosovo's minorities.",
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"plaintext": "On 24 July 2006, Ahtisaari brought the parties together in Vienna for the first high-level talks on the status outcome itself, where the parties presented their respective platforms for Kosovo's future status. Serbia was represented by its President, Boris Tadić and Prime Minister, Vojislav Koštunica, while Kosovo was represented by its President, Fatmir Sejdiu and Prime Minister, Agim Çeku. Ahtisaari later told the press that the meeting resulted in no breakthroughs, but added that the discussion was \"frank and candid\" and the atmosphere was better than he could have expected.",
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"plaintext": "Ahtisaari briefed Contact Group foreign ministers on 20 September 2006, in New York City at a meeting chaired by U.S. Secretary of state Condoleezza Rice. At that meeting, the Contact Group released a press statement that reaffirmed its desire to work towards a negotiated settlement in the course of 2006 and also endorsed Ahtisaari's plans to develop a comprehensive proposal for a status settlement.",
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"plaintext": "As the end of 2006 neared, and despite progress on technical matters, both parties remained diametrically opposed on the question of status itself.",
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"plaintext": "On 2 February 2007, Ahtisaari delivered to representatives in Belgrade and Pristina a draft status settlement proposal. The proposal covered a wide range of issues related to Kosovo's future, in particular measures to protect Kosovo's non-Albanian communities such as decentralization of government, protection of Serbian Orthodox Church heritage and institutional protections for non-Albanian communities, which would remain in place for at least three years. Whilst not mentioning the word \"independence,\" the draft included several provisions that were widely interpreted as implying statehood for Kosovo. In particular, the draft Settlement would give Kosovo the right to apply for membership in international organizations, to create a Kosovo Security Force and adopt national symbols. Ahtisaari conducted several weeks of consultations with the parties in Vienna to finalize the Settlement, including a high-level meeting on 10 March 2007 that brought together the Presidents and Prime Ministers of both sides. After this meeting, leaders from both sides signalled a total unwillingness to compromise on their central demands (Kosovo Albanians for Kosovo's independence; Belgrade for continued sovereignty over Kosovo). Concluding that there was little hope of the two sides reconciling their positions independently, Ahtisaari said he would submit to the UN Security Council his own proposed status arrangements, including an explicit recommendation for the status outcome itself, by the end of March.",
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"plaintext": "Most international observers believed that these negotiations would lead to Kosovo's independence, subject to a period of international supervision. Nevertheless, Russian President Vladimir Putin stated in September 2006 that Russia might veto a UN Security Council proposal on Kosovo's final status that applied different standards than those applied to the separatist Georgian regions of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. The Russian ambassador to Serbia asserted that Russia will use its veto power unless the solution is acceptable to both Belgrade and Kosovo Albanians.",
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"plaintext": "In a survey carried out by the UNDP and published in March 2007, 96% of Kosovo Albanians and 77% of non-Serb minorities in Kosovo wanted Kosovo to become independent within present borders. Some 78% of the Serb minority wanted Kosovo to remain an autonomous province within Serbia. Just 2.5% of the ethnic-Albanians wanted unification with Albania. Separately, the UN refugee agency made contingency plans for up to 70,000 further Serbian refugees in the wake of any successful independence claim by Kosovo Albanians.",
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"plaintext": "In early May 2007, European members of the UN Security Council, Germany and the United States circulated a draft UN Security Council resolution that would replace UN Security Council Resolution 1244, endorse Ahtisaari's proposals and end the UN administration of Kosovo after a transition period of 120 days. The US Permanent Representative to the UN said that the European/US draft had enough support in the Security Council to be adopted unless Russia chose to object.",
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"plaintext": " Whilst most observers had, at the beginning of the talks, anticipated independence as the most likely outcome, others suggested that a rapid resolution might not be preferable.",
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"plaintext": "The Contact Group said that, regardless of the outcome of the present negotiations, a new International Civilian Office (ICO) will be established in Kosovo to take up the civil administration provided for under UNSCR 1244, supervise the implementation of any status settlement and safeguard minority rights. NATO leaders said that the presence of KFOR will be maintained in Kosovo after any status settlement. The EU will establish a European Security and Defense Policy Rule of Law mission to focus on the policing and justice sectors.",
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"plaintext": "As of early July 2007 the draft resolution, backed by the United States, the United Kingdom and other European members of the United Nations Security Council, was rewritten four times to try to accommodate Russian concerns, and despite talks between the Presidents of Russia and the United States. Russia stated that it would not support any resolution which was not acceptable to both parties. Representatives of the states backing independence expressed hope that agreement can be found amongst the Security Council. One Western diplomat, quoted by a British newspaper, offered an opinion on the state of negotiations: \"I wouldn’t say it was game, set and match to the Russians but it is game and set\".",
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"plaintext": "Whilst the draft resolution on Kosovo's status had yet to be endorsed by the Security Council, senior US officials had been suggesting that an agreement might be reached by 2008. The US assistant secretary of state for European affairs told delegates at a NATO conference in Croatia that he hoped that Kosovo's future could be resolved in the months leading up to the alliance's next summit meeting in Romania in April of that year. Were the draft resolution to fail, observers had been speculating that fresh talks between the parties might follow.",
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"plaintext": "On Monday, 16 July 2007, after many weeks of discussions at the Security Council, Russia rejected a fifth draft of a Security Council resolution based on the Ahtisaari proposals. British and European Union officials suggested on 17 July 2007 that a final draft would be presented 'within days' in an effort to secure Russian support. European Union foreign policy chief proposed new talks between Belgrade and Kosovo Albanians if this final draft failed, lasting for a period of four months and under the guidance of the Contact Group of leading nations.",
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"plaintext": "Concerns remain that a failure to secure a resolution favourable to Kosovo Albanian opinion might lead to violence in Kosovo, including in the period up to a possible election in November 2007. Kosovo newspaper Zeri suggested, Reuters reported, that Contact Group nations might be considering an international conference on Kosovo in September in Paris.",
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"plaintext": "The United States, United Kingdom and other European members of the Security Council formally 'discarded' a draft resolution backing Ahtisaari's proposal on 20 July 2007, having failed to secure Russian backing. Kosovo Albanian leaders reacted by proposing unilateral independence for 28 November 2007, though the UN would be required to overrule any such action.",
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"plaintext": "Recognition of any unilateral declaration of independence would likely be of central importance; though US officials have indicated that they might support such a move, European nations have argued against unilateral moves by either side. French foreign minister and former UN Kosovo chief, Bernard Kouchner, warned that a unilateral declaration would split the European Union over recognition of the independence, whilst US State Department spokesman Sean McCormack commented that, 'There is nothing to be gained by short-circuiting the diplomatic process that is under way.' Violence is feared in Kosovo should Kosovo Albanian demands for independence not be met.",
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"plaintext": "Despite the deadlock, the European Union has already drawn-up plans to admit the province. A 72-member European Union delegation with 200 local support staff would have a mandate to oversee implementation of the UN plan. An EU chief representative would continue to perform the same duties as the SRSG, with veto power over government decisions and the authority to fire officials found obstructing the implementation of the UN Security Council resolution.",
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"plaintext": "After being posted to the UN Kosovo Mission as a corruption fighter, James Wasserstrom was later dismissed after reporting misconduct of UN personnel in Kosovo.",
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"plaintext": "After the war ended, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 1244 that placed Kosovo under transitional UN administration (UNMIK) and authorized the KFOR, a NATO-led peacekeeping force. Almost immediately, returning Kosovo Albanians attacked Kosovo Serbs, causing some 200,000-280,000 Serbs and other non-Albanians to flee (note: the current number of internally displaced persons is disputed, with estimates ranging from 65,000 to 250,000). Many displaced Serbs are afraid to return to their homes, even with UNMIK protection.",
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"plaintext": "According to Amnesty International, the presence of peacekeepers in Kosovo led to an increase in the trafficking of women for sexual exploitation.",
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"plaintext": "In 2001, UNMIK promulgated a Constitutional Framework for Kosovo that established the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government (PISG), including an elected Kosovo Assembly, Presidency and office of Prime Minister. Kosovo held its first free, Kosovo-wide elections in late 2001 (municipal elections had been held the previous year). UNMIK oversaw the establishment of a professional, multi-ethnic Kosovo Police Service.",
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"plaintext": "In March 2004, Kosovo experienced its worst inter-ethnic violence since the Kosovo War. The unrest in 2004 was sparked by a series of minor events that soon cascaded into large-scale riots. This event was the motive for protests since no one was ever arrested nor personally accused in the case. Protesting, the Kosovo Albanians mobs burned hundreds of Serbian houses, Serbian Orthodox Church sites (including some medieval churches and monasteries) and UN facilities. Kosovo Police established a special investigation team to handle cases related to the 2004 unrest and according to Kosovo Judicial Council by the end of 2006 the 326 charges filed by municipal and district prosecutors for criminal offenses in connection with the unrest had resulted in 200 indictments: convictions in 134 cases, and courts acquitted eight and dismissed 28; 30 cases were pending. International prosecutors and judges handled the most sensitive cases.",
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"plaintext": "Employees of the Yugoslav (now Serbian) government have since 1999 been receiving a stipend called kosovski dodatak.",
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"plaintext": "On 17 February 2008, Kosovo declared independence; Kosovo Serb parliamentarians, boycotted the session. Serbian Prime Minister Vojislav Koštunica responded by stating, \"Today, this policy of force thinks that it has triumphed by establishing a false state.\"",
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"plaintext": "In August 2008 after the Kosovan Constitution came into play, the UN decided to cut staff levels by 70% during a UN reconfiguration in the country. Much of the UN powers in Kosovo were transferred to the Kosovan Government and the EU policing mission in Kosovo called the European Union Rule of Law Mission in Kosovo (EULEX).",
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"plaintext": "Plans for the UNMIK to hand authority over to the EULEX mission after Kosovo's constitution was approved faltered as a result of Russian opposition to Kosovo's unilateral declaration of independence. The UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon decided to reconfigure the mission for a temporary period. Reportedly the UN will give way to the EU mission in Albanian areas, but retain control over police in Serb-inhabited areas and set up local and district courts serving minority Serbs. The move is in response to opposition to the EU presence in North Kosovo and other Serb-dominated areas.",
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"plaintext": "In December 2008, the European Union Rule of Law Mission in Kosovo (EULEX) assumed most of UNMIK's roles, assisting and supporting the Kosovo authorities in the rule of law area, specifically in the police, judiciary and customs areas. As of March 2011, UNMIK's recent work includes the overseeing the liquidation and privatization of failed businesses.",
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"plaintext": "The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund granted membership to Kosovo in July 2009. Membership with the World Bank, under the aegis of Ranjit Nayak, the World Bank Representative in Kosovo (since February 2007), has resulted in Kosovo being treated by the World Bank as its 186th member country instead of being under United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244.",
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"plaintext": " R. Bruce Hitchner and Paul Williams, \"Op-Ed: A Defining Moment\", (March 23, 2004), The Baltimore Sun.",
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"plaintext": " Militärgeschichtliches Forschungsamt (MGFA), Wegweiser zur Geschichte, Kosovo, 3. Auflage, 2008, .",
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"plaintext": " D. Rossbacher, Friedenssicherung am Beispiel der Interimsverwaltung der Vereinten Nationen im Kosovo (UNMIK), Die Zivilverwaltung als neue Form der Friedenssicherung, 2004, .",
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"plaintext": " K. Hassine, Housing and Property Directorate/Claims Commission in Kosovo (HPD/CC), Eine Studie zur Modellwirkung von HPD/CC für den internationalen Eigentumsschutz Privater, mit einem Vorwort von Dr. Veijo Heiskanen, Studienreihe des Ludwig Boltzmann Instituts für Menschenrechte, Band 21, Neuer Wissenschaftlicher Verlag 2009, .",
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"plaintext": " H.-J. Stromeyer, Collapse and Reconstruction of a Judicial System: The United Nations Missions in Kosovo and East Timor, in: American Journal of International Law, Vol. 95, 2001, S. 46–63.",
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"plaintext": " Amnesty International - Kosovo: Trafficked women and girls have human rights",
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38,327 | 1,107,725,393 | Cigarette | [
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"plaintext": "A cigarette is a narrow cylinder containing burnable material, typically tobacco, that is rolled into thin paper for smoking. The cigarette is ignited at one end, causing it to smolder; the resulting smoke is orally inhaled via the opposite end. Cigarette smoking is the most common method of tobacco consumption. The term cigarette, as commonly used, refers to a tobacco cigarette, but the word is sometimes used to refer to other substances, such as a cannabis cigarette or an herbal cigarette. A cigarette is distinguished from a cigar by its usually smaller size, use of processed leaf, and paper wrapping, which is typically white.",
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"plaintext": "Since the 1920s, scientists and doctors have been able to link smoking with respiratory illness. Researchers have identified negative health effects from smoking cigarettes such as cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, heart disease, and other health problems relating to nearly every organ of the body. Nicotine, the psychoactive drug in tobacco, makes cigarettes highly addictive. About half of cigarette smokers die of tobacco-related disease and lose on average 14 years of life. Every year, tobacco cigarettes kill more than 8 million people worldwide; with 1.2 million of those being non-smokers dying as the result of exposure to second-hand smoke. Second-hand smoke from cigarettes causes many of the same health problems as smoking, including cancer, which has led to legislation and policy that has prohibited smoking in many workplaces and public areas. Cigarette smoke contains over 7,000 chemical compounds, including arsenic, formaldehyde, hydrogen cyanide, lead, carbon monoxide, acrolein, and other poisonous substances. Over 70 of these are carcinogenic. Most modern cigarettes are filtered, although this does not make the smoke inhaled from them contain fewer carcinogens and harmful chemicals. Cigarette use by pregnant women has also been shown to cause birth defects, including low birth weight, fetal abnormalities, and premature birth. Smoking rates have generally declined in the developed world, but continue to rise in some developing nations.",
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"plaintext": "Because of their adverse health effects many countries have strict legislation concerning the marketing and purchasing age of tobacco. Most nations outright ban commercials on cigarettes and have levied taxes on them to dissuade smokers to continue the habit. The first country to introduce a large scale antismoking campaign was Nazi Germany and despite its minimal success it did create a blueprint for many other nations to follow.",
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"plaintext": "In the 21st century, a product called an electronic cigarette (e-cigarette or vape) was developed, in which the substance contained within it (typically a liquid solution containing nicotine) is vaporized by a battery-powered heating element, as opposed to being burned. Such devices are commonly promoted by their manufacturers as safer alternatives to conventional cigarettes, although there are some health risks associated with their use. Since e-cigarettes are a relatively new product, scientists do not possess data on their possible long-term health effects.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest forms of cigarettes were similar to their predecessor, the cigar. Cigarettes appear to have had antecedents in Mexico and Central America around the 9th century in the form of reeds and smoking tubes. The Maya, and later the Aztecs, smoked tobacco and other psychoactive drugs in religious rituals and frequently depicted priests and deities smoking on pottery and temple engravings. The cigarette and the cigar were the most common methods of smoking in the Caribbean, Mexico, and Central and South America until recent times.",
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"plaintext": "The North American, Central American, and South American cigarette used various plant wrappers; when it was brought back to Spain, maize wrappers were introduced, and by the 17th century, fine paper. The resulting product was called papelate and is documented in Goya's paintings La Cometa, La Merienda en el Manzanares, and El juego de la pelota a pala (18th century).",
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"plaintext": "By 1830, the cigarette had crossed into France, where it received the name cigarette; and in 1845, the French state tobacco monopoly began manufacturing them. The French word was adopted by English in the 1840s. Some American reformers promoted the spelling cigaret, but this was never widespread and is now largely abandoned. Cigarettes are sometimes also called a fag in British slang.",
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"plaintext": "The first patented cigarette-making machine was invented by Juan Nepomuceno Adorno of Mexico in 1847. In the 1850s, Turkish cigarette leaves had become popular. However, production climbed markedly when another cigarette-making machine was developed in the 1880s by James Albert Bonsack, which vastly increased the productivity of cigarette companies, which went from making about 40,000 hand-rolled cigarettes daily to around 4 million. At the time, these imported cigarettes from America had significant sales among the British smokers.",
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"plaintext": "In the English-speaking world, the use of tobacco in cigarette form became increasingly widespread during and after the Crimean War, when British soldiers began emulating their Ottoman Turkish comrades and Russian enemies, who had begun rolling and smoking tobacco in strips of old newspaper for lack of proper cigar-rolling leaf. This was helped by the development of tobaccos suitable for cigarette use, and by the development of the Egyptian cigarette export industry.",
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"plaintext": "Cigarettes may have been initially used in a manner similar to pipes, cigars, and cigarillos and not inhaled; for evidence, see the Lucky Strike ad campaign asking",
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"plaintext": "consumers \"Do You Inhale?\" from the 1930s. As cigarette tobacco became milder and more acidic, inhaling may have become perceived as more agreeable. However, Moltke noticed in the 1830s (cf. Unter dem Halbmond) that Ottomans (and he himself) inhaled the Turkish tobacco and Latakia from their pipes (which are both initially sun-cured, acidic leaf varieties).",
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"plaintext": "The widespread smoking of cigarettes in the Western world is largely a 20th-century phenomenon. At the start of the 20th century, the per capita annual consumption in the U.S. was 54 cigarettes (with less than 0.5% of the population smoking more than 100 cigarettes per year), and consumption there peaked at 4,259 per capita in 1965. At that time, about 50% of men and 33% of women smoked (defined as smoking more than 100 cigarettes per year). By 2000, consumption had fallen to 2,092 per capita, corresponding to about 30% of men and 22% of women smoking more than 100 cigarettes per year, and by 2006 per capita consumption had declined to 1,691; implying that about 21% of the population smoked 100 cigarettes or more per year.",
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"plaintext": "By the late 19th century cigarettes were known as coffins nails but the link between lung cancer and smoking wasn't established until the 20th century. German doctors were the first to make the link, and it led to the first antitobacco movement in Nazi Germany.",
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"plaintext": "During World War I and World War II, cigarettes were rationed to soldiers. During the Vietnam War, cigarettes were included with C-ration meals. In 1975, the U.S. government stopped putting cigarettes in military rations. During the second half of the 20th century, the adverse health effects of tobacco smoking started to become widely known and text-only health warnings became common on cigarette packets.",
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"plaintext": "The United States has not implemented graphical cigarette warning labels, which are considered a more effective method to communicate to the public the dangers of cigarette smoking. Canada, Mexico, Belgium, Denmark, Sweden, Thailand, Malaysia, India, Pakistan, Australia, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Peru, Greece, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Hungary, the United Kingdom, France, Romania, Singapore, Egypt, Jordan, Nepal and Turkey, however, have both textual warnings and graphic visual images displaying, among other things, the damaging effects tobacco use has on the human body.",
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"plaintext": "The cigarette has evolved much since its conception; for example, the thin bands that travel transverse to the \"axis of smoking\" (thus forming circles along the length of the cigarette) are alternate sections of thin and thick paper to facilitate effective burning when being drawn, and retard burning when at rest. Synthetic particulate filters may remove some of the tar before it reaches the smoker.",
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"plaintext": "The \"holy grail\" for cigarette companies has been a cancer-free cigarette. On record, the closest historical attempt was produced by scientist James Mold. Under the name project TAME, he produced the XA cigarette. However, in 1978, his project was terminated.",
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"plaintext": "Since 1950, the average nicotine and tar content of cigarettes has steadily fallen. Research has shown that the fall in overall nicotine content has led to smokers inhaling larger volumes per puff.",
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"plaintext": "Manufacturers have described the cigarette as \"a drug administration system for the delivery of nicotine in acceptable and attractive form\". Modern commercially manufactured cigarettes are seemingly simple objects consisting mainly of a tobacco blend, paper, PVA glue to bond the outer layer of paper together, and often also a cellulose acetate–based filter. While the assembly of cigarettes is straightforward, much focus is given to the creation of each of the components, in particular the tobacco blend. A key ingredient that makes cigarettes more addictive is the inclusion of reconstituted tobacco, which has additives to make nicotine more volatile as the cigarette burns.",
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"plaintext": "The paper for holding the tobacco blend may vary in porosity to allow ventilation of the burning ember or contain materials that control the burning rate of the cigarette and stability of the produced ash. The papers used in tipping the cigarette (forming the mouthpiece) and surrounding the filter stabilize the mouthpiece from saliva and moderate the burning of the cigarette, as well as the delivery of smoke with the presence of one or two rows of small laser-drilled air holes.",
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"plaintext": "The process of blending gives the end product a consistent taste from batches of tobacco grown in different areas of a country that may change in flavor profile from year to year due to different environmental conditions.",
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"plaintext": "Modern cigarettes produced after the 1950s, although composed mainly of shredded tobacco leaf, use a significant quantity of tobacco processing byproducts in the blend. Each cigarette's tobacco blend is made mainly from the leaves of flue-cured brightleaf, burley tobacco, and oriental tobacco. These leaves are selected, processed, and aged prior to blending and filling. The processing of brightleaf and burley tobaccos for tobacco leaf \"strips\" produces several byproducts such as leaf stems, tobacco dust, and tobacco leaf pieces (\"small laminate\"). To improve the economics of producing cigarettes, these byproducts are processed separately into forms where they can then be added back into the cigarette blend without an apparent or marked change in the cigarette's quality. The most common tobacco byproducts include:",
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"plaintext": " Blended leaf (BL) sheet: a thin, dry sheet cast from a paste made with tobacco dust collected from tobacco stemming, finely milled burley-leaf stem, and pectin.",
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"plaintext": " Reconstituted leaf (RL) sheet: a paper-like material made from recycled tobacco fines, tobacco stems and \"class tobacco\", which consists of tobacco particles less than 30 mesh in size (about 0.6mm) that are collected at any stage of tobacco processing: RL is made by extracting the soluble chemicals in the tobacco byproducts, processing the leftover tobacco fibers from the extraction into a paper, and then reapplying the extracted materials in concentrated form onto the paper in a fashion similar to what is done in paper sizing. At this stage, ammonium additives are applied to make reconstituted tobacco an effective nicotine delivery system.",
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"plaintext": " Expanded (ES) or improved stem (IS): ES is rolled, flattened, and shredded leaf stems that are expanded by being soaked in water and rapidly heated. Improved stem follows the same process, but is simply steamed after shredding. Both products are then dried. These products look similar in appearance, but are different in taste.",
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"plaintext": "Most commercially available cigarettes today contain tobacco that is treated with butterfat and sugar to mask the bitter taste of nicotine. Tobacco companies also use tobacco that has been freebased or modified to increase the speed of nicotine delivery.",
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"plaintext": "In recent years, the manufacturers' pursuit of maximum profits has led to the practice of using not just the leaves, but also recycled tobacco offal and the plant stem. The stem is first crushed and cut to resemble the leaf before being merged or blended into the cut leaf. According to data from the World Health Organization, the amount of tobacco per 1000 cigarettes fell from in 1960 to in 1999, largely as a result of reconstituting tobacco, fluffing, and additives.",
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"plaintext": "A recipe-specified combination of brightleaf, burley-leaf, and oriental-leaf tobacco is mixed with various additives to improve its flavors.",
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"plaintext": "Various additives are combined into the shredded tobacco product mixtures, with humectants such as propylene glycol or glycerol, as well as flavoring products and enhancers such as cocoa solids, licorice, tobacco extracts, and various sugars, which are known collectively as \"casings\". The leaf tobacco is then shredded, along with a specified amount of small laminate, expanded tobacco, BL, RL, ES, and IS. A perfume-like flavor/fragrance, called the \"topping\" or \"toppings\", which is most often formulated by flavor companies, is then blended into the tobacco mixture to improve the consistency in flavor and taste of the cigarettes associated with a certain brand name. Additionally, they replace lost flavors due to the repeated wetting and drying used in processing the tobacco. Finally, the tobacco mixture is filled into cigarette tubes and packaged.",
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"plaintext": "A list of 599 cigarette additives, created by five major American cigarette companies, was approved by the Department of Health and Human Services in April 1994. None of these additives is listed as an ingredient on the cigarette pack(s). Chemicals are added for organoleptic purposes and many boost the addictive properties of cigarettes, especially when burned.",
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"plaintext": "One of the classes of chemicals on the list, ammonia salts, convert bound nicotine molecules in tobacco smoke into free nicotine molecules. This process, known as freebasing, could potentially increase the effect of nicotine on the smoker, but experimental data suggests that absorption is, in practice, unaffected.",
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"plaintext": "Cigarette tubes are prerolled cigarette paper usually with an acetate or paper filter at the end. They have an appearance similar to a finished cigarette, but are without any tobacco or smoking material inside. The length varies from Regular (70mm) to King Size (84mm) as well as 100s (100mm) and 120s (120mm).",
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"plaintext": "Filling a cigarette tube is usually done with a cigarette injector (also known as a shooter). Cone-shaped cigarette tubes, known as cones, can be filled using a packing stick or straw because of their shape. Cone smoking is popular because as the cigarette burns, it tends to get stronger and stronger. A cone allows more tobacco to be burned at the beginning than the end, allowing for an even flavor",
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"plaintext": "The United States Tobacco Taxation Bureau defines a cigarette tube as \"Cigarette paper made into a hollow cylinder for use in making cigarettes.\"",
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"plaintext": "A cigarette filter or filter tip is a component of a cigarette. Filters are typically made from cellulose acetate fibre. Most factory-made cigarettes are equipped with a filter; those who roll their own can buy them separately. Filters can reduce some substances from smoke but do not make cigarettes any safer to smoke.",
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"plaintext": "The common name for the remains of a cigarette after smoking is a cigarette butt. The butt is typically about 30% of the cigarette's original length. It consists of a tissue tube which holds a filter and some remains of tobacco mixed with ash. They are the most numerically frequent litter in the world. Cigarette butts accumulate outside buildings, on parking lots, and streets where they can be transported through storm drains to streams, rivers, and beaches. It is also called a fag-end or dog-end.",
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"plaintext": "In a 2013 trial the city of Vancouver, British Columbia, partnered with TerraCycle to create a system for recycling of cigarette butts. A reward of 1¢ per collected butt was offered to determine the effectiveness of a deposit system similar to that of beverage containers.",
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"plaintext": "An electronic cigarette is a handheld battery-powered vaporizer that simulates smoking by providing some of the behavioral aspects of smoking, including the hand-to-mouth action of smoking, but without combusting tobacco. Using an e-cigarette is known as \"vaping\" and the user is referred to as a \"vaper\". Instead of cigarette smoke, the user inhales an aerosol, commonly called vapor. E-cigarettes typically have a heating element that atomizes a liquid solution called e-liquid. E-cigarettes are automatically activated by taking a puff; others turn on manually by pressing a button. Some e-cigarettes look like traditional cigarettes, but they come in many variations. Most versions are reusable, though some are disposable. There are first-generation, second-generation, third-generation, and fourth-generation devices. E-liquids usually contain propylene glycol, glycerin, nicotine, flavorings, additives, and differing amounts of contaminants. E-liquids are also sold without propylene glycol, nicotine, or flavors.",
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"plaintext": "The benefits and the health risks of e-cigarettes are uncertain. There is moderate-certainty evidence that e-cigarettes with nicotine may help people quit smoking when compared with e-cigarettes without nicotine and nicotine replacement therapy. However, other studies have not supported the finding that e-cigarettes are proven to be more effective than smoking cessation medicine. There is concern with the possibility that non-smokers and children may start nicotine use with e-cigarettes at a rate higher than anticipated than if they were never created. Following the possibility of nicotine addiction from e-cigarette use, there is concern children may start smoking cigarettes. Youth who use e-cigarettes are more likely to go on to smoke cigarettes. Their part in tobacco harm reduction is unclear, while another review found they appear to have the potential to lower tobacco-related death and disease. Regulated US Food and Drug Administration nicotine replacement products may be safer than e-cigarettes, but e-cigarettes are generally seen as safer than combusted tobacco products. It is estimated their safety risk to users is similar to that of smokeless tobacco. The long-term effects of e-cigarette use are unknown. The risk from serious adverse events was reported in 2016 to be low. Less serious adverse effects include abdominal pain, headache, blurry vision, throat and mouth irritation, vomiting, nausea, and coughing. Nicotine itself is associated with some health harms. In 2019 and 2020, an outbreak of severe lung illness throughout the US was linked to the use of vaping products",
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"plaintext": "E-cigarettes create vapor made of fine and ultrafine particles of particulate matter, which have been found to contain propylene glycol, glycerin, nicotine, flavors, small amounts of toxicants, carcinogens, and heavy metals, as well as metal nanoparticles, and other substances. Its exact composition varies across and within manufacturers, and depends on the contents of the liquid, the physical and electrical design of the device, and user behavior, among other factors. E-cigarette vapor potentially contains harmful chemicals not found in tobacco smoke. E-cigarette vapor contains fewer toxic chemicals, and lower concentrations of potential toxic chemicals than cigarette smoke. The vapor is probably much less harmful to users and bystanders than cigarette smoke, although concern exists that the exhaled vapor may be inhaled by non-users, particularly indoors.",
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"plaintext": "The harm from smoking comes from the many toxic chemicals in the natural tobacco leaf and those formed in smoke from burning tobacco. People keep smoking because the nicotine, the primary psychoactive chemical in cigarettes, is highly addictive. Cigarettes, like narcotics, have been described as \"strategically addictive\", with the addictive properties being a core component of the business strategy. About half of smokers die from a smoking-related cause. Smoking harms nearly every organ of the body. Smoking leads most commonly to diseases affecting the heart, liver, and lungs, being a major risk factor for heart attacks, strokes, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) (including emphysema and chronic bronchitis), and cancer (particularly lung cancer, cancers of the larynx and mouth, and pancreatic cancer). It also causes peripheral vascular disease and hypertension. Children born to women who smoke during pregnancy are at higher risk of congenital disorders, cancer, respiratory disease, and sudden death. On average, each cigarette smoked is estimated to shorten life by 11 minutes. Starting smoking earlier in life and smoking cigarettes higher in tar increases the risk of these diseases. The World Health Organization estimates that tobacco kills 8 million people each year as of 2019 and 100 million deaths over the course of the 20th century. Cigarettes produce an aerosol containing over 4,000 chemical compounds, including nicotine, carbon monoxide, acrolein, and oxidant substances. Over 70 of these are carcinogens.",
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"plaintext": "The most important chemical compounds causing cancer are those that produce DNA damage since such damage appears to be the primary underlying cause of cancer. Cunningham et al. combined the microgram weight of the compound in the smoke of one cigarette with the known genotoxic effect per microgram to identify the most carcinogenic compounds in cigarette smoke. The seven most important carcinogens in tobacco smoke are shown in the table, along with DNA alterations they cause. ",
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"plaintext": "\"Ulcerative colitis is a condition of nonsmokers in which nicotine is of therapeutic benefit.\" A recent review of the available scientific literature concluded that the apparent decrease in Alzheimer disease risk may be simply because smokers tend to die before reaching the age at which it normally occurs. \"Differential mortality is always likely to be a problem where there is a need to investigate the effects of smoking in a disorder with very low incidence rates before age 75 years, which is the case of Alzheimer's disease\", it stated, noting that smokers are only half as likely as nonsmokers to survive to the age of 80.",
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"plaintext": "A very strong argument can be made about the association between adolescent exposure to nicotine by smoking conventional cigarettes and the subsequent onset of using other dependence-producing substances. Strong, temporal, and dose-dependent associations have been reported, and a plausible biological mechanism (via rodent and human modeling) suggests that long-term changes in the neural reward system take place as a result of adolescent smoking. Adolescent smokers of conventional cigarettes have disproportionately high rates of comorbid substance use, and longitudinal studies have suggested that early adolescent smoking may be a starting point or \"gateway\" for substance use later in life, with this effect more likely for persons with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Although factors such as genetic comorbidity, innate propensity for risk-taking, and social influences may underlie these findings, both human neuroimaging and animal studies suggest a neurobiological mechanism also plays a role. In addition, behavioral studies in adolescent and young adult smokers have revealed an increased propensity for risk-taking, both generally and in the presence of peers, and neuroimaging studies have shown altered frontal neural activation during a risk-taking task as compared with nonsmokers. In 2011, Rubinstein and colleagues used neuroimaging to show decreased brain response to a natural reinforcer (pleasurable food cues) in adolescent light smokers (1–5 cigarettes per day), with their results highlighting the possibility of neural alterations consistent with nicotine dependence and altered brain response to reward even in adolescent low-level smokers.",
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"plaintext": "Second-hand smoke is a mixture of smoke from the burning end of a cigarette and the smoke exhaled from the lungs of smokers. It is involuntarily inhaled, lingers in the air for hours after cigarettes have been extinguished, and can cause a wide range of adverse health effects, including cancer, respiratory infections, and asthma. Nonsmokers who are exposed to second-hand smoke at home or work increase their heart disease risk by 25–30% and their lung cancer risk by 20–30%. Second-hand smoke has been estimated to cause 38,000 deaths per year, of which 3,400 are deaths from lung cancer in nonsmokers. Sudden infant death syndrome, ear infections, respiratory infections, and asthma attacks can occur in children who are exposed to second-hand smoke. Scientific evidence shows that no level of exposure to second-hand smoke is safe.",
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"plaintext": "Many governments impose restrictions on smoking tobacco, especially in public areas. The primary justification has been the negative health effects of second-hand smoke. Laws vary by country and locality. Nearly all countries have laws restricting places where people can smoke in public, and over 40 countries have comprehensive smoke-free laws that prohibit smoking in virtually all public venues. Bhutan is currently the only country in the world to completely outlaw the cultivation, harvesting, production, and sale of tobacco and tobacco products under the Tobacco Control Act of Bhutan 2010. However, small allowances for personal possession are permitted as long as the possessors can prove that they have paid import duties. The Pitcairn Islands had previously banned the sale of cigarettes, but it now permits sales from a government-run store. The Pacific island of Niue hopes to become the next country to prohibit the sale of tobacco. Iceland is also proposing banning tobacco sales from shops, making it prescription-only and therefore dispensable only in pharmacies on doctor's orders. New Zealand hopes to achieve being tobacco-free by 2025 and Finland by 2040. Singapore and the Australian state of Tasmania have proposed a 'tobacco free millennium generation initiative' by banning the sale of all tobacco products to anyone born in and after the year 2000. ",
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"plaintext": "In March 2012, Brazil became the world's first country to ban all flavored tobacco including menthols. It also banned the majority of the estimated 600 additives used, permitting only eight. This regulation applies to domestic and imported cigarettes. Tobacco manufacturers had 18 months to remove the noncompliant cigarettes, 24 months to remove the other forms of noncompliant tobacco. Under sharia law, the consumption of cigarettes by Muslims is prohibited.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, the age to buy tobacco products is 21 in all states as of 2020.",
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"plaintext": "Similar laws exist in many other countries. In Canada, most of the provinces require smokers to be 19 years of age to purchase cigarettes (except for Quebec and the prairie provinces, where the age is 18). However, the minimum age only concerns the purchase of tobacco, not use. Alberta, however, does have a law which prohibits the possession or use of tobacco products by all persons under 18, punishable by a $100 fine. Australia, New Zealand, Poland, and Pakistan have a nationwide ban on the selling of all tobacco products to people under the age of 18.",
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"plaintext": "Since October 1, 2007, it has been illegal for retailers to sell tobacco in all forms to people under the age of 18 in three of the UK's four constituent countries (England, Wales, Northern Ireland, and Scotland), rising from 16. It is also illegal to sell lighters, rolling papers, and all other tobacco-associated items to people under 18. It is not illegal for people under 18 to buy or smoke tobacco, just as it was not previously for people under 16; it is only illegal for the said retailer to sell the item. The age increase from 16 to 18 came into force in Northern Ireland on September 1, 2008. In the Republic of Ireland, bans on the sale of the smaller 10-packs and confectionery that resembles tobacco products (candy cigarettes) came into force on May 31, 2007, in a bid to cut underaged smoking.",
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"plaintext": "Most countries in the world have a legal vending age of 18. In North Macedonia, Italy, Malta, Austria, Luxembourg, and Belgium, the age for legal vending is 16. Since January 1, 2007, all cigarette machines in public places in Germany must attempt to verify a customer's age by requiring the insertion of a debit card. Turkey, which has one of the highest percentage of smokers in its population, has a legal age of 18. Japan is one of the highest tobacco-consuming nations, and requires purchasers to be 20 years of age. Since July 2008, Japan has enforced this age limit at cigarette vending machines through use of the taspo smart card. In other countries, such as Egypt, it is legal to use and purchase tobacco products regardless of age. Germany raised the purchase age from 16 to 18 on September 1, 2007.",
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"plaintext": "Some police departments in the United States occasionally send an underaged teenager into a store where cigarettes are sold, and have the teen attempt to purchase cigarettes, with their own or no ID. If the vendor then completes the sale, the store is issued a fine. Similar enforcement practices are regularly performed by Trading Standards officers in the UK, Israel, and the Republic of Ireland.",
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"plaintext": "Cigarettes are taxed both to reduce use, especially among youth, and to raise revenue. Higher prices for cigarettes discourage smoking. Every 10% increase in the price of cigarettes reduces youth smoking by about 7% and overall cigarette consumption by about 4%. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that globally cigarettes be taxed at a rate of three-quarters of cigarettes sale price as a way of deterring cancer and other negative health outcomes.",
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"plaintext": "Cigarette sales are a significant source of tax revenue in many localities. This fact has historically been an impediment for health groups seeking to discourage cigarette smoking, since governments seek to maximize tax revenues. Furthermore, some countries have made cigarettes a state monopoly, which has the same effect on the attitude of government officials outside the health field.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, states are a primary determinant of the total tax rate on cigarettes. Generally, states that rely on tobacco as a significant farm product tend to tax cigarettes at a low rate. Coupled with the federal cigarette tax of $1.01 per pack, total cigarette-specific taxes range from $1.18 per pack in Missouri to $8.00 per pack in Silver Bay, New York. As part of the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act, the federal government collects user fees to fund Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulatory measures over tobacco.",
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"plaintext": "Cigarettes are a frequent source of deadly fires in private homes, which prompted both the European Union and the United States to require cigarettes to be fire-standard compliant.",
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"plaintext": "According to Simon Chapman, a professor of public health at the University of Sydney, reduction of burning agents in cigarettes would be a simple and effective means of dramatically reducing the ignition propensity of cigarettes. Since the 1980s, prominent cigarette manufacturers such as Philip Morris and R.J. Reynolds developed fire safe cigarettes, but did not market them.",
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"plaintext": "The burn rate of cigarette paper is regulated through the application of different forms of microcrystalline cellulose to the paper. Cigarette paper has been specially engineered by creating bands of different porosity to create \"fire-safe\" cigarettes. These cigarettes have a reduced idle burning speed which allows them to self-extinguish. This fire-safe paper is manufactured by mechanically altering the setting of the paper slurry.",
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"plaintext": "New York was the first U.S. state to mandate that all cigarettes manufactured or sold within the state comply with a fire-safe standard. Canada has passed a similar nationwide mandate based on the same standard. All U.S. states are gradually passing fire-safe mandates.",
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"plaintext": "The European Union in 2011 banned cigarettes that do not meet a fire-safety standard. According to a study made by the European Union in 16 European countries, 11,000 fires were due to people carelessly handling cigarettes between 2005 and 2007. This caused 520 deaths with 1,600 people injured.",
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"plaintext": "Many countries have restrictions on cigarette advertising, promotion, sponsorship, and marketing. For example, in the Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Saskatchewan and Alberta, the retail store display of cigarettes is completely prohibited if persons under the legal age of consumption have access to the premises. In Ontario, Manitoba, Newfoundland and Labrador, and Quebec, Canada and the Australian Capital Territory the display of tobacco is prohibited for everyone, regardless of age, as of 2010. This retail display ban includes noncigarette products such as cigars and blunt wraps.",
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"plaintext": "As a result of tight advertising and marketing prohibitions, tobacco companies look at the pack differently: they view it as a strong component in displaying brand imagery and a creating significant in-store presence at the point of purchase. Market testing shows the influence of this dimension in shifting the consumer's choice when the same product displays in an alternative package. Studies also show how companies have manipulated a variety of elements in packs designs to communicate the impression of lower in tar or milder cigarettes, whereas the components were the same.",
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"plaintext": "Some countries require cigarette packs to contain warnings about health hazards. The United States was the first, later followed by other countries including Canada, most of Europe, Australia, Pakistan, India, Hong Kong, and Singapore. In 1985, Iceland became the first country to enforce graphic warnings on cigarette packaging. At the end of December 2010, new regulations from Ottawa increased the size of tobacco warnings to cover three-quarters of the cigarette package in Canada. As of November 2010, 39 countries have adopted similar legislation.",
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"plaintext": "In February 2011, the Canadian government passed regulations requiring cigarette packs to contain 12 new images to cover 75% of the outside panel and eight new health messages on the inside panel with full color.",
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"plaintext": "As of April 2011, Australian regulations require all packs to use a bland olive green that researchers determined to be the least attractive color, with 75% coverage on the front of the pack and all of the back consisting of graphic health warnings. The only feature that differentiates one brand from another is the product name in a standard color, position, font size, and style. Similar policies have since been adopted in France and the United Kingdom. In response to these regulations, Philip Morris International, Japan Tobacco Inc., British American Tobacco Plc., and Imperial Tobacco attempted to sue the Australian government. On August 15, 2012, the High Court of Australia dismissed the suit and made Australia the first country to introduce brand-free plain cigarette packaging with health warnings covering 90 and 70% of back and front packaging, respectively. This took effect on December 1, 2012.",
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"plaintext": "Cigarette filters are made up of thousands of polymer chains of cellulose acetate, which has the chemical structure shown to the right. Once discarded into the environment, the filters create a large waste problem. Cigarette filters are the most common form of litter in the world, as approximately 5.6 trillion cigarettes are smoked every year worldwide. Of those, an estimated 4.5 trillion cigarette filters become litter every year. To develop an idea of the waste weight amount produced a year the table below was created. ",
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"plaintext": "Discarded cigarette filters usually end up in the water system through drainage ditches and are transported by rivers and other waterways to the ocean.",
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"plaintext": "In the 2006 International Coastal Cleanup, cigarettes and cigarette butts constituted 24.7% of the total collected pieces of garbage, over twice as many as any other category, which is not surprising seeing the numbers in the table above of waste produced each year.",
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"plaintext": "Cigarette filters contain the chemicals filtered from cigarettes and can leach into waterways and water supplies. The toxicity of used cigarette filters depends on the specific tobacco blend and additives used by the cigarette companies. After a cigarette is smoked, the filter retains some of the chemicals, and some of which are considered carcinogenic. When studying the environmental impact of cigarette filters, the various chemicals that can be found in cigarette filters are not studied individually, due to its complexity. Researchers instead focus on the whole cigarette filter and its LD50. LD50 is defined as the lethal dose that kills 50% of a sample population. This allows for a simpler study of the toxicity of cigarettes filters. One recent study has looked at the toxicity of smoked cigarette filters (smoked filter + tobacco), smoked cigarette filters (no tobacco), and unsmoked cigarette filters (no tobacco). The results of the study showed that for the LD50of both marine topsmelt (Atherinops affinis) and freshwater fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas), smoked cigarette filters + tobacco are more toxic than smoked cigarette filters, but both are severely more toxic than unsmoked cigarette filters.",
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"plaintext": "Toxic chemicals are not the only human health concern to take into considerations; the others are cellulose acetate and carbon particles that are breathed in while smoking. These particles are suspected of causing lung damage. ",
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"plaintext": "The next health concern is that of plants. Under certain growing conditions, plants on average grow taller and have longer roots than those exposed to cigarette filters in the soil. A connection exists between cigarette filters introduced to soil and the depletion of some soil nutrients over time.",
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"plaintext": "Another health concern to the environment is not only the toxic carcinogens that are harmful to the wildlife, but also the filters themselves pose an ingestion risk to wildlife that may presume filter litter as food.",
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"plaintext": "The last major health concern to make note of for marine life is the toxicity that deep marine topsmelt and fathead minnow pose to their predators. This could lead to toxin build-up (bioaccumulation) in the food chain and have long reaching negative effects.",
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"plaintext": "Smoldering cigarette filters have also been blamed for triggering fires from residential areas to major wildfires and bushfires which has caused major property damage and also death as well as disruption to services by triggering alarms and warning systems.",
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"plaintext": "Once in the environment, cellulose acetate can go through biodegradation and photodegradation. Several factors go into determining the rate of both degradation process. This variance in rate and resistance to biodegradation in many conditions is a factor in littering and environmental damage.",
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"plaintext": "The first step in the biodegradation of cellulose acetate is the deactylation of the acetate from the polymer chain (which is the opposite of acetylation). An acetate is a negative ion with the chemical formula of C2H3O2−. Deacetylation can be performed by either chemical hydrolysis or acetylesterase. Chemical hydrolysis is the cleavage of a chemical bond by addition of water. In the reaction, water (H2O) reacts with the acetic ester functional group attached the cellulose polymer chain and forms an alcohol and acetate. The alcohol is simply the cellulose polymer chain with the acetate replaced with an alcohol group. The second reaction is exactly the same as chemical hydrolysis with the exception of the use of an acetylesterase enzyme. The enzyme, found in most plants, catalyzes the chemical reaction shown below.",
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"plaintext": "acetic ester + H2O alcohol + acetate",
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"plaintext": "In the case of the enzymatic reaction, the two substrates (reactants) are again acetic ester and H2O, the two products of the reaction are alcohol and acetate. This reaction is exactly the same as the chemical hydrolysis. Both of these products are perfectly fine in the environment. Once the acetate group is removed from the cellulose chain, the polymer can be readily degraded by cellulase, which is another enzyme found in fungi, bacteria, and protozoans. Cellulases break down the cellulose molecule into monosaccharides (\"simple sugars\") such as beta-glucose, or shorter polysaccharides and oligosaccharides. These simple sugars are not harmful to the environment and are in fact are a useful product for many plants and animals. The breakdown of cellulose is of interest in the field of biofuel. Due to the conditions that affect the process, large variation in the degradation time of cellulose acetate occurs.",
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"plaintext": "The duration of the biodegradation process is cited as taking as little as one month to as long as 15 years or more, depending on the environmental conditions. The major factor that affects the biodegradation duration is the availability of acetylesterase and cellulase enzymes. Without these enzymes, biodegradation only occurs through chemical hydrolysis and stops there. Temperature is another major factor, if the organisms that contain the enzymes are too cold to grow, then biodegradation is severely hindered. Availability of oxygen in the environment also affects the degradation. Cellulose acetate is degraded within 2–3 weeks under aerobic assay systems of in vitro enrichment cultivation techniques and an activated sludge wastewater treatment system. It is degraded within 14 weeks under anaerobic conditions of incubation with special cultures of fungi. Ideal conditions were used for the degradation (i.e. right temperature, and available organisms to provide the enzymes). Thus, filters last longer in places with low oxygen concentration (ex. swamps and bogs). Overall, the biodegraditon process of cellulose acetate is not an instantaneous process.",
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"plaintext": "The other process of degradation is photodegradation, which is when a molecular bond is broken by the absorption of photon radiation (i.e. light). Due to cellulose acetate carbonyl groups, the molecule naturally absorbs light at 260nm, but it contains some impurities which can absorb light. These impurities are known to absorb light in the far UV light region (< 280nm). The atmosphere filters radiation from the sun and allows radiation of > 300nm only to reach the surface. Thus, the primary photodegradation of cellulose acetate is considered insignificant to the total degradation process, since cellulose acetate and its impurities absorb light at shorter wavelengths. Research is focused on the secondary mechanisms of photodegradation of cellulose acetate to help make up for some of the limitations of biodegradation. The secondary mechanisms would be the addition of a compound to the filters that would be able to absorb natural light and use it to start the degradation process. The main two areas of research are in photocatalytic oxidation and photosensitized degradation. Photocatalytic oxidation uses a species that absorbs radiation and creates hydroxyl radicals that react with the filters and start the breakdown. Photosensitized degradation, though, uses a species that absorbs radiation and transfers the energy to the cellulose acetate to start the degradation process. Both processes use other species that absorbed light > 300nm to start the degradation of cellulose acetate.",
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"plaintext": "Several options are available to help reduce the environmental impact of cigarette butts. Proper disposal into receptacles leads to decreased numbers found in the environment and their effect on the environment. Another method is making fines and penalties for littering filters; many governments have sanctioned stiff penalties for littering of cigarette filters; for example, Washington imposes a penalty of $1,025 for littering cigarette filters. Another option is developing better biodegradable filters; much of this work relies heavily on the research in the secondary mechanism for photodegradation as stated above, but a new research group has developed an acid tablet that goes inside the filters, and once wet enough, releases acid that speeds up the degradation to around two weeks. The research is still only in test phase and the hope is soon it will go into production. The next option is using cigarette packs with a compartment in which to discard cigarette butts, implementing monetary deposits on filters, increasing the availability of butt receptacles, and expanding public education. It may even be possible to ban the sale of filtered cigarettes altogether on the basis of their adverse environmental impact. Recent research has been put into finding ways to use the filter waste to develop a desired product. One research group in South Korea has developed a simple one-step process that converts the cellulose acetate in discarded cigarette filters into a high-performing material that could be integrated into computers, handheld devices, electrical vehicles, and wind turbines to store energy. These materials have demonstrated superior performance as compared to commercially available carbon, grapheme, and carbon nanotubes. The product is showing high promise as a green alternative for the waste problem.",
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"plaintext": "Smoking has become less popular, but is still a large public health problem globally. Worldwide, smoking rates fell from 41% in 1980 to 31% in 2012, although the actual number of smokers increased because of population growth. In 2017, 5.4 trillion cigarettes were produced globally, and were smoked by almost 1 billion people. Smoking rates have leveled off or declined in most countries, but is increasing in some low- and middle-income countries. The significant reductions in smoking rates in the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Brazil, and other countries that implemented strong tobacco control programs have been offset by the increasing consumption in low income countries, especially China. The Chinese market now consumes more cigarettes than all other low- and middle-income countries combined.",
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"plaintext": "Other regions are increasingly playing larger roles in the growing global smoking epidemic. The WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMRO) now has the highest growth rate in the cigarette market, with more than a one-third increase in cigarette consumption since 2000. Due to its recent dynamic economic development and continued population growth, Africa presents the greatest risk in terms of future growth in tobacco use.",
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"plaintext": "Within countries, patterns of cigarette consumption also can vary widely. For example, in many of the countries where few women smoke, smoking rates are often high in males (e.g., in Asia). By contrast, in most developed countries, female smoking rates are typically only a few percentage points below those of males. In many high and middle income countries lower socioeconomic status is a strong predictor of smoking.",
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"plaintext": "Smoking rates in the United States have dropped by more than half from 1965 to 2016, falling from 42% to 15.5% of US adults. Australia is cutting their overall smoking consumption faster than most of the developed world, in part due to landmark Plain Packaging Act, which standardized the appearance of cigarette packs. Other countries have considered similar measures. In New Zealand, a bill has been presented to parliament in which the government's associate health minister said \"takes away the last means of promoting tobacco as a desirable product.\"",
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"plaintext": "Some cigarettes are marketed as \"lights\", \"milds\", or \"low-tar\". These cigarettes were historically marketed as being less harmful, but there is no research showing that they are any less harmful. The filter design is one of the main differences between light and regular cigarettes, although not all cigarettes contain perforated holes in the filter. In some light cigarettes, the filter is perforated with small holes that theoretically diffuse the tobacco smoke with clean air. In regular cigarettes, the filter does not include these perforations. In ultralight cigarettes, the filter's perforations are larger. The majority of major cigarette manufacturers offer a light, low-tar, or mild cigarette brand. Due to recent U.S. legislation prohibiting the use of these descriptors, tobacco manufacturers are turning to color-coding to allow consumers to differentiate between regular and light brands.",
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"plaintext": "Research shows that smoking \"light\" or \"low-tar\" cigarettes is just as harmful as smoking other cigarettes.",
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{
"plaintext": " 520",
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"plaintext": " 555",
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"plaintext": " Amber Leaf ",
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"plaintext": " Army Club",
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"plaintext": " Ardath",
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"plaintext": " Basic",
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"plaintext": " Bel Air",
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"plaintext": " Benson & Hedges",
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"plaintext": " Berkeley",
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"plaintext": " Camel",
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"plaintext": " Capri",
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"plaintext": " Chesterfield",
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| [
"Cigarettes",
"American_inventions"
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| 1,578 | 63,873 | 1,263 | 305 | 0 | 0 | cigarette | small roll of cut tobacco designed to be smoked | [
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"cigarro",
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|
38,332 | 1,105,584,267 | World_Federation_of_Trade_Unions | [
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"plaintext": "In January 2006 it moved headquarters from Prague, Czech Republic to Athens, Greece and reinvigorated its activity by putting focus on organizing regional federations of unions in the Third World, by organizing campaigns against imperialism, racism, poverty, environmental degradation and exploitation of workers under capitalism and in defense of full employment, social security, health protection, and trade union rights. The WFTU devotes much of its energy to organizing conferences, issuing statements and producing educational materials and courses for trade union leaders.",
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"plaintext": "In recent years, the WFTU has successfully managed to recruit several trade unions of importance in Europe, amongst which the Rail Maritime Trade Union in Great Britain, the Unione Sindicale di Base in Italy. In France, the CGT National Federation of Agri-Food and Forestry has maintained its affiliation with the WFTU. The CGT National Federation of Chemical Industries sent delegates to the last congress in Athens in 2011. In 2013, two local CGT railway workers branches have taken steps to become affiliates with the WFTU.",
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"plaintext": "The different offices of the WFTU across the different continents organize regular exchanges and militant visits of trade union activists from an affiliate to another in order to further discussions, foster internationalist ties, establish an international activity of its affiliates around shared objectives and campaigns, against common adversaries.",
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"plaintext": "In Africa, unions of major importance such as COSATU in South Africa have affiliated with the WFTU.",
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"plaintext": "As part of its efforts to advance its international agenda, the WFTU develops working partnerships with national and industrial trade unions worldwide as well as with a number of international and regional trade union organizations including the Organization of African Trade Union Unity (OATUU), the International Confederation of Arab Trade Unions (ICATU), the Permanent Congress of Trade Union Unity of Latin America (CPUSTAL), and the General Confederation of Trade Unions of CIS countries.",
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"plaintext": "The WFTU holds consultative status with the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations, the ILO, UNESCO, FAO, and other UN agencies. It maintains permanent missions in New York, Geneva, and Rome.",
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"plaintext": "Example of National affiliates of the WFTU include:",
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"plaintext": "General Federation of Trade Unions of Korea (North Korea) ",
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"plaintext": "Unione Sindacale di Base (Italy) ",
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"plaintext": "Bangladesh Trade Union Centre ",
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"plaintext": "Vietnam General Confederation of Labour ",
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"plaintext": "Confederation of Progressive Trade Unions of Turkey ",
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},
{
"plaintext": "National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers (UK) ",
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"plaintext": "Congress of South African Trade Unions ",
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"plaintext": "Bolivian Workers' Center ",
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"plaintext": "Workers' Central Union of Cuba ",
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{
"plaintext": "General Union of Palestinian Workers (GUPW) ",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Confederación General de Trabajadores del Perú (Peru) ",
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5308289
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"plaintext": "General Federation of Trade Unions ",
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"plaintext": "All India Trade Union Congress (India) ",
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"plaintext": "Centre of Indian Trade Unions (India) ",
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},
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"plaintext": "All India Central Council of Trade Unions (India) ",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Intersindical-CSC (Spain) ",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Coordinadora Obrera Sindical (Spain) ",
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"section_name": "Affiliates",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Coordinadora Sindical de Clase (Spain) ",
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"section_name": "Affiliates",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Frente Sindical Obrero de Canarias (Spain) ",
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"section_name": "Affiliates",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Confederation Intersindical Galega (Spain) ",
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"section_name": "Affiliates",
"target_page_ids": [
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0,
34
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Langile Abertzaleen Batzordeak (Spain) ",
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]
},
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"plaintext": "Workers' House (Iran) ",
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0,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Unidade Classista (Brazil) ",
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"section_name": "Affiliates",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Central dos Trabalhadores e Trabalhadoras do Brasil (Brazil) ",
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"section_name": "Affiliates",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "United Trade Unions of Serbia \"Sloga\" (Serbia) ",
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"section_name": "Affiliates",
"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "All-China Federation of Trade Unions ",
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4514264
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0,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Labor United for Class Struggle (USA) ",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Union of Trade Unions of Monaco ",
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"plaintext": "Two national federations of the French CGT 🇫🇷 (confederation general du travail) are affiliated to the WFTU: Food and wood processing federation, and the National Federation of Chemical Industries.",
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"plaintext": "During the late 1940s, the WFTU unsuccessfully tried to reach an agreement with already existing international trade secretariats. When the Union split in 1949 they were left without an organization at the level of specific industries, leading to the creation of the Trade Union International (TUI) system.",
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"plaintext": "The TUI system has gone through a number of transformations in its over 60 years of existence. The following Trade Unions Internationals are constituted within the WFTU:",
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{
"plaintext": " World Federation of Teachers Unions – known by its French acronym FISE, this is the earliest affiliated union, founded in 1946. It maintained a degree of independence from the WFTU not exercised by the other TUIs.",
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"plaintext": " In 1949, the 2nd World Congress decided to create a series of sectoral unions, after their negotiations with already existing international trade secretariats failed. At first these were known as Trade Departments or International Federations, but they adopted the appellation \"Trade Union Internationals\" by the mid-1950s. The original TUIs formed in 1949 and 1950 were:",
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{
"plaintext": " The WFTU functioned during the Cold War largely as a unitary organization, bringing together unions from the Communist bloc and Western unions.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Trade Union International of Agricultural and Forestry Workers (also known as the TUI of Agricultural, Forestry and Plantation Workers)",
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"section_name": "Affiliates",
"target_page_ids": [
42777590
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Trade Unions International of Building, Wood, Building Materials and Industries",
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"section_name": "Affiliates",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " International Union of Trade Unions of Postal, Telephone and Telegraph Workers (also known as the TUI of Postal, Telegraph, Telephone and Radio Workers)",
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"section_name": "Affiliates",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Trade Union International of Chemical and Allied Workers",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Affiliates",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Trade Unions International of Miners",
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"section_name": "Affiliates",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Trade Union International of Food, Tobacco, Hotel and Allied Industries Workers (also known as the TUI of Food, Tobacco and Catering Workers or the TUI of Food, Tobacco and Beverage Industries, and Hotel, Cafe and Restaurant Workers)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Affiliates",
"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Trade Union International of Metal and Engineering Workers (also known as the TUI of Workers in the Metal Industry)",
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"section_name": "Affiliates",
"target_page_ids": [
42775703
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Trade Union International of Textile and Clothing Workers",
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"section_name": "Affiliates",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Trade Union International of Leather, Shoe, Fur and Leather Products",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Affiliates",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Trade Unions International of Seamen and Dockers",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Affiliates",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Trade Unions International of Land and Air Transport Workers",
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"section_name": "Affiliates",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Over time, some of these original eleven would expand their bases, change their names or merge:",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " In 1953, the TUIs of Seamen and Dockers and Land and Air Transport Workers merged to form the Trade Unions International of Transport, Port and Fishery Workers. By 1985, this union had adopted its present name, Trade Unions International of Transport Workers.",
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"section_name": "Affiliates",
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"plaintext": " In 1954 the TUI of Chemical and Allied Workers expanded its sectoral base and became the Trade Unions International of Chemical, Oil and Allied Workers.",
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"section_name": "Affiliates",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " In 1955 the International Union of Trade Unions of Postal, Telephone and Telegraph Workers expanded its scope to all public employees and became the Trade Unions International of Public and Allied Employees.",
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"section_name": "Affiliates",
"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " In 1958 the TUIs of Leather, Shoe, Fur and Leather Products and of Textile and Clothing Workers merged to form the Trade Union International of Textile, Leather and Fur Workers Unions.",
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"section_name": "Affiliates",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
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"plaintext": " In 1983 the TUI of Miners expanded its scope and became the Trade Unions International of Miners and Energy Workers. In 1986 it became the Trade Unions International of Energy Workers before ceasing activities.",
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"section_name": "Affiliates",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Other than the initial eleven, two new TUIs were formed during the course of the Cold War:",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Trade Union International of Workers in Commerce formed in 1959",
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"section_name": "Affiliates",
"target_page_ids": [
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0,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Standing Committee of Trade Unions in the Graphic Industry formed in 1961, allied with, but not formally affiliated to the WFTU.",
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"section_name": "Affiliates",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": "After the dissolution of the Eastern bloc, the Trade Unions International of Energy Workers and the Trade Union International of Metal and Engineering Workers temporarily suspended operations. In 1998 a conference was held in Havana which merged these two organizations and the Trade Union International of Chemical, Oil and Allied Workers in a new group, Trade Union International of Energy, Metal, Chemical, Oil and Allied Industries. This organization was reorganized again as the Trade Unions International of Energy Workers in 2007. This left the metal workers an opportunity create a new TUI the next year, Trade Union International of Workers in the Mining, the Metallurgy and the Metal Industries.",
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"section_name": "Affiliates",
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528
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613,
704
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},
{
"plaintext": "In 1997 the Trade Union International of Agroalimentary, Food, Commerce, Textile & Allied Industries was formed by the merger of the Trade Union International of Agricultural, Forestry and Plantation Workers, Trade Union International of Food, Tobacco, Hotel and Allied Industries Workers, Trade Union International of Workers in Commerce, Trade Union International of Textile, Leather and Fur Workers Unions.",
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"section_name": "Affiliates",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
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"plaintext": "The Trade Union International of Workers in Tourism and Hotels was founded in 2009, the Trade Union International of Banks, Insurance and Financial Unions Employees in 2011 and the Trade Union International of Pensioners and Retired Persons in 2014. In 2020, a new Trade Union International of Textile-Garment-Leather was founded.",
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"section_name": "Affiliates",
"target_page_ids": [
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4,
62
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88,
164
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181,
240
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318
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},
{
"plaintext": "1945: Louis Saillant",
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"section_name": "Leadership",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
6,
20
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "1969: Pierre Gensous",
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"section_name": "Leadership",
"target_page_ids": [
62287656
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
6,
20
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "1978: Enrique Pastorino",
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"section_name": "Leadership",
"target_page_ids": [
63427959
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
6,
23
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "1982: Ibrahim Zakaria",
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"section_name": "Leadership",
"target_page_ids": [
64824267
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
6,
21
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "1990: Alexander Zharikov",
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"section_name": "Leadership",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "2005: George Mavrikos",
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"section_name": "Leadership",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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6,
21
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "1945: Walter Citrine",
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"section_name": "Leadership",
"target_page_ids": [
1570387
],
"anchor_spans": [
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6,
20
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "1946: Arthur Deakin",
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"section_name": "Leadership",
"target_page_ids": [
2601185
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
6,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "1949: Giuseppe Di Vittorio",
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"section_name": "Leadership",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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6,
26
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "1959: Agostino Novella",
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"section_name": "Leadership",
"target_page_ids": [
62376081
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
6,
22
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "1961: Renato Bitossi",
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"section_name": "Leadership",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
6,
20
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "1969: Enrique Pastorino",
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"section_name": "Leadership",
"target_page_ids": [
63427959
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
6,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "1975: Sándor Gáspár",
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"section_name": "Leadership",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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6,
19
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "1989: Indrajit Gupta",
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"section_name": "Leadership",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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6,
20
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "1990: Ibrahim Zakaria",
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"section_name": "Leadership",
"target_page_ids": [
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6,
21
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"plaintext": " Fabio BERTINI, Gilliatt e la piovra. Il sindacalismo internazionale dalle origini ad oggi (1776–2006), Roma, Aracne, 2011",
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"plaintext": "Guide to World Federation of Trade Unions. Reports and Minutes, 1945–1949. 5396mf. Kheel Center for Labor-Management Documentation and Archives, Martin P. Catherwood Library, Cornell University.",
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38,334 | 1,107,718,377 | Mary_Anning | [
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"plaintext": "Mary Anning (21 May 1799– 9 March 1847) was an English fossil collector, dealer, and palaeontologist who became known around the world for the discoveries she made in Jurassic marine fossil beds in the cliffs along the English Channel at Lyme Regis in the county of Dorset in Southwest England. Anning's findings contributed to changes in scientific thinking about prehistoric life and the history of the Earth.",
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"plaintext": "Anning searched for fossils in the area's Blue Lias and Charmouth Mudstone cliffs, particularly during the winter months when landslides exposed new fossils that had to be collected quickly before they were lost to the sea. Her discoveries included the first correctly identified ichthyosaur skeleton when she was twelve years old; the first two nearly complete plesiosaur skeletons; the first pterosaur skeleton located outside Germany; and fish fossils. Her observations played a key role in the discovery that coprolites, known as bezoar stones at the time, were fossilised faeces, and she also discovered that belemnite fossils contained fossilised ink sacs like those of modern cephalopods.",
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"plaintext": "Anning struggled financially for much of her life. As a woman, she was not eligible to join the Geological Society of London and she did not always receive full credit for her scientific contributions. However, her friend, geologist Henry De la Beche, who painted Duria Antiquior, the first widely circulated pictorial representation of a scene from prehistoric life derived from fossil reconstructions, based it largely on fossils Anning had found and sold prints of it for her benefit. Anning became well known in geological circles in Britain, Europe, and America, and was consulted on issues of anatomy as well as fossil collecting. The only scientific writing of hers published in her lifetime appeared in the Magazine of Natural History in 1839, an extract from a letter that Anning had written to the magazine's editor questioning one of its claims.",
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"plaintext": "After her death in 1847, Anning's unusual life story attracted increasing interest. An anonymous article about Anning's life was published in February 1865 in Charles Dickens' literary magazine All the Year Round. The profile, \"Mary Anning, The Fossil Finder,\" was long attributed to Dickens himself but, in 2014, historians of palaeontology Michael A. Taylor and Hugh S. Torrens identified Henry Stuart Fagan as the author, noting that Fagan's work was \"neither original nor reliable\" and \"introduced errors into the Anning literature which are still problematic.\" Specifically, they noted that Fagan had largely and inaccurately plagiarized his article from an earlier account of Anning's life and work by Dorset native Henry Rowland Brown, from the second edition of Brown's 1859 guidebook, The Beauties of Lyme Regis.",
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"plaintext": "Mary Anning was born in Lyme Regis in Dorset, England, on 21 May 1799. Her father, Richard Anning (c.1766–1810), was a cabinetmaker and carpenter who supplemented his income by mining the coastal cliff-side fossil beds near the town, and selling his finds to tourists; her mother was Mary Moore (c.1764–1842) known as Molly. Anning's parents married on 8 August 1793 in Blandford Forum and moved to Lyme, living in a house built on the town's bridge. They attended the Dissenter chapel on Coombe Street, whose worshippers initially called themselves independents and later became known as Congregationalists. Shelley Emling writes that the family lived so near to the sea that the same storms that swept along the cliffs to reveal the fossils sometimes flooded the Annings' home, on one occasion forcing them to crawl out of an upstairs bedroom window to avoid drowning.",
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"plaintext": "Molly and Richard had ten children. The first child, also Mary, was born in 1794. She was followed by another daughter, who died almost at once; Joseph in 1796; and another son in 1798, who died in infancy. In December that year, the oldest child, (the first Mary) then four years old, died after her clothes caught fire, possibly while adding wood shavings to the fire. The incident was reported in the Bath Chronicle on 27 December 1798: \"A child, four years of age of Mr. R. Anning, a cabinetmaker of Lyme, was left by the mother for about five minutes ... in a room where there were some shavings ... The girl's clothes caught fire and she was so dreadfully burnt as to cause her death.\"",
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"plaintext": "When Anning was born five months later, she was thus named Mary after her dead sister. More children were born after her, but none of them survived more than a year or two. Only the second Mary Anning and her brother Joseph, who was three years older than her, survived to adulthood. The high childhood mortality rate for the Anning family was not unusual. Almost half the children born in the UK in the 19th century died before the age of five, and in the crowded living conditions of early 19th-century Lyme Regis, infant deaths from diseases like smallpox and measles were common.",
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"plaintext": "On 19 August 1800, when Anning was 15 months old, an event occurred that became part of local lore. She was being held by a neighbour, Elizabeth Haskings, who was standing with two other women under an elm tree watching an equestrian show being put on by a travelling company of horsemen when lightning struck the tree – killing all three women below. Onlookers rushed the infant home where she was revived in a bath of hot water. A local doctor declared her survival miraculous. Anning's family said she had been a sickly baby before the event but afterwards she seemed to blossom. For years afterwards members of her community would attribute the child's curiosity, intelligence and lively personality to the incident.",
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"plaintext": "Anning's education was extremely limited, but she was able to attend a Congregationalist Sunday school, where she learned to read and write. Congregationalist doctrine, unlike that of the Church of England at the time, emphasised the importance of education for the poor. Her prized possession was a bound volume of the Dissenters' Theological Magazine and Review, in which the family's pastor, the Reverend James Wheaton, had published two essays, one insisting that God had created the world in six days, the other urging dissenters to study the new science of geology.",
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"plaintext": "By the late 18th century, Lyme Regis had become a popular seaside resort, especially after 1792 when the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars made travel to the European mainland dangerous for the English gentry, and increasing numbers of wealthy and middle-class tourists were arriving there. Even before Anning's time, locals supplemented their income by selling what were called \"curios\" to visitors. These were fossils with colourful local names such as \"snake-stones\" (ammonites), \"devil's fingers\" (belemnites), and \"verteberries\" (vertebrae), to which were sometimes attributed medicinal and mystical properties. Fossil collecting was in vogue in the late 18th and early 19th century, at first as a pastime, but gradually transforming into a science as the importance of fossils to geology and biology was understood. The source of most of these fossils were the coastal cliffs around Lyme Regis, part of a geological formation known as the Blue Lias. This consists of alternating layers of limestone and shale, laid down as sediment on a shallow seabed early in the Jurassic period (about 210–195million years ago). It is one of the richest fossil locations in Britain. The cliffs could be dangerously unstable, however, especially in winter when rain caused landslides. It was precisely during the winter months that collectors were drawn to the cliffs because the landslides often exposed new fossils.",
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"plaintext": "Their father, Richard, often took Anning and her brother Joseph on fossil-hunting expeditions to supplement the family's income. They offered their discoveries for sale to tourists on a table outside their home. This was a difficult time for England's poor; the French Revolutionary Wars, and the Napoleonic Wars that followed, caused food shortages. The price of wheat almost tripled between 1792 and 1812, but wages for the working class remained almost unchanged. In Dorset, the rising price of bread caused political unrest, even riots. At one point, Richard Anning was involved in organising a protest against food shortages.",
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"plaintext": "In addition, the family's status as religious dissenters—not followers of the Church of England—attracted disabilities. In the earlier nineteenth century, those who refused to subscribe to the Articles of the Church of England were still not allowed to study at Oxford or Cambridge or to take certain positions in the army, and were excluded by law from several professions. Her father had been suffering from tuberculosis and injuries he suffered from a fall off a cliff. When he died in November 1810 (aged 44), he left the family with debts and no savings, forcing them to apply for poor relief.",
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"plaintext": "The family continued collecting and selling fossils together and set up a table of curiosities near the coach stop at a local inn. Although the stories about Anning tend to focus on her successes, Dennis Dean writes that her mother and brother were astute collectors too, and Anning's parents had sold fossils before the father's death.",
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"plaintext": "Their first well-known find was in 1811 when Mary Anning was 12; her brother Joseph dug up a 4-foot ichthyosaur skull, and a few months later Anning herself found the rest of the skeleton. Henry Hoste Henley of Sandringham House in Sandringham, Norfolk, who was lord of the manor of Colway, near Lyme Regis, paid the family about £23 for it, and in turn he sold it to William Bullock, a well-known collector, who displayed it in London. There it generated interest, as public awareness of the age of the earth and the variety of prehistoric creatures was growing. It was later sold for £45 and five shillings at auction in May 1819 as a \"Crocodile in a Fossil State\" to Charles Konig, of the British Museum, who had already suggested the name Ichthyosaurus for it.",
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"plaintext": "Anning's mother Molly initially ran the fossil business after her husband Richard's death, but it is unclear how much actual fossil collecting Molly did herself. As late as 1821, Molly wrote to the British Museum to request payment for a specimen. Her son Joseph's time was increasingly taken up by his apprenticeship to an upholsterer, but he remained active in the fossil business until at least 1825. By that time, Mary Anning had assumed the leading role in the family specimen business.",
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"plaintext": "The family's keenest customer was Lieutenant-Colonel Thomas James Birch, later Bosvile, a wealthy collector from Lincolnshire, who bought several specimens from them. In 1820 Birch became disturbed by the family's poverty. Having made no major discoveries for a year, they were at the point of having to sell their furniture to pay the rent. So he decided to auction on their behalf the fossils he had purchased from them. He wrote to the palaeontologist Gideon Mantell on 5 March that year to say that the sale was \"for the benefit of the poor woman and her son and daughter at Lyme, who have in truth found almost all the fine things which have been submitted to scientific investigation ... I may never again possess what I am about to part with, yet in doing it I shall have the satisfaction of knowing that the money will be well applied.\" The auction was held at Bullocks in London on 15 May 1820, and raised £400 (the equivalent of £ in ). How much of that was given to the Annings is not known, but it seems to have placed the family on a steadier financial footing, and with buyers arriving from Paris and Vienna, the three-day event raised the family's profile within the geological community.",
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"plaintext": "Anning continued to support herself selling fossils. Her primary stock in trade consisted of invertebrate fossils such as ammonite and belemnite shells, which were common in the area and sold for a few shillings. Vertebrate fossils, such as ichthyosaur skeletons, sold for more, but were much rarer. Collecting them was dangerous winter work. In 1823, an article in The Bristol Mirror said of her:",
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"plaintext": "The risks of Anning's profession were illustrated when in October 1833 she barely avoided being killed by a landslide that buried her black-and-white terrier, Tray, her constant companion when she went collecting. Anning wrote to a friend, Charlotte Murchison, in November of that year: \"Perhaps you will laugh when I say that the death of my old faithful dog has quite upset me, the cliff that fell upon him and killed him in a moment before my eyes, and close to my feet ... it was but a moment between me and the same fate.\"",
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"plaintext": "As Anning continued to make important finds, her reputation grew. On 10December 1823, she found the first complete Plesiosaurus, and in 1828 the first British example of the flying reptiles known as pterosaurs, called a flying dragon when it was displayed at the British Museum, followed by a Squaloraja fish skeleton in 1829. Despite her limited education, she read as much of the scientific literature as she could obtain, and often, laboriously hand-copied papers borrowed from others. Palaeontologist Christopher McGowan examined a copy Anning made of an 1824 paper by William Conybeare on marine reptile fossils and noted that the copy included several pages of her detailed technical illustrations that he was hard-pressed to tell apart from the original. She also dissected modern animals including both fish and cuttlefish to gain a better understanding of the anatomy of some of the fossils with which she was working. Lady Harriet Silvester, the widow of the former Recorder of the City of London, visited Lyme in 1824 and described Anning in her diary:",
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"plaintext": "In 1826, at the age of 27, Anning managed to save enough money to purchase a home with a glass store-front window for her shop, Anning's Fossil Depot. The business had become important enough that the move was covered in the local paper, which noted that the shop had a fine ichthyosaur skeleton on display. Many geologists and fossil collectors from Europe and America visited her at Lyme, including the geologist George William Featherstonhaugh, who called Anning a \"very clever funny Creature.\" He purchased fossils from Anning for the newly opened New York Lyceum of Natural History in 1827. King Frederick Augustus II of Saxony visited her shop in 1844 and purchased an ichthyosaur skeleton for his extensive natural history collection. The king's physician and aide, Carl Gustav Carus, wrote in his journal:",
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"plaintext": "Carus asked Anning to write her name and address in his pocketbook for future reference—she wrote it as \"Mary Annins\"—and when she handed it back to him she told him: \"I am well known throughout the whole of Europe\". As time passed, Anning's confidence in her knowledge grew, and in 1839 she wrote to the Magazine of Natural History to question the claim made in an article, that a recently discovered fossil of the prehistoric shark Hybodus represented a new genus, as an error since she had discovered the existence of fossil sharks with both straight and hooked teeth many years ago. The extract from the letter that the magazine printed was the only writing of Anning's published in the scientific literature during her lifetime. Some personal letters written by Anning, such as her correspondence with Frances Augusta Bell, were published while she was alive, however.",
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"plaintext": "As a woman, Anning was treated as an outsider to the scientific community. At the time in Britain, women were not allowed to vote, hold public office, or attend university. The newly formed, but increasingly influential Geological Society of London did not allow women to become members, or even to attend meetings as guests. The only occupations generally open to working-class women were farm labour, domestic service, and work in the newly opened factories.",
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"plaintext": "Although Anning knew more about fossils and geology than many of the wealthy fossilists to whom she sold, it was always the gentlemen geologists who published the scientific descriptions of the specimens she found, often neglecting to mention Anning's name. She became resentful of this. Anna Pinney, a young woman who sometimes accompanied Anning while she collected, wrote: \"She says the world has used her ill ... these men of learning have sucked her brains, and made a great deal of publishing works, of which she furnished the contents, while she derived none of the advantages.\" Anning herself wrote in a letter: \"The world has used me so unkindly, I fear it has made me suspicious of everyone\". Torrens writes that these slights to Anning were part of a larger pattern of ignoring the contributions of working-class people in early 19th-century scientific literature. Often a fossil would be found by a quarryman, construction worker, or road worker who would sell it to a wealthy collector, and it was the latter who was credited if the find was of scientific interest.",
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"plaintext": "Along with purchasing specimens, many geologists visited Anning to collect fossils or discuss anatomy and classification. Henry De la Beche and Anning became friends as teenagers following his move to Lyme, and he, Anning, and sometimes her brother Joseph, went fossil-hunting together. De la Beche and Anning kept in touch as he became one of Britain's leading geologists. William Buckland, who lectured on geology at the University of Oxford, often visited Lyme on his Christmas vacations and was frequently seen hunting for fossils with Anning. It was to him Anning made what would prove to be the scientifically important suggestion (in a letter auctioned for over £100,000 in 2020 ) that the strange conical objects known as bezoar stones were really the fossilised faeces of ichthyosaurs or plesiosaurs. Buckland would name the objects coprolites. In 1839 Buckland, Conybeare, and Richard Owen visited Lyme together so that Anning could lead them all on a fossil-collecting excursion.",
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"plaintext": "Anning also assisted Thomas Hawkins with his efforts to collect ichthyosaur fossils at Lyme in the 1830s. She was aware of his penchant to \"enhance\" the fossils he collected. Anning wrote: \"he is such an enthusiast that he makes things as he imagines they ought to be; and not as they are really found...\". A few years later there was a public scandal when it was discovered that Hawkins had inserted fake bones to make some ichthyosaur skeletons seem more complete, and later sold them to the government for the British Museum's collection without the appraisers knowing about the additions.",
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"plaintext": "The Swiss palaeontologist Louis Agassiz visited Lyme Regis in 1834 and worked with Anning to obtain and study fish fossils found in the region. He was so impressed by Anning and her friend Elizabeth Philpot that he wrote in his journal: \"Miss Philpot and Mary Anning have been able to show me with utter certainty which are the ichthyodorulite's dorsal fins of sharks that correspond to different types.\" He thanked both of them for their help in his book, Studies of Fossil Fish.",
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"plaintext": "Another leading British geologist, Roderick Murchison, did some of his first fieldwork in southwest England, including Lyme, accompanied by his wife, Charlotte. Murchison wrote that they decided Charlotte should stay behind in Lyme for a few weeks to \"become a good practical fossilist, by working with the celebrated Mary Anning of that place...\". Charlotte and Anning became lifelong friends and correspondents. Charlotte, who travelled widely and met many prominent geologists through her work with her husband, helped Anning build her network of customers throughout Europe, and she stayed with the Murchisons when she visited London in 1829. Anning's correspondents included Charles Lyell, who wrote to ask her opinion on how the sea was affecting the coastal cliffs around Lyme, as well as Adam Sedgwick—one of her earliest customers—who taught geology at the University of Cambridge and who numbered Charles Darwin among his students. Gideon Mantell, discoverer of the dinosaur Iguanodon, also visited Anning at her shop.",
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"plaintext": "By 1830, because of difficult economic conditions in Britain that reduced the demand for fossils, coupled with long gaps between major finds, Anning was having financial problems again. Her friend, the geologist Henry De la Beche assisted her by commissioning Georg Scharf to make a lithographic print based on De la Beche's watercolour painting, Duria Antiquior, portraying life in prehistoric Dorset that was based largely on fossils Anning had found. De la Beche sold copies of the print to his fellow geologists and other wealthy friends and donated the proceeds to Anning. It became the first such scene from what later became known as deep time to be widely circulated. In December 1830, Anning finally made another major find, a skeleton of a new type of plesiosaur, which sold for £200.",
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"plaintext": "It was around this time that Anning switched from attending the local Congregational church, where she had been baptised and in which she and her family had always been active members, to the Anglican church. The change was prompted in part by a decline in Congregational attendance that began in 1828 when its popular pastor, John Gleed, a fellow fossil collector, left for the United States to campaign against slavery. He was replaced by the less likeable Ebenezer Smith. The greater social respectability of the established church, in which some of Anning's gentleman geologist customers such as Buckland, Conybeare, and Sedgwick were ordained clergy, was also a factor. Anning, who was devoutly religious, actively supported her new church as she had her old.",
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"plaintext": "Anning suffered another serious financial setback in 1835 when she lost most of her life savings, about £300, in a bad investment. Sources differ somewhat on what exactly went wrong. Deborah Cadbury says that she invested with a conman who swindled her and disappeared with the money, but Shelley Emling writes that it is not clear whether the man ran off with the money or whether he died suddenly leaving Anning with no way to recover the investment. Concerned about Anning's financial situation, her old friend William Buckland persuaded the British Association for the Advancement of Science and the British government to award her an annuity, known as a civil list pension, in return for her many contributions to the science of geology. The £25 annual pension gave Anning some financial security.",
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"plaintext": "Anning died from breast cancer at the age of 47 on 9 March 1847. Her fossil work had tailed off during the last few years of her life because of her illness, and as some townspeople misinterpreted the effects of the increasing doses of laudanum she was taking for the pain, there had been gossip in Lyme that she had a drinking problem. The regard in which Anning was held by the geological community was shown in 1846 when, upon learning of her cancer diagnosis, the Geological Society raised money from its members to help with her expenses and the council of the newly created Dorset County Museum made Anning an honorary member. She was buried on 15 March in the churchyard of St Michael's, the local parish church. Members of the Geological Society contributed to a stained-glass window in Anning's memory, unveiled in 1850. It depicts the six corporal acts of mercy—feeding the hungry, giving drink to the thirsty, clothing the naked, sheltering the homeless, visiting prisoners and the sick, and the inscription reads: \"This window is sacred to the memory of Mary Anning of this parish, who died 9 March AD 1847 and is erected by the vicar and some members of the Geological Society of London in commemoration of her usefulness in furthering the science of geology, as also of her benevolence of heart and integrity of life.\"",
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"plaintext": "After Anning's death, Henry De la Beche, president of the Geological Society, wrote a eulogy that he read to a meeting of the society and published in its quarterly transactions, the first such eulogy given for a woman. These were honours normally only accorded to fellows of the society, which did not admit women until 1904. The eulogy began:",
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"plaintext": "I cannot close this notice of our losses by death without adverting to that of one, who though not placed among even the easier classes of society, but one who had to earn her daily bread by her labour, yet contributed by her talents and untiring researches in no small degree to our knowledge of the great Enalio-Saurians, and other forms of organic life entombed in the vicinity of Lyme Regis ...",
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"plaintext": "Henry Stuart Fagan wrote an article about Anning's life in February 1865 in Charles Dickens' literary magazine All the Year Round (though the article was largely plagiarized and was long mistakenly attributed to Dickens) that emphasised the difficulties Anning had overcome, especially the scepticism of her fellow townspeople. He ended the article with: \"The carpenter's daughter has won a name for herself, and has deserved to win it.\"",
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"plaintext": "Anning's first famous discovery was made shortly after her father's death when she was still a child of about 12. In 1811 (some sources say 1810 or 1809) her brother Joseph found a skull, but failed to locate the rest of the animal. After Joseph told Anning to look between the cliffs at Lyme Regis and Charmouth, she found the skeleton— long in all—a few months later. The family hired workmen to dig it out in November that year, an event covered by the local press on 9 November, who identified the fossil as a crocodile.",
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"plaintext": "Other ichthyosaur remains had been discovered in years past at Lyme and elsewhere, but the specimen found by the Annings was the first to come to the attention of scientific circles in London. It was purchased by the lord of a local manor, who passed it to William Bullock for public display in London where it created a sensation. At a time when most people in Britain still believed in a literal interpretation of Genesis, that the Earth was only a few thousand years old and that species did not evolve or become extinct, the find raised questions in scientific and religious circles about what the new science of geology was revealing about ancient life and the history of the Earth. Its notoriety increased when Sir Everard Home wrote a series of six papers, starting in 1814, describing it for the Royal Society. The papers never mentioned who had collected the fossil, and in the first one he even mistakenly credited the painstaking cleaning and preparation of the fossil performed by Anning to the staff at Bullock's museum. Perplexed by the creature, Home kept changing his mind about its classification, first thinking it was a kind of fish, then thinking it might have some kind of affinity with the duck-billed platypus (only recently known to science); finally in 1819 he reasoned it might be a kind of intermediate form between salamanders and lizards, which led him to propose naming it Proteo-Saurus. By then Charles Konig, an assistant curator of the British Museum, had already suggested the name Ichthyosaurus (fish lizard) for the specimen and that name stuck. Konig purchased the skeleton for the museum in 1819. The skull of the specimen is still in the possession of the Natural History Museum in London (to which the fossil collections of the British Museum were transferred later in the century), but at some point, it became separated from the rest of the skeleton, the location of which is not known.",
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"plaintext": "Anning found several other ichthyosaur fossils between 1815 and 1819, including almost complete skeletons of varying sizes. In 1821 William Conybeare and Henry De la Beche, both members of the Geological Society of London, collaborated on a paper that analysed in detail the specimens found by Anning and others. They concluded that ichthyosaurs were a previously unknown type of marine reptile, and based on differences in tooth structure, they concluded that there had been at least three species. Also in 1821, Anning found the skeleton from which the species Ichthyosaurus platydon (now Temnodontosaurus platyodon) would be named. In the 1980s it was determined that the first ichthyosaur specimen found by Joseph and Mary Anning was also a member of Temnodontosaurus platyodon.",
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"plaintext": "In the same 1821 paper he co-authored with Henry De la Beche on ichthyosaur anatomy, William Conybeare named and described the genus Plesiosaurus (near lizard), called so because he thought it more like modern reptiles than the ichthyosaur had been. The description was based on a number of fossils, the most complete of them specimen OUMNH J.50146, a paddle and vertebral column that had been obtained by Lieutenant-Colonel Thomas James Birch. Christopher McGowan has hypothesised that this specimen had originally been much more complete and had been collected by Anning, during the winter of 1820/1821. If so, it would have been Anning's next major discovery, providing essential information about the newly recognised type of marine reptile. No records by Anning of the find are known. The paper thanked Birch for giving Conybeare access to it, but does not mention who discovered and prepared it.",
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"plaintext": "In 1823, Anning discovered a second, much more complete plesiosaur skeleton, specimen BMNH 22656. When Conybeare presented his analysis of plesiosaur anatomy to a meeting of the Geological Society in 1824, he again failed to mention Anning by name, even though she had possibly collected both skeletons and had made the sketch of the second skeleton he used in his presentation. Conybeare's presentation was made at the same meeting at which William Buckland described the dinosaur Megalosaurus and the combination created a sensation in scientific circles. The second fossil was named and described as Plesiosaurus dolichodeirus and is the type specimen (holotype) of this species, which itself is the type species of the genus.",
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"plaintext": "Conybeare's presentation followed the resolution of a controversy over the legitimacy of one of the fossils. The fact that the plesiosaur's long neck had an unprecedented 35 vertebrae raised the suspicions of the eminent French anatomist Georges Cuvier when he reviewed Anning's drawings of the second skeleton, and he wrote to Conybeare suggesting the possibility that the find was a fake produced by combining fossil bones from different kinds of animals. Fraud was far from unknown among early 19th-century fossil collectors, and if the controversy had not been resolved promptly, the accusation could have seriously damaged Anning's ability to sell fossils to other geologists. Cuvier's accusation had resulted in a special meeting of the Geological Society earlier in 1824, which, after some debate, had concluded the skeleton was legitimate. Cuvier later admitted he had acted in haste and was mistaken.",
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"plaintext": "Anning discovered yet another important and nearly complete plesiosaur skeleton in 1830. It was named Plesiosaurus macrocephalus by William Buckland and was described in an 1840 paper by Richard Owen. Once again Owen mentioned the wealthy gentleman who had purchased the fossil and made it available for examination, but not the woman who had discovered and prepared it.",
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"plaintext": "Anning found what a contemporary newspaper article called an unrivalled specimen of Dapedium politum. This was a ray-finned fish, which would be described in 1828. In December of that same year she made an important find consisting of the partial skeleton of a pterosaur. In 1829 William Buckland described it as Pterodactylus macronyx (later renamed Dimorphodon macronyx by Richard Owen), and unlike many other such occasions, Buckland credited Anning with the discovery in his paper. It was the first pterosaur skeleton found outside Germany, and it created a public sensation when displayed at the British Museum. Recent research has found that these creatures were not inclined to fly continuously in their search for fish.",
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"plaintext": "In December 1829 she found a fossil fish, Squaloraja, which attracted attention because it had characteristics intermediate between sharks and rays.",
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"plaintext": "Vertebrate fossil finds, especially of marine reptiles, made Anning's reputation, but she made numerous other contributions to early palaeontology. In 1826 Anning discovered what appeared to be a chamber containing dried ink inside a belemnite fossil. She showed it to her friend Elizabeth Philpot who was able to revivify the ink and use it to illustrate some of her own ichthyosaur fossils. Soon other local artists were doing the same, as more such fossilised ink chambers were discovered. Anning noted how closely the fossilised chambers resembled the ink sacs of modern squid and cuttlefish, which she had dissected to understand the anatomy of fossil cephalopods, and this led William Buckland to publish the conclusion that Jurassic belemnites had used ink for defence just as many modern cephalopods do. It was also Anning who noticed that the oddly shaped fossils then known as \"bezoar stones\" were sometimes found in the abdominal region of ichthyosaur skeletons. She noted that if such stones were broken open they often contained fossilised fish bones and scales, and sometimes bones from small ichthyosaurs. Anning suspected the stones were fossilised faeces and suggested so to Buckland in 1824. After further investigation and comparison with similar fossils found in other places, Buckland published that conclusion in 1829 and named them coprolites. In contrast to the finding of the plesiosaur skeletons a few years earlier, for which she was not credited, when Buckland presented his findings on coprolites to the Geological Society, he mentioned Anning by name and praised her skill and industry in helping to solve the mystery.",
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"plaintext": "Anning's discoveries became key pieces of evidence for extinction. Georges Cuvier had argued for the reality of extinction in the late 1790s based on his analysis of fossils of mammals such as mammoths. Nevertheless, until the early 1820s it was still believed by many scientifically literate people that just as new species did not appear, so existing ones did not become extinct—in part because they felt that extinction would imply that God's creation had been imperfect; any oddities found were explained away as belonging to animals still living somewhere in an unexplored region of the Earth. The bizarre nature of the fossils found by Anning, — some, such as the plesiosaur, so unlike any known living creature — struck a major blow against this idea.",
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"plaintext": "The ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, and pterosaur she found, along with the first dinosaur fossils which were discovered by Gideon Mantell and William Buckland during the same period, showed that during previous eras the Earth was inhabited by creatures different from those living today, and provided important support for another controversial suggestion of Cuvier's: that there had been an \"age of reptiles\" when reptiles rather than mammals had been the dominant form of animal life. This phrase became popular after the publication in 1831 of a paper by Mantell entitled \"The Age of Reptiles\" that summarised the evidence that there had been an extended geological era when giant reptiles had swarmed the land, air, and sea. These discoveries also played a key role in the development of a new discipline of geohistorical analysis within geology in the 1820s that sought to understand the history of the Earth by using evidence from fossils to reconstruct extinct organisms and the environments in which they lived. This discipline eventually came to be called palaeontology. Illustrations of scenes from \"deep time\" (now known as palaeoart), such as Henry De la Beche's ground-breaking painting Duria Antiquior, helped convince people that it was possible to understand life in the distant past. De la Beche had been inspired to create the painting by a vivid description of the food chain of the Lias by William Buckland that was based on analysis of coprolites. The study of coprolites, pioneered by Anning and Buckland, would prove to be a valuable tool for understanding ancient ecosystems.",
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"plaintext": "Throughout the 20th century, beginning with H.A. Forde and his The Heroine of Lyme Regis: The Story of Mary Anning the Celebrated Geologist (1925), a number of writers saw Anning's life as inspirational. According to P.J. McCartney in Henry De la Beche: Observations on an Observer (1978), she was the basis of Terry Sullivan's lyrics to the 1908 song which, McCartney claimed, became the popular tongue twister, \"She Sells Seashells\":",
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"plaintext": "However, Stephen Winick of the American Folklife Center has shown that no evidence has been presented for any causal connection between Anning and the lyrics (which are about a music-hall performer who has difficulty with tongue-twisters); in particular, Winick consulted McCartney's original text and discovered that not only did McCartney not provide any sources to support his statement, he merely said that Anning was \"reputed to be\" the subject of the song. Winick also pointed out that the tongue-twister pre-dated Sullivan by decades, and stated that there is a \"very imperfect fit between the details of the song and those of Mary Anning’s life\", and \"not even a real female character in the song, let alone anyone recognizable as Mary Anning\", ultimately concluding that if the song was intended as a tribute to Anning, it is \"a pretty ineffective one.\"",
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"plaintext": "Much of the material written about Anning was aimed at children, and tended to focus on her childhood and early career. Much of it was also highly romanticised and not always historically accurate. Anning has been referenced in several historical novels, most notably in The French Lieutenant's Woman (1969) by John Fowles, who was critical of the fact that no British scientist had named a species after her in her lifetime. As Anning's biographer Shelley Emling noted, this contrasted with some of the prominent geologists who had used her finds, such as William Buckland and Roderick Murchison, who ended up with multiple fossil species named after them. The only person who did name a species after Anning during her lifetime was the Swiss-American naturalist, Louis Agassiz. In the early 1840s, he named two fossil fish species after Anning – Acrodus anningiae, and Belenostomus anningiae – and another after her friend Elizabeth Philpot. Agassiz was grateful for the help the women had given him in examining fossil fish specimens during his visit to Lyme Regis in 1834. After Anning's death, other species, including the ostracod Cytherelloidea anningi, and two genera, the therapsid reptile genus Anningia, and the bivalve mollusc genus Anningella, were named in her honour. In 2012, the plesiosaur genus Anningasaura was named after Anning and the species Ichthyosaurus anningae was named after her in 2015.",
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"plaintext": "In 1999, on the 200th anniversary of Anning's birth, an international meeting of historians, palaeontologists, fossil collectors, and others interested in her life was held in Lyme Regis. In 2005 the Natural History Museum added Anning, alongside scientists such as Carl Linnaeus, Dorothea Bate, and William Smith, as one of the \"gallery characters\" (actors dressed in period costumes) it uses to walk around its display cases. In 2007, American playwright/performer Claudia Stevens premiered Blue Lias, or the Fish Lizard's Whore, a solo play with music by Allen Shearer depicting Anning in later life. Among the presenters of its thirty performances around the Charles Darwin bicentennial were the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, museums of natural history at the University of Michigan and the University of Kansas, and the Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History. In 2009, Tracy Chevalier wrote a historical novel entitled Remarkable Creatures, in which Anning and Elizabeth Philpot were the main characters, and another historical novel about Anning, Curiosity by Joan Thomas, was published in March 2010.",
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"plaintext": "In August 2018, a campaign called \"Mary Anning Rocks\" was formed by an 11-year-old school girl from Dorset, Evie Swire, supported by her mother Anya Pearson. The campaign was set up to remember Anning in her hometown of Lyme Regis by erecting a statue and creating a learning legacy in her name. Patrons and supporters include Professor Alice Roberts, Sir David Attenborough and novelist Tracy Chevalier. A crowdfunding campaign began but was put on hold. The fundraising campaign, led by the charity Mary Anning Rocks, rebooted in November 2020. As of January 2021, Evie Swire's campaign had resulted in a commission to sculptor Denise Dutton. The statue was granted planning permission by Dorset Council for a space overlooking Black Ven, where Anning made many of her finds. Alice Roberts and Evie Swire unveiled the statue on 21 May 2022, the 223rd anniversary of Anning's birth. The life-sized bronze statue depicts Anning with hammer and fossil in hand, overlooking the cliffs that still attract fossil hunters today. It is prominently displayed in Lyme Regis on southern England’s Jurassic Coast.",
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"plaintext": "A further emergency crowdfunding campaign began in August 2020 to raise funds to bid for a handwritten letter from Anning to William Buckland in 1829 about a box of coprolites (fossil poo) and a new plesiosaur she had discovered. The letter later sold at Sotheby's for £100,800 but the campaign had only raised £18,532.",
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"plaintext": "In 2021, the Royal Mint issued sets of commemorative 50 pence (£0.50 sterling) coins called 'The Mary Anning Collection''' minted in acknowledgement of her lack of recognition as 'one of Britain's greatest fossil hunters'. The coins have images of the Temnodontosaurus, the Plesiosaurus and the Dimophodon, which she discovered, and her discoveries were 'often overlooked at a time when the scientific world was dominated by men', and as 'a working-class woman.'",
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"plaintext": "Mary Anning appears as a Heroic Spirit belonging to the Lancer class in the web manga Learn Even More with Manga!, derived from the video game Fate/Grand Order. Her depiction in that manga brings several features from Anning's life into play, such as fossil-collecting gear, fossils, and live versions of ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs. She later appears in the video game, voiced by Maria Naganawa.",
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"plaintext": "Anning served as inspiration for Sarah Perry's fossil-hunting protagonist, Cora, in the 2016 novel The Essex Serpent.",
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"plaintext": "A film based on segments of Anning's life and legacy entitled Ammonite, directed by Francis Lee, premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival on 11 September 2020. Kate Winslet portrays Anning and Saoirse Ronan portrays Charlotte Murchison, with the two engaged in a fictional lesbian relationship. The film was released on 13 November 2020 in the US and 26 March 2021 in the UK. Both the Ammonite film release and the 'Mary Anning Rocks''' statue fundraiser were delayed into 2021, due to the coronavirus pandemic.",
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38,337 | 1,107,686,488 | Pali | [
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"plaintext": "Pali () is a Middle Indo-Aryan liturgical language native to the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist Pāli Canon or Tipiṭaka as well as the sacred language of Theravāda Buddhism. Early in the language's history, it was written in the Brahmi script.",
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"plaintext": "The word 'Pali' is used as a name for the language of the Theravada canon. The word seems to have its origins in commentarial traditions, wherein the (in the sense of the line of original text quoted) was distinguished from the commentary or vernacular translation that followed it in the manuscript. K. R. Norman suggests that its emergence was based on a misunderstanding of the compound , with being interpreted as the name of a particular language.",
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"plaintext": "The name Pali does not appear in the canonical literature, and in commentary literature is sometimes substituted with , meaning a string or lineage. This name seems to have emerged in Sri Lanka early in the second millennium CE during a resurgence in the use of Pali as a courtly and literary language.",
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"plaintext": "As such, the name of the language has caused some debate among scholars of all ages; the spelling of the name also varies, being found with both long \"ā\" and short \"a\" , and also with either a retroflex or non-retroflex \"l\"sound. Both the long ā and retroflex are seen in the ISO 15919/ALA-LC rendering, ; however, to this day there is no single, standard spelling of the term, and all four possible spellings can be found in textbooks. R. C. Childers translates the word as \"series\" and states that the language \"bears the epithet in consequence of the perfection of its grammatical structure\".",
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"plaintext": "There is persistent confusion as to the relation of to the vernacular spoken in the ancient kingdom of Magadha, which was located around modern-day Bihār. Beginning in the Theravada commentaries, Pali was identified with 'Magahi', the language of the kingdom of Magadha, and this was taken to also be the language that the Buddha used during his life. In the 19th century, the British Orientalist Robert Caesar Childers argued that the true or geographical name of the Pali language was Magadhi Prakrit, and that because pāḷi means \"line, row, series\", the early Buddhists extended the meaning of the term to mean \"a series of books\", so pāḷibhāsā means \"language of the texts\".",
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"plaintext": "However, modern scholarship has regarded Pali as a mix of several Prakrit languages from around the 3rd century BCE, combined and partially Sanskritized. There is no attested dialect of Middle Indo-Aryan with all the features of Pali. In the modern era, it has been possible to compare Pali with inscriptions known to be in Magadhi Prakrit, as well as other texts and grammars of that language. While none of the existing sources specifically document pre-Ashokan Magadhi, the available sources suggest that Pali is not equatable with that language.",
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"plaintext": "Modern scholars generally regard Pali to have originated from a western dialect, rather than an eastern one. Pali has some commonalities with both the western Ashokan Edicts at Girnar in Saurashtra, and the Central-Western Prakrit found in the eastern Hathigumpha inscription. These similarities lead scholars to associate Pali with this region of western India. Nonetheless, Pali does retain some eastern features that have been referred to as Māgadhisms.",
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"plaintext": "Pāḷi, as a Middle Indo-Aryan language, is different from Classical Sanskrit more with regard to its dialectal base than the time of its origin. A number of its morphological and lexical features show that it is not a direct continuation of Sanskrit. Instead it descends from one or more dialects that were, despite many similarities, different from .",
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"plaintext": "The Theravada commentaries refer to the Pali language as \"Magadhan\" or the \"language of Magadha\". This identification first appears in the commentaries, and may have been an attempt by Buddhists to associate themselves more closely with the Maurya Empire.",
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"plaintext": "However, only some of the Buddha's teachings were delivered in the historical territory of Magadha kingdom. Scholars consider it likely that he taught in several closely related dialects of Middle Indo-Aryan, which had a high degree of mutual intelligibility.",
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"plaintext": "Theravada tradition, as recorded in chronicles like the Mahavamsa, states that the Tipitaka was first committed to writing during the first century BCE. This move away from the previous tradition of oral preservation is described as being motivated by threats to the Sangha from famine, war, and the growing influence of the rival tradition of the Abhayagiri Vihara. This account is generally accepted by scholars, though there are indications that Pali had already begun to be recorded in writing by this date. By this point in its history, scholars consider it likely that Pali had already undergone some initial assimilation with Sanskrit, such as the conversion of the Middle-Indic bamhana to the more familiar Sanskrit brāhmana that contemporary brahmans used to identify themselves.",
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"plaintext": "In Sri Lanka, Pali is thought to have entered into a period of decline ending around the 4th or 5th century (as Sanskrit rose in prominence, and simultaneously, as Buddhism's adherents became a smaller portion of the subcontinent), but ultimately survived. The work of Buddhaghosa was largely responsible for its reemergence as an important scholarly language in Buddhist thought. The Visuddhimagga, and the other commentaries that Buddhaghosa compiled, codified and condensed the Sinhala commentarial tradition that had been preserved and expanded in Sri Lanka since the 3rd century BCE.",
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"plaintext": "With only a few possible exceptions, the entire corpus of Pali texts known today is believed to derive from the Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya in Sri Lanka. While literary evidence exists of Theravadins in mainland India surviving into the 13th Century, no Pali texts specifically attributable to this tradition have been recovered. Some texts (such as the Milindapanha) may have been composed in India before being transmitted to Sri Lanka, but the surviving versions of the texts are those preserved by the Mahavihara in Ceylon and shared with monasteries in Theravada Southeast Asia.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest inscriptions in Pali found in mainland Southeast Asia are from the first millennium CE, some possibly dating to as early as the 4th Century. Inscriptions are found in what are now Burma, Laos, Thailand and Cambodia and may have spread from southern India rather than Sri Lanka. By the 11th Century, a so-called \"Pali renaissance\" began in the vicinity of Pagan, gradually spreading to the rest of mainland Southeast Asia as royal dynasties sponsored monastic lineages derived from the Mahavihara of Anuradhapura. This era was also characterized by the adoption of Sanskrit conventions and poetic forms (such as kavya) that had not been features of earlier Pali literature. This process began as early as the 5th Century, but intensified early in the second millennium as Pali texts on poetics and composition modeled on Sanskrit forms began to grow in popularity. One milestone of this period was the publication of the Subodhalankara during the 14th Century, a work attributed to Sangharakkhita Mahāsāmi and modeled on the Sanskrit Kavyadarsa.",
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"plaintext": "Despite an expansion of the number and influence of Mahavihara-derived monastics, this resurgence of Pali study resulted in no production of any new surviving literary works in Pali. During this era, correspondences between royal courts in Sri Lanka and mainland Southeast Asia were conducted in Pali, and grammars aimed at speakers of Sinhala, Burmese, and other languages were produced. The emergence of the term 'Pali' as the name of the language of the Theravada canon also occurred during this era.",
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"plaintext": "While Pali is generally recognized as an ancient language, no epigraphical or manuscript evidence has survived from the earliest eras. The earliest samples of Pali discovered are inscriptions believed to date from 5th to 8th Century located in mainland Southeast Asia, specifically central Siam and lower Burma. These inscriptions typically consist of short excerpts from the Pali Canon and non-canonical texts, and include several examples of the Ye dhamma hetu verse.",
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"plaintext": "Surprisingly, the oldest surviving Pali manuscript was discovered in Nepal dating to the 9th Century. It is in the form of four palm-leaf folios, using a transitional script deriving from the Gupta script to scribe a fragment of the Cullavagga. The oldest known manuscripts from Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia date to the 13th-15th Century, with few surviving examples. Very few manuscripts older than 400 years have survived, and complete manuscripts of the four Nikayas are only available in examples from the 17th Century and later.",
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"plaintext": "Pali was first mentioned in Western literature in Simon de la Loubère's descriptions of his travels in the kingdom of Siam. An early grammar and dictionary was published by Methodist missionary Benjamin Clough in 1824, and an initial study published by Eugène Burnouf and Christian Lassen in 1826 (Essai Sur Le Pali, Ou Langue Sacree de La Presqu'ile Au-Dela Du Gange). The first modern Pali-English dictionary was published by Robert Childers in 1872 and 1875. Following the foundation of the Pali Text Society, English Pali studies grew rapidly and Childer's dictionary became outdated. Planning for a new dictionary began in the early 1900s, but delays (including the outbreak of World War I) meant that work was not completed until 1925.",
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"plaintext": "T. W. Rhys Davids in his book Buddhist India, and Wilhelm Geiger in his book Pāli Literature and Language, suggested that Pali may have originated as a lingua franca or common language of culture among people who used differing dialects in North India, used at the time of the Buddha and employed by him. Another scholar states that at that time it was \"a refined and elegant vernacular of all Aryan-speaking people\". Modern scholarship has not arrived at a consensus on the issue; there are a variety of conflicting theories with supporters and detractors. After the death of the Buddha, Pali may have evolved among Buddhists out of the language of the Buddha as a new artificial language. R. C. Childers, who held to the theory that Pali was Old Magadhi, wrote: \"Had Gautama never preached, it is unlikely that Magadhese would have been distinguished from the many other vernaculars of Hindustan, except perhaps by an inherent grace and strength which make it a sort of Tuscan among the Prakrits.\"",
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"plaintext": "According to K. R. Norman, differences between different texts within the canon suggest that it contains material from more than a single dialect. He also suggests it is likely that the viharas in North India had separate collections of material, preserved in the local dialect. In the early period it is likely that no degree of translation was necessary in communicating this material to other areas. Around the time of Ashoka there had been more linguistic divergence, and an attempt was made to assemble all the material. It is possible that a language quite close to the Pali of the canon emerged as a result of this process as a compromise of the various dialects in which the earliest material had been preserved, and this language functioned as a lingua franca among Eastern Buddhists from then on. Following this period, the language underwent a small degree of Sanskritisation (i.e.,MIA bamhana > brahmana, tta > tva in some cases).",
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"plaintext": "Bhikkhu Bodhi, summarizing the current state of scholarship, states that the language is \"closely related to the language (or, more likely, the various regional dialects) that the Buddha himself spoke\". He goes on to write:",
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"plaintext": "According to A. K. Warder, the Pali language is a Prakrit language used in a region of Western India. Warder associates Pali with the Indian realm (janapada) of Avanti, where the Sthavira nikāya was centered. Following the initial split in the Buddhist community, the Sthavira nikāya became influential in Western and South India while the Mahāsāṃghika branch became influential in Central and East India. Akira Hirakawa and Paul Groner also associate Pali with Western India and the Sthavira nikāya, citing the Saurashtran inscriptions, which are linguistically closest to the Pali language.",
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"plaintext": "Although Sanskrit was said in the Brahmanical tradition to be the unchanging language spoken by the gods in which each word had an inherent significance, such views for any language was not shared in the early Buddhist traditions, in which words were only conventional and mutable signs. This view of language naturally extended to Pali and may have contributed to its usage (as an approximation or standardization of local Middle Indic dialects) in place of Sanskrit. However, by the time of the compilation of the Pali commentaries (4th or 5th century), Pali was described by the anonymous authors as the natural language, the root language of all beings.",
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"plaintext": "Comparable to Ancient Egyptian, Latin or Hebrew in the mystic traditions of the West, Pali recitations were often thought to have a supernatural power (which could be attributed to their meaning, the character of the reciter, or the qualities of the language itself), and in the early strata of Buddhist literature we can already see Pali s used as charms, as, for example, against the bite of snakes. Many people in Theravada cultures still believe that taking a vow in Pali has a special significance, and, as one example of the supernatural power assigned to chanting in the language, the recitation of the vows of are believed to alleviate the pain of childbirth in Sri Lanka. In Thailand, the chanting of a portion of the is believed to be beneficial to the recently departed, and this ceremony routinely occupies as much as seven working days. There is nothing in the latter text that relates to this subject, and the origins of the custom are unclear.",
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"plaintext": "Pali died out as a literary language in mainland India in the fourteenth century but survived elsewhere until the eighteenth. Today Pali is studied mainly to gain access to Buddhist scriptures, and is frequently chanted in a ritual context. The secular literature of Pali historical chronicles, medical texts, and inscriptions is also of great historical importance. The great centres of Pali learning remain in Sri Lanka and other Theravada nations of Southeast Asia: Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and Cambodia. Since the 19th century, various societies for the revival of Pali studies in India have promoted awareness of the language and its literature, including the Maha Bodhi Society founded by Anagarika Dhammapala.",
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694,
714
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]
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{
"plaintext": "In Europe, the Pali Text Society has been a major force in promoting the study of Pali by Western scholars since its founding in 1881. Based in the United Kingdom, the society publishes romanized Pali editions, along with many English translations of these sources. In 1869, the first Pali Dictionary was published using the research of Robert Caesar Childers, one of the founding members of the Pali Text Society. It was the first Pali translated text in English and was published in 1872. Childers' dictionary later received the Volney Prize in 1876.",
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"plaintext": "The Pali Text Society was founded in part to compensate for the very low level of funds allocated to Indology in late 19th-century England and the rest of the UK; incongruously, the citizens of the UK were not nearly so robust in Sanskrit and Prakrit language studies as Germany, Russia, and even Denmark. Even without the inspiration of colonial holdings such as the former British occupation of Sri Lanka and Burma, institutions such as the Danish Royal Library have built up major collections of Pali manuscripts, and major traditions of Pali studies.",
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"plaintext": "Pali literature is usually divided into canonical and non-canonical or extra-canonical texts. Canonical texts include the whole of the Pali Canon or Tipitaka. With the exception of three books placed in the Khuddaka Nikaya by only the Burmese tradition, these texts (consisting of the five Nikayas of the Sutta Pitaka, the Vinaya Pitaka, and the books of the Abhidhamma Pitaka) are traditionally accepted as containing the words of the Buddha and his immediate disciples by the Theravada tradition.",
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"plaintext": "Extra-canonical texts can be divided into several categories:",
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},
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"plaintext": " Commentaries (Atthakatha) which record additional details and explanations regarding the contents of the Suttas.",
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"plaintext": " Sub-commentaries (ṭīkā) which explain and add contents to the commentaries",
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"plaintext": " Chronicles (Vaṃsa) which relate the history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, as well as the origins of famous relics and shrines and the deeds of historical and mythical kings",
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"plaintext": " Manuals and treatises, which include summaries of canonical books and compendia of teachings and techniques like the Visuddhimagga",
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"plaintext": " Abhidhamma manuals, which explain the contents of the Abhidhamma Pitaka",
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"plaintext": "Other types of texts present in Pali literature include works on grammar and poetics, medical texts, astrological and divination texts, cosmologies, and anthologies or collections of material from the canonical literature.",
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"plaintext": "While the majority of works in Pali are believed to have originated with the Sri Lankan tradition and then spread to other Theravada regions, some texts may have other origins. The Milinda Panha may have originated in northern India before being translated from Sanskrit or Gandhari Prakrit. There are also a number of texts that are believed to have been composed in Pali in Sri Lanka, Thailand & Burma but were not widely circulated. This regional Pali literature is currently relatively little known, particularly in the Thai tradition, with many manuscripts never catalogued or published.",
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"plaintext": " is a largely unattested literary language of classical India that is mentioned in Prakrit and Sanskrit grammars of antiquity. It is found grouped with the Prakrit languages, with which it shares some linguistic similarities, but was not considered a spoken language by the early grammarians because it was understood to have been purely a literary language.",
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"plaintext": "In works of Sanskrit poetics such as Daṇḍin's Kavyadarsha, it is also known by the name of , an epithet which can be interpreted as 'dead language' (i.e., with no surviving speakers), or means past and means language i.e. 'a language spoken in the past'. Evidence which lends support to this interpretation is that literature in Paiśācī is fragmentary and extremely rare but may once have been common.",
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"plaintext": "The 13th-century Tibetan historian Buton Rinchen Drub wrote that the early Buddhist schools were separated by choice of sacred language: the Mahāsāṃghikas used Prākrit, the Sarvāstivādins used Sanskrit, the Sthaviravādins used Paiśācī, and the Saṃmitīya used Apabhraṃśa. This observation has led some scholars to theorize connections between Pali and Paiśācī; Sten Konow concluded that it may have been an Indo-Aryan language spoken by Dravidian people in South India, and Alfred Master noted a number of similarities between surviving fragments and Pali morphology.",
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"plaintext": "Ardhamagadhi Prakrit was a Middle Indo-Aryan language and a Dramatic Prakrit thought to have been spoken in modern-day Bihar & Eastern Uttar Pradesh and used in some early Buddhist and Jain drama. It was originally thought to be a predecessor of the vernacular Magadhi Prakrit, hence the name (literally \"half-Magadhi\"). Ardhamāgadhī was prominently used by Jain scholars and is preserved in the Jain Agamas.",
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"plaintext": "Ardhamagadhi Prakrit differs from later Magadhi Prakrit in similar ways to Pali, and was often believed to be connected with Pali on the basis of the belief that Pali recorded the speech of the Buddha in an early Magadhi dialect.",
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"plaintext": "Magadhi Prakrit was a Middle Indic language spoken in present-day Bihar, and eastern Uttar Pradesh. Its use later expanded southeast to include some regions of modern-day Bengal, Odisha, and Assam, and it was used in some Prakrit dramas to represent vernacular dialogue. Preserved examples of Magadhi Prakrit are from several centuries after the theorized lifetime of the Buddha, and include inscriptions attributed to Asoka Maurya.",
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"plaintext": "Differences observed between preserved examples of Magadhi Prakrit and Pali lead scholars to conclude that Pali represented a development of a northwestern dialect of Middle Indic, rather than being a continuation of a language spoken in the area of Magadha in the time of the Buddha.",
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"plaintext": "Nearly every word in Pāḷi has cognates in the other Middle Indo-Aryan languages, the Prakrits. The relationship to Vedic Sanskrit is less direct and more complicated; the Prakrits were descended from Old Indo-Aryan vernaculars. Historically, influence between Pali and Sanskrit has been felt in both directions. The Pali language's resemblance to Sanskrit is often exaggerated by comparing it to later Sanskrit compositions—which were written centuries after Sanskrit ceased to be a living language, and are influenced by developments in Middle Indic, including the direct borrowing of a portion of the Middle Indic lexicon; whereas, a good deal of later Pali technical terminology has been borrowed from the vocabulary of equivalent disciplines in Sanskrit, either directly or with certain phonological adaptations.",
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"plaintext": "Post-canonical Pali also possesses a few loan-words from local languages where Pali was used (e.g. Sri Lankans adding Sinhala words to Pali). These usages differentiate the Pali found in the from later compositions such as the Pali commentaries on the canon and folklore (e.g., commentaries on the Jataka tales), and comparative study (and dating) of texts on the basis of such loan-words is now a specialized field unto itself.",
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"plaintext": "Pali was not exclusively used to convey the teachings of the Buddha, as can be deduced from the existence of a number of secular texts, such as books of medical science/instruction, in Pali. However, scholarly interest in the language has been focused upon religious and philosophical literature, because of the unique window it opens on one phase in the development of Buddhism.",
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"plaintext": "Vowels may be divided into",
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},
{
"plaintext": " pure vowels: a, ā",
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},
{
"plaintext": " sonant vowels: i, ī, u, ū",
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},
{
"plaintext": " diphthongs: e, o",
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},
{
"plaintext": " vowels short by nature: a, i, u",
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},
{
"plaintext": " vowels long by nature: ā, ī, ū",
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},
{
"plaintext": " vowels of variable length: e, o",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Long and short vowels are only contrastive in open syllables; in closed syllables, all vowels are always short. Short and long e and o are in complementary distribution: the short variants occur only in closed syllables, the long variants occur only in open syllables. Short and long e and o are therefore not distinct phonemes.",
"section_idx": 5,
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},
{
"plaintext": "vowels e and o are long in an open syllable:",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "at the end of a syllable as in [ne-tum̩] เนตุํ 'to lead'",
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},
{
"plaintext": "at the end of a syllable as in [so-tum̩] โสตุํ 'to hear'",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "vowels are short in a closed syllable:",
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"section_name": "Phonology",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "when followed by a consonant with which they make a syllable as in [upek-khā] 'indifference', [sot-thi] 'safety'",
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"section_name": "Phonology",
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},
{
"plaintext": "For vowels ā, ī, ū, e appears for a before double-consonance:",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " seyyā = sayyā 'bed'",
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"section_name": "Phonology",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " pheggu = phaigu 'empty, worthless'",
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"section_name": "Phonology",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "The vowels ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩ are lengthened in the flexional endings including: -īhi, -ūhi and -īsu",
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"section_name": "Phonology",
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},
{
"plaintext": "A sound called anusvāra (Skt.; Pali: niggahīta), represented by the letter (ISO 15919) or (ALA-LC) in romanization, and by a raised dot in most traditional alphabets, originally marked the fact that the preceding vowel was nasalized. That is, , and represented , and . In many traditional pronunciations, however, the anusvāra is pronounced more strongly, like the velar nasal , so that these sounds are pronounced instead , and . However pronounced, never follows a long vowel; ā, ī and ū are converted to the corresponding short vowels when is added to a stem ending in a long vowel, e.g. becomes , not , becomes , not *.",
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"section_name": "Phonology",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Changes of vowels due to the structure of the word",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Final vowels",
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},
{
"plaintext": "The final consonants of the Sanskrit words have been dropped in Pali and thus all the words end in a vowel or in a nasal vowel: -> kantā 'from the loved one; -> 'the loved one",
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"section_name": "Phonology",
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},
{
"plaintext": "The final vowels were usually weak in pronunciation and hence they were shortened: akārsit -> akāsi 'he did'.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Phonology",
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},
{
"plaintext": "The table below lists the consonants of Pali (using Thai script of the many other possible scripts). In bold is the transliteration of the letter in traditional romanization, and in square brackets its pronunciation transcribed in the IPA.",
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"plaintext": "Among the labial consonants, is labiodental and the rest is bilabial. Among the dental/alveolar consonants, the majority is dental but and are alveolar.",
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"plaintext": "Of the sounds listed above only the three consonants in parentheses, ṅ, ḷ, and ḷh, are not distinct phonemes in Pali: ṅ only occurs before velar stops, while ḷ and ḷh are allophones of single ḍ and ḍh occurring between vowels.",
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"plaintext": "In Pali language, the consonants may be divided according to their strength or power of resistance. The strength decreases in the order of: mutes, sibilant, nasals, l, v, y, r",
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},
{
"plaintext": "When two consonants come together, they are subject to one of the following change:",
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},
{
"plaintext": " they are assimilated to each other",
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"plaintext": " they are first adapted and then assimilated to each other",
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},
{
"plaintext": " they give rise to a new consonant group",
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},
{
"plaintext": " they separated by the insertion of a vowel infix",
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"plaintext": " they are sometimes interchanged by metathesis",
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"plaintext": "Aspirate consonants",
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},
{
"plaintext": "when one of the two consonants is the sibilant s, then the new group of consonants has the aspiration in the last consonant: as-ti (root: √as) > atthi 'is'",
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},
{
"plaintext": "the sibilant s, followed by a nasal, is changed to h and then it is transposed after the nasal (metathesis): akas-ma > akah-ma > akamha 'we did'",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Alternation between y and v",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Pali v appears for Skr. y. For instance, āvudha -> āyudha 'weapon'; kasāva -> kasāya 'dirt, sin'. After the svarabhakti-vowel I there appear v instead of y as in praṭyamsa -> pativimsa.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Alternation between r and l",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Representation of r by l is very common in Pali, and in Pkr. it is the rule for Magadhi, although this substitution occurs sporadically also in other dialect. This, initially, in lūjjati -> rūjyate 'falls apart; sometimes double forms with l and r occur in Skr.: lūkha -> lūksa, rūksa 'gross, bad",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Pali is a highly inflected language, in which almost every word contains, besides the root conveying the basic meaning, one or more affixes (usually suffixes) which modify the meaning in some way. Nouns are inflected for gender, number, and case; verbal inflections convey information about person, number, tense and mood.",
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"section_name": "Morphology",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Pali nouns inflect for three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter) and two numbers (singular and plural). The nouns also, in principle, display eight cases: nominative or paccatta case, vocative, accusative or upayoga case, instrumental or case, dative or sampadāna case, ablative, genitive or sāmin case, and locative or bhumma case; however, in many instances, two or more of these cases are identical in form; this is especially true of the genitive and dative cases.",
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],
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],
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],
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],
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]
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{
"plaintext": "a-stems, whose uninflected stem ends in short a (), are either masculine or neuter. The masculine and neuter forms differ only in the nominative, vocative, and accusative cases.",
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"plaintext": "Nouns ending in ā () are almost always feminine.",
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{
"plaintext": "i-stems and u-stems are either masculine or neuter. The masculine and neuter forms differ only in the nominative and accusative cases. The vocative has the same form as the nominative.",
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{
"plaintext": "From the opening of the Dhammapada:",
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"plaintext": "The three compounds in the first line literally mean:",
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"plaintext": " \"whose precursor is mind\", \"having mind as a fore-goer or leader\"",
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"plaintext": " \"whose foremost member is mind\", \"having mind as chief\"",
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"plaintext": " \"consisting of mind\" or \"made by mind\"",
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"plaintext": "The literal meaning is therefore: \"The dharmas have mind as their leader, mind as their chief, are made of/by mind. If [someone] either speaks or acts with a corrupted mind, from that [cause] suffering goes after him, as the wheel [of a cart follows] the foot of a draught animal.\"",
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"plaintext": "A slightly freer translation by Acharya Buddharakkhita",
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"plaintext": "Mind precedes all mental states. Mind is their chief; they are all mind-wrought.",
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"plaintext": "If with an impure mind a person speaks or acts suffering follows him",
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"plaintext": "like the wheel that follows the foot of the ox.",
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"plaintext": "Pali and Sanskrit are very closely related and the common characteristics of Pali and Sanskrit were always easily recognized by those in India who were familiar with both. A large part of Pali and Sanskrit word-stems are identical in form, differing only in details of inflection.",
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"plaintext": "Technical terms from Sanskrit were converted into Pali by a set of conventional phonological transformations. These transformations mimicked a subset of the phonological developments that had occurred in Proto-Pali. Because of the prevalence of these transformations, it is not always possible to tell whether a given Pali word is a part of the old Prakrit lexicon, or a transformed borrowing from Sanskrit. The existence of a Sanskrit word regularly corresponding to a Pali word is not always secure evidence of the Pali etymology, since, in some cases, artificial Sanskrit words were created by back-formation from Prakrit words.",
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"plaintext": "The following phonological processes are not intended as an exhaustive description of the historical changes which produced Pali from its Old Indic ancestor, but rather are a summary of the most common phonological equations between Sanskrit and Pali, with no claim to completeness.",
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"plaintext": " Sanskrit ai and au always monophthongize to Pali e and o, respectively",
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"plaintext": "Examples: maitrī → mettā, auṣadha → osadha",
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"plaintext": " Sanskrit āya, ayā and avā reduce to Pali ā",
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"plaintext": "Examples: katipayāhaṃ → katipāhaṃ, vaihāyasa → vehāsa, yāvagū → yāgu",
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"plaintext": " Sanskrit aya and ava likewise often reduce to Pali e and o",
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"plaintext": "Examples: dhārayati → dhāreti, avatāra → otāra, bhavati → hoti",
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"plaintext": " Sanskrit avi and ayū becomes Pali e (i.e. avi → ai → e) and o",
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"plaintext": "Examples: sthavira → thera, mayūra → mora",
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"plaintext": " Sanskrit ṛ appears in Pali as a, i or u, often agreeing with the vowel in the following syllable. ṛ also sometimes becomes u after labial consonants.",
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"plaintext": "Examples: kṛta → kata, tṛṣṇa → taṇha, smṛti → sati, ṛṣi → isi, dṛṣṭi → diṭṭhi, ṛddhi → iddhi, ṛju → uju, spṛṣṭa → phuṭṭha, vṛddha → vuddha",
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"plaintext": " Sanskrit long vowels are shortened before a sequence of two following consonants.",
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"plaintext": "Examples: kṣānti → khanti, rājya → rajja, īśvara → issara, tīrṇa → tiṇṇa, pūrva → pubba",
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"plaintext": " The Sanskrit sibilants ś, ṣ, and s merge as Pali s",
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"plaintext": "Examples: śaraṇa → saraṇa, doṣa → dosa",
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"plaintext": " The Sanskrit stops ḍ and ḍh become ḷ and ḷh between vowels (as in Vedic)",
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"plaintext": "Example: cakravāḍa → cakkavāḷa, virūḍha → virūḷha",
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"plaintext": " Many assimilations of one consonant to a neighboring consonant occurred in the development of Pali, producing a large number of geminate (double) consonants. Since aspiration of a geminate consonant is only phonetically detectable on the last consonant of a cluster, geminate kh, gh, ch, jh, ṭh, ḍh, th, dh, ph and bh appear as kkh, ggh, cch, jjh, ṭṭh, ḍḍh, tth, ddh, pph and bbh, not as khkh, ghgh etc.",
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"plaintext": " When assimilation would produce a geminate consonant (or a sequence of unaspirated stop+aspirated stop) at the beginning of a word, the initial geminate is simplified to a single consonant.",
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"plaintext": "Examples: prāṇa → pāṇa (not ppāṇa), sthavira → thera (not tthera), dhyāna → jhāna (not jjhāna), jñāti → ñāti (not ññāti)",
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"plaintext": " When assimilation would produce a sequence of three consonants in the middle of a word, geminates are simplified until there are only two consonants in sequence.",
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"plaintext": "Examples: uttrāsa → uttāsa (not utttāsa), mantra → manta (not mantta), indra → inda (not indda), vandhya → vañjha (not vañjjha)",
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"plaintext": " The sequence vv resulting from assimilation changes to bb.",
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"plaintext": "Example: sarva → savva → sabba, pravrajati → pavvajati → pabbajati, divya → divva → dibba, nirvāṇa → nivvāṇa → nibbāna",
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"plaintext": "Total assimilation, where one sound becomes identical to a neighboring sound, is of two types: progressive, where the assimilated sound becomes identical to the following sound; and regressive, where it becomes identical to the preceding sound.",
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"plaintext": " Internal visarga assimilates to a following voiceless stop or sibilant",
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"plaintext": "Examples: duḥkṛta → dukkata, duḥkha → dukkha, duḥprajña → duppañña, niḥkrodha (=niṣkrodha) → nikkodha, niḥpakva (=niṣpakva) → nippakka, niḥśoka → nissoka, niḥsattva → nissatta",
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"plaintext": " In a sequence of two dissimilar Sanskrit stops, the first stop assimilates to the second stop",
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"plaintext": "Examples: vimukti → vimutti, dugdha → duddha, utpāda → uppāda, pudgala → puggala, udghoṣa → ugghosa, adbhuta → abbhuta, śabda → sadda",
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"plaintext": " In a sequence of two dissimilar nasals, the first nasal assimilates to the second nasal",
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"plaintext": "Example: unmatta → ummatta, pradyumna → pajjunna",
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"plaintext": " j assimilates to a following ñ (i.e., jñ becomes ññ)",
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"plaintext": "Examples: prajñā → paññā, jñāti → ñāti",
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"plaintext": " The Sanskrit liquid consonants r and l assimilate to a following stop, nasal, sibilant, or v",
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"plaintext": "Examples: mārga → magga, karma → kamma, varṣa → vassa, kalpa → kappa, sarva → savva → sabba",
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"plaintext": " r assimilates to a following l",
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"plaintext": "Examples: durlabha → dullabha, nirlopa → nillopa",
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"plaintext": " d sometimes assimilates to a following v, producing vv → bb",
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"plaintext": "Examples: udvigna → uvvigga → ubbigga, dvādaśa → bārasa (beside dvādasa)",
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"plaintext": " t and d may assimilate to a following s or y when a morpheme boundary intervenes",
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"plaintext": "Examples: ut+sava → ussava, ud+yāna → uyyāna",
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"plaintext": " Nasals sometimes assimilate to a preceding stop (in other cases epenthesis occurs)",
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"plaintext": "Examples: agni → aggi, ātman → atta, prāpnoti → pappoti, śaknoti → sakkoti",
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"plaintext": " m assimilates to an initial sibilant",
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"plaintext": "Examples: smarati → sarati, smṛti → sati",
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"plaintext": " Nasals assimilate to a preceding stop+sibilant cluster, which then develops in the same way as such clusters without following nasals",
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"plaintext": "Examples: tīkṣṇa → tikṣa → tikkha, lakṣmī → lakṣī →lakkhī",
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"plaintext": " The Sanskrit liquid consonants r and l assimilate to a preceding stop, nasal, sibilant, or v",
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"plaintext": "Examples: prāṇa → pāṇa, grāma → gāma, śrāvaka → sāvaka, agra → agga, indra → inda, pravrajati → pavvajati → pabbajati, aśru → assu",
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"plaintext": " y assimilates to preceding non-dental/retroflex stops or nasals",
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"plaintext": "Examples: cyavati → cavati, jyotiṣ → joti, rājya → rajja, matsya → macchya → maccha, lapsyate → lacchyate → lacchati, abhyāgata → abbhāgata, ākhyāti → akkhāti, saṁkhyā → saṅkhā (but also saṅkhyā), ramya → ramma",
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"plaintext": " y assimilates to preceding non-initial v, producing vv → bb",
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"plaintext": "Example: divya → divva → dibba, veditavya → veditavva → veditabba, bhāvya → bhavva → bhabba",
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"plaintext": " y and v assimilate to any preceding sibilant, producing ss",
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"plaintext": "Examples: paśyati → passati, śyena → sena, aśva → assa, īśvara → issara, kariṣyati → karissati, tasya → tassa, svāmin → sāmī",
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"plaintext": " v sometimes assimilates to a preceding stop",
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"plaintext": "Examples: pakva → pakka, catvāri → cattāri, sattva → satta, dhvaja → dhaja",
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"plaintext": " Sanskrit sibilants before a stop assimilate to that stop, and if that stop is not already aspirated, it becomes aspirated; e.g. śc, st, ṣṭ and sp become cch, tth, ṭṭh and pph",
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"plaintext": "Examples: paścāt → pacchā, asti → atthi, stava → thava, śreṣṭha → seṭṭha, aṣṭa → aṭṭha, sparśa → phassa",
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"plaintext": " In sibilant-stop-liquid sequences, the liquid is assimilated to the preceding consonant, and the cluster behaves like sibilant-stop sequences; e.g. str and ṣṭr become tth and ṭṭh",
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"plaintext": "Examples: śāstra → śasta → sattha, rāṣṭra → raṣṭa → raṭṭha",
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"plaintext": " t and p become c before s, and the sibilant assimilates to the preceding sound as an aspirate (i.e., the sequences ts and ps become cch)",
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"plaintext": "Examples: vatsa → vaccha, apsaras → accharā",
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"plaintext": " A sibilant assimilates to a preceding k as an aspirate (i.e., the sequence kṣ becomes kkh)",
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"plaintext": "Examples: bhikṣu → bhikkhu, kṣānti → khanti",
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"plaintext": " Any dental or retroflex stop or nasal followed by y converts to the corresponding palatal sound, and the y assimilates to this new consonant, i.e. ty, thy, dy, dhy, ny become cc, cch, jj, jjh, ññ; likewise ṇy becomes ññ. Nasals preceding a stop that becomes palatal share this change.",
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"plaintext": "Examples: tyajati → cyajati → cajati, satya → sacya → sacca, mithyā → michyā → micchā, vidyā → vijyā → vijjā, madhya → majhya → majjha, anya → añya → añña, puṇya → puñya → puñña, vandhya → vañjhya → vañjjha → vañjha",
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"plaintext": " The sequence mr becomes mb, via the epenthesis of a stop between the nasal and liquid, followed by assimilation of the liquid to the stop and subsequent simplification of the resulting geminate.",
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"plaintext": "Examples: āmra → ambra → amba, tāmra → tamba",
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"plaintext": "An epenthetic vowel is sometimes inserted between certain consonant-sequences. As with ṛ, the vowel may be a, i, or u, depending on the influence of a neighboring consonant or of the vowel in the following syllable. i is often found near i, y, or palatal consonants; u is found near u, v, or labial consonants.",
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"plaintext": " Sequences of stop + nasal are sometimes separated by a or u",
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"plaintext": "Example: ratna → ratana, padma → paduma (u influenced by labial m)",
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"plaintext": " The sequence sn may become sin initially",
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"plaintext": "Examples: snāna → sināna, sneha → sineha",
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{
"plaintext": " i may be inserted between a consonant and l",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Examples: kleśa → kilesa, glāna → gilāna, mlāyati → milāyati, ślāghati → silāghati",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " An epenthetic vowel may be inserted between an initial sibilant and r",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Example: śrī → sirī",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " The sequence ry generally becomes riy (i influenced by following y), but is still treated as a two-consonant sequence for the purposes of vowel-shortening",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Example: ārya → arya → ariya, sūrya → surya → suriya, vīrya → virya → viriya",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " a or i is inserted between r and h",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Example: arhati → arahati, garhā → garahā, barhiṣ → barihisa",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " There is sporadic epenthesis between other consonant sequences",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Examples: caitya → cetiya (not cecca), vajra → vajira (not vajja)",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Any Sanskrit sibilant before a nasal becomes a sequence of nasal followed by h, i.e. ṣṇ, sn and sm become ṇh, nh, and mh",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Examples: tṛṣṇa → taṇha, uṣṇīṣa → uṇhīsa, asmi → amhi",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " The sequence śn becomes ñh, due to assimilation of the n to the preceding palatal sibilant",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Example: praśna → praśña → pañha",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " The sequences hy and hv undergo metathesis",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms",
"target_page_ids": [
176314
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
33,
43
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Examples: jihvā → jivhā, gṛhya → gayha, guhya → guyha",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " h undergoes metathesis with a following nasal",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Example: gṛhṇāti → gaṇhāti",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " y is geminated between e and a vowel",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Examples: śreyas → seyya, Maitreya → Metteyya",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Voiced aspirates such as bh and gh on rare occasions become h",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Examples: bhavati → hoti, -ebhiṣ → -ehi, laghu → lahu",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Dental and retroflex sounds sporadically change into one another",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Examples: jñāna → ñāṇa (not ñāna), dahati → ḍahati (beside Pali dahati) nīḍa → nīla (not nīḷa), sthāna → ṭhāna (not thāna), duḥkṛta → dukkaṭa (beside Pali dukkata)",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "There are several notable exceptions to the rules above; many of them are common Prakrit words rather than borrowings from Sanskrit.",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " ārya → ayya (beside ariya)",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " guru → garu (adj.) (beside guru (n.))",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " puruṣa → purisa (not purusa)",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " vṛkṣa → rukṣa → rukkha (not vakkha)",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Emperor Ashoka erected a number of pillars with his edicts in at least three regional Prakrit languages in Brahmi script, all of which are quite similar to Pali. Historically, the first written record of the Pali canon is believed to have been composed in Sri Lanka, based on a prior oral tradition. According to the Mahavamsa (the chronicle of Sri Lanka), due to a major famine in the country Buddhist monks wrote down the Pali canon during the time of King Vattagamini in 100 BCE.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [
1239,
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23637700
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"anchor_spans": [
[
8,
14
],
[
107,
120
],
[
317,
326
],
[
454,
470
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Bilingual coins containing Pali written in the Kharosthi script and Greek writing were used by James Prinsep to decipher the Kharosthi abugida. This script became particularly significant for the study of early Buddhism following the discovery of the Gandharan Buddhist texts.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [
559437,
1451892,
878,
659964
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
47,
56
],
[
95,
108
],
[
135,
142
],
[
251,
275
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The transmission of written Pali has retained a universal system of alphabetic values, but has expressed those values in a variety of different scripts.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "In Sri Lanka, Pali texts were recorded in Sinhala script. Other local scripts, most prominently Khmer, Mon-Burmese, and in modern times Thai (since 1893) and Devanāgarī have been used to record Pali.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [
43109,
533342,
32583978,
63731,
8968
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
42,
56
],
[
96,
101
],
[
103,
114
],
[
136,
140
],
[
158,
168
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Since the 19th century, Pali has also been written in the Roman script. An alternate scheme devised by Frans Velthuis, called the Velthuis scheme (see Text in ASCII) allows for typing without diacritics using plain ASCII methods, but is arguably less readable than the standard IAST system, which uses diacritical marks.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [
48859557,
8439,
586,
557097,
8439
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
130,
138
],
[
192,
202
],
[
215,
220
],
[
278,
282
],
[
302,
313
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The Pali alphabetical order is as follows:",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " a ā i ī u ū e o ṃ k kh g gh ṅ c ch j jh ñ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ t th d dh n p ph b bh m y r l ḷ v s h",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "ḷh, although a single sound, is written with ligature of ḷ and h.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "There are several fonts to use for Pali transliteration. However, older ASCII fonts such as Leedsbit PaliTranslit, Times_Norman, Times_CSX+, Skt Times, Vri RomanPali CN/CB etc., are not recommendable, they are deprecated, since they are not compatible with one another, and are technically out of date. Instead, fonts based on the Unicode standard are recommended.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [
192410,
31742
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
210,
220
],
[
331,
338
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "However, not all Unicode fonts contain the necessary characters. To properly display all the diacritic marks used for romanized Pali (or for that matter, Sanskrit), a Unicode font must contain the following character ranges:",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Basic Latin: U+0000 – U+007F",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Latin-1 Supplement: U+0080 – U+00FF",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Latin Extended-A: U+0100 – U+017F",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Latin Extended-B: U+0180 – U+024F",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Latin Extended Additional: U+1E00 – U+1EFF",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Some Unicode fonts freely available for typesetting Romanized Pali are as follows:",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " The Pali Text Society recommends VU-Times and Gandhari Unicode for Windows and Linux Computers.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " The Tibetan & Himalayan Digital Library recommends Times Ext Roman, and provides links to several Unicode diacritic Windows and Mac fonts usable for typing Pali together with ratings and installation instructions. It also provides macros for typing diacritics in OpenOffice and MS Office.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " SIL: International provides Charis SIL and Charis SIL Compact, Doulos SIL, Gentium, Gentium Basic, Gentium Book Basic fonts. Of them, Charis SIL, Gentium Basic and Gentium Book Basic have all 4 styles (regular, italic, bold, bold-italic); so can provide publication quality typesetting.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Libertine Openfont Project provides the Linux Libertine font (4 serif styles and many Opentype features) and Linux Biolinum (4 sans-serif styles) at the SourceForge.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Junicode (short for Junius-Unicode) is a Unicode font for medievalists, but it provides all diacritics for typing Pali. It has 4 styles and some Opentype features such as Old Style for numerals.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Thryomanes includes all the Roman-alphabet characters available in Unicode along with a subset of the most commonly used Greek and Cyrillic characters, and is available in normal, italic, bold, and bold italic.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " GUST (Polish TeX User Group) provides Latin Modern and TeX Gyre fonts. Each font has 4 styles, with the former finding most acceptance among the LaTeX users while the latter is a relatively new family. Of the latter, each typeface in the following families has nearly 1250 glyphs and is available in PostScript, TeX and OpenType formats.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " The TeX Gyre Adventor family of sans serif fonts is based on the URW Gothic L family. The original font, ITC Avant Garde Gothic, was designed by Herb Lubalin and Tom Carnase in 1970.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [
12749137
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
106,
128
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " The TeX Gyre Bonum family of serif fonts is based on the URW Bookman L family. The original font, Bookman or Bookman Old Style, was designed by Alexander Phemister in 1860.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [
3620606
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
99,
106
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " The TeX Gyre Chorus is a font based on the URW Chancery L Medium Italic font. The original, ITC Zapf Chancery, was designed in 1979 by Hermann Zapf.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [
25573640
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
93,
110
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " The TeX Gyre Cursor family of monospace serif fonts is based on the URW Nimbus Mono L family. The original font, Courier, was designed by Howard G. (Bud) Kettler in 1955.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [
611183
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
114,
121
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " The TeX Gyre Heros family of sans serif fonts is based on the URW Nimbus Sans L family. The original font, Helvetica, was designed in 1957 by Max Miedinger.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [
147375
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
108,
117
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " The TeX Gyre Pagella family of serif fonts is based on the URW Palladio L family. The original font, Palatino, was designed by Hermann Zapf in the 1940s.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [
45833
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
102,
110
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " The TeX Gyre Schola family of serif fonts is based on the URW Century Schoolbook L family. The original font, Century Schoolbook, was designed by Morris Fuller Benton in 1919.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [
27416003
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
111,
129
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " The TeX Gyre Termes family of serif fonts is based on the Nimbus Roman No9 L family. The original font, Times Roman, was designed by Stanley Morison together with Starling Burgess and Victor Lardent.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [
63239
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
105,
116
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " John Smith provides IndUni Opentype fonts, based upon URW++ fonts. Of them:",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " IndUni-C is Courier-lookalike;",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " IndUni-H is Helvetica-lookalike;",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " IndUni-N is New Century Schoolbook-lookalike;",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " IndUni-P is Palatino-lookalike;",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " IndUni-T is Times-lookalike;",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " IndUni-CMono is Courier-lookalike but monospaced;",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " An English Buddhist monk titled Bhikkhu Pesala provides some Pali OpenType fonts he has designed himself. Of them:",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Acariya is a Garamond style typeface derived from Guru (regular, italic, bold, bold italic). ",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Balava is a revival of Baskerville derived from Libre Baskerville (regular, italic, bold, bold italic). ",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Cankama is a Gothic, Black Letter script. Regular style only.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " (Carita has been discontinued.)",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Garava was designed for body text with a generous x-height and economical copyfit. It includes Petite Caps (as OpenType Features), and Heavy styles besides the usual four styles (regular, italic, bold, bold italic).",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Guru is a condensed Garamond style typeface designed for economy of copy-fit. A hundred A4 pages of text set in Pali would be about 98 pages if set in Acariya, 95 if set in Garava or Times New Roman, but only 90 if set in Guru.(regular, italic, bold, bold italic styles).",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Hari is a hand-writing script derived from Allura by Robert E. Leuschke.(Regular style only).",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " (Hattha has been discontinued)",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Jivita is an original Sans Serif typeface for body text. (regular, italic, bold, bold italic).",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Kabala is a distinctive Sans Serif typeface designed for display text or headings. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Lekhana is a Zapf Chancery clone, a flowing script that can be used for correspondence or body text. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Mahakampa is a hand-writing script derived from Great Vibes by Robert E. Leuschke. Regular type style. ",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Mandala is designed for display text or headings. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Nacca is a hand-writing script derived from Dancing Script by Pablo Impallari and released on Font Squirrel. Regular type style. ",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Odana is a calligraphic brush font suitable for headlines, titles, or short texts where a less formal appearance is wanted. Regular style only.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Open Sans is a Sans Serif font suitable for body text. Ten type styles.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Pali is a clone of Hermann Zapf's Palatino. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Sukhumala is derived from Sort Mills Goudy. Five type styles",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Talapanna is a clone of Goudy Bertham, with decorative gothic capitals and extra ligatures in the Private Use Area. Regular and bold styles.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " (Talapatta is discontinued.)",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Veluvana is another brush calligraphic font but basic Greek glyphs are taken from Guru. Regular style only.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Writing",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Verajja is derived from Bitstream Vera. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.",
"section_idx": 9,
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"plaintext": " VerajjaPDA is a cut-down version of Verajja without symbols. For use on PDA devices. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.",
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"plaintext": " He also provides some Pali keyboards for Windows XP.",
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"plaintext": " The font section of Alanwood's Unicode Resources have links to several general purpose fonts that can be used for Pali typing if they cover the character ranges above.",
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"plaintext": "Some of the latest fonts coming with Windows 7 can also be used to type transliterated Pali: Arial, Calibri, Cambria, Courier New, Microsoft Sans Serif, Segoe UI, Segoe UI Light, Segoe UI Semibold, Tahoma, and Times New Roman. And some of them have 4 styles each hence usable in professional typesetting: Arial, Calibri and Segoe UI are sans-serif fonts, Cambria and Times New Roman are serif fonts and Courier New is a monospace font.",
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"plaintext": "The Velthuis scheme was originally developed in 1991 by Frans Velthuis for use with his \"devnag\" Devanāgarī font, designed for the TeX typesetting system. This system of representing Pali diacritical marks has been used in some websites and discussion lists. However, as the Web itself and email software slowly evolve towards the Unicode encoding standard, this system has become almost unnecessary and obsolete.",
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"plaintext": "The following table compares various conventional renderings and shortcut key assignments:",
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"plaintext": " Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit",
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"plaintext": " See entries for \"Pali\" (written by K. R. Norman of the Pali Text Society) and \"India—Buddhism\" in The Concise Encyclopedia of Language and Religion (Sawyer ed.), ",
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"plaintext": " American National Standards Institute. (1979). American National Standard system for the romanization of Lao, Khmer, and Pali. New York: The institute.",
"section_idx": 13,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
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"plaintext": " Perniola, V. (1997). Pali Grammar, Oxford, The Pali Text Society.",
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},
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"plaintext": " Collins, Steven (2006). A Pali Grammar for Students. Silkworm Press.",
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"plaintext": " Gupta, K. M. (2006). Linguistic approach to meaning in Pali. New Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan. ",
"section_idx": 13,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Hazra, K. L. (1994). Pāli language and literature: a systematic survey and historical study. Emerging perceptions in Buddhist studies, no. 4–5. New Delhi: D.K. Printworld. ",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Müller, E. (2003). The Pali language: a simplified grammar. Trubner's collection of simplified grammars. London: Trubner. ",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
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"plaintext": " Russell Webb (ed.) An Analysis of the Pali Canon, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy; 1975, 1991 (see )",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Soothill, W. E., & Hodous, L. (1937). A dictionary of Chinese Buddhist terms: with Sanskrit and English equivalents and a Sanskrit-Pali index. London: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co.",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Bhikkhu Nanamoli. A Pāli-English Glossary of Buddhist technical terms. ",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Mahathera Buddhadatta (1998). Concise Pāli-English Dictionary. Quickly find the meaning of a word, without the detailed grammatical and contextual analysis. ",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Wallis, Glenn (2011). Buddhavacana, a Pali reader (PDF eBook). .",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Lynn Martineau (1998). Pāli Workbook Pāli Vocabulary from the 10-day Vipassana Course of S. N. Goenka. .",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": " Reconstruction of Ancient Indian sound clusters on the basis of Pali sounds (according to \"Grammatik des Pali\" by Achim Fahs)",
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"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Buddhadatta Mahāthera, A. P. (1958). Concise Pāli-English Dictionary.",
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| 36,727 | 21,223 | 1,776 | 207 | 0 | 0 | Pali | Indo-Aryan language native to the Indian subcontinent | [
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"Pali language"
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|
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"plaintext": " BECN=Backward Explicit Congestion Notification bit",
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"plaintext": " DE=Discard Eligibility bit",
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"plaintext": " Information Field. A system parameter defines the maximum number of data bytes that a host can pack into a frame. Hosts may negotiate the actual maximum frame length at call set-up time. The standard specifies the maximum information field size (supportable by any network) as at least 262 octets. Since end-to-end protocols typically operate on the basis of larger information units, Frame Relay recommends that the network support the maximum value of at least 1600 octets in order to avoid the need for segmentation and reassembling by end-users.",
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"plaintext": " Frame Check Sequence (FCS) Field. Since one cannot completely ignore the bit error-rate of the medium, each switching node needs to implement error detection to avoid wasting bandwidth due to the transmission of erred frames. The error detection mechanism used in Frame Relay uses the cyclic redundancy check (CRC) as its basis.",
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"plaintext": "The Frame Relay network uses a simplified protocol at each switching node. It achieves simplicity by omitting link-by-link flow-control. As a result, the offered load has largely determined the performance of Frame Relay networks. When offered load is high, due to the bursts in some services, temporary overload at some Frame Relay nodes causes a collapse in network throughput. Therefore, Frame Relay networks require some effective mechanisms to control the congestion.",
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"plaintext": "Congestion control in Frame Relay networks includes the following elements:",
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"plaintext": " Admission Control. This provides the principal mechanism used in Frame Relay to ensure the guarantee of resource requirement once accepted. It also serves generally to achieve high network performance. The network decides whether to accept a new connection request, based on the relation of the requested traffic descriptor and the network's residual capacity. The traffic descriptor consists of a set of parameters communicated to the switching nodes at call set-up time or at service-subscription time, and which characterizes the connection's statistical properties. The traffic descriptor consists of three elements:",
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"plaintext": " Committed Information Rate (CIR). The average rate (in bit/s) at which the network guarantees to transfer information units over a measurement interval T. This T interval is defined as: T = Bc/CIR.",
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"plaintext": " Committed Burst Size (BC). The maximum number of information units transmittable during the interval T.",
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"plaintext": " Excess Burst Size (BE). The maximum number of uncommitted information units (in bits) that the network will attempt to carry during the interval.",
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"plaintext": "Once the network has established a connection, the edge node of the Frame Relay network must monitor the connection's traffic flow to ensure that the actual usage of network resources does not exceed this specification. Frame Relay defines some restrictions on the user's information rate. It allows the network to enforce the end user's information rate and discard information when the subscribed access rate is exceeded.",
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"plaintext": "Explicit congestion notification is proposed as the congestion avoidance policy. It tries to keep the network operating at its desired equilibrium point so that a certain quality of service (QoS) for the network can be met. To do so, special congestion control bits have been incorporated into the address field of the Frame Relay: FECN and BECN. The basic idea is to avoid data accumulation inside the network.",
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"plaintext": "FECN means forward explicit congestion notification. The FECN bit can be set to 1 to indicate that congestion was experienced in the direction of the frame transmission, so it informs the destination that congestion has occurred.",
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"plaintext": "BECN means backwards explicit congestion notification. The BECN bit can be set to 1 to indicate that congestion was experienced in the network in the direction opposite of the frame transmission, so it informs the sender that congestion has occurred.",
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"plaintext": "Frame Relay began as a stripped-down version of the X.25 protocol, releasing itself from the error-correcting burden most commonly associated with X.25. When Frame Relay detects an error, it simply drops the offending packet. Frame Relay uses the concept of shared access and relies on a technique referred to as \"best-effort\", whereby error-correction practically does not exist and practically no guarantee of reliable data delivery occurs. Frame Relay provides an industry-standard encapsulation, utilizing the strengths of high-speed, packet-switched technology able to service multiple virtual circuits and protocols between connected devices, such as two routers.",
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"plaintext": "Although Frame Relay became very popular in North America, it was never very popular in Europe. X.25 remained the primary standard until the wide availability of IP made packet switching almost obsolete.",
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"plaintext": "It was used sometimes as backbone for other services, such as X.25 or IP traffic. Where Frame Relay was used in the USA also as carrier for TCP/IP traffic, in Europe backbones for IP networks often used ATM or PoS, later replaced by Carrier Ethernet",
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"plaintext": "X.25 was an important early WAN protocol, and is often considered to be the grandfather of Frame Relay as many of the underlying protocols and functions of X.25 are still in use today (with upgrades) by Frame Relay.",
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"plaintext": "X.25 provides quality of service and error-free delivery, whereas Frame Relay was designed to relay data as quickly as possible over low error networks. Frame Relay eliminates a number of the higher-level procedures and fields used in X.25. Frame Relay was designed for use on links with error-rates far lower than available when X.25 was designed.",
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"plaintext": "X.25 prepares and sends packets, while Frame Relay prepares and sends frames. X.25 packets contain several fields used for error checking and flow control, most of which are not used by Frame Relay. The frames in Frame Relay contain an expanded link layer address field that enables Frame Relay nodes to direct frames to their destinations with minimal processing. The elimination of functions and fields over X.25 allows Frame Relay to move data more quickly, but leaves more room for errors and larger delays should data need to be retransmitted.",
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"plaintext": "X.25 packet switched networks typically allocated a fixed bandwidth through the network for each X.25 access, regardless of the current load. This resource allocation approach, while apt for applications that require guaranteed quality of service, is inefficient for applications that are highly dynamic in their load characteristics or which would benefit from a more dynamic resource allocation. Frame Relay networks can dynamically allocate bandwidth at both the physical and logical channel level.",
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"plaintext": "As a WAN protocol, Frame Relay is most commonly implemented at Layer 2 (data link layer) of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) seven layer model. Two types of circuits exist: permanent virtual circuits (PVCs) which are used to form logical end-to-end links mapped over a physical network, and switched virtual circuits (SVCs). The latter are analogous to the circuit-switching concepts of the public switched telephone network (PSTN), the global phone network.",
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"plaintext": "Initial proposals for Frame Relay were presented to the Consultative Committee on International Telephone and Telegraph (CCITT) in 1984. Lack of interoperability and standardization prevented any significant Frame Relay deployment until 1990, when Cisco, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), Northern Telecom, and StrataCom formed a consortium to focus on its development. They produced a protocol that provided additional capabilities for complex inter-networking environments. These Frame Relay extensions are referred to as the local management interface (LMI).",
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"plaintext": "Datalink connection identifiers (DLCIs) are numbers that refer to paths through the Frame Relay network. They are only locally significant, which means that when device-A sends data to device-B it will most likely use a different DLCI than device-B would use to reply. Multiple virtual circuits can be active on the same physical end-points (performed by using subinterfaces).",
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"plaintext": "The LMI global addressing extension gives Frame Relay data-link connection identifier (DLCI) values global rather than local significance. DLCI values become DTE addresses that are unique in the Frame Relay WAN. The global addressing extension adds functionality and manageability to Frame Relay internetworks. Individual network interfaces and the end nodes attached to them, for example, can be identified by using standard address-resolution and discovery techniques. In addition, the entire Frame Relay network appears to be a typical LAN to routers on its periphery.",
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"plaintext": "LMI virtual circuit status messages provide communication and synchronization between Frame Relay DTE and DCE devices. These messages are used to periodically report on the status of PVCs, which prevents data from being sent into black holes (that is, over PVCs that no longer exist).",
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"plaintext": "The LMI multicasting extension allows multicast groups to be assigned. Multicasting saves bandwidth by allowing routing updates and address-resolution messages to be sent only to specific groups of routers. The extension also transmits reports on the status of multicast groups in update messages.",
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"plaintext": "Frame Relay connections are often given a committed information rate (CIR) and an allowance of burstable bandwidth known as the extended information rate (EIR). The provider guarantees that the connection will always support the C rate, and sometimes the PRa rate should there be adequate bandwidth. Frames that are sent in excess of the CIR are marked as discard eligible (DE) which means they can be dropped should congestion occur within the Frame Relay network. Frames sent in excess of the EIR are dropped immediately.",
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"plaintext": "Frame Relay aimed to make more efficient use of existing physical resources, permitting the over-provisioning of data services by telecommunications companies to their customers, as clients were unlikely to be using a data service 45 percent of the time. In more recent years, Frame Relay has acquired a bad reputation in some markets because of excessive bandwidth overbooking.",
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"plaintext": "Telecommunications companies often sell Frame Relay to businesses looking for a cheaper alternative to dedicated lines; its use in different geographic areas depended greatly on governmental and telecommunication companies' policies. Some of the early companies to make Frame Relay products included StrataCom (later acquired by Cisco Systems) and Cascade Communications (later acquired by Ascend Communications and then by Lucent Technologies).",
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"plaintext": "As of June 2007, AT&T was the largest Frame Relay service provider in the US, with local networks in 22 states, plus national and international networks.",
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"plaintext": "When multiplexing packet data from different virtual circuits or flows, quality of service concerns often arise. This is because a frame from one virtual circuit may occupy the line for a long enough period of time to disrupt a service guarantee given to another virtual circuit. IP fragmentation is a method for addressing this. An incoming long packet is broken up into a sequence of shorter packets and enough information is added to reassemble that long frame at the far end. FRF.12 is a specification from the Frame Relay Forum which specifies how to perform fragmentation on frame relay traffic primarily for voice traffic. The FRF.12 specification describes the method of fragmenting Frame Relay frames into smaller frames.",
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"plaintext": " Multiprotocol label switching",
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"plaintext": " List of device bit rates",
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"plaintext": " – Multiprotocol Interconnect over Frame Relay",
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"plaintext": " – PPP in Frame Relay",
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"plaintext": " – Multiprotocol Interconnect over Frame Relay",
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"plaintext": " Broadband Forum - IP/MPLS Forum, MPLS Forum, ATM, and Frame Relay Forum Specifications",
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"plaintext": " Frame Relay animation",
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"plaintext": " CCITT I.233 ISDN Frame Mode Bearer Services",
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| [
"Network_protocols",
"Link_protocols",
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| 242,506 | 4,864 | 120 | 81 | 0 | 0 | Frame Relay | wide area network technology | []
|
38,341 | 1,102,720,187 | Harlequin | [
{
"plaintext": "Harlequin (; ; , Bergamasque pronunciation ) is the best-known of the zanni or comic servant characters from the Italian commedia dell'arte, associated with the city of Bergamo. The role is traditionally believed to have been introduced by Zan Ganassa in the late 16th century, was definitively popularized by the Italian actor Tristano Martinelli in Paris in 1584–1585, and became a stock character after Martinelli's death in 1630.",
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"plaintext": "The Harlequin is characterized by his checkered costume. His role is that of a light-hearted, nimble, and astute servant, often acting to thwart the plans of his master, and pursuing his own love interest, Columbina, with wit and resourcefulness, often competing with the sterner and melancholic Pierrot. He later develops into a prototype of the romantic hero. Harlequin inherits his physical agility and his trickster qualities, as well as his name, from a mischievous \"devil\" character in medieval passion plays.",
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"plaintext": "The Harlequin character first appeared in England early in the 17th century and took centre stage in the derived genre of the Harlequinade, developed in the early 18th century by John Rich. As the Harlequinade portion of the English dramatic genre pantomime developed, Harlequin was routinely paired with the character Clown. As developed by Joseph Grimaldi around 1800, Clown became the mischievous and brutish foil for the more sophisticated Harlequin, who became more of a romantic character. The most influential portrayers of the Harlequin character in Victorian England were William Payne and his sons the Payne Brothers, the latter active during the 1860s and 1870s.",
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"plaintext": "The name Harlequin is taken from that of a mischievous \"devil\" or \"demon\" character in popular French passion plays. It originates with an Old French term herlequin, hellequin, first attested in the 11th century, by the chronicler Orderic Vitalis, who recounts a story of a monk who was pursued by a troop of demons when wandering on the coast of Normandy (France) at night.",
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"plaintext": "These demons were led by a masked, club-wielding giant and they were known as familia herlequin (var. familia herlethingi). This medieval French version of the Germanic Wild Hunt, Mesnée d'Hellequin, has been connected to the English figure of Herla cyning (\"host-king\"; German Erlkönig). ",
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"plaintext": "Hellequin was depicted as a black-faced emissary of the devil, roaming the countryside with a group of demons chasing the damned souls of evil people to Hell. The physical appearance of Hellequin offers an explanation for the traditional colours of Harlequin's red-and-black mask. The name's origin could also be traced to a knight from the 9th century, Hellequin of Boulogne, who died fighting the Normans and originated a legend of devils. In Cantos XXI and XXII from Dante's Inferno there is a devil by the name of Alichino. The similarities between the devil in Dante's Inferno and the Arlecchino are more than cosmetic. The prank-like antics of the devils in the aforementioned antics reflect some carnivalesque aspects.",
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"plaintext": "The first known appearance on stage of Hellequin is dated to 1262, the character of a masked and hooded devil in Jeu da la Feuillière by Adam de la Halle, and it became a stock character in French passion plays.",
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"plaintext": "The re-interpretation of the \"devil\" stock character as a zanni character of the commedia dell'arte took place in the 16th century in France.",
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"plaintext": "Zan Ganassa, whose troupe is first mentioned in Mantua in the late 1560s, is one of the earliest known actors suggested to have performed the part, although there is \"little hard evidence to support [it].\" Ganassa performed in France in 1571, and if he did play the part there, he left the field open for another actor to take up the role, when he took his troupe to Spain permanently in 1574.",
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"plaintext": "Among the earliest depictions of the character are a Flemish painting (c. 1571-1572) in the Museum of Bayeux and several woodblock prints probably dating from the 1580s in the Fossard collection, discovered by Agne Beijer in the 1920s among uncatalogued items in the Nationalmuseum Stockholm.",
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"plaintext": "Tristano Martinelli is the first actor definitely known to have used the name 'Harlequin' (or 'Arlequin') from French folklore and adapted it for the comic secondo zanni role, and he probably first performed the part in France in (or just before) 1584 and only later did he bring the character to Italy, where he became known as Arlecchino. The motley costume is sometimes attributed to Martinelli, who wore a linen costume of colourful patches, and a hare-tail on his cap to indicate cowardice. Martinelli's Harlequin also had a black leather half-mask, a moustache and a pointed beard. ",
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"plaintext": "He was very successful, even playing at court and becoming a favourite of Henry IV of France, to whom he addressed insolent monologues (Compositions de Rhetorique de Mr. Don Arlequin, 1601).",
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"plaintext": "Martinelli's great success contributed to the perpetuation of his interpretation of the zanni role, along with the name of his character, after his death in 1630, among others, by Nicolò Zecca, active c. 1630 in Bologna as well as Turin and Mantua.",
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"plaintext": "The character was also performed in Paris at the Comédie-Italienne in Italian by Giovan Battista Andreini and Angelo Costantini (c. 1654–1729) and in French as Arlequin in the 1660s by (1636–1688), who combined the zanni types, \"making his Arlecchino witty, neat, and fluent in a croaking voice, which became as traditional as the squawk of Punch.\" ",
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"plaintext": "The Italians were expelled from France in 1697 for satirizing King Louis XIV's second wife, Madame de Maintenon, but returned in 1716 (after his death), when Tommaso Antonio Vicentini (\"Thomassin\", 1682–1739) became famous in the part. The rhombus shape of the patches arose by adaptation to the Paris fashion of the 17th century by Biancolelli.",
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"plaintext": "The primary aspect of Arlecchino was his physical agility. He was very nimble and performed the sort of acrobatics the audience expected to see. The character would never perform a simple action when the addition of a cartwheel, somersault, or flip would spice up the movement.",
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"plaintext": "Early characteristics of Arlecchino paint the character as a second zanni servant from northern Italy with the paradoxical attributes of a dimwitted fool and an intelligent trickster. Arlecchino is sometimes referred to as putting on a show of stupidity in a metatheatrical attempt to create chaos within the play. Physically, Arlecchino is described as wearing a costume covered in irregular patches, a hat outfitted with either a rabbit or fox's tail, and a red and black mask. The mask itself is identified by carbuncles on the forehead, small eyes, a snub nose, hollow cheeks, and sometimes bushy brows with facial hair. Arlecchino is often depicted as having a wooden sword hanging from a leather belt on his person.",
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"plaintext": "Aside from his acrobatics, Arlecchino is also known for having several specific traits such as: ",
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"plaintext": " Appearing humpbacked without artificial padding",
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"plaintext": " The ability to eat large amounts of food quickly",
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"plaintext": " Using his wooden sword like a fan",
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"plaintext": " A parody of bel canto",
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"plaintext": "and several other techniques.",
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"plaintext": "One of the major distinctions of commedia dell'arte is the use of regional languages. Arlecchino's speech evolved with the character. Originally speaking in a Bergamo dialect of Lombard language, the character adopted a mixture of French, Lombard and Italian dialects when the character became more of a fixture in France so as to help the performers connect to the common masses.",
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"plaintext": "Various troupes and actors would alter his behaviour to suit style, personal preferences, or even the particular scenario being performed. He is typically cast as the servant of an innamorato or vecchio much to the detriment of the plans of his master. Arleqin often had a love interest in the person of Columbina, or in older plays any of the Soubrette roles, and his lust for her was only superseded by his desire for food and fear of his master. Occasionally, Arleqin would pursue the innamorata, though rarely with success, as in the Recueil Fossard of the 16th century where he is shown trying to woo Donna Lucia for himself by masquerading as a foreign nobleman. He also is known to try to win any given lady for himself if he chances upon anyone else trying to woo her, by interrupting or ridiculing the new competitor. His sexual appetite is essentially immediate, and can be applied to any passing woman.",
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"plaintext": "Between the 16th and 17th centuries Arleqin gained some function as a politically aware character. In the Comèdie itlaienne Arleqin would parody French tragedies as well comment on current events.",
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"plaintext": "Duchartre lists the following as variations on the Harlequin role:",
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"plaintext": "Trivelino or Trivelin. Name is said to mean \"Tatterdemalion.\" One of the oldest versions of Harlequin, dating to the 15th century. Costume almost identical to Harlequin's, but had a variation of the 17th century where the triangular patches were replaced with moons, stars, circles and triangles. In 18th century France, Trivelino was a distinct character from Harlequin. They appeared together in a number of comedies by Pierre de Marivaux including L'Île des esclaves.",
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"plaintext": "Truffa, Truffaldin or Truffaldino. Popular characters with Gozzi and Goldoni, but said to be best when used for improvisations. By the 18th century was a Bergamask caricature.",
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"plaintext": "Guazzetto. In the seventeenth century, a variety of anonymous engravings show Guazzetto rollicking, similar to Arleqin. He wears a fox's brush, a large three-tiered collarette, wide breeches, and a loose jacket tied tightly by a belt. He also dons a neckerchief dropped over the shoulders like a small cape. Guazzetto's mask is characterized with a hooked nose and a mustache. His bat is shaped like a scimitar-esque sword.",
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"plaintext": "Zaccagnino. Character dating to the 15th century.",
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"plaintext": "Bagatino. A juggler.",
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"plaintext": "Pedrolino or Pierotto. A servant or valet clad in mostly white, created by Giovanni Pellesini.",
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"plaintext": "16th century",
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"plaintext": " Alberto Naselli (Zan Ganassa)",
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"plaintext": "17th century",
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"plaintext": " Tristano Martinelli",
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"plaintext": " Domenico Biancolelli ",
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"plaintext": " Evaristo Gherardi",
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"plaintext": "18th century",
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"plaintext": " Pier Francesco Biancolelli",
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"plaintext": " Tommaso Visentini",
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"plaintext": " Carlo Bertinazzi",
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"plaintext": "19th century",
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"plaintext": "William Payne",
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"plaintext": " Marcello Moretti",
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"plaintext": "The Harlequin character came to England early in the 17th century and took center stage in the derived genre of the Harlequinade, developed in the early 18th century by the Lincoln's Fields Theatre's actor-manager John Rich, who played the role under the name of Lun. He developed the character of Harlequin into a mischievous magician who was easily able to evade Pantaloon and his servants to woo Columbine. Harlequin used his magic batte or \"slapstick\" to transform the scene from the pantomime into the harlequinade and to magically change the settings to various locations during the chase scene. As the Harlequinade portion of English pantomime developed, Harlequin was routinely paired with the character Clown.",
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"plaintext": "Two developments in 1800, both involving Joseph Grimaldi, greatly changed the pantomime characters. Grimaldi starred as Clown in Charles Dibdin's 1800 pantomime, Peter Wilkins: or Harlequin in the Flying World at Sadler's Wells Theatre. For this elaborate production, Dibdin and Grimaldi introduced new costume designs. Clown's costume was \"garishly colourful ... patterned with large diamonds and circles, and fringed with tassels and ruffs,\" instead of the tatty servant's outfit that had been used for a century. The production was a hit, and the new costume design was copied by others in London. Later the same year, at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, in Harlequin Amulet; or, The Magick of Mona. Harlequin was modified to become \"romantic and mercurial, instead of mischievous\", leaving Grimaldi's mischievous and brutish Clown as the \"undisputed agent\" of chaos, and the foil for the more sophisticated Harlequin, who retained and developed stylized dance poses during the 19th century. The most influential pair playing Harlequin and Clown in Victorian England were the Payne Brothers, active during the 1860s and 1870s, who contributed to the development of 20th-century \"slapstick\" comedy.",
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"plaintext": "Harlequin of Hate",
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"plaintext": "Arlecchino (opera)",
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"plaintext": "Mr. Harley Quin",
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"plaintext": "Punch and Judy",
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"plaintext": "\"Repent, Harlequin!\" Said the Ticktockman",
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"plaintext": "Tricky slave",
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"plaintext": " Andrews, Richard (2008). The Commedia dell'arte of Flamino Scala: A Translation and Analysis of 30 Scenarios. Lanham, Maryland: The Scarecrow Press. .",
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"plaintext": " Banham, Martin, editor (1995). The Cambridge Guide to the Theatre (new edition). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .",
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"plaintext": " Beijer, Agne; Duchartre, Pierre-Louis (1928). Recueil de plusieurs fragments des premières comédies italiennes qui on été représentées en France sous le règne de Henri III. Recueil, dit de Fossard, conservé au musée national de Stockholm. Paris: Duchartre & Van Buggenhoudt. .",
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"plaintext": " Duchartre, Pierre-Louis (1929; Dover reprint 1966). The Italian Comedy. London: George G. Harrap and Co., Ltd. .",
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"plaintext": " Ferrone, Siro (2006). Arlecchino. Vita e avventure di Tristano Martinelli attore. Bari: Lateraz. .",
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"plaintext": " Gambelli, Delia (1993). Arlecchino a Parigi. Rome: Bulzoni. .",
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"plaintext": " Henke, Robert (2002). Performance and Literature in the Commedia dell'arte. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. .",
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"plaintext": " Katritzky, M. A. (2006). The Art of Commedia: A Study in the Commedia dell'arte, 1560-1620, with Special Reference to the Visual Records. Amsterdam & New York: Rodopi B. V. .",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Bibliography",
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"plaintext": " Lea, K.M. (1934). Italian popular comedy: a study in the Commedia dell'arte, 1560-1620, with special reference to the English stage. 2 vols. Oxford: Oxford University Press.",
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"plaintext": " McConnell Stott, Andrew (2009). The Pantomime Life of Joseph Grimaldi. Edinburgh:Canongate Books Ltd. .",
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"plaintext": " Neville, Giles (1980). Incidents In the Life of Joseph Grimaldi. London: Jonathan Cape Ltd. .",
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"plaintext": " Oreglia, Giacomo (1968). The Commedia dell'arte. New York: Hill and Wang. pp.55–70. .",
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"plaintext": " Rudlin, John (1994). Commedia dell’Arte, An actor's handbook. London: Routledge. .",
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"plaintext": " Rudlin, John; Crick, Olly (2001). Commedia dell'arte: A Handbook for Troupes. London: Routledge. .",
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"plaintext": " Sand, Maurice (1860). Masques et Bouffons. Comédie italienne, vol. 1. Paris: Michel Levy Frères. Copy at Google Books.",
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"plaintext": " Scuderi, Antonio. \"Arlecchino Revisited: Tracing the Demon from the Carnival to Kramer and Mr. Bean.\" Theatre History Studies, vol. 20, 2000., pp.143–155.",
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"plaintext": " Sterling, Charles (1943). \"Early Paintings of the Commedia dell'arte in France.\" Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, New ser., v. 2, no. 1 (Summer, 1943). .",
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| [
"Harlequin",
"Fictional_characters_introduced_in_the_16th_century",
"Stupid_Zanni_class_characters",
"Stock_characters",
"Fictional_tricksters",
"Fictional_jesters",
"Clowns",
"Commedia_dell'arte_male_characters"
]
| 17,298 | 30,009 | 374 | 90 | 0 | 0 | Harlequin | character from the Commedia dell'arte | [
"Arlecchino"
]
|
38,343 | 1,103,928,934 | Zanni | [
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"plaintext": "Zanni (), Zani or Zane is a character type of commedia dell'arte best known as an astute servant and a trickster. The Zanni comes from the countryside and is known to be a \"dispossessed immigrant worker\". Through time, the Zanni grew to be a popular figure who was first seen in commedia as early as the 14th century. The English word zany derives from this person. The longer the nose on the characters mask the more foolish the character. ",
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"plaintext": "The name Zanni (as well as Zuan) is a variant of the name Gianni and was common in the Lombard-Venetian countryside which provided most of the servants to the wealthy nobles and merchants of Venice. In Italian it is specifically a name of someone whose identity is not of any importance. It is one of the oldest characters in commedia dell'arte but over the course of time became subdivided into a number of similar characters with more specific traits. These included Arlecchino, Pulcinella, Mezzettino and Truffaldino, as well as Beltrame and Brighella. Arlecchino, for example, was more representative of a jester than an ordinary servant and was frequently depicted as very acrobatic. Zanni was shortened to Zan when used to provide further identification of an individual. For example, Zan Ganassa was the stage name of Alberto Naseli, who was one of the first actors specializing in Zanni roles to perform outside of Italy.",
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"plaintext": "Overall, the Zanni in early commedia dell'arte is the name for the 'carter' which is the servant. The name Zanni became a \"technical term to define all of the servants.\"",
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"plaintext": "Some characters in Commedia that are derived from Zanni are Arlecchino (Harlequin), Brighella, Scapino, Mescolino and Mezzettino, Scaramuccia (aka Scaramouche), Pulcinella, Pedrolino, Giangurgolo, Tartaglia, Trappolino, and Burratino.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest literary evidence portrays Zanni as a servant of Pantalone. Of all of the commedia archetypes, Zanni's survival instinct is the strongest. Zanni is also always hungry, which leads to a vision of Utopia where \"everything is comestible, reminiscent of the followers of gluttony in carnival processions\". A Zanni also has an animistic view of the world in that he senses a spirit in everything, so it could be eaten. Zanni is ignorant, loutish, and has no self-awareness. The simple act of thinking does not seem to be natural to Zanni. He is a very faithful individual who prefers to live in the present day. Zanni never looks for a place to sleep; it just seems to happen to him often in situations where it shouldn't, like a drunkard. Lastly, all of his reactions are completely emotional.",
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"plaintext": "Zanni is born into an immigrant background and is known for performing both \"duty and necessity\" and also plays an active role in the \"game\" of breaking up and unifying relationships. Zanni is also known for his ability to scheme and manipulate. The role of Zanni is known as being a \"stupid genius\"; this contradiction prevents Zanni from approaching daily life in a rational manner. Zanni's stupidity prevents him from performing simple tasks, while his genius gives him the ability to make the impossible possible.",
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"plaintext": "The evolution of the character Zanni was of two distinct types, one of the silly servant and the other of the cunning servant. These two components developed over the course of the history of the commedia dell'arte, and players began to specialize in the two types who were called First Zanni and Second Zanni. Mezzetino and Brighella are examples of the First Zanni; Arlecchino and Pulcinella are examples of the Second. A scenario must always have at least two Zanni. The first Zanni is known to be clever and witty, and is known as il furbo (It. \"the clever\"). The first Zanni can trick and cheat anyone whom they come across. It is a must that they are cynically sharp. The first Zanni is also known to be the go-between. The job of the first Zanni is to advance the action and give it some movement, with a slightly cynical twist. In some traditions, first Zanni are said to be from Val Brembana in the Bergamo country; in others they are attributed to the upper city of Bergamo. The second Zanni is known as lo stupido. The second Zanni must be foolish, clumsy, and dull. The second Zanni is also unable to tell his right hand from his left. He is a dull-witted peasant who can be simple and also ridiculous. Second Zanni, in particular with Arlecchino, does not so much advance plot as maintain a steady stream of comic relief throughout the scenario. Second Zanni are assumed to be from the lower city of Bergamo. Between the two of them they make up one person of \"less than average intelligence\". Before developing this dualistic persona of the two types of clever and silly servant, Zanni was a character in its own right.",
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"plaintext": "The performance of a commedia actor relies on the acting itself. A scenario should be playable in different ways and seem different each time the audience sees it. The actors who play Zanni must be clever and equally talented, because an actor's success relies primarily on their dialogue partner. If the partner does not reply to them at the right moment or interrupts them in the wrong place, the actor's \"discourse falters and the liveliness of their wit is extinguished\". He must be acrobatic, able to walk on his hands and on stilts, dance, skip and somersault. In this respect, the Zanni is one of the most physically demanding of all the Masks.",
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"plaintext": "The Zanni's costume usually consists of white baggy clothing. This clothing was traditionally made out of flour sacks. This was similar to the dress of peasants and farmworkers of the time. A specific type of Zanni, Brighella, wore accents of green to indicate his tricky and devious nature. Arlecchino, however, was known for his irregular colored patches that eventually became the essence of the entire outfit. The Zanni are also known to sport a peaked hat and a wooden sword. The Zanni at first wore a full faced carnival mask, but because of the need for dialogue between Pantalone and the Zanni, the bottom of the mask was hinged and eventually cut away altogether. The longer the nose of the Zanni, the stupider he is said to be.",
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"plaintext": "The stance of Zanni has a \"lowered centre of gravity\" either from the earth or from carrying heavy bags and chairs. Zanni's back is arched when he stands up and his knees are bent and apart with splayed feet. The support knee is bent and the other leg is extended with his toe pointed. He switches his feet a lot while speaking or listening within the same position, and without his head moving up and down. Zanni's elbows are usually bent and arms half lifted. Zanni also has a variety of poses. These include crouching with the elbows on the knees and the chin in the hands, or sitting with the feet splayed bending at the hips with the elbows slightly elevated.",
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"plaintext": "In commedia, Zanni has a variety of at least six different types of walks. These walks include The Little Zanni, The Big Zanni, Zanni Running, Zanni Jubilant, Vain Zanni, and Soldier Zanni.",
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"section_name": "Six types of walks",
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"plaintext": "The Little Zanni walk is a development of a basic stance. The Zanni's feet are constantly changing but on each shift, The Zanni takes a tiny step forward. The feet are to be pointed, shoulders down, and elbows forward. The Zanni's knees come high off of the ground and to the side. The Zanni's head is to peck like a chicken, but the Zanni have to be sure not to bob their head up and down. A two-time rhythm is used with even beats.",
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"plaintext": "The Big Zanni walk includes sticking the chest forward and the backside up. The feet need to be in fourth extended with the knees bent. The Zanni has to lower his center of gravity. This walk can be used by a Zanni when he pretends to cross the stage without being seen or when he wants to get himself out of a difficult situation.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Six types of walks",
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"plaintext": "Zanni Running includes swift movements with legs kicking out in front of him with his toes pointed. His arms move opposite to his legs.",
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"plaintext": "Zanni Jubilant involves skipping on his toes with his center of gravity moving from side to side. This type of walk also involves the hands being placed on the belt.",
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"plaintext": "Vain Zanni's steps are a smaller version of the Big Zanni walk with the hands placed on the belt as seen in the Zanni Jubilant. When the Zanni's leg lifts, his chest is forward and his arms are in the position of a chicken. This type of walk is used when the Zanni has a \"...new button or a feather on his cap\".",
"section_idx": 7,
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"plaintext": "Soldier Zanni holds a stick in one hand and inclines it over his shoulder like he is holding a rifle. The Zanni marches with his shoulders moving up and down in a two-time rhythm but in three beats: \"'tramper-tramp, tramper-tramp, tramp, tramp, tramp....'\".",
"section_idx": 7,
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"plaintext": "The Zanni is loud and his voice is coarse due to making a living outdoors trying to be heard in a market or busy street. Zanni is also known to be vocal with sounds including farting, burping, and snoring.",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Speech",
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"plaintext": "The following sample dialogue shows how the Zanni uses his speech in commedia:",
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"plaintext": "Pantalone: Zanni, I want you to earn yourself a sovereign.",
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"plaintext": "Zanni: A gold coin?",
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"plaintext": "Pantalone: A gold castle.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Zanni: Ah, right (He lies down and falls asleep).",
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"section_name": "Speech",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Pantalone: Zanni, wake up you animal and come here.",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Speech",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Zanni (rising): At your service, boss, as always.",
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"section_name": "Speech",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Pantalone: Dear Zanni, take the sonnet.",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Speech",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Zanni: Give me the sovereign first.",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Speech",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Pantalone: I will give it to you.",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Speech",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Zanni: Where is it, then?",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Speech",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Pantalone: It's there.",
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"section_name": "Speech",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Zanni: Show it to me.",
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"section_name": "Speech",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Pantalone: There it is.",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Speech",
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},
{
"plaintext": "(Zanni tries to snatch the coin but Pantalone grabs it back at the last moment)",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Speech",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Zanni: Darn!",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Speech",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Pantalone: It's yours.",
"section_idx": 8,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Zanni: How can it be mine since you’ve got it?",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Speech",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Pantalone: Trust me, my dear Zanni; take the sonnet and I will give it to you.",
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"section_name": "Speech",
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},
{
"plaintext": "A lazzo is a joke or gag in mime or in words.",
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"plaintext": "The following Lazzi examples are short comic routines by the character type Zanni.",
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"plaintext": "In \"Lazzi of the Cat\" the Zanni mimics the actions of a cat, demonstrating how the cat hunts for wild birds or how the cat cleans himself by scratching his ears with his feet and cleaning his body with his mouth.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Lazzi",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Sexual / Scatological Lazzi:",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Lazzi",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "In \"Lazzi of Burying the Urine\", the Zanni is told that burying his urine and the urine produced by his wife will give him a son. Zanni gets a urinal that produces both and before he spills it into the soil, he treats it as a special fluid.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Lazzi",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Stupidity/ Inappropriate Behavior:",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Lazzi",
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},
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"plaintext": "In \"Lazzi of Counting Money\", the Zanni divides Pantalone's money between Pantolone and himself in the following way: \"One for Pantalone, two for me (gives one coin to Pantalone and two to himself); two for Pantalone, three for me (gives one coin to Pantalone and three to himself), etc. \"",
"section_idx": 9,
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"plaintext": "Another popular lazzi was Zanni walking behind his master mounted on a mule and goading it to go faster by blowing air from a pair of bellows onto the animal's anus.",
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"plaintext": "A Zanni is known to take and briefly keep items that belong to someone else. Some items that the Zanni would keep would be bags, letters, valuables, or food.",
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"plaintext": "Zanni's relationship to the audience is that he is the most sympathetic character and treats the audience collectively so he is able to address the audience directly. Zanni contributes to the plot by being the \"principal contributor to any confusion\".",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Relationship with the audience",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Sources",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "References",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Hartnoll, Phyllis (1983). The Oxford Companion to the Theatre (fourth edition). Oxford: Oxford University Press. .",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "References",
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| [
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"Masks_in_Europe",
"Fictional_characters_introduced_in_the_14th_century"
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| 146,978 | 3,431 | 46 | 27 | 0 | 0 | Zanni | character from the Italian puppet theatre | [
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"Zane"
]
|
38,344 | 1,029,745,352 | George_Shipway | [
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"plaintext": "George Shipway (25 May 1908–1982) was a British author best known for his historical novels, but he also tried his hand at political satire in his book The Chilian Club.",
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"plaintext": "George Frederick Morgan Shipway was born on 25 May 1908 at Allahbad in India and was educated at Clifton. He then attended the Royal Military College, Sandhurst and was commissioned on to the Unattached List for the Indian Army on 30 August 1928. He arrived in India on 5 October 1928 and was attached to a British regiment: the 2nd Battalion The Prince of Wales's Volunteers (South Lancashire), for one year from 14 October 1928. This was a standard practice, intended to enable junior officers on the Unattached List to gain practical military experience in an Indian environment before joining their regiments.",
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"plaintext": "After his year Shipway was posted to the 13th Duke of Connaught's Own Lancers on 20 November 1929. Shipway was later to wryly claim that his motive in joining an Indian cavalry regiment was to give him the opportunity to play polo on a regular basis.",
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"plaintext": "Shipway's cavalry background served him well when he took up writing; his descriptions of cavalry battles are full of minute detail and his works generally were meticulously researched. His first novel Imperial Governor (1968) made use of both his military and teaching knowledge to analyse the character of the Roman general Suetonius Paulinus, who suppressed Boudicca's rebellion of AD 60. Other novels dealt with pre-classical Greek, medieval and Indian historical themes.",
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"plaintext": "The Chilian Club (1971), ; American title The Yellow Room",
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"plaintext": "The Paladin (1972), the story of Walter Tirel, killer of William Rufus. ",
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"plaintext": "The Wolf Time (1973), sequel to above ",
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{
"plaintext": "Free Lance (1975), the British in India during the Napoleonic wars. ",
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{
"plaintext": "Strangers in the Land (1976), The Vellore Mutiny of 1806 ",
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"plaintext": "Imperial Governor: 50th Anniversary Edition (2018), Boudicca and Roman Britain. ",
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},
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"plaintext": " Indian Army List (various dates)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " London Gazette (various dates)",
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"plaintext": " Lewawse (Vis de Lou) The Battle Abbey Roll: With Some Account of the Norman Lineages.",
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| 5,544,531 | 101 | 21 | 12 | 0 | 0 | George Shipway | British writer | []
|
38,346 | 1,059,845,784 | Brighella | [
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"plaintext": "Brighella (in Bergamasque dialect: Brighèla) is a comic, masked character from the Italian theatre style Commedia dell'arte. His early costume consisted of loosely fitting, white smock and pants with green trim and was often equipped with a (also or , depending on region) or slap stick, or else with a wooden sword. Later he took to wearing a sort of livery with a matching cape. He wore a greenish half-mask (traditionally olive-green) displaying a look of preternatural lust and greed. It is distinguished by a hook nose and thick lips, along with a thick twirled mustache to give him an offensive characteristic. He evolved out of the general Zanni, as evidenced by his costume, and came into his own around the start of the 16th century.",
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"plaintext": "He is loosely categorized as one of the zanni or servant characters though he often was portrayed as a member of the middle class such as a tavern owner: his character could be adapted to whatever the needs to the scenario might be, just as Brighella himself is adaptable to any circumstance. He is essentially Arlecchino's smarter and much more vindictive older brother. They both share the same traditional birthplace: Bergamo, a city in Northern Italy. As in a stereotype of those who have risen from poverty, he is often most cruel to those beneath him on the social ladder; he even goes so far as to kill on occasion. In later versions of his character these violent and malicious traits were lessened substantially. Pierre Louis Duchartre, in his The Italian Comedy, theorizes that in France, the gentrified Brighella eventually culminated in the character of Figaro, known from the plays and operas.",
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"plaintext": "Brighella is a masterful liar, and can make up a spur-of-the moment lie for any situation. He is an inveterate schemer, and he is good at what he does. If his plans failed, it was almost always out of luck on behalf of the other characters. When he is a servant, he will either serve his master devotedly or look for every opportunity to ruin and take advantage of him as he happens to see fit—whatever will gain the greatest advantage for himself and himself alone. He is fond of money, but spends it rapidly, and tends to be especially fond of the drink. In fact, he has few good qualities save for his ability to entertain the audience.",
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"plaintext": "His walk is distinguishable from the traditional Zanni movement by the torso bending from side to side while the head stays vertical. The knees stay open and the elbows bend down with each movement of the leg.",
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"plaintext": "His character is usually from uptown Milano or Bergamo, and in the original Italian would often speak with the local accent. He could be very witty and fond of wordplay. He is also an accomplished singer, dancer and musician, and sometimes would play the guitar on stage.",
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"plaintext": "His name comes from an Italian word which can mean \"bother\" or \"contention\" in Italian; Florio's 1611 Italian-English Dictionary defines briga as meaning \"a brable, a braule, a contention\". Brighella in English would be therefore something like \"Fighty\" or \"Brawly\". The other Italian word attaccabrighe (\"hellraiser\") utilizes the same element.",
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"plaintext": "17th Century:",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Domenico Boroncini",
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},
{
"plaintext": "18th Century:",
"section_idx": 1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Giuseppe Antonio Angeleri",
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{
"plaintext": " Tommaso Fortunati",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Pietro Gandini",
"section_idx": 1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Carlo Campi",
"section_idx": 1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Atanasio Zanoni",
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{
"plaintext": "A list of variations of the character, according to Duchartre, are:",
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{
"plaintext": "Beltrame: from the 17th century, a \"wilfully blind husband and rascal as crafty as Brighella.\" He was Milanese and spoke the local dialect. As part of his costume he apparently wore a distinctive large tunic. ",
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"plaintext": "Scapin, or Scapino: A much more nervous and cowardly version of Brighella. ",
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"plaintext": "Truccagnino: See Fenocchio.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Mezzetino: A gentler version of Brighella, fond of the ladies even if they were not fond of him. ",
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"plaintext": "Fenocchio: More prone to playing pranks than committing serious intrigues, he otherwise shared Brighella's fondness for malice. ",
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{
"plaintext": "Flautino: A musical Brighella, often singing a cappella. The Comédie-Italienne actor Giovanni Gherardi, who performed this role, was able to perform the part of an entire orchestra with his voice alone.",
"section_idx": 2,
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"plaintext": "Sbrigani: Sometimes the exact opposite of Brighella, otherwise an identical character; like twins. Frequently appeared alongside Brighella onstage. ",
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{
"plaintext": "Franca Trippa, Francatrippa or Francatrippe: created in the late 16th century, spoke a mixture of Bolognese and Tuscan dialects. An upper-class Brighella. Could be capable of gymnastic or other physical feats. ",
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{
"plaintext": "Turlupin or Tirelupin: A French Brighella created by Henri Legrand. The name means, according to Duchartre, \"unlucky\". However, the Oxford English Dictionary mentions an etymology relating to a cult that modelled themselves on the Cynics and lived off of lupins that they gathered (tiraient). The character was reputedly fond of vulgar wordplay. ",
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"plaintext": "Gandolin: A French Brighella, very fond of wordplay and puns. Sometimes wears a fur-lined plumed hat. ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Fritellino or Fristelin: see Francatrippa. ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Sgnarelle: A chronic drunk. ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Bagatino ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Variants",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Gradelino ",
"section_idx": 2,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Pasquariel ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Buffet ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Gian Fritello ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Narcisino ",
"section_idx": 2,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Grattelard ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Variants",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Mascarille ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "La Montagne ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Frontin ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Variants",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Labranche ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Variants",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Figaro: as created by Beaumarchais. See Le Barbier de Séville.",
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"plaintext": "My drama teacher (2017)",
"section_idx": 4,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " A description of Brighella",
"section_idx": 5,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Carnival of Venice's page on Brighella",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Sipario Cyclopedia's entry on Brighella (in Italian and English)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
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}
]
| [
"Clever_Zanni_class_characters",
"Fictional_Italian_people"
]
| 915,623 | 2,872 | 22 | 31 | 0 | 0 | Brighella | character from the theatre style Commedia dell'arte | []
|
38,348 | 1,091,651,094 | Columbina | [
{
"plaintext": "Columbina (in Italian Colombina, meaning \"little dove\"; in French and English Colombine) is a stock character in the commedia dell'arte. She is Harlequin's mistress, a comic servant playing the tricky slave type, and wife of Pierrot. Rudlin and Crick use the Italian spelling Colombina in Commedia dell'arte: A Handbook for Troupes.",
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"plaintext": "The role of the female servant was originally that of an entr'acte dancer. Women were not allowed to be part of the story that was being played out on stage, but they were allowed to have a dance in-between the action. Eventually these women became the busom and gossipy servants of characters that were already allowed on stage, and then, later, the counterparts to the Zanni characters. She was very down to earth and could always see the situation for what it actually was. She was also sometimes portrayed as a prostitute. She was very infrequently without something to say to or about someone.",
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"plaintext": "She is dressed in a very short ragged and patched dress, appropriate to a master of the arts. These characters were usually played unmasked, but with bonnets and metal chokers. She was also known to wear heavy makeup around her eyes and carry a tambourine, which she could use to fend off the amorous advances of Pantalone. Columbina was sometimes chased after by Arlecchino (also known as Harlequin) or was close friends with him. There is record of Columbine using numerous disguises to trick or seduce Harlequin. Where most other characters are content with one disguise, Gheraldi's Colombine has several different disguises to confuse Harlequin and to keep the audience on their toes. ",
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"plaintext": "She was often the only functional intellect on the stage. Columbine aided her mistress, the innamorata, to gain the affections of her one true love. She is sometimes the lover of Harlequin, but not always. They sometimes engage in sexual activity, but not always. She may be a flirtatious and impudent character, indeed a soubrette.",
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"plaintext": "In the verismo opera Pagliacci by Ruggero Leoncavallo, the head of the troupe's wife, Nedda, playing as Colombine, cheats on her husband, Canio, playing as Pagliaccio, both onstage with Harlequin and offstage with Silvio.",
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"plaintext": "Although Colombine is one name associated with the female servant prostitute character archetype, other names under which the same character is played in Commedia dell'arte performances include Franceschina, Smeraldina, Oliva, Nespola, Spinetta Ricciolina, and Corallina Diamantina. Colombina became the most common name used to describe the sobretta character, especially as Colombine in France and in England.",
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"plaintext": "One of the actresses who made this character famous was Silvia Roncagli, the first woman recorded doing a seretta role named Francheschina in about 1570. One of the first women to play the role named Colombina was Italian actress Isabella Franchini Biancolelli. Her granddaughter, Caterina Biancolelli, was one of the most famous serettas whose name was Colombina. She played the part about 1683.",
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"plaintext": "There is record of the French playwright Molière having attended many performances of the comédie italienne, or commedia dell'arte. He is even referenced in a performance by Angelo Costantini of his show Une Vie de Scaramouche, which refers to the writer and poet. This might suggest that the servant character in many of Molière's plays, such as Dorine in his play Tartuffe, might be based on this particular character archetype from the commedia dell'arte.",
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"plaintext": " Pierrot",
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"plaintext": " Harlequinade",
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"plaintext": "Caterina Biancolelli",
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]
| [
"Female_stock_characters",
"Fictional_tricksters",
"Commedia_dell'arte_female_characters",
"Fictional_servants"
]
| 17,302 | 8,203 | 71 | 22 | 0 | 0 | Columbina | stock character in the Commedia dell'Arte | []
|
38,352 | 1,107,250,568 | Rapier | [
{
"plaintext": "A rapier () or is a type of sword with a slender and sharply-pointed two-edged blade that was popular in Western Europe, both for civilian use (dueling and self-defense) and as a military side arm, throughout the 16th and 17th centuries.",
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"plaintext": "Important sources for rapier fencing include the Italian Bolognese group, with early representatives such as Antonio Manciolino and Achille Marozzo publishing in the 1530s, and reaching the peak of its popularity with writers of the early 1600s (Salvator Fabris, Ridolfo Capo Ferro).",
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"plaintext": "In Spain, rapier fencing came to be known under the term of (\"dexterity\") in the second half of the 16th century, based on the theories of Jerónimo Sánchez de Carranza in his work (\"The Philosophy of Arms and of their Dexterity and of Aggression and the Christian Defence\"), published in 1569. The best known treatise of this tradition was published in French, by Girard Thibault, in 1630.",
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"plaintext": "The French small sword or court sword of the 18th century was a direct continuation of this tradition of fencing, adapted specifically for dueling.",
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"plaintext": "The term rapier appears both in English and German, near-simultaneously, in the mid-16th century, for a light, long, pointed two-edged sword. It is a loan from Middle French espee rapiere, first recorded in 1474. The origin of the rapier is more than likely Spanish. Its name is a \"derisive\" description of the Spanish term \"ropera\". The Spanish term refers to a sword used with clothes (\"espada ropera\", dress sword), due to it being used as an accessory for clothing, usually for fashion and as a self-defense weapon. The 16th-century German rappier described what was considered a \"foreign\" weapon, imported from Italy, Spain or France. Du Cange in his Middle Latin dictionary cites a form Rapperia from a Latin text of 1511. He envisages a derivation from Greek ραπίζειν \"to strike.\" Adelung in his 1798 dictionary records a double meaning for the German verb rappieren: \"to fence with rapiers\" on one hand, and \"to rasp, grate (specifically of tobacco leaves)\" on the other.",
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"plaintext": "The terms used by the Italian, Spanish and French masters during the heyday of this weapon were simply the equivalent of \"sword\", i.e. spada, espada, and épée (espée). When it was necessary to specify the type of sword, Spanish used espada ropera (\"dress sword\", recorded 1468), and Italian used spada da lato \"side-sword\" or spada da lato a striscia (in modern Italian simply striscia \"strip\"), sometimes also called Stocco.The Spanish name was registered for the first time in las Coplas de la panadera, by Juan de Mena, written between 1445 and 1450 approximately.",
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"plaintext": "Clements (1997) categorizes thrusting swords with poor cutting abilities as rapiers, and swords with both good thrusting and cutting abilities as cut and thrust swords. ",
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"plaintext": "The term \"rapier\" is also applied by archaeologists to an unrelated type of Bronze Age sword.",
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"plaintext": "The word \"rapier\" generally refers to a relatively long-bladed sword characterized by a protective hilt which is constructed to provide protection for the hand wielding the sword. Some historical rapier samples also feature a broad blade mounted on a typical rapier hilt. The term rapier can be confusing because this hybrid weapon can be categorized as a type of broadsword. While the rapier blade might be broad enough to cut to some degree (but nowhere near that of the wider swords in use around the Middle Ages such as the longsword), it is designed to perform quick and nimble thrusting attacks. The blade might be sharpened along its entire length or sharpened only from the center to the tip (as described by Capoferro). Pallavicini, a rapier master in 1670, strongly advocated using a weapon with two cutting edges. A typical example would weigh and have a relatively long and slender blade of or less in width, or more in length and ending in a sharply pointed tip. The blade length of quite a few historical examples, particularly the Italian rapiers in the early 17th century, is well over and can even reach .",
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"plaintext": "The term rapier generally refers to a thrusting sword with a blade longer and thinner than that of the so-called side-sword but much heavier than the small sword, a lighter weapon that would follow in the 18th century and later, but the exact form of the blade and hilt often depends on who is writing and when. It can refer to earlier Spada da lato and the similar espada ropera, through the high rapier period of the 17th century through the small sword and duelling swords; thus context is important in understanding what is meant by the word. (The term side-sword, used among some modern historical martial arts reconstructionists, is a translation from the Italian spada da lato—a term coined long after the fact by Italian museum curators—and does not refer to the slender, long rapier, but only to the early 16th-century Italian sword with a broader and shorter blade that is considered both its ancestor and contemporary.)",
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"plaintext": "Rapiers often have complex, sweeping hilts designed to protect the hand wielding the sword. Rings extend forward from the crosspiece. In some later samples, rings are covered with metal plates, eventually evolving into the cup hilts of many later rapiers. There were hardly any samples that featured plates covering the rings prior to the 1600s. Many hilts include a knuckle bow extending down from the crosspiece protecting the grip, which was usually wood wrapped with cord, leather or wire. A large pommel (often decorated) secures the hilt to the weapon and provides some weight to balance the long blade.",
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"plaintext": "Various rapier masters divided the blade into two, three, four, five or even nine parts. The forte, strong, is that part of the blade closest to the hilt; in cases where a master divides the blade into an even number of parts, this is the first half of the blade. The debole, weak, is the part of the blade which includes the point and is the second half of the blade when the sword is divided into an even number of parts. However, some rapier masters divided the blade into three parts (or even a multiple of three), in which case the central third of the blade, between the forte and the debole, was often called the medio, mezzo or the terzo. Others used four divisions (Fabris) or even 12 (Thibault).",
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"plaintext": "The ricasso is the rear portion of the blade, usually unsharpened. It extends forward from the crosspiece or quillion and then gradually integrates into the thinner and sharper portion of the blade.",
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"plaintext": "There was historical disagreement over how long the ideal rapier should be, with some masters, such as Thibault, denigrating those who recommended longer blades; Thibault's own recommended length was such that the cross of the sword be level with the navel (belly button) when standing naturally with the point resting on the ground. A small number of rapiers with extending blades were made with 4 surviving in modern collections. The purpose of the ability is unclear, with suggestions including trying to gain the advantage of surprise in a duel or an attempt to get around laws limiting weapon length.",
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"plaintext": "Rapiers are single-handed weapons and they were often employed with off-hand bucklers, daggers, cloaks and even second swords to assist with defense. A buckler is a small round shield that was used with other blades as well, such as the arming-sword. In Capo Ferro's Gran Simulacro, the treatise depicts how to use the weapon with the rotella, which is a significantly bigger shield compared with the buckler. Nevertheless, using rapier with its parrying dagger is the most common practice, and it has been arguably considered as the most suited and effective accompanying weapon for the rapier. Even though the slender blade of rapier enables the user to launch quick attack at a fairly long and advantaged distance between the user and the opponent and the protective hilt can deflect the opponent's blade when he or she uses rapier as well, the thrust-oriented weapon is weakened by its bated cutting power and relatively low maneuverability at a closer distance, where the opponent has safely passed the reach of the rapier's deadly point. Because of such insufficient cutting power and maneuverability at this situation when the opponent passes the deadly point, this scenario leaves opening for the opponent to attack the user. Therefore, some close-range protection for the user needs to be ensured if the user intends to use the rapier in an optimal way, especially when the opponent uses some slash-oriented sword like a sabre or a broadsword. A parrying dagger not only enables the users to defend in this scenario in which the rapier is not very good at protecting the user, but also enables them to attack in such close distance.",
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"plaintext": "The espada ropera of the 16th century was a cut-and-thrust civilian weapon for self-defense and the duel, while earlier weapons were equally at home on the battlefield. Throughout the 16th century, a variety of new, single-handed civilian weapons were being developed. In 1570 the Italian master Rocco Bonetti first settled in England advocating the use of the rapier for thrusting as opposed to cutting or slashing when engaged in a duel. Nevertheless, the English word \"rapier\" generally refers to a primarily thrusting weapon, developed by the year 1600 as a result of the geometrical theories of such masters as Camillo Agrippa, Ridolfo Capoferro and Vincentio Saviolo.",
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"plaintext": "The rapier became extremely fashionable throughout Europe with the wealthier classes, but was not without its detractors. Some people, such as George Silver, disapproved of its technical potential and the dueling use to which it was put.",
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"plaintext": "Allowing for fast reactions, and with a long reach, the rapier was well suited to civilian combat in the 16th–17th centuries. As military-style cutting and thrusting swords continued to evolve to meet needs on the battlefield, so did the rapier continue to evolve to meet the needs of civilian combat and decorum, eventually becoming lighter, shorter and less cumbersome to wear. This is when the rapier began to give way to the colichemarde itself being later superseded by the small sword which was later superseded by the épée. Noticeably, there were some \"war rapiers\" that feature a relatively wide blade mounted on a typical rapier hilt during this era. These hybrid swords were used in the military or even in battlefield. Gustav II Adolf's carried a sword that was used in the Thirty Years' War and is a typical example of the \"war rapier\".",
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"plaintext": "By the year 1715, the rapier had been largely replaced by the lighter small sword throughout most of Europe, although the former continued to be used, as evidenced by the treatises of Donald McBane (1728), P. J. F. Girard (1736) and Domenico Angelo (1787). The rapier is still used today by officers of the Swiss Guard of the pope.",
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"plaintext": " Achille Marozzo, Opera Nova Chiamata Duello, O Vero Fiore dell'Armi de Singulari Abattimenti Offensivi, & Diffensivi1536",
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"plaintext": " Angelo Viggiani dal Montone, Trattato dello Schermo1575",
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"plaintext": " Anonimo Bolognese, L'Arte della Spada (M-345/M-346 Manuscripts)(early or mid 16th century) date it to \"about 1550\"",
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"plaintext": " Antonio Manciolino, Opera Nova per Imparare a Combattere, & Schermire d'ogni sorte Armi1531",
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"plaintext": " Bondi di Mazo, La Spada Maestra1696",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Camillo Agrippa, Trattato di Scientia d'Arme con un Dialogo di Filosofia1553",
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"plaintext": " Francesco Alfieri, La Scherma di Francesco Alfieri1640",
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"plaintext": " Francesco Antonio Marcelli, Regole della Scherma1686",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Giacomo di Grassi, Ragion di Adoprar Sicuramente l'Arme si da Offesa, come da Difesa1570",
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{
"plaintext": " Giovanni dall'Agocchie, Dell'Arte di Scrimia1572",
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"plaintext": " Giuseppe Morsicato Pallavicini, La Scherma Illustrata1670",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Marco Docciolini, Trattato in Materia di Scherma1601",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Nicoletto Giganti, Scola overo Teatro1606",
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"plaintext": " Ridolfo Capo Ferro, Gran Simulacro dell'Arte e dell'Uso della Scherma1610",
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"plaintext": " Salvator Fabris, De lo Schermo ovvero Scienza d'Armi1606",
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"plaintext": " Girard Thibault, Academie de l'Espee, ou se demonstrant par Reigles mathematiques, sur le fondement Cercle Mysterieux (1630)",
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"plaintext": " Jerónimo Sánchez de Carranza, De la Filosofía de las Armas (1569)",
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"plaintext": " Luis Pacheco de Narváez, Libro de las Grandezas de la Espada (1599)",
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"plaintext": " André Desbordes, Discours de la théorie et de la pratique de l'excellence des armes (1610)",
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"plaintext": " Charles Besnard, Le maistre d'arme liberal (1653)",
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{
"plaintext": " François Dancie, Discours des armes et methode pour bien tirer de l'espée et poignard (c.1610) and L'Espee de combat (1623)",
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"plaintext": " Joseph Swetnam, The Schoole of the Noble and Worthy Science of Defence (1617)",
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"plaintext": " The Pallas Armata (1639)",
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"plaintext": " Vincentio Saviolo, His Practise 1595",
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"plaintext": " Jakob Sutor, Künstliches Fechtbuch (1612)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Joachim Meyer, Thorough Descriptions of the free Knightly and Noble Art of Fencing (1570)",
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"plaintext": " Johannes Georgius Bruchius (1671)",
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"plaintext": " Paulus Hector Mair, Opus Amplissimum de Arte Athletica (1542)",
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"plaintext": "Classical fencing schools claim to have inherited aspects of rapier forms in their systems. In 1885, fencing scholar Egerton Castle wrote \"there is little doubt that the French system of fencing can be traced, at its origin, to the ancient Italian swordsmanship; the modern Italian school being of course derived in an uninterrupted manner from the same source.\" Castle went on to note that \"the Italians have preserved the rapier form, with cup, pas d'ane, and quillons, but with a slender quadrangular blade.\"",
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"plaintext": " Despite the rapier's common usage in the 16th–17th centuries, many films set in these periods (many starring Errol Flynn) have the swordsmen using épées or foils. Actual rapier combat was hardly the lightning thrust and parry depicted. Director Richard Lester and fight choreographer William Hobbs attempted to more closely match traditional rapier technique in The Three Musketeers and The Four Musketeers. Since then, many newer movies, like The Princess Bride and La Reine Margot have used rapiers rather than later weapons, although the fight choreography has not always accurately portrayed historical fencing techniques. Rapiers are also often featured in various video games, in particular role-playing games set in medieval- and Renaissance-inspired worlds.",
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"plaintext": " In the Redwall series, the rapier is the primary weapon of the Guosim shrews, though it is not exclusive to them.",
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"plaintext": " In JoJo's Bizarre Adventure, Polnareff's Stand, Silver Chariot, uses a rapier as its weapon.",
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"plaintext": " In X, the Sacred Swords used by Kamui Shiro and Fuma Monou both looks like a cross between a rapier and a longsword.",
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"plaintext": " In Magic Knight Rayearth, Umi Ryuuzaki uses a rapier-like magic sword.",
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"plaintext": " In Cardcaptor Sakura, the Sword card used by Sakura Kinomoto is both a depictional and a physical rapier.",
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"plaintext": " In Berserk, Serpico is a skilled fencer who wields a rapier. He also wields a feather duster-like magical rapier called the \"Sylph Sword\".",
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"plaintext": " The television series Queen of Swords features the use of the rapier in the mysterious circle, Destreza style favoured by the first swordmaster of the series Anthony De Longis who studied the Spanish sword fighting technique and wanted a unique style for the heroine. He had previously used it in the episode, \"Duende\", of the The Series. The hilt of the rapier was made by blade maker Dave Baker as were other swords used in the show.",
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"plaintext": " In Bleach, Sasakibe releases his Zanpakutō's Shikai in the form of a rapier's hand guard.",
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"plaintext": " In One Piece, Brook's signature weapon is a rapier concealed in a cane called \"Soul Solid\".",
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"plaintext": " In Sword Art Online, Asuna Yuuki uses rapiers as her primary weapon.",
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"plaintext": " In the web series RWBY, Weiss Schnee uses a rapier named \"Myrtenaster\", and Neopolitan conceals a rapier inside her parasol named \"Hush\".",
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"plaintext": " In Dota 2, there is an item called \"Divine Rapier\" and it has an immense damage capability given to the player who wields it.",
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"plaintext": " In most editions of Dungeons & Dragons, including the current 5th edition, the rapier is included as a weapon in the Player's Handbook.",
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"plaintext": "In the 2015 spaceflight simulator Kerbal Space Program, a hybrid jet engine based on Skylon's SABRE is named \"CR-7 R.A.P.I.E.R\", referring the usage of the name of a sword in its real-life counterpart.",
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"plaintext": " In the Super NES version of Turtles in Time, a rapier was used by Rocksteady, a mutant rhinoceros thug when he dressed as a buccaneer captain.",
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"plaintext": " A rapier is the primary weapon of Captain Hook, the arch enemy for the title character of Peter Pan.",
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"plaintext": " Estoc",
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"plaintext": " Historical European martial arts",
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"plaintext": " Oakeshott typology",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Spada da lato",
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1086518
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{
"plaintext": " Leoni, Tom. The Art of Dueling: 17th Century Rapier as Taught by Salvatore Fabris. Highland Village, TX: The Chivalry Bookshelf, 2005. ",
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| [
"Early_Modern_European_swords",
"Historical_fencing",
"Renaissance-era_swords"
]
| 816,745 | 24,346 | 279 | 121 | 0 | 0 | rapier | slender, sharply pointed sword | []
|
38,357 | 1,106,841,825 | Mine | [
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"plaintext": " Bangalore mine, colloquial name for the Bangalore torpedo, a man-portable explosive device for clearing a path through wire obstacles and land mines",
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"plaintext": " Parachute mine, an air-dropped \"sea mine\" falling gently under a parachute, used as a high-capacity cheaply-cased large bomb against ground targets",
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"plaintext": "Mine Boy, nickname of Alex Levinsky (1910–1990), NHL hockey player ",
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"plaintext": "George Ralph Mines (born 1886), English cardiac electrophysiologist",
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"plaintext": "Abandoned Mine or The Mine, a 2013 horror film",
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"plaintext": "Mine (novel), a 1990 novel by Robert R. McCammon",
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"plaintext": "The Mine (novel), 2012 novel by Arnab Ray",
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"plaintext": "Mine (Kim Jaejoong EP), 2013",
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"plaintext": "Mine (Dolly Parton album), 1973",
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"plaintext": "Mine!, a 1994 album released by musical duo Trout Fishing in America",
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"plaintext": "\"Mine\" (Alice Glass song), 2018",
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"plaintext": "\"Mine\" (Bazzi song), 2017",
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"plaintext": "\"Mine\" (Taylor Swift song), 2010",
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"plaintext": "Leaf mine, a space in a leaf",
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| 256,955 | 2,402 | 4 | 68 | 0 | 0 | Mine | Wikimedia disambiguation page | []
|
38,361 | 1,102,754,004 | Great_Barrier_Island | [
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"plaintext": "Great Barrier Island () lies in the outer Hauraki Gulf, New Zealand, north-east of central Auckland. With an area of it is the sixth-largest island of New Zealand and fourth-largest in the main chain. Its highest point, Mount Hobson, is above sea level. The local authority is the Auckland Council.",
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"plaintext": "With an area of , Great Barrier Island is the sixth-largest island in New Zealand after the South Island, the North Island, Stewart Island/Rakiura, Chatham Island, and Auckland Island. The highest point, Mount Hobson or Hirakimatā, is above sea level.",
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"plaintext": "Great Barrier is surrounded by several smaller islands, including Kaikoura Island, Rakitu Island, Aiguilles Island and Dragon Island. A number of islands are located in Great Barrier bays, including Motukahu Island, Nelson Island, Kaikoura Island, Broken Islands, Motutaiko Island, Rangiahua Island, Little Mahuki Island, Mahuki Island and Junction Islands.",
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"plaintext": "With a maximum length (north-south) of some , it and the Coromandel Peninsula (directly to its south) protect the Gulf from the storms of the Pacific Ocean to the east. Consequently, the island boasts highly contrasting coastal environments. The eastern coast comprises long, sandy beaches, windswept sand-dunes, and at times heavy surf. The western coast, sheltered and calm, is home to hundreds of tiny, secluded bays which offer some of the best diving and boating in the country. The inland holds several large and biologically diverse wetlands, along with rugged hill country (bush or heath in the more exposed heights), as well as old-growth and regenerating kauri forests.",
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"plaintext": "Much of Great Barrier Island is formed from remnants of volcanoes associated with the Coromandel Volcanic Zone. The North Great Barrier Volcano, which was centred to the north of the modern island from Whangapoua Bay northwards, formed through events between 18 and 17 million years ago; some of the earliest vulcanism which occurred in the zone. The Great Barrier Volcano formed to the west of the modern island between 15 and 12 million years ago. Much of the modern island is this volcano's eroded eastern flanks. The third volcano, Mount Hobson, is the caldera of a complex rhyolite dome volcano, which was active between 12 and 8 million years ago.",
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"plaintext": "Approximately 17,000 years ago during the Last Glacial Maximum, the Hauraki Gulf was a low lying coastal plain as sea levels were over 100 metres lower than present day levels. During this period, Great Barrier Island was landlocked to the rest of the North Island, and bordered by the two major river systems that flowed on the plain.",
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"plaintext": "Great Barrier Island (Aotea) is the ancestral land of Ngāti Rehua Ngātiwai ki Aotea who are the tangata whenua (people of the land) and mana whenua (territorial land rights holders) of Aotea. Ngāti Rehua have occupied Aotea since the 17th century after conquering Aotea from people of Ngāti Manaia and Kawerau descent. In the mid-19th century during the early Colonial era of New Zealand, extensive private and crown land purchases meant only two areas of the Hauraki Gulf remained in Māori ownership: Te Huruhi (Surfdale) on Waiheke Island (2100 acres) on Waiheke and a 3,510 acre parcel of land at Katherine Bay on Great Barrier Island.",
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"plaintext": "Early European interest followed discovery of copper in the remote north, where New Zealand's earliest mines were established at Miners Head in 1842. Traces of these mines remain, largely accessible only by boat. Later, gold and silver were found in the Okupu / Whangaparapara area in the 1890s, and the remains of a stamping battery on the Whangaparapara Road are a remainder of this time. The sound of the battery working was reputedly audible from the Coromandel Peninsula, 20km away.",
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"plaintext": "In early 2010, a government proposal to remove 705 ha of land on the Te Ahumatā Plateau (called \"White Cliffs\" by the locals) from Schedule 4 of the Crown Minerals Act, which gives protection from the mining of public land, was widely criticised. Concerns were that mining for the suspected $4.3 billion in mineral worth in the area would damage both the conservation land as well as the island's tourism economy. Locals were split on the project, some hoping for new jobs. If restarted, mining at White Cliffs would occur in the same area it originally proliferated on Great Barrier. The area's regenerating bushland still holds numerous semi-collapsed or open mining shafts where silver and gold had been mined.",
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"plaintext": "The kauri logging industry was profitable in early European days and up to the mid-20th century. Forests were well inland, with no easy way to get the logs to the sea or to sawmills. Kauri logs were dragged to a convenient stream bed with steep sides and a driving dam was constructed of wood, with a lifting gate near the bottom large enough for the logs to pass through. When the dam had filled, which might take up to a year, the gate was opened and the logs above the dam were pushed out through the hole and swept down to the sea. The logging industry cut down large amounts of old growth, and most of the current growth is younger native forest (around 150,000 kauri seedlings were planted by the New Zealand Forest Service in the 1970s and 1980s) as well as some remaining kauri in the far north of the island. Much of the island is covered with regenerating bush dominated by kanuka and kauri.",
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"plaintext": "Great Barrier Island was the site of New Zealand's last whaling station, at Whangaparapara, which opened in 1956, over a century after the whaling industry peaked in New Zealand, and closed due to depletion of whaling stocks and increasing protection of whales by 1962.",
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"plaintext": "Another small-scale industry was kauri gum digging, while dairy farming and sheep farming have tended to play a small role compared to the usual New Zealand practice. A fishing industry collapsed when international fish prices dropped. Islanders are generally occupied in tourism, farming or service-related industries when not working off-island.",
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"plaintext": "The remote north was the site of the sinking of the SS Wairarapa around midnight of 29 October 1894. This was one of New Zealand's worst shipwrecks, with about 140 lives lost, some of them buried in two beach grave sites in the far north. As a result, a Great Barrier Island pigeon post service was set up, the first message being flown on 14 May 1897. Special postage stamps were issued from October 1898 until 1908, when a new communications cable was laid to the mainland, which made the pigeon post redundant. Another major wreck lies in the far southeast, the SS Wiltshire.",
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"plaintext": "Over time, more and more of the island came under the stewardship of the Department of Conservation (DOC) or its predecessors. Partly this was land that had belonged to the Crown since the 1800s, while other parts were sold or donated like the more than 10% of the island (located in the northern bush area, with some of the largest remaining kauri forests) that was gifted to the Crown by farmer Max Burrill in 1984. DOC has created a large number of walking tracks through the island, some of which are also open for mountain biking. The Aotea Conservation Park has the only multi-day wilderness walk in the Auckland region, boasting two DOC huts and numerous campsites. The Park spreads over more than 12,000 hectares and offers multiple walking tracks for novice and experienced walkers.",
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"plaintext": "The island is free of some of the more troublesome introduced pests that plague the native ecosystems of other parts of New Zealand. While it does have wild cats, dogs, feral pigs, black rats (R. rattus), Polynesian rats (R. exulans) and mice, there are no known populations of possums, mustelids (weasels, stoats or ferrets), hedgehogs, brown rats (R. norvegicus), deer or (since 2006) feral goats, thus being a relative haven for native bird and plant populations. Rare animals found on the island include brown teal ducks, black petrel seabirds and kaka parrots.",
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"plaintext": "Great Barrier Island has two marae affiliated with the local iwi of Ngāti Rehua and Ngātiwai: the Kawa Marae and its Rehua meeting house, and Motairehe Marae and its Whakaruruhau meeting house.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2020, the Government committed $313,007 from the Provincial Growth Fund to upgrade Kawa Marae, creating 6 jobs.",
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"plaintext": "In 2017, Aotea / Great Barrier Island was accredited as a Dark Sky Sanctuary by the International Dark-Sky Association. This designation is given for sites in very remote locations to increase awareness of their dark sky characteristics and promote long term conservation. At the time, it was the third International Dark Sky Sanctuary to be designated, and the first island sanctuary.",
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"plaintext": "Barrier Islands statistical area, which includes Little Barrier Island and Mokohinau Islands although they have no permanent inhabitants, covers and had an estimated population of as of with a population density of people per km2.",
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"plaintext": "Barrier Islands had a population of 930 at the 2018 New Zealand census, a decrease of 3 people (−0.3%) since the 2013 census, and an increase of 63 people (7.3%) since the 2006 census. There were 531 households, comprising 501 males and 429 females, giving a sex ratio of 1.17 males per female. The median age was 52.6 years (compared with 37.4 years nationally), with 138 people (14.8%) aged under 15 years, 90 (9.7%) aged 15 to 29, 477 (51.3%) aged 30 to 64, and 225 (24.2%) aged 65 or older.",
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"plaintext": "Ethnicities were 91.3% European/Pākehā, 20.6% Māori, 2.6% Pacific peoples, 1.3% Asian, and 1.9% other ethnicities. Percentages may add up to more than 100% as people may identify with more than one ethnicity.",
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"plaintext": "The percentage of people born overseas was 18.4, compared with 27.1% nationally.",
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"plaintext": "Although some people chose not to answer the census's question about religious affiliation, 62.6% had no religion, 24.5% were Christian, 1.3% had Māori religious beliefs, 1.0% were Buddhist and 1.6% had other religions.",
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"plaintext": "Of those at least 15 years old, 144 (18.2%) people had a bachelor's or higher degree, and 144 (18.2%) people had no formal qualifications. The median income was $21,300, compared with $31,800 nationally. 48 people (6.1%) earned over $70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 279 (35.2%) people were employed full-time, 168 (21.2%) were part-time, and 57 (7.2%) were unemployed.",
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"plaintext": "The population lives mostly in coastal settlements. Tryphena, in Tryphena Harbour at the southern end, is the largest settlement. Other communities are Okupu and Whangaparapara in the south-west, Port Fitzroy and Okiwi in the north, and Claris and Medlands in the south-east. The population swells substantially from October to May. The island has become a favourite holiday destination in the darker months, due its superbly dark sky and the astrophotography and stargazing opportunities this offers. In 2017 the island was given Dark Sky Sanctuary status by the IDA. Its relative remoteness offers solitude, and the sustainable off-grid lifestyle of its inhabitants is something many visitors like to experience.",
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"plaintext": "Without reticulated electricity, most houses use solar panels and a battery bank to generate and store power. Wind and water turbines and solar water heaters are also used. Diesel generators, which used to be the main power source, are now mostly used as back-up.",
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"plaintext": "From the end of February 2007, the island was seen around the world as the setting for the BBC One reality show Castaway, which was filmed there for three months.",
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"plaintext": "There are two airfields, Great Barrier Aerodrome at Claris and Okiwi Airfield. Barrier Air operate services from Auckland Airport and North Shore Aerodrome to Claris. Flight time is approximately 35 minutes from Auckland Airport. Barrier Air will also commence a service from Claris to Tauranga in December 2022. Sunair operates between Claris and Hamilton, Tauranga, Whangārei and Whitianga.",
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"plaintext": "SeaLink operates a passenger, car and freight ferry. This ferry operates from Wynyard Wharf in Auckland city to Tryphena (several times weekly). Sailing time is approximately four and a half hours.",
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"plaintext": "Other travel options: Barrier Express fast ferry from Sandspit or Auckland. Flight Hauraki, Christian Aviation, Auckland Seaplanes, Heletranz, Oceania Helicopters.",
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"plaintext": "Institutions and services are primarily provided by the Auckland Council, the local authority. Services and infrastructure like roads and the wharves at Tryphena and Whangaparapara are subsidised, with the island receiving about $4 in services for every $1 in rates. The Port FitzRoy wharf is owned by the North Barrier Residents and Ratepayers Association.",
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"plaintext": "There are three primary schools: Mulberry Grove School at Tryphena, Kaitoke School at Claris, and Okiwi School. There is no secondary school, but there is a learning hub to assist students who learn through the New Zealand Correspondence School. Many children leave the island when they reach secondary school age to attend boarding school on the mainland. Previously, the lack of secondary schooling was cited as one of the reasons for a slow exodus of long-term resident families.",
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"plaintext": "As part of Auckland the rules governing daily activities and applicable standards for civic works and services exists, shared with some of the other inhabited islands of the Hauraki Gulf. Driving rules are the same as for the rest of NZ and registration and a Warrant of Fitness are required for all vehicles. For example, every transport service operated solely on the island, the Chatham Islands, or Stewart Island/Rakiura is exempt from section 70C of the Transport Act 1962, the requirements for drivers to maintain driving-hours logbooks. Drivers subject to section 70B must nevertheless keep records of their driving hours in some form.",
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"plaintext": "Rules governing dog control are the same as for Auckland. Dogs must be kept on a lead in all public places.",
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"plaintext": "Fanny Osborne (1852–1934), artist",
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"plaintext": " Articles/Stories of Great Barrier Island history, locals, issues, lifestyle",
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"plaintext": "Photographs of Great Barrier Island held in Auckland Libraries' heritage collections",
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| [
"Great_Barrier_Island",
"Islands_of_the_Auckland_Region"
]
| 1,363,130 | 3,130 | 238 | 98 | 0 | 0 | Great Barrier Island | largest island near New Zealand's North Island | [
"Aotea",
"Aotea Island",
"Great Barrier Island (Aotea Island)"
]
|
38,362 | 1,093,223,900 | List_of_islands_of_New_Zealand | [
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"plaintext": "New Zealand consists of more than six hundred islands, mainly remnants of a larger land mass now beneath the sea. New Zealand is the seventh-largest island nation on earth, and the third-largest located entirely in the Southern Hemisphere. The following is a list of islands of New Zealand.",
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"plaintext": "The two largest islands – where most of the human population lives – have names in both English and in the Māori language. They are the North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui and the South Island or Te Waipounamu. Various Māori iwi sometimes use other names, with some preferring to call the South Island Te Waka o Aoraki. The two islands are separated by Cook Strait. In general practice, the term mainland refers to the North Island and South Island. However, the South Island alone is sometimes called \"the mainland\" – especially by its residents, as a nickname – because it is the larger of the two main islands.",
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"plaintext": "To the south of the South Island, Stewart Island / Rakiura is the largest of the smaller islands, and Waiheke Island in the urban Auckland Region has the largest population of the smaller islands.",
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"plaintext": "The following table lists the largest islands of New Zealand by area. River delta islands such as Rakaia Island (), Fereday Island, Rangitata Island, and Inch Clutha (approximately , , and respectively) are omitted, as are temporary islands in braided river channels and tidal islands such as Rabbit Island, Nelson (). The country's largest island within a lake, Pomona Island, has an area of just .",
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"plaintext": "The following table lists the islands of New Zealand by their highest elevation. These islands are all in harbours or the open sea. The country's tallest island within a lake, Pomona Island, rises to above sea level, which is about above Lake Manapouri's normal lake level.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Bench Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Bests Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Blumine Island / Ōruawairua",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
19897029
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Breaksea Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
26255110
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The Brothers",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
1131366
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Browns Island (Motukorea)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
4342059
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Calliope Island, Whangarei Heads",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
17364682
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
17,
32
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Catherine Island, Charles Sound",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
57001064
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"anchor_spans": [
[
18,
31
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Cavalli Islands",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
1236817
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Chalky Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
3053192
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Chetwode Islands",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
33088912
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Coal Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
53849085
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Codfish Island / Whenua Hou",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
1094475
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Cooper Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Dog Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
44936958
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Cuvier Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
11690195
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Dragon Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
813303
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Eleanor Island, Charles Sound",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
57001064
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
16,
29
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Elizabeth Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
52236873
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Fanny Island, Charles Sound",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
57001064
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
14,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Fisherman Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
40719043
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Forsyth Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
37396659
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Frenchman Island, Whangarei Heads",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
17364682
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
18,
33
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Goat Island / Rakiriri",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
16632030
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Great Barrier Island/Aotea",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
38361
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Great Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
55543362
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Green Island (Okaihe)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
34599266
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Green Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
55721658
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Guano Island, Whangarei Heads",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Hen and Chicken Islands",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
1240359
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "High Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Herald Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
58837065
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Horomaka Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
6246250
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Indian Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
55543875
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Kaikōura Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
1852137
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Kapiti Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
617571
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Kārewa / Gannet Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
16650661
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Karewa Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
69262976
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Kawau Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
1229250
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Kopuahingahinga Island, Manukau Harbour",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
284695
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
24,
39
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Long Island, Marlborough",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
1856136
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Long Island (Southland)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
29670235
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Mahurangi Island (Goat Island)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
38977976
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
30
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Mākaro / Ward Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
5204338
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Mana Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
1287254
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Matakana Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
1164312
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Matapara / Pickersgill Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
69379765
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
29
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Matiu / Somes Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
891828
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Maud Island/Te Hoiere",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
3597781
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Mauitaha Island, Whangarei Heads",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
17364682
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
17,
32
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Mayor Island / Tūhua",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
1160662
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Mercury Islands",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
1174358
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Mokohinau Islands",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Mokopuna Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
11879790
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Mōtītī Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
1160663
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Motuara Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
63222079
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Motuareronui / Adele Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
40718972
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Motuarohia Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
58709279
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Motueka Island (Pigeon Island)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Motuhoa Island, Tauranga Harbour",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
21230821
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"anchor_spans": [
[
16,
32
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Motuihe Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
5865046
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Motukaroro Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Motukawao Islands",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
1171737
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Motukiore Island, Parua Bay",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
17155436
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"anchor_spans": [
[
18,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Motukōkako Island / Piercy Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
9523152
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
33
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Motu Matakohe / Limestone Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
26216773
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
32
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Motunau Island ",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
39950130
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Motuora",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Motuoroi Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
20024554
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Moturaka Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Moturoa / Rabbit Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
1131429
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Moturekareka Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
25793092
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
19
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Motutapu Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
1214447
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
15
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Moutohora Island/Whale Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
1160626
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
29
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Native Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Ngarango Otainui Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
48517902
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Ngā Motu / Sugar Loaf Islands",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
21303333
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
29
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Ninepin Rock, Manukau Harbour",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
284695
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"anchor_spans": [
[
14,
29
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Noble Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "North Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
62046
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Opahekeheke Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Open Bay Islands",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
19647382
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
16
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Ōtamahua / Quail Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
23
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Pakatoa Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
5969542
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
14
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Pakihi Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
59320819
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Pararekau Island, Manukau Harbour",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
284695
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"anchor_spans": [
[
18,
33
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Pearl Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Pepin Island (a tied island connected to the mainland)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
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62049
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
12
],
[
16,
27
],
[
45,
53
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Ponui Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
12
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Poor Knights Islands",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
498896
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
20
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Portland Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
5167474
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
15
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Pourewa Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
2684745
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
14
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Puketutu Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
15
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Putauhinu Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
16
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Quarantine Island / Kamau Taurua",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
1123843
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
32
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Rakino Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
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[
0,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Rakitu Island",
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"target_page_ids": [
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[
0,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Rangitoto Island",
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"target_page_ids": [
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[
0,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Rangitoto Islands, Marlborough Sounds",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
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[
0,
17
],
[
19,
37
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Rangitoto ki te Tonga / D'Urville Island",
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"target_page_ids": [
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[
0,
40
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Raratoka Island",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
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[
0,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Resolution Island",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
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[
0,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Ripapa Island",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
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[
0,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Rotoroa Island",
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],
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[
0,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Rurima Rocks, including Rurima Island",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
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[
24,
37
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Ruapuke Island",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
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[
0,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Secretary Island",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
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[
0,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Shark Island, Manukau Harbour",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
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284695
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[
14,
29
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Shoe Island / Motuhoa",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Simmonds Islands",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Slipper Island",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "South Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
62049
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Stephens Island / Takapourewa",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
1035550
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
29
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Stephenson Island",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
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[
0,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Stewart Island / Rakiura",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Taieri Island / Moturata",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Takangaroa Island",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
7660793
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Taputeranga Island",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Tarahiki Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
18428264
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Tarakanahi Island",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Tata Islands",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
40719103
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Taukihepa / Big South Cape Island",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
24592732
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
33
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Te Hauturu-o-Toi / Little Barrier Island",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
1214344
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
40
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Te Motu-o-Kura / Bare Island",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
13853433
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
28
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Te Hāwere-a-Maki / Goat Island",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
16631743
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
30
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Tikitiki Island, (The Ninepin), Bay of Islands",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
350664
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
32,
46
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Tiritiri Matangi Island",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
715496
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Tītī / Muttonbird Islands",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
5165006
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Tonga Island",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
40719070
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Ulva Island",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
938577
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Urupukapuka Island",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
31930269
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[
0,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Waiheke Island",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
582597
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Walker Island",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Watchman Island",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
9164372
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Whakaari / White Island",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
293909
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Whanganui Island",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
1177705
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Whangaokeno / East Island",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "White Island (Otago)",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
1171241
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Wiroa Island, Manukau Harbour",
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"section_name": "In harbours and the open sea",
"target_page_ids": [
284695
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"anchor_spans": [
[
14,
29
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Black Jacks Island (in Lake Benmore)",
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"target_page_ids": [
1023801
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[
23,
35
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Channel Islands (in Lake Manapouri)",
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"section_name": "In rivers and lakes",
"target_page_ids": [
559837
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"anchor_spans": [
[
20,
34
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Dome Islands (in Lake Te Anau)",
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"section_name": "In rivers and lakes",
"target_page_ids": [
662308
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"anchor_spans": [
[
17,
29
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Entrance Island (in Lake Te Anau)",
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"section_name": "In rivers and lakes",
"target_page_ids": [
662308
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"anchor_spans": [
[
20,
32
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Fereday Island (in the Rakaia River delta)",
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"section_name": "In rivers and lakes",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
23,
35
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Harwich Island (in Lake Wānaka)",
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"section_name": "In rivers and lakes",
"target_page_ids": [
38750514,
431395
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
14
],
[
19,
30
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Hidden Island (in Lake Wakatipu)",
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38728530,
880562
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
13
],
[
18,
31
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Inch Clutha (in the Clutha / Mata-Au delta)",
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"section_name": "In rivers and lakes",
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2251210,
431390
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
11
],
[
20,
36
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Junction Island (in Lake Benmore)",
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"section_name": "In rivers and lakes",
"target_page_ids": [
1023801
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"anchor_spans": [
[
20,
32
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Karihoa Island (in Waikato River)",
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"section_name": "In rivers and lakes",
"target_page_ids": [
251600
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"anchor_spans": [
[
19,
32
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Kaiwaka No.1 Island (in Waikato River delta)",
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251600
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"anchor_spans": [
[
24,
37
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Kaiwaka No.2 Island (in Waikato River delta)",
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"section_name": "In rivers and lakes",
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251600
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"anchor_spans": [
[
24,
37
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Manutahi Island (in Waikato River)",
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"target_page_ids": [
251600
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"anchor_spans": [
[
20,
33
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Mary Island (in Lake Hauroko)",
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"section_name": "In rivers and lakes",
"target_page_ids": [
1100994
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"anchor_spans": [
[
16,
28
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Mokoia Island (in Lake Rotorua)",
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"section_name": "In rivers and lakes",
"target_page_ids": [
1160803,
1164533
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
13
],
[
18,
30
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Motakorea Island (in Waikato River)",
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"target_page_ids": [
251600
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"anchor_spans": [
[
21,
34
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Motuariki Island (in Lake Tekapo)",
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"section_name": "In rivers and lakes",
"target_page_ids": [
1091451
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"anchor_spans": [
[
21,
32
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Motukakako Island (in Waikato River delta)",
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"target_page_ids": [
251600
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"anchor_spans": [
[
22,
35
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Motutaiko Island (in Lake Taupō)",
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
16
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[
21,
31
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Moutoa Island (in the Whanganui River)",
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"section_name": "In rivers and lakes",
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1262027
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
13
],
[
22,
37
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Mou Tapu (in Lake Wānaka)",
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"section_name": "In rivers and lakes",
"target_page_ids": [
431395
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"anchor_spans": [
[
13,
24
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Mou Waho (in Lake Wānaka)",
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"section_name": "In rivers and lakes",
"target_page_ids": [
38750514,
431395
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
8
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[
13,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Motutieke Island (in Waikato River delta)",
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"section_name": "In rivers and lakes",
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41814326,
251600
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
16
],
[
21,
34
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Namuheiriro Island (in Waikato River)",
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251600
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"anchor_spans": [
[
23,
36
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Ngāhinapōuri Island (in Waikato River delta)",
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"section_name": "In rivers and lakes",
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251600
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"anchor_spans": [
[
24,
37
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Opuawhanga Island (in Waikato River)",
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251600
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"anchor_spans": [
[
22,
35
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Pigeon Island/Wāwāhi Waka (in Lake Wakatipu)",
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35028778,
880562
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
25
],
[
30,
43
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Pig Island/Mātau (in Lake Wakatipu)",
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"section_name": "In rivers and lakes",
"target_page_ids": [
35527163,
880562
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
16
],
[
21,
34
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Pomona Island (in Lake Manapouri)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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559837
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
13
],
[
18,
32
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Puehunui Island (in Waikato River delta)",
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251600
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"anchor_spans": [
[
20,
33
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Rakaia Island (in the Rakaia River delta)",
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"target_page_ids": [
1147347
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"anchor_spans": [
[
22,
34
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Rangitata Island (in the Rangitata River delta)",
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1147386
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
16
],
[
25,
40
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Rona Island (in Lake Manapouri)",
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"target_page_ids": [
559837
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"anchor_spans": [
[
16,
30
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Ruby Island (in Lake Wānaka)",
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"section_name": "In rivers and lakes",
"target_page_ids": [
431395
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"anchor_spans": [
[
16,
27
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Silver Island (in Lake Hāwea)",
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"section_name": "In rivers and lakes",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
18,
28
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Stevensons Island/Te Peka Karara (in Lake Wānaka)",
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"section_name": "In rivers and lakes",
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35537480,
431395
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
32
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[
37,
48
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Tarahanga Island (in Waikato River)",
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251600
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[
21,
34
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Tawanui Island (in Waikato River delta)",
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251600
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[
19,
32
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Te Kopura Island (in Waikato River)",
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251600
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"anchor_spans": [
[
21,
34
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Te Toki Island (in Waikato River)",
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251600
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"anchor_spans": [
[
19,
32
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Te Weranga Okapu Island (in Waikato River delta)",
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251600
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"anchor_spans": [
[
28,
41
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Tree Island (in Lake Wakatipu)",
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880562
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"anchor_spans": [
[
16,
29
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Whatamakiri Island (in Waikato River delta)",
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251600
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23,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "New Zealand administers the following islands outside the main archipelago. Only the Chatham Islands have a permanent population although others also did in the past. Others host visitors for science, conservation, meteorological observation and tourism.",
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},
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176552
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[
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15
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},
{
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14
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11
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0,
21
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0,
14
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11
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4700411
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0,
16
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"plaintext": "Star Keys",
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0,
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"plaintext": "Kermadec Islands ",
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0,
16
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"plaintext": "Cheeseman Island",
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0,
16
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"plaintext": "Curtis Island",
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"plaintext": "L'Esperance Rock",
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"plaintext": "Macauley Island",
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"plaintext": "Raoul Island",
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0,
12
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"plaintext": "Solander Islands",
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0,
16
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"plaintext": "Solander Island",
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"plaintext": "Little Solander Island",
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{
"plaintext": "Pierced Rock",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Manawatāwhi / Three Kings Islands",
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0,
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"plaintext": "Manawatāwhi / Great Island",
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0,
26
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{
"plaintext": "Oromaki / North East Island",
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0,
27
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"plaintext": "Farmer Rocks",
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0,
12
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Moekawa / South West Island",
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375968
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0,
27
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{
"plaintext": "Princes Islands",
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0,
15
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Ōhau / West Island",
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0,
18
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},
{
"plaintext": "The New Zealand Subantarctic Islands are designated as a World Heritage Site.",
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4,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Antipodes Islands",
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},
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"plaintext": "Antipodes Island",
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16
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},
{
"plaintext": "Bollons Island",
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0,
14
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Auckland Islands",
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0,
16
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Adams Island",
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0,
12
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},
{
"plaintext": "Auckland Island",
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0,
15
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},
{
"plaintext": "Disappointment Island",
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0,
21
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},
{
"plaintext": "Enderby Island",
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0,
14
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},
{
"plaintext": "Ewing Island",
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0,
12
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},
{
"plaintext": "Rose Island",
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0,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Bounty Islands",
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0,
14
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},
{
"plaintext": "Campbell Island group",
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21
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"plaintext": "Campbell Island",
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15
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"plaintext": "Dent Island",
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11
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},
{
"plaintext": "Folly Island (or Folly Islands)",
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},
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"plaintext": "Jacquemart Island",
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17
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},
{
"plaintext": "The Snares",
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"plaintext": "Broughton Island",
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{
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},
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"plaintext": "The following islands are part of the Realm of New Zealand, but are not part of New Zealand proper:",
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},
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},
{
"plaintext": "Aitutaki",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Atiu",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Mangaia",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Manihiki",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Manuae",
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0,
6
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},
{
"plaintext": "Mauke",
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5
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},
{
"plaintext": "Mitiaro",
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7
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},
{
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},
{
"plaintext": "Palmerston Island",
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17
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},
{
"plaintext": "Penrhyn Island/Tongareva",
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0,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Pukapuka ",
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8
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},
{
"plaintext": "Rakahanga ",
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"plaintext": "Suwarrow",
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8
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7
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4
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7
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5
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7
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},
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"plaintext": "New Zealand also claims the Ross Dependency in Antarctica, including:",
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19
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12
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12
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},
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"plaintext": "Little Razorback",
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},
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},
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]
| [
"Islands_of_New_Zealand",
"Lists_of_islands_by_country",
"Lists_of_landforms_of_New_Zealand"
]
| 1,476,914 | 4,904 | 170 | 303 | 0 | 0 | list of islands of New Zealand | Wikimedia list article | []
|
38,366 | 1,077,303,945 | SDH | [
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"plaintext": "Oskar Schindler (; 28 April 1908 – 9 October 1974) was a German industrialist and a member of the Nazi Party who is credited with saving the lives of 1,200 Jews during the Holocaust by employing them in his enamelware and ammunitions factories in occupied Poland and the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. He is the subject of the 1982 novel Schindler's Ark and its 1993 film adaptation, Schindler's List, which reflected his life as an opportunist initially motivated by profit, who came to show extraordinary initiative, tenacity, courage, and dedication in saving the lives of his Jewish employees.",
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"plaintext": "Schindler grew up in Zwittau, Moravia, and worked in several trades until he joined the Abwehr, the military intelligence service of Nazi Germany, in 1936. He joined the Nazi Party in 1939. Prior to the beginning of German occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1938, he collected information on railways and troop movements for the German government. He was arrested for espionage by the Czechoslovak government but was released under the terms of the Munich Agreement that year. He continued to collect information for the Nazis, working in Poland in 1939 before the invasion of Poland at the start of World War II. In 1939, he acquired an enamelware factory in Kraków, Poland, which employed, at its peak in 1944, about 1,750 workers, of whom 1,000 were Jews. His Abwehr connections helped him protect his Jewish workers from deportation and death in the Nazi concentration camps. As time went on, he had to give Nazi officials ever larger bribes and gifts of luxury items obtainable only on the black market to keep his workers safe.",
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"plaintext": "By July 1944, Germany was losing the war; the SS began closing down the easternmost concentration camps and deporting the remaining prisoners westward. Many were murdered in Auschwitz and the Gross-Rosen concentration camp. Schindler convinced SS-Hauptsturmführer Amon Göth, commandant of the nearby Kraków-Płaszów concentration camp, to allow him to move his factory to Brněnec in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, thus sparing his workers from almost certain death in the gas chambers. Using names provided by Jewish Ghetto Police officer Marcel Goldberg, Göth's secretary Mietek Pemper compiled and typed the list of 1,200 Jews who travelled to Brünnlitz in October 1944. Schindler continued to bribe SS officials to prevent the execution of his workers until the end of World War II in Europe in May 1945, by which time he had spent his entire fortune on bribes and black market purchases of supplies for his workers.",
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"plaintext": "Schindler moved to West Germany after the war, where he was supported by assistance payments from Jewish relief organisations. After receiving a partial reimbursement for his wartime expenses, he moved with his wife Emilie to Argentina, where they took up farming. When he went bankrupt in 1958, Schindler left his wife and returned to Germany, where he failed at several business ventures and relied on financial support from Schindlerjuden (\"Schindler Jews\")—the people whose lives he had saved during the war. He died on 9 October 1974 in Hildesheim, Germany, and was buried in Jerusalem on Mount Zion, the only former member of the Nazi Party to be honoured in this way. He and his wife Emilie were named Righteous Among the Nations by the Israeli government in 1993.",
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"plaintext": "Schindler was born on 28 April 1908, into a Sudeten German family in Zwittau, Moravia, Austria-Hungary. His father was Johann \"Hans\" Schindler, the owner of a farm machinery business, and his mother was Franziska \"Fanny\" Schindler (née Luser). His sister, Elfriede, was born in 1915. After attending primary and secondary school, Schindler enrolled in a technical school, from which he was expelled in 1924 for forging his report card. He later graduated, but did not take the Abitur exams that would have enabled him to go to college or university. Instead, he took courses in Brno in several trades, including chauffeuring and machinery, and worked for his father for three years. A motorcycle fan since his youth, he bought a 250-cc Moto Guzzi racing motorcycle and competed recreationally in mountain races for the next few years.",
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"plaintext": "On 6 March 1928, Schindler married Emilie Pelzl (1907–2001), daughter of a prosperous Sudeten German farmer from Maletein. They moved in with Oskar's parents and occupied the upstairs rooms, where they lived for seven years.",
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"plaintext": "Soon after his marriage, Schindler quit working for his father and took a series of jobs, including a position at Moravian Electrotechnic and the management of a driving school. After an 18-month stint in the Czech army, where he rose to the rank of lance corporal in the Tenth Infantry Regiment of the 31st Army, he returned to Moravian Electrotechnic, which went bankrupt shortly afterwards. His father's farm machinery business closed around the same time, leaving Schindler unemployed for a year. He took a job with Jaroslav Šimek Bank of Prague in 1931, where he worked until 1938.",
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"plaintext": "Schindler was arrested several times in 1931 and 1932 for public drunkenness. Also around this time, he had an affair with Aurelie Schlegel, a school friend. They had a daughter, Emily, in 1933, and a son, Oskar Jr, in 1935. Schindler later claimed the boy was not his son. Schindler's father, an alcoholic, abandoned his wife in 1935. She died a few months later after a lengthy illness.",
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"plaintext": "Schindler joined the separatist Sudeten German Party in 1935. Although he was a citizen of Czechoslovakia, Schindler became a spy for the Abwehr, the military intelligence service of Nazi Germany, in 1936. He was assigned to Abwehrstelle II Commando VIII, based in Breslau. He later told Czech police that he did it because he needed the money; by this time Schindler had a drinking problem and was chronically in debt.",
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"plaintext": "His tasks for the Abwehr included collecting information on railways, military installations and troop movements, as well as recruiting other spies within Czechoslovakia in advance of the planned invasion by Nazi Germany. He was arrested by the Czech government for espionage on 18 July 1938 and immediately imprisoned, but was released as a political prisoner under the terms of the Munich Agreement, the instrument under which the Czech Sudetenland was annexed into Germany on 1 October. Schindler applied for membership in the Nazi Party on 1 November and was accepted the following year.",
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"plaintext": "After some time off to recover in Zwittau, Schindler was promoted to second in command of his Abwehr unit and relocated with his wife to Ostrava (Ostrau), on the Czech-Polish border, in January 1939. He was involved in espionage in the months leading up to Hitler's seizure of the remainder of Czechoslovakia in March. Emilie helped him with paperwork, processing and hiding secret documents in their apartment for the Abwehr office. As Schindler frequently travelled to Poland on business, he and his 25 agents were in a position to collect information about Polish military activities and railways for the planned invasion of Poland. One assignment called for his unit to monitor and provide information about the railway line and tunnel in the Jablunkov Pass, deemed critical for the movement of German troops. Schindler continued to work for the Abwehr until as late as fall 1940, when he was sent to Turkey to investigate corruption among the Abwehr officers assigned to the German embassy there.",
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"plaintext": "Schindler first arrived in Kraków (Krakau) in October 1939, on Abwehr business, and took an apartment the following month. Emilie maintained the apartment in Ostrava and visited Oskar in Kraków at least once a week. In November 1939, he contacted interior decorator Mila Pfefferberg to decorate his new apartment. Her son, Leopold \"Poldek\" Pfefferberg, soon became one of his contacts for black market trading. They eventually became lifelong friends.",
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"plaintext": "The same month, Schindler was introduced to Itzhak Stern, an accountant for Schindler's fellow Abwehr agent Josef \"Sepp\" Aue, who had taken over Stern's formerly Jewish-owned place of employment as a Treuhänder (trustee). Property belonging to Polish Jews, including their possessions, places of business, and homes were seized by the Germans beginning immediately after the invasion, and Jewish citizens were stripped of their civil rights. Schindler showed Stern the balance sheet of a company he was thinking of acquiring, an enamelware factory called Rekord Ltd owned by a consortium of Jewish businessmen that had filed for bankruptcy earlier that year. Stern advised him that rather than running the company as a trusteeship under the auspices of the Haupttreuhandstelle Ost (Main Trustee Office for the East), he should buy or lease the business, as that would give him more freedom from the dictates of the Nazis, including the freedom to hire more Jews.",
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"plaintext": "With the financial backing of several Jewish investors, including one of the owners, Abraham Bankier, Schindler signed an informal lease agreement on the factory on 13 November 1939 and formalised the arrangement on 15 January 1940. He renamed it Deutsche Emailwarenfabrik (German Enamelware Factory) or DEF, and it soon became known by the nickname \"Emalia\". He initially acquired a staff of seven Jewish workers (including Abraham Bankier, who helped him manage the company) and 250 non-Jewish Poles. At its peak in 1944, the business employed around 1,750 workers, a thousand of whom were Jews. Schindler also helped run Schlomo Wiener Ltd, a wholesale outfit that sold his enamelware, and was leaseholder of Prokosziner Glashütte, a glass factory.",
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"plaintext": "Schindler's ties with the Abwehr and his connections in the Wehrmacht and its Armaments Inspectorate enabled him to obtain contracts to produce enamel cookware for the military. These connections also later helped him protect his Jewish workers from deportation and death. As time went on, Schindler had to give Nazi officials ever larger bribes and gifts of luxury items obtainable only on the black market to keep his workers safe. Bankier, a key black market connection, obtained goods for bribes as well as extra materials for use in the factory. Schindler himself enjoyed a lavish lifestyle and pursued extramarital relationships with his secretary, Viktoria Klonowska, and Eva Kisch Scheuer, a merchant specialising in enamelware from DEF. Emilie Schindler visited for a few months in 1940 and moved to Kraków to live with Oskar in 1941.",
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"plaintext": "Initially, Schindler was mostly interested in the money-making potential of the business and hired Jews because they were cheaper than Poles—the wages were set by the occupying Nazi regime. Later he began shielding his workers without regard for cost. The status of his factory as a business essential to the war effort became a decisive factor in enabling him to protect his Jewish workers. Whenever Schindlerjuden (Schindler Jews) were threatened with deportation, he claimed exemptions for them. He claimed wives, children, and even people with disabilities were necessary mechanics and metalworkers. On one occasion, the Gestapo came to Schindler demanding that he hand over a family that possessed forged identity papers. \"Three hours after they walked in,\" Schindler said, \"two drunk Gestapo men reeled out of my office without their prisoners and without the incriminating documents they had demanded.\"",
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"plaintext": "On 1 August 1940, Governor-General Hans Frank issued a decree requiring all Kraków Jews to leave the city within two weeks. Only those who had jobs directly related to the German war effort would be allowed to stay. Of the 60,000 to 80,000 Jews then living in the city, only 15,000 remained by March 1941. These Jews were then forced to leave their traditional neighbourhood of Kazimierz and relocate to the walled Kraków Ghetto, established in the industrial Podgórze district. Schindler's workers travelled on foot to and from the ghetto each day to their jobs at the factory. Enlargements to the facility in the four years Schindler was in charge included the addition of an outpatient clinic, co-op, kitchen, and dining room for the workers, in addition to expansion of the factory and its related office space.",
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"plaintext": "In fall 1941, the Nazis began transporting Jews out of the ghetto. Most of them were sent to the Bełżec extermination camp and murdered. On 13 March 1943, the ghetto was liquidated and those still fit for work were sent to the new concentration camp at Płaszów. Several thousand not deemed fit for work were sent to extermination camps and murdered; hundreds more were murdered on the streets by the Nazis as they cleared out the ghetto. Schindler, aware of the plans because of his Wehrmacht contacts, had his workers stay at the factory overnight to protect them from harm. Schindler witnessed the liquidation of the ghetto and was appalled. From that point forward, says Schindlerjude Sol Urbach, Schindler \"changed his mind about the Nazis. He decided to get out and to save as many Jews as he could.\"",
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"plaintext": "The Płaszów concentration camp opened in March 1943 on the former site of two Jewish cemeteries on Jerozilimska Street, about from the DEF factory. In charge of the camp was SS-Hauptsturmführer Amon Göth, a sadist who shot inmates of the camp at random. Płaszów's inmates lived in constant fear for their lives. Emilie Schindler called Göth \"the most despicable man I have ever met.\"",
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"plaintext": "Initially Göth's plan was that all the factories, including Schindler's, should be moved inside the camp gates. However, Schindler, with a combination of diplomacy, flattery, and bribery, not only prevented his factory from being moved, but convinced Göth to allow him to build (at Schindler's own expense) a subcamp at Emalia to house his workers plus 450 Jews from other nearby factories. There they were safe from the threat of random execution, well fed and housed, and permitted to undertake religious observances.",
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"plaintext": "Schindler was arrested twice on suspicion of black market activities and once for breaking the Nuremberg Laws by kissing a Jewish girl, an action forbidden by the Race and Resettlement Act. The first arrest, in late 1941, led to him being kept overnight. His secretary arranged for his release through Schindler's influential contacts in the Nazi Party. His second arrest, on 29 April 1942, was the result of his kissing a Jewish girl on the cheek at his birthday party at the factory the previous day. He remained in jail five days before his influential Nazi contacts were able to obtain his release. In October 1944, he was arrested again, accused of black marketeering and bribing Göth and others to improve the conditions of the Jewish workers. He was held for most of a week and released. Göth had been arrested on 13 September 1944 for corruption and other abuses of power, and Schindler's arrest was part of the ongoing investigation into Göth's activities. Göth was never convicted on those charges.",
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"plaintext": "As the Red Army drew nearer in July 1944, the SS began closing down the easternmost concentration camps and evacuating the remaining prisoners westward to Auschwitz and Gross-Rosen concentration camp. Göth's personal secretary, Mietek Pemper, alerted Schindler to the Nazis' plans to close all factories not directly involved in the war effort, including Schindler's enamelware facility. Pemper suggested to Schindler that production should be switched from cookware to anti-tank grenades in an effort to save the lives of the Jewish workers. Using bribery and his powers of persuasion, Schindler convinced Göth and the officials in Berlin to allow him to move his factory and his workers to Brünnlitz (Czech: Brněnec), in the Sudetenland, thus sparing them from certain death in the gas chambers. Using names provided by Jewish Ghetto Police officer Marcel Goldberg, Pemper compiled and typed the list of 1,200 Jews—1,000 of Schindler's workers and 200 inmates from Julius Madritsch's textiles factory—who were sent to Brünnlitz in October 1944.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to workers, Schindler moved 250 wagon loads of machinery and raw materials to the new factory. Few if any useful artillery shells were produced at the plant. When officials from the Armaments Ministry questioned the factory's low output, Schindler bought finished goods on the black market and resold them as his own. The rations provided by the SS were insufficient to meet the needs of the workers, so Schindler spent most of his time in Kraków, obtaining food, armaments, and other materials. His wife Emilie remained in Brünnlitz, surreptitiously obtaining additional rations and caring for the workers' health and other basic needs. Schindler also arranged for the transfer of as many as 3,000 Jewish women out of Auschwitz to small textiles plants in the Sudetenland in an effort to increase their chances of surviving the war.",
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"plaintext": "In January 1945 a trainload of 250 Jews who had been rejected as workers at a German mine in Goleschau in occupied Poland arrived at Brünnlitz. The boxcars were frozen shut when they arrived, and Emilie Schindler waited while an engineer from the factory opened the cars using a soldering iron. Twelve people were dead in the cars, and the remainder were too ill and feeble to work. Emilie took the survivors into the factory and cared for them in a makeshift hospital until the end of the war. Schindler continued to bribe SS officials to prevent the slaughter of his workers as the Red Army approached. On 7 May 1945 he and his workers gathered on the factory floor to listen to British prime minister Winston Churchill announce over the radio that Germany had surrendered and that the war in Europe was over.",
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"plaintext": "As a member of the Nazi Party and the Abwehr intelligence service, Schindler was in danger of being arrested as a war criminal. Bankier, Stern, and several others prepared a statement he could present to the Americans attesting to his role in saving Jewish lives. He was also given a ring, made using gold from dental work taken out of the mouth of Schindlerjude Simon Jeret. The ring was inscribed \"Whoever saves one life saves the world entire.\" To escape being captured by the Soviets, Schindler and his wife departed westward in their vehicle, a two-seater Horch, initially with several fleeing German soldiers riding on the running boards. A truck containing Schindler's mistress Marta, several Jewish workers, and a load of black market trade goods followed behind. The Horch was confiscated by Soviet troops at the town of Budweis, which had already been captured by Soviet troops. The Schindlers were unable to recover a diamond that Oskar had hidden under the seat. They continued by train and on foot until they reached the American lines at the town of Lenora, and then travelled to Passau, where an American Jewish officer arranged for them to travel to Switzerland by train. They moved to Bavaria in Germany in the fall of 1945.",
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"plaintext": "By the end of the war, Schindler had spent his entire fortune on bribes and black market purchases of supplies for his workers. Virtually destitute, he moved briefly to Regensburg and later Munich, but did not prosper in postwar Germany. He was reduced to receiving assistance from Jewish organisations. In 1948 he presented a claim for reimbursement of his wartime expenses to the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, and received $15,000. He estimated his expenditures at over $1,056,000, including the costs of camp construction, bribes, and expenditures for black market goods, including food. ",
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"plaintext": "Schindler emigrated to Argentina in 1949, where he tried raising chickens and then nutria (coypu), a small animal raised for its fur. When the business went bankrupt in 1958, he left his wife and returned to Germany, where he had a series of unsuccessful business ventures, including a cement factory. He declared bankruptcy in 1963 and suffered a heart attack the next year, which led to a month-long stay in hospital. Remaining in contact with many of the Jews he had met during the war, including Stern and Pfefferberg, Schindler survived on donations sent by Schindlerjuden from all over the world. ",
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"plaintext": "Writer Herbert Steinhouse, who interviewed Schindler in 1948, wrote: \"Schindler's exceptional deeds stemmed from just that elementary sense of decency and humanity that our sophisticated age seldom sincerely believes in. A repentant opportunist saw the light and rebelled against the sadism and vile criminality all around him.\" In a 1983 television documentary, Schindler said: \"I felt that the Jews were being destroyed. I had to help them; there was no choice.\"",
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"plaintext": "In 1951, Poldek Pfefferberg approached director Fritz Lang and asked him to consider making a film about Schindler. Also on Pfefferberg's initiative, in 1964 Schindler received a $20,000 () advance from MGM for a proposed film treatment titled To the Last Hour. Neither film was made, and Schindler quickly spent the money he received from MGM. He was also approached in the 1960s by MCA of Germany and Walt Disney Productions in Vienna, but again nothing came of these projects.",
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"plaintext": "In 1980, Australian author Thomas Keneally by chance visited Pfefferberg's luggage store in Beverly Hills while en route home from a film festival in Europe, and Pfefferberg told him the story of Oskar Schindler. He gave Keneally copies of some materials he had on file, and Keneally soon decided to make a fictionalised treatment of the story. After extensive research and interviews with surviving Schindlerjuden, he wrote his historical novel Schindler's Ark (published in the United States as Schindler's List) which was released in 1982.",
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"plaintext": "Other film treatments include a 1983 British television documentary produced by Jon Blair for Thames Television, entitled Schindler: His Story as Told by the Actual People He Saved (released in the US in 1994 as Schindler: The Real Story), and a 1998 A&E Biography special, Oskar Schindler: The Man Behind the List.",
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"plaintext": "Snakes and ladders originated as part of a family of Indian dice board games that included gyan chauper and pachisi (known in English as Ludo and Parcheesi). It made its way to England and was sold as \"Snakes and Ladders\", then the basic concept was introduced in the United States as Chutes and Ladders.",
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"plaintext": "Gyan chauper/jnan chauper (game of wisdom), the version associated with the Jain philosophy, encompassed the concepts like karma and Moksha.",
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"plaintext": "The game was popular in ancient India by the name Moksha Patam. It was also associated with traditional Hindu philosophy contrasting karma and kama, or destiny and desire. It emphasized destiny, as opposed to games such as pachisi, which focused on life as a mixture of skill (free will) and luck. The underlying ideals of the game inspired a version introduced in Victorian England in 1892. The game has also been interpreted and used as a tool for teaching the effects of good deeds versus bad. The board was covered with symbolic images, the top featuring gods, angels, and majestic beings, while the rest of the board was covered with pictures of animals, flowers and people. The ladders represented virtues such as generosity, faith, and humility, while the snakes represented vices such as lust, anger, murder, and theft. The morality lesson of the game was that a person can attain salvation (Moksha) through doing good, whereas by doing evil one will be reborn as lower forms of life. The number of ladders was less than the number of snakes as a reminder that a path of good is much more difficult to tread than a path of sins. Presumably, reaching the last square (number 100) represented the attainment of Moksha (spiritual liberation).",
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"plaintext": "A version popular in the Muslim world is known as shatranj al-'urafa and exists in various versions in India, Iran, and Turkey. In this version, based on sufi philosophy, the game represents the dervish's quest to leave behind the trappings of worldly life and achieve union with God.",
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"plaintext": "When the game was brought to England, the Indian virtues and vices were replaced by English ones in hopes of better reflecting Victorian doctrines of morality. Squares of Fulfilment, Grace and Success were accessible by ladders of Thrift, Penitence and Industry and snakes of Indulgence, Disobedience and Indolence caused one to end up in Illness, Disgrace and Poverty. While the Indian version of the game had snakes outnumbering ladders, the English counterpart was more forgiving as it contained equal numbers of each. ",
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"plaintext": "The association of Britain's snakes and ladders with India and gyan chauper began with the returning of colonial families from India during the British Raj. The décor and art of the early English boards of the 20th century reflect this relationship. By the 1940s very few pictorial references to Indian culture remained, due to the economic demands of the war and the collapse of British rule in India. Although the game's sense of morality has lasted through the game's generations, the physical allusions to religious and philosophical thought in the game as presented in Indian models appear to have all but faded. There has even been evidence of a possible Buddhist version of the game existing in India during the Pala-Sena time period.",
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"plaintext": "In Andhra Pradesh, this game is popularly called Vaikunthapali or Paramapada Sopana Patam (the ladder to salvation) in Telugu. In Hindi, this game is called Saanp aur Seedhi, Saanp Seedhi and Mokshapat. In Tamil Nadu the game is called Parama padam and is often played by devotees of Hindu god Vishnu during the Vaikuntha Ekadashi festival in order to stay awake during the night. In Bengali-speaking regions, West Bengal in India and Bangladesh, it is known as Shap Shiri or Shapludu respectively.",
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"plaintext": "In the original game the squares of virtue are: Faith (12), Reliability (51), Generosity (57), Knowledge (76), and Asceticism (78). The squares of vice or evil are: Disobedience (41), Vanity (44), Vulgarity (49), Theft (52), Lying (58), Drunkenness (62), Debt (69), Murder (73), Rage (84), Greed (92), Pride (95), and Lust (99).",
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"plaintext": "Each player starts with a token on the starting square (usually the \"1\" grid square in the bottom left corner, or simply, at the edge of the board next to the \"1\" grid square). Players take turns rolling a single die to move their token by the number of squares indicated by the die rolled. Tokens follow a fixed route marked on the gameboard which usually follows a boustrophedon (ox-plow) track from the bottom to the top of the playing area, passing once through every square. If, on completion of a move, a player's token lands on the lower-numbered end of a \"ladder\", the player moves the token up to the ladder's higher-numbered square. If the player lands on the higher-numbered square of a \"snake\" (or chute), the token must be moved down to the snake's lower-numbered square.",
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"plaintext": "If a 6 is rolled, the player, after moving, immediately rolls again for another turn; otherwise play passes to the next player in turn. The player who is first to bring their token to the last square of the track is the winner.",
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"plaintext": "Variants exists where a player must roll the exact number to reach the final square. Depending on the variation, if the die roll is too large, the token either remains in place or goes off the final square and back again. (For example, if a player requiring a 3 to win rolls a 5, the token moves forward three spaces, then back two spaces.) In certain circumstances (such as a player rolling a 5 when a 1 is required to win), a player can end up further away from the final square after their move, than before it.",
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"plaintext": "In the book Winning Ways, the authors propose a variant which they call Adders-and-Ladders which, unlike the original game, involves skill. Instead of tokens for each player, there is a store of indistinguishable tokens shared by all players. The illustration has five tokens (and a five by five board). There is no die to roll; instead, the player chooses any token and moves it one to four spaces. Whoever moves the last token to the Home space (i.e. the last number) wins.",
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"plaintext": "The most widely known edition of snakes and ladders in the United States is Chutes and Ladders, released by Milton Bradley in 1943. The playground setting replaced the snakes, which were disliked by children at the time. It is played on a 10x10 board, and players advance their pieces according to a spinner rather than a die. The theme of the board design is playground equipment, showing children climbing ladders and descending chutes.",
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"plaintext": "The artwork on the board teaches morality lessons: squares on the bottom of the ladders show a child doing a good or sensible deed, at the top of the ladder there is an image of the child enjoying the reward; squares at the top of the chutes show children engaging in mischievous or foolish behavior, on the bottom of the chute the image shows the children suffering the consequences.",
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"plaintext": "Black children were depicted in the Milton Bradley game for the first time in 1974. There have been many pop culture versions of the game, with graphics featuring such children's television characters as Dora the Explorer and Sesame Street. It has been marketed as \"The Classic Up and Down Game for Preschoolers\". In 1999, Hasbro released Chutes and Ladders for PCs.",
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"plaintext": "In Canada the game has been traditionally sold as \"Snakes and Ladders\" and produced by the Canada Games Company. Several Canada-specific versions have been produced over the years, including a version with toboggan runs instead of snakes.",
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"plaintext": "An early British version of the game depicts the path of a young boy and girl making their way through a cartoon railroad and train system.",
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"plaintext": "During the early 1990s in South Africa, Chutes and Ladders games made from cardboard were distributed on the back of egg boxes as part of a promotion.",
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"plaintext": "Even though the concept of major virtues against vices and related Eastern spiritualism is not much emphasized in modern incarnations of the game, the central mechanism of snakes and ladders makes it an effective tool for teaching young children about various subjects. In two separate Indonesian schools, the implementation of the game as media in English lessons of fifth graders not only improved the students' vocabulary but also stimulated their interest and excitement about the learning process. Researchers from Carnegie Mellon University found that pre-schoolers from low income backgrounds who played an hour of numerical board games like snakes and ladders matched the performance of their middle-class counterparts by showing improvements in counting and recognizing number shapes. An eco-inspired version of the game was also used to teach students and teachers about climate change and environmental sustainability.",
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"plaintext": "Meyer et al. (2020) explored on the basis of Chutes and Ladders with a free and adaptive game project. This refers on the one hand to systemic game pedagogy. The players and the educators develop the game from ground up and set the rules. The second element of the Monza project is mathematization. Over several years, teachers and learners abstract the game experiences into the language of mathematics.",
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"plaintext": "Any version of snakes and ladders can be represented exactly as an absorbing Markov chain, since from any square the odds of moving to any other square are fixed and independent of any previous game history. The Milton Bradley version of Chutes and Ladders has 100 squares, with 19 chutes and ladders. A player will need an average of 39.2 spins to move from the starting point, which is off the board, to square 100. A two-player game is expected to end in 47.76 moves with a 50.9% chance of winning for the first player. These calculations are based on a variant where throwing a six does not lead to an additional roll; and where the player must roll the exact number to reach square 100 and if they overshoot it their counter does not move.",
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"plaintext": "The phrase \"back to square one\" originated in the game of snakes and ladders, or at least was influenced by it – the earliest attestation of the phrase refers to the game: \"Withal he has the problem of maintaining the interest of the reader who is always being sent back to square one in a sort of intellectual game of snakes and ladders.\"<ref>\"Back to square one\", The Phrase Finder, Gary Martin.</ref>",
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"plaintext": "The game is a central metaphor of Salman Rushdie's Midnight's Children. The narrator describes the game as follows:",
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"plaintext": "All games have morals; and the game of Snakes and Ladders captures, as no other activity can hope to do, the eternal truth that for every ladder you hope to climb, a snake is waiting just around the corner, and for every snake a ladder will compensate. But it's more than that; no mere carrot-and-stick affair; because implicit in the game is unchanging twoness of things, the duality of up against down, good against evil; the solid rationality of ladders balances the occult sinuosities of the serpent; in the opposition of staircase and cobra we can see, metaphorically, all conceivable oppositions, Alpha against Omega, father against mother.",
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"plaintext": "Snakes & Lattes is a board game cafe chain headquartered in Toronto, Canada, named after snakes and ladders.",
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"plaintext": "In the Abby Hatcher episode \"Game Time with Mo and Bo\", Mo and Bo play a snakes and ladders video game on a computer tablet in a hotel. While playing they walk around, unknowingly causing trouble in the hotel. Through Abby's instructions, they use their bodies to simulate snakes and ladders to help those they affected.",
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"plaintext": "Snakes and Ladders is a 1980 album by Scottish singer-songwriter Gerry Rafferty.",
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"plaintext": " A 2001 Egyptian film, Elsellem wel te'ban, called after the game, about relationship mishaps of a flirtatious divorced young man falling in love.",
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"plaintext": " Shimkhada, Deepak (1983), \"A Preliminary Study of the Game of Karma in India, Nepal, and Tibet\" in Artibus Asiae 44:4, pp.308–322.",
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"plaintext": " Topsfield, Andrew (1985), \"The Indian Game of Snakes and Ladders\" in Artibus Asiae 46:3, pp.203–226.",
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"plaintext": " Topsfield, Andrew (2006), \"Snakes and Ladders in India: Some Further Discoveries\" in Artibus Asiae'' 66:1, pp.143–179.",
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|
38,373 | 1,107,871,927 | Risk_(game) | [
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"plaintext": "Risk is a strategy board game of diplomacy, conflict and conquest for two to six players. The standard version is played on a board depicting a political map of the world, divided into forty-two territories, which are grouped into six continents. Turns rotate among players who control armies of playing pieces with which they attempt to capture territories from other players, with results determined by dice rolls. Players may form and dissolve alliances during the course of the game. The goal of the game is to occupy every territory on the board and, in doing so, eliminate the other players. The game can be lengthy, requiring several hours to multiple days to finish. European versions are structured so that each player has a limited \"secret mission\" objective that shortens the game.",
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"plaintext": "Risk was invented in 1957 by Albert Lamorisse, a French filmmaker, and it became one of the most popular board games in history, inspiring other popular games such as Axis & Allies and Settlers of Catan. The simple rules but complex interactions make it appealing to adults as well as children and families. It is still in production by Hasbro with numerous editions and variants with popular media themes and different rules including PC software versions, video games, and mobile apps.",
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"plaintext": "Risk was invented by French film director Albert Lamorisse and originally released in 1957 as La Conquête du Monde (The Conquest of the World) in France. It was bought by Parker Brothers and released in 1959 with some modifications to the rules as Risk: The Continental Game, then as Risk: The Game of Global Domination.",
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"plaintext": "The first new version of Risk was released in 1986. Called Castle Risk, it featured a map depicting 18th century European castles instead of a map of the world, and it was a financial disappointment. In 1993, the rules for Secret Mission Risk, which had been the standard in Europe, were added to the United States edition. After a limited special-edition release in 1999, in France, called Risk: Édition Napoléon in commemoration of 200th anniversary of the Napoleonic era (1799-1815), a new edition called Risk: 2210 A.D. was published in 2001 by Hasbro's Avalon Hill division. The game was futuristic-themed, featuring moon territories, ocean territories and commander units and offered a number of expansions. Starting in 2002, Risk versions themed around media franchises such as Lord of the Rings, Star Wars, and Transformers were released, sometimes with as many as six editions per year. A collector's edition of classic Risk in a bookshelf-format wooden box was issued in 2005 as part of the Parker Brothers Vintage Game series, distributed through Target Stores. In 2008, Winning Moves, a Hasbro licensee, introduced 1959 Risk, a reproduction of the original Parker Brothers version with original artwork, wooden playing pieces and rules. Many themed versions are currently being published, and new themes continue to be introduced.",
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"plaintext": "In the first editions, the playing pieces were wooden cubes (one set each of black, blue, green, pink, red and yellow) representing one troop each and a few rounded triangular prisms representing ten troops each, but in later versions of the game these pieces were molded of plastic to reduce costs. In the 1980s, these were changed to pieces shaped into the Roman numerals I, III, V, and X. The 1993 edition introduced plastic infantry tokens (representing a single unit), cavalry (representing five units), and artillery (representing ten units). The 40th Anniversary Collector's Edition contained the same troop pieces but made of metal rather than plastic. In the 2005 \"bookcase\" edition, playing pieces are once again wooden cubes.",
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"plaintext": "Equipment includes a large tabletop board depicting a political map of the world, divided into forty-two territories, which are grouped into six continents by color. In addition to shared boundaries between territories which define routes of attack/defense, numerous special trans-oceanic or trans-sea routes are also marked; for example, the route between North Africa and Brazil. The oceans and seas are not part of the playing field.",
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"plaintext": "Each Risk game comes with a number of sets (either 5 or 6) of different colored tokens denoting troops. A few different or larger tokens represent multiple (usually 5 or 10) troops. These token types are purely a convention for ease of representing a specific army size. If a player runs out of army pieces during the game, pieces of another color or other symbolic tokens (coins, pieces from other games, etc.) may be substituted to help keep track of armies.",
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"plaintext": "Also included is a deck of Risk cards, comprising forty-two territory cards, two wild cards, and twelve or twenty-eight mission cards. The territory cards correspond to the 42 territories on the playing board. Each of the territory cards also depicts a symbol of an infantry, cavalry, or artillery piece. One of these cards is awarded to a player at the end of each turn if the player has successfully conquered at least one territory during that turn. No more than one card may be awarded per turn. If a player collects either three cards with the same symbol, or one of each, or two different and a wild card, they may be traded in for reinforcements at the beginning of a player's turn. These cards can also be used for game set-up. The two wild cards depict infantry, cavalry and artillery pieces. Because these cards have all three symbols, they can match with any two other cards to form a set. The mission cards each specifying some secret mission (something less than 'conquer the world') are used in the Secret Mission Risk rule variant.",
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"plaintext": "Standard equipment also includes five or six dice in two colors: three red dice for the attacker, and two or three white or blue dice for the defender. There is also a Golden Cavalry piece used to mark the progressive turn-in value of matched sets of territory cards.",
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"plaintext": "The following is a typical layout of the Risk game board, with a table of the corresponding continent and territory names. Each territory on the typical Risk game board represents a real-life geographical or political region. As such, the territory borders are drawn to resemble the geography of those regions. This provides an interior space on which to place the army units, adds an element of realism to the game, and also adds complexity. Most of the territories represent a combination of countries or states; some that have names of single countries or states, such as Argentina, do not represent the boundaries of the real-life entity. Antarctica, the Caribbean, New Zealand, and the Philippines are not represented.",
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"plaintext": "The numbers in parentheses represent the number of additional armies granted during the reinforcement stage of a player's turn who controls all of the territories in that continent. Some versions of the board use alternative names for some territories. These names are in parentheses. Not all variations occur concurrently.",
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"plaintext": " North America (5)",
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"plaintext": " Kamchatka",
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"plaintext": " Mongolia",
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"plaintext": " Ural",
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"plaintext": " Yakutsk",
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"plaintext": " Indonesia",
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"plaintext": " New Guinea",
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{
"plaintext": "Notes",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Setup consists of determining order of play, issuing armies to players, and allocating the territories on the",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Gameplay",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
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"plaintext": "board among players, who place one or more armies on each one they own.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Gameplay",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "At the beginning of a player's turn, they receive reinforcement armies proportional to the number of territories",
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},
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"plaintext": "held, bonus armies for holding whole continents, and additional armies for turning in matched sets of territory",
"section_idx": 3,
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},
{
"plaintext": "cards obtained by conquering ",
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"plaintext": "new territories. The player may then attack, move their armies, or pass.",
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"plaintext": "On a player's turn, after they have placed their reinforcements, they may choose to attack territories adjacent to theirs which are occupied by enemy armies. A territory is adjacent if it is connected visibly by land, or by a \"sea-lane\". Attacks are decided by dice rolls, with the attacker or defender losing a specified number of",
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"plaintext": "armies per roll. When attacking, a battle may continue until the attacker decides to stop attacking, the attacker has no more armies with which to attack, or the defender has lost their last army at the defending territory, at which point the attacker takes over the territory by moving armies onto it and draws a territory card for that turn.",
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"plaintext": "At the end of a player's turn, they may move armies from one of their territories to another \"connected\" territory.",
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"plaintext": "A player is eliminated from the game when they have lost their last territory. The player that defeated them receive the defeated player's territory cards, if any. The victor is the last player remaining when all other players have been eliminated.",
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"plaintext": "There are special rules for two-player games: the territories are divided between the two players and a neutral army",
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"plaintext": "during setup. In play, the neutral army only plays defense when attacked, never attacks or moves armies, and ",
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"plaintext": "doesn't have a turn like an active player. If the neutral army is eliminated, the game continues under normal",
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"anchor_spans": []
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{
"plaintext": "rules.",
"section_idx": 3,
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"plaintext": "Some editions have rules variants regarding how armies or territories are allocated during setup or how armies",
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"section_name": "Gameplay",
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},
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"plaintext": "may be moved at the end of a turn. There are also variations in the tokens representing armies that don't ",
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"section_name": "Gameplay",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
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"plaintext": "affect play. European editions assign each player a secret mission, and the game goes until one player ",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Gameplay",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
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"plaintext": "completes their mission rather than conquers the world. Different editions have differing numbers of such ",
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"section_name": "Gameplay",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": "missions. The Italian edition uses a different number of dice in battle. Themed variants have different map ",
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},
{
"plaintext": "configurations and substantially different rules.",
"section_idx": 3,
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"plaintext": "The rules of some editions describe a variant called Capital Risk, where each player has a capital in one of the initially occupied territories. The player to capture all capitals wins. Any armies and territories that belong to the losing nation are turned over to the victor. Capital Risk often leads to much shorter games. Other rules variants for \"Risk experts\" are also listed.",
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"plaintext": "Gaming clubs may also have \"house rules\" or competition-adjusted rules.",
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{
"plaintext": "The official rulebook recommends three basic strategy points for play under the standard rules:",
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{
"plaintext": " Players should control entire continents to get the bonus reinforcement armies.",
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"section_name": "Strategy",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Players should watch their borders for buildups of armies that could imply an upcoming attack.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Strategy",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Players should build up armies on their own borders for better defense.",
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"section_name": "Strategy",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Holding continents is the most common way to increase reinforcements. Players often attempt to gain control of Australia early in the game, since Australia is the only continent that can be successfully defended by heavily fortifying one country (either Siam or Indonesia). Generally, continents with fewer access routes are easier to defend as they possess fewer territories that can be attacked by other players. South America has 2 access points, North America and Africa each have 3, Europe has 4, and Asia has 5.",
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[
488,
494
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[
506,
510
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"plaintext": "Generally, it is thought advisable to hold Risk cards until they can be turned in for maximum reinforcements. This is especially true earlier on in gameplay, because extra armies make a greater difference in the beginning of the game. Eliminating a weak player who holds a large number of Risk cards is also a good strategy, since players who eliminate their opponents get possession of their opponents' Risk cards. In this case, trading in Risk cards earlier may help acquire the necessary troops. If the conquering player has six or more Risk cards after taking the cards of another player, the cards must be immediately turned in for reinforcements until the player has fewer than five cards and then may continue attacking.",
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"plaintext": "\"Turtling\" is a defensive strategy where a player who feels vulnerable tries to become too expensive to be removed while remaining a threat to harass other players. The objective of this strategy is to avoid early defeat. A player using this strategy might remain in the game all the way to later stages and then mount an attack on the weakest player and start a chain elimination to remove one player after another to win the game. The player who uses this strategy is called a \"turtle\". The term was popularised in real-time strategy games where a player creates a defensive perimeter or a turtle shell around the base of operations. Solutions to counteract this strategy using cooperation have been proposed.",
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480,
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"plaintext": "The rules of Risk neither endorse nor prohibit alliances or truces. Thus players often form unofficial treaties for various reasons, such as safeguarding themselves from attacks on one border while they concentrate their forces elsewhere, or eliminating a player who has grown too strong. Because these agreements are not enforceable by the rules, these agreements are often broken. Alliance making/breaking can be one of the most important elements of the game, and it adds human interaction to a decidedly probabilistic game. Some players allow trading of Risk cards, but only during their turn. This optional rule can make alliances more powerful.",
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47,
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60,
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112
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"plaintext": "Capturing a territory depends on the number of attacking and defending armies and the associated probabilities. In a battle to completion, a player who has more armies (even just one more) has a significant advantage, whether on attack or defense (the number of attacking armies does not include the minimum one army that must be left behind in the territory).",
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"plaintext": "Defenders always win ties when dice are rolled. This gives the defending player the advantage in \"one-on-one\" fights, but the attacker's ability to use more dice offsets this advantage. It is always advantageous to roll the maximum number of dice, unless an attacker wishes to avoid moving men into a 'dead-end' territory, in which case they may choose to roll fewer than three. Thus when rolling three dice against two, three against one, or two against one, the attacker has a slight advantage, otherwise the defender has an advantage.",
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"plaintext": "There are online tools available to compute the outcome of whole campaigns (i.e. the attacking of several territories in a row).",
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"plaintext": "RisiKo! is a variant of the game released in Italy, in which the defender is allowed to roll up to three dice to defend. This variation dramatically shifts the balance of power towards defense. ",
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{
"plaintext": "Risk was inducted into Games magazine's Hall of Fame in 1984.",
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"plaintext": "Risk was inducted into Academy of Adventure Gaming Arts and Design Hall of Fame in 1995.",
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"plaintext": "Risk was inducted into the National Toy Hall of Fame in 2021.",
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{
"plaintext": "In addition to the original version of 1959, and a 40th Anniversary Edition with metal pieces, a number of official variants of Risk have been released over the years. In recent years, Hasbro has predominantly based its Risk variants on popular films. In chronological order, the variations of Risk that have been released are:",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Official licensed Risk games",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Castle Risk (1986) – A version focusing only on Europe in which each player has a castle, and the player's goal is to protect the castle from attack. Castle Risk was the first version of Risk released after 27 years of production to depart from standard play. Although it was unsuccessful, it introduced many concepts integrated into later versions of Risk.",
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"section_name": "Official licensed Risk games",
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1,
12
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{
"plaintext": " Risk: 40th Anniversary Collector's Edition (1999)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Official licensed Risk games",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Édition Napoléon (1999) – Adds generals, fortresses, and naval units.",
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"section_name": "Official licensed Risk games",
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18
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},
{
"plaintext": " Extension Empire Ottoman (2000) – Adds a sixth player to Risk: Édition Napoléon.",
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"plaintext": " 2210 A.D. (2001) – An award-winning futuristic version, produced by Avalon Hill, another division of Hasbro. The game features moon territories, ocean territories and commander units and offers a number of official and unofficial expansions.",
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"plaintext": " the Lord of the Rings (2002) – 2–4 player version based on northern Middle-earth.",
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"plaintext": " Gondor & Mordor Expansion Set (2003) – Extension to Risk: the Lord of the Rings, also includes a 2-player Siege of Minas Tirith mini-game.",
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"plaintext": " Trilogy Edition (2003) – Combines the first two Lord of the Rings versions, but does not include the Siege of Minas Tirith mini-game.",
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"plaintext": " Risk Godstorm (2004) – A version based on the mythological pantheons of various ancient civilizations; produced by Avalon Hill.",
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"plaintext": " Clone Wars Edition (2005) – Set in the Star Wars universe during the Clone Wars. The player can fight on the side of the Separatists or the Republic, using either the classic Risk rules or the Clone Wars variations where altruism pays off.",
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"plaintext": " Risk Express (2006) – Designed by Reiner Knizia as part of Hasbro's Express line of games (although not as part of the US-released series). Roll different combinations of infantry, cavalry, artillery & generals to capture the territory cards.",
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"plaintext": " Star Wars Original Trilogy Edition (2006) – Set during the Galactic Civil War, players play as the Galactic Empire, the Rebel Alliance, or the Hutts. This version is unique in that each of the factions has a different set of goals and victory conditions.",
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"plaintext": " Narnia (2006) – Based on The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, players can play as either the forces of Aslan or as the forces of the White Witch.",
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"plaintext": " The Transformers Edition (2007) – Based on the Transformers film, players can either play on the side of the Autobots or the Decepticons on a Cybertron stylised map.",
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"plaintext": " Risk: Black OPS (2008) – Limited edition released in early 2008. Print run was limited to a 1000 copies. Most of the copies were given to people in the board game industry to test out new rules for up coming editions.",
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"plaintext": " Risk: Balance of Power (2008) – Based on a European map.",
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{
"plaintext": " Risk 1959 (2008) – Winning Moves Games USA released a reproduction of the original game of Risk from 1959. It includes all the original graphics, wood pieces, and individual plastic storage boxes.",
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"plaintext": " Risk: Reinvention (2009) – Also called Risk Factor or Risk Revised Edition. This is the commercial released version of Black Ops. It features capitals, cities, missions, and very thin pieces shaped like arrows. It is also available with different components (wooden map, wooden cube pieces, etc.) as Risk Onyx Edition.",
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"plaintext": " Risk: Halo Wars Collector's Edition (2009) – Includes UNSC, Covenant, and The Flood. It has 42 territories and 6 sectors. ",
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"plaintext": " Factions (2010) – a licensed video game version of the game developed by Electronic Arts, and distributed on Xbox Live Arcade and PlayStation Network. Includes a \"classic\" mode which allows games played using standard original rules, and a \"Factions\" variation on the rules.",
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"plaintext": " Risk: Metal Gear Solid (2011) ",
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"plaintext": " Risk: Legacy (2011/12) – The game that introduced the legacy game mechanic, in which permanent changes to the game board and cards occur with each finished game.",
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"plaintext": " Risk: Halo Legendary (2012)",
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"plaintext": " Risk: Starcraft (2012) – Four play modes with three different races. Each race has two unique hero units.",
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"plaintext": " Risk: Star Wars Saga Edition (2013) UK Exclusive",
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{
"plaintext": " Risk: Mass Effect Galaxy at War Edition (2013) ",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Risk: The Walking Dead Survival Edition (2013)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Risk: Battlefield Rogue (2013)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Risk: Plants Vs Zombies (2013)",
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{
"plaintext": " Risk: Doctor Who (2013)",
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"plaintext": " Risk: Game of Thrones (2015)",
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"plaintext": " Risk: Star Wars Edition Game Standard (2015) – Recreates the Battle of Endor from Return of the Jedi. Battles take place across three environments: inside the Emperor's Throne Room; the space outside the Death Star; and the forest moon of Endor,",
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"plaintext": " Risk: Star Wars Edition Game Black Series (2015) – Same as Risk: Star Wars Edition Game Standard but includes different packaging, embossed playing cards, translucent dice, and miniatures for the Death Star, Super Star Destroyer, Millennium Falcon, and Imperial stormtroopers.",
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"plaintext": " Risk: Marvel Cinematic Universe (2015)",
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{
"plaintext": " Risk: Transformers Decepticon Invasion of Earth (2015) UK Exclusive",
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"plaintext": " Risk: Captain America Civil War (2016)",
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{
"plaintext": " Risk: Star Trek 50th Anniversary Edition (2016)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Risk (2016)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Risk: Rustic Edition (2016)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Risk: Europe (2016)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Risk: Rick and Morty (2018)",
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{
"plaintext": " Risk: Vikings Edition (2018)",
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{
"plaintext": " Risk: Call Of Duty: Black Ops Zombies Edition (2019) GameStop Exclusive",
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{
"plaintext": " Risk: Assassin's Creed (2019) ",
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{
"plaintext": " Risk: The Elder Scrolls (2019) ",
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{
"plaintext": " Risk: Office Politics (2019) ",
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{
"plaintext": " Risk: Junior (2019) ",
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"plaintext": " Risk: The Battle for Medieval England (2019) ",
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{
"plaintext": " Risk: Warhammer 40,000 (2020)",
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{
"plaintext": " Risk: Risk Game with Dragon; for Use with Amazon Alexa; with Special Dragon Token; Amazon Exclusive (2020)",
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{
"plaintext": " Risk: Asterix – Collector's Edition (2020)",
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{
"plaintext": "Risk Shadow Forces; sequel to Risk: Legacy (2022) ",
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"plaintext": "Many of the official versions of Risk listed above have their own rules which may differ slightly or even significantly from the original game of Risk.",
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"plaintext": " Risk Legacy. There are five factions, each with different pieces and rules. This game is the actual originator of the term Legacy game, which means that rules/mechanics are added and changed, previous games permanently affect all future games, and cards are permanently modified and destroyed.",
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"plaintext": " Risk Europe differs markedly from the original game, in that each territory generates a specific income for the player, and the player can purchase new units based on the amount of revenue received. Also, each unit succeeds in its attack if the player hits a specific number or lower during the attack. Also a new type of unit known as siege weapons is provided to players. Also, players have different types of units, each with their own types of tactics and attacks. All of these game mechanics are notably similar to the basic game-play format of Axis and Allies.",
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"plaintext": "Risk: The Battle for Medieval England is published in conjunction with English Heritage. It includes cards for special powers and special missions. The game board is a map of England. The object is to become the King of England. If no player wins by a certain point in the game, then all players must retreat.",
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"plaintext": " Star Wars Original Trilogy Edition.When playing by the Star Wars Original Trilogy Edition rules, each of the three factions has its own victory condition. The Empire must eliminate all Rebel forces. The Rebel Alliance must find and destroy the Emperor, who will be hidden under one of the Imperial Bases. The Hutts must take control of 10 out of the 13 designated resource planets on the board. The moment one of these victory conditions has been met by the respective faction, the game is over and that faction has won.",
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"plaintext": " Risk: Star Trek 50th Anniversary. has a number of rules, cards and units that differ from the original game. the game has \"Q cards \" in which Q may assign missions to the player. Also, there are location cards providing a specific value for each location. Also, there are cards representing specific crew members, which each have a specific command value.",
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"plaintext": " Risk 2210 A.D. has numerous rules which differ from the original game. The board includes water and moon territories. Game units include commanders (land, naval, space, nuclear, diplomat). Players earn and spend \"energy\" to obtain commanders, cards, and space stations and to activate some command cards. Players can roll an 8-sided die in some instances. Armies are not acquired through card trading. The game is only 5 years (turns) long; the winner is the player with highest score at the end of the last year. Players bid energy to determine turn order rather than following the same order determined by a dice from the beginning of the game.",
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"plaintext": "Many variants have been published by other groups or companies, that are based on the original concept of the game of Risk and that contain much of the functionality of the original, but are not licensed by Hasbro, such as the video games Global Domination and Lux. Known as Risk clones, such variants have names not containing the term \"Risk\" to avoid legal issues. Some of these clones are available commercially, of which many have been released through the iTunes App Store, especially for the iPad. Several other Risk clones are distributed freely over the Internet, such as Dice Wars. Games such as Nintendo Wars can be seen as a complex evolution which still holds some elements from Risk. NarcoGuerra is a newsgame based on the basic Risk rules, played out over a map of Mexico with the intent of educating people on the Mexican Drug War. An example of a board game inspired by Risk is the Argentine TEG.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to Risk clones, third-party products have been created which slightly modify traditional gameplay. Among the most popular third-party editions are virtual dice-rolling simulators. These can act as virtual replacements to traditional dice or be used to automatically simulate the results of large battles between territories—significantly speeding up gameplay.",
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"plaintext": "Several video game versions of Risk have been released as Risk, starting with the Commodore 64 edition in 1988 and the Macintosh edition in 1989. Various other editions have been released for PC, Amiga, Sega Genesis, PlayStation, PlayStation 2, Game Boy Advance, and Nintendo Switch. In 1996 Hasbro Interactive released a PC version of Risk that included a new variation on the game called Ultimate Risk, which did not use dice but rather implemented the use of forts, generals, and complex battle strategies. Risk II for PC and Mac was released as a 2000 video game which includes classic Risk as well as board and gameplay variations. In 2010, Pogo.com added a licensed version of Risk to its library of online games. An Xbox Live Arcade version of Risk called Factions was released on June 23, 2010. It includes classic Risk as well as a factions mode where players can play as Zombies, Robots, Cats, Soldiers, or Yetis.",
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"plaintext": "As of August 6, 2014, Hasbro and Ubisoft have announced a new Risk game to be released in 2014, on PS4 and Xbox One, as well as Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3. The game, developed by Zoë Mode and published by Ubisoft, was released in February 2015. It was subsequently ported to the Nintendo Switch, releasing on October 30, 2018.",
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"plaintext": "A licensed iOS app, Risk: The Official Game, developed for the iPhone, iPod Touch, and iPad by Electronic Arts, was released on July 16, 2010. Although the iPad version (Risk HD) has to be bought separately from the iPhone version (Risk), local link up allows games to take place across versions. A maximum of six players can participate. If only one iOS device is available, the \"pass and play\" mode allows several players to take part in a multi-player game.",
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"plaintext": "A licensed version of the game is also available for Android devices and PC on Steam which includes online play, device sharing, cross-play multiplayer and single player versus computer modes.",
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"plaintext": "On January 11, 2021, it was reported that a television series adaptation of the game is in development from House of Cards creator, Beau Willimon.",
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"plaintext": "Diplomacy, a similarly themed board game",
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"plaintext": "List of board wargames",
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"plaintext": " Global War, 1979 Apple II clone game",
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| [
"Risk_(game)",
"Board_games_introduced_in_1957",
"Board_wargames",
"Children's_board_games",
"Multiplayer_games",
"Nerd_culture",
"Origins_Award_winners",
"French_board_games",
"Parker_Brothers_games"
]
| 12,541 | 25,325 | 194 | 183 | 0 | 0 | Risk | board game | []
|
38,375 | 1,106,647,668 | Hypatia | [
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"plaintext": "Hypatia (born 350–370; died 415 AD) was a neoplatonist philosopher, astronomer, and mathematician, who lived in Alexandria, Egypt, then part of the Eastern Roman Empire. She was a prominent thinker in Alexandria where she taught philosophy and astronomy. Although preceded by Pandrosion, another Alexandrine female mathematician, she is the first female mathematician whose life is reasonably well recorded. Hypatia was renowned in her own lifetime as a great teacher and a wise counselor. She wrote a commentary on Diophantus's thirteen-volume Arithmetica, which may survive in part, having been interpolated into Diophantus's original text, and another commentary on Apollonius of Perga's treatise on conic sections, which has not survived. Many modern scholars also believe that Hypatia may have edited the surviving text of Ptolemy's Almagest, based on the title of her father Theon's commentary on Book III of the Almagest.",
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"plaintext": "Hypatia's murder shocked the empire and transformed her into a \"martyr for philosophy\", leading future Neoplatonists such as Damascius to become increasingly fervent in their opposition to Christianity. During the Middle Ages, Hypatia was co-opted as a symbol of Christian virtue and scholars believe she was part of the basis for the legend of Saint Catherine of Alexandria. During the Age of Enlightenment, she became a symbol of opposition to Catholicism. In the nineteenth century, European literature, especially Charles Kingsley's 1853 novel Hypatia, romanticized her as \"the last of the Hellenes\". In the twentieth century, Hypatia became seen as an icon for women's rights and a precursor to the feminist movement. Since the late twentieth century, some portrayals have associated Hypatia's death with the destruction of the Library of Alexandria, despite the historical fact that the library no longer existed during Hypatia's lifetime.",
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"plaintext": "Hypatia was the daughter of the mathematician Theon of Alexandria (c. 335 – c. 405 AD). According to classical historian Edward J. Watts, Theon was the head of a school called the \"Mouseion\", which was named in emulation of the Hellenistic Mouseion, whose membership had ceased in the 260s AD. Theon's school was exclusive, highly prestigious, and doctrinally conservative. Theon rejected the teachings of Iamblichus and may have taken pride in teaching a pure, Plotinian Neoplatonism. Although he was widely seen as a great mathematician at the time, Theon's mathematical work has been deemed by modern standards as essentially \"minor\", \"trivial\", and \"completely unoriginal\". His primary achievement was the production of a new edition of Euclid's Elements, in which he corrected scribal errors that had been made over the course of nearly 700 years of copying. Theon's edition of Euclid's Elements became the most widely used edition of the textbook for centuries and almost totally supplanted all other editions.",
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"plaintext": "Nothing is known about Hypatia's mother, who is never mentioned in any of the extant sources. Theon dedicates his commentary on Book IV of Ptolemy's Almagest to an individual named Epiphanius, addressing him as \"my dear son\", indicating that he may have been Hypatia's brother, but the Greek word Theon uses (teknon) does not always mean \"son\" in the biological sense and was often used merely to signal strong feelings of paternal connection. Hypatia's exact year of birth is still under debate, with suggested dates ranging from 350 to 370 AD. Many scholars have followed Richard Hoche in inferring that Hypatia was born around 370. According to a description of Hypatia from the lost work Life of Isidore by the Neoplatonist historian Damascius (c. 458 – c. 538), preserved in the entry for her in the Suda, a tenth-century Byzantine encyclopedia, Hypatia flourished during the reign of Arcadius. Hoche reasoned that Damascius's description of her physical beauty would imply that she was at most 30 at that time, and the year 370 was 30 years prior to the midpoint of Arcadius's reign. In contrast, theories that she was born as early as 350 are based on the wording of the chronicler John Malalas (c. 491 – 578), who calls her old at the time of her death in 415. Robert Penella argues that both theories are weakly based, and that her birth date should be left unspecified.",
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"plaintext": "Hypatia was a Neoplatonist, but, like her father, she rejected the teachings of Iamblichus and instead embraced the original Neoplatonism formulated by Plotinus. The Alexandrian school was renowned at the time for its philosophy, and Alexandria was regarded as second only to Athens as the philosophical capital of the Greco-Roman world. Hypatia taught students from all over the Mediterranean. According to Damascius, she lectured on the writings of Plato and Aristotle. He also states that she walked through Alexandria in a tribon, a kind of cloak associated with philosophers, giving impromptu public lectures.",
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"plaintext": "According to Watts, two main varieties of Neoplatonism were taught in Alexandria during the late fourth century. The first was the overtly pagan religious Neoplatonism taught at the Serapeum, which was greatly influenced by the teachings of Iamblichus. The second variety was the more moderate and less polemical variety championed by Hypatia and her father Theon, which was based on the teachings of Plotinus. Although Hypatia herself was a pagan, she was tolerant of Christians. In fact, every one of her known students was Christian. One of her most prominent pupils was Synesius of Cyrene, who went on to become a bishop of Ptolemais (now in eastern Libya) in 410. Afterward, he continued to exchange letters with Hypatia and his extant letters are the main sources of information about her career. Seven letters by Synesius to Hypatia have survived, but none from her addressed to him are extant. In a letter written in around 395 to his friend Herculianus, Synesius describes Hypatia as \"... a person so renowned, her reputation seemed literally incredible. We have seen and heard for ourselves she who honorably presides over the mysteries of philosophy.\" Synesius preserves the legacy of Hypatia's opinions and teachings, such as the pursuit of \"the philosophical state of apatheiacomplete liberation from emotions and affections\".",
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"plaintext": "The Christian historian Socrates of Constantinople, a contemporary of Hypatia, describes her in his Ecclesiastical History:",
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"plaintext": "Philostorgius, another Christian historian, who was also a contemporary of Hypatia, states that she excelled her father in mathematics and the lexicographer Hesychius of Alexandria records that, like her father, she was also an extraordinarily talented astronomer. Damascius writes that Hypatia was \"exceedingly beautiful and fair of form\", but nothing else is known regarding her physical appearance and no ancient depictions of her have survived. Damascius states that Hypatia remained a lifelong virgin and that, when one of the men who came to her lectures tried to court her, she tried to soothe his lust by playing the lyre. When he refused to abandon his pursuit, she rejected him outright, displaying her bloody menstrual rags and declaring \"This is what you really love, my young man, but you do not love beauty for its own sake.\" Damascius further relates that the young man was so traumatized that he abandoned his desires for her immediately.",
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"plaintext": "From 382 – 412, the bishop of Alexandria was Theophilus. Theophilus was militantly opposed to Iamblichean Neoplatonism and, in 391, he demolished the Serapeum. Despite this, Theophilus tolerated Hypatia's school and seems to have regarded Hypatia as his ally. Theophilus supported the bishopric of Hypatia's pupil Synesius, who describes Theophilus in his letters with love and admiration. Theophilus also permitted Hypatia herself to establish close relationships with the Roman prefects and other prominent political leaders. Partly as a result of Theophilus's tolerance, Hypatia became extremely popular with the people of Alexandria and exerted profound political influence.",
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"plaintext": "Theophilus died unexpectedly in 412. He had been training his nephew Cyril, but had not officially named him as his successor. A violent power struggle over the diocese broke out between Cyril and his rival Timothy. Cyril won and immediately began to punish those who had supported Timothy; he closed the churches of the Novatianists, who had supported Timothy, and confiscated their property. Hypatia's school seems to have immediately taken a strong distrust towards the new bishop, as evidenced by the fact that, in all his vast correspondences, Synesius only ever wrote one letter to Cyril, in which he treats the younger bishop as inexperienced and misguided. In a letter written to Hypatia in 413, Synesius requests her to intercede on behalf of two individuals impacted by the ongoing civil strife in Alexandria, insisting, \"You always have power, and you can bring about good by using that power.\" He also reminds her that she had taught him that a Neoplatonic philosopher must introduce the highest moral standards to political life and act for the benefit of their fellow citizens.",
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"plaintext": "According to Socrates Scholasticus, in 414, following an exchange of hostilities and a Jewish-led massacre, Cyril closed all the synagogues in Alexandria, confiscated all the property belonging to the Jews, and expelled a number of Jews from the city; Scholasticus suggests all the Jews were expelled, while John of Nikiu notes it was only those involved in the massacre. Orestes, the Roman prefect of Alexandria, who was also a close friend of Hypatia and a recent convert to Christianity, was outraged by Cyril's actions and sent a scathing report to the emperor. The conflict escalated and a riot broke out in which the parabalani, a group of Christian clerics under Cyril's authority, nearly killed Orestes. As punishment, Orestes had Ammonius, the monk who had started the riot, publicly tortured to death. Cyril tried to proclaim Ammonius a martyr, but Christians in Alexandria were disgusted, since Ammonius had been killed for inciting a riot and attempting to murder the governor, not for his faith. Prominent Alexandrian Christians intervened and forced Cyril to drop the matter. Nonetheless, Cyril's feud with Orestes continued. Orestes frequently consulted Hypatia for advice because she was well-liked among both pagans and Christians alike, she had not been involved in any previous stages of the conflict, and she had an impeccable reputation as a wise counselor.",
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"plaintext": "Despite Hypatia's popularity, Cyril and his allies attempted to discredit her and undermine her reputation. Socrates Scholasticus mentions rumors accusing Hypatia of preventing Orestes from reconciling with Cyril. Traces of other rumors that spread among the Christian populace of Alexandria may be found in the writings of the seventh-century Egyptian Coptic bishop John of Nikiû, who alleges in his Chronicle that Hypatia had engaged in satanic practices and had intentionally hampered the church's influence over Orestes:",
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"plaintext": "And in those days there appeared in Alexandria a female philosopher, a pagan named Hypatia, and she was devoted at all times to magic, astrolabes and instruments of music, and she beguiled many people through her Satanic wiles. And the governor of the city honoured her exceedingly; for she had beguiled him through her magic. And he ceased attending church as had been his custom... And he not only did this, but he drew many believers to her, and he himself received the unbelievers at his house.",
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"plaintext": "According to Socrates Scholasticus, during the Christian season of Lent in March 415, a mob of Christians under the leadership of a lector named Peter, raided Hypatia's carriage as she was travelling home. They dragged her into a building known as the Kaisarion, a former pagan temple and center of the Roman imperial cult in Alexandria that had been converted into a Christian church. There, the mob stripped Hypatia naked and murdered her using ostraka, which can either be translated as \"roof tiles\" or \"oyster shells\". Damascius adds that they also cut out her eyeballs. They tore her body into pieces and dragged her limbs through the town to a place called Cinarion, where they set them on fire. According to Watts, this was in line with the traditional manner in which Alexandrians carried the bodies of the \"vilest criminals\" outside the city limits to cremate them as a way of symbolically purifying the city. Although Socrates Scholasticus never explicitly identifies Hypatia's murderers, they are commonly assumed to have been members of the parabalani. Christopher Haas disputes this identification, arguing that the murderers were more likely \"a crowd of Alexandrian laymen\".",
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"plaintext": "Socrates Scholasticus presents Hypatia's murder as entirely politically motivated and makes no mention of any role that Hypatia's paganism might have played in her death. Instead, he reasons that \"she fell a victim to the political jealousy which at that time prevailed. For as she had frequent interviews with Orestes, it was calumniously reported among the Christian populace that it was she who prevented Orestes from being reconciled to the bishop.\" Socrates Scholasticus unequivocally condemns the actions of the mob, declaring, \"Surely nothing can be farther from the spirit of Christianity than the allowance of massacres, fights, and transactions of that sort.\"",
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"plaintext": "The Canadian mathematician Ari Belenkiy has argued that Hypatia may have been involved in a controversy over the date of the Christian holiday of Easter 417 and that she was killed on the vernal equinox while making astronomical observations. Classical scholars Alan Cameron and Edward J. Watts both dismiss this hypothesis, noting that there is absolutely no evidence in any ancient text to support any part of the hypothesis.",
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"plaintext": "Hypatia's death sent shockwaves throughout the empire; for centuries, philosophers had been seen as effectively untouchable during the displays of public violence that sometimes occurred in Roman cities and the murder of a female philosopher at the hand of a mob was seen as \"profoundly dangerous and destabilizing\". Although no concrete evidence was ever discovered definitively linking Cyril to the murder of Hypatia, it was widely believed that he had ordered it. Even if Cyril had not directly ordered the murder himself, it was self-evident that his smear campaign against Hypatia had inspired it. The Alexandrian council was alarmed at Cyril's conduct and sent an embassy to Constantinople. The advisors of Theodosius II launched an investigation to determine Cyril's role in the murder.",
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"plaintext": "The investigation resulted in the emperors Honorius and Theodosius II issuing an edict in autumn of 416, which attempted to remove the parabalani from Cyril's power and instead place them under the authority of Orestes. The edict restricted the parabalani from attending \"any public spectacle whatever\" or entering \"the meeting place of a municipal council or a courtroom.\" It also severely restricted their recruitment by limiting the total number of parabalani to no more than five hundred. According to Damascius, Cyril himself allegedly only managed to escape even more serious punishment by bribing one of Theodosius's officials. Watts argues that Hypatia's murder was the turning point in Cyril's fight to gain political control of Alexandria. Hypatia had been the linchpin holding Orestes's opposition against Cyril together, and, without her, the opposition quickly collapsed. Two years later, Cyril overturned the law placing the parabalani under Orestes's control and, by the early 420s, Cyril had come to dominate the Alexandrian council.",
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"plaintext": "Hypatia has been described as a universal genius, but she was probably more of a teacher and commentator than an innovator. No evidence has been found that Hypatia ever published any independent works on philosophy and she does not appear to have made any groundbreaking mathematical discoveries. During Hypatia's time period, scholars preserved classical mathematical works and commented on them to develop their arguments, rather than publishing original works. It has also been suggested that the closure of the Mouseion and the destruction of the Serapeum may have led Hypatia and her father to focus their efforts on preserving seminal mathematical books and making them accessible to their students. The Suda mistakenly states that all of Hypatia's writings have been lost, but modern scholarship has identified several works by her as extant. This kind of authorial uncertainty is typical of female philosophers from antiquity. Hypatia wrote in Greek, which was the language spoken by most educated people in the Eastern Mediterranean at the time. In classical antiquity, astronomy was seen as being essentially mathematical in character. Furthermore, no distinction was made between mathematics and numerology or astronomy and astrology.",
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"plaintext": "Hypatia is now known to have edited the existing text of Book III of Ptolemy's Almagest. It was once thought that Hypatia had merely revised Theon's commentary on the Almagest, based on the title of Theon's commentary on the third book of Almagest, which reads \"Commentary by Theon of Alexandria on Book III of Ptolemy's Almagest, edition revised by my daughter Hypatia, the philosopher\", but, based on analysis of the titles of Theon's other commentaries and similar titles from the time period, scholars have concluded that Hypatia corrected, not her father's commentary, but the text of Almagest itself. Her contribution is thought to be an improved method for the long division algorithms needed for astronomical computation. The Ptolemaic model of the universe was geocentric, meaning it taught that the sun revolved around the earth. In the Almagest, Ptolemy proposed a division problem for calculating the number of degrees swept out by the sun in a single day as it orbits the earth. In his early commentary, Theon had tried to improve upon Ptolemy's division calculation. In the text edited by Hypatia, a tabular method is detailed. This tabular method might be the \"astronomical table\" which historic sources attribute to Hypatia. Classicist Alan Cameron additionally states that it is possible Hypatia may have edited, not only Book III, but all nine extant books of the Almagest.",
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"plaintext": "Hypatia wrote a commentary on Diophantus's thirteen-volume Arithmetica, which had been written sometime around the year 250 AD. It set out more than 100 mathematical problems, for which solutions are proposed using algebra. For centuries, scholars believed that this commentary had been lost. Only volumes one through six of the Arithmetica have survived in the original Greek, but at least four additional volumes have been preserved in an Arabic translation produced around the year 860. The Arabic text contains numerous expansions not found in the Greek text, including verifications of Diophantus's examples and additional problems.",
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"plaintext": "Cameron states that the most likely source of the additional material is Hypatia herself, since Hypatia is the only ancient writer known to have written a commentary on the Arithmetica and the additions appear to follow the same methods used by her father Theon. The first person to deduce that the additional material in the Arabic manuscripts came from Hypatia was the nineteenth-century scholar Paul Tannery. In 1885, Sir Thomas Heath published the first English translation of the surviving portion of the Arithmetica. Heath argued that surviving text of Arithmetica is actually a school edition produced by Hypatia to aid her students. According to Mary Ellen Waithe, Hypatia used an unusual algorithm for division (in the then-standard sexagesimal numeral system), making it easy for scholars to pick out which parts of the text she had written.",
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"plaintext": "The consensus that Hypatia's commentary is the source of the additional material in the Arabic manuscripts of the Arithmetica has been challenged by Wilbur Knorr, a historian of mathematics, who argues that the interpolations are \"of such low level as not to require any real mathematical insight\" and that the author of the interpolations can only have been \"an essentially trivial mind... in direct conflict with ancient testimonies of Hypatia's high caliber as a philosopher and mathematician.\" Cameron rejects this argument, noting that \"Theon too enjoyed a high reputation, yet his surviving work has been judged 'completely unoriginal.'\" Cameron also insists that \"Hypatia's work on Diophantus was what we today might call a school edition, designed for the use of students rather than professional mathematicians.\"",
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"plaintext": "Hypatia also wrote a commentary on Apollonius of Perga's work on conic sections, but this commentary is no longer extant. She also created an \"Astronomical Canon\"; this is believed to have been either a new edition of the Handy Tables by the Alexandrian Ptolemy or the aforementioned commentary on his Almagest. Based on a close reading in comparison with her supposed contributions to the work of Diophantus, Knorr suggests that Hypatia may also have edited Archimedes' Measurement of a Circle, an anonymous text on isometric figures, and a text later used by John of Tynemouth in his work on Archimedes' measurement of the sphere. A high degree of mathematical accomplishment would have been needed to comment on Apollonius's advanced mathematics or the astronomical Canon. Because of this, most scholars today recognize that Hypatia must have been among the leading mathematicians of her day.",
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"plaintext": "One of Synesius's letters describes Hypatia as having taught him how to construct a silver plane astrolabe as a gift for an official. An astrolabe is a device used to calculate date and time based on the positions of the stars and planets. It can also be used to predict where the stars and planets will be on any given date. A \"little astrolabe\", or \"plane astrolabe\", is a kind of astrolabe that used stereographic projection of the celestial sphere to represent the heavens on a plane surface, as opposed to an armillary sphere, which was globe-shaped. Armillary spheres were large and normally used for display, whereas a plane astrolabe was portable and could be used for practical measurements.",
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"plaintext": "The statement from Synesius's letter has sometimes been wrongly interpreted to mean that Hypatia invented the plane astrolabe herself, but the plane astrolabe was in use at least 500 years before Hypatia was born. Hypatia may have learned how to construct a plane astrolabe from her father Theon, who had written two treatises on astrolabes: one entitled Memoirs on the Little Astrolabe and another study on the armillary sphere in Ptolemy's Almagest. Theon's treatise is now lost, but it was well-known to the Syrian bishop Severus Sebokht (575–667), who describes its contents in his own treatise on astrolabes. Hypatia and Theon may have also studied Ptolemy's Planisphaerium, which describes the calculations necessary in order to construct an astrolabe. Synesius's wording indicates that Hypatia did not design or construct the astrolabe herself, but merely acted as a guide and mentor during the process of constructing it.",
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"plaintext": "In another letter, Synesius requests Hypatia to construct him a \"hydroscope\", a device now known as a hydrometer, to determine the density or specific gravity of liquids. Based on this request, it has been claimed that Hypatia invented the hydrometer herself. The minute detail in which Synesius describes the instrument, however, indicates that he assumes she has never heard of the device, but trusts she will be able to replicate it based on a verbal description. Hydrometers were based on Archimedes' 3rd century BC principles, may have been invented by him, and were being described by the 2nd century AD in a poem by the Roman author Remnius. Although modern authors frequently credit Hypatia with having developed a variety of other inventions, these other attributions may all be discounted as spurious. Booth concludes, \"The modern day reputation held by Hypatia as a philosopher, mathematician, astronomer, and mechanical inventor, is disproportionate to the amount of surviving evidence of her life's work. This reputation is either built on myth or hearsay as opposed to evidence. Either that or we are missing all of the evidence that would support it.\"",
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"plaintext": "Neoplatonism and paganism both survived for centuries after Hypatia's death, and new academic lecture halls continued to be built in Alexandria after her death. Over the next 200 years, Neoplatonist philosophers such as Hierocles of Alexandria, John Philoponus, Simplicius of Cilicia, and Olympiodorus the Younger made astronomical observations, taught mathematics, and wrote lengthy commentaries on the works of Plato and Aristotle. Hypatia was not the last female Neoplatonist philosopher; later ones include Aedesia, Asclepigenia, and Theodora of Emesa.",
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"plaintext": "According to Watts, however, Hypatia had no appointed successor, no spouse, and no offspring and her sudden death not only left her legacy unprotected, but also triggered a backlash against her entire ideology. Hypatia, with her tolerance towards Christian students and her willingness to cooperate with Christian leaders, had hoped to establish a precedent that Neoplatonism and Christianity could coexist peacefully and cooperatively. Instead, her death and the subsequent failure by the Christian government to impose justice on her killers destroyed that notion entirely and led future Neoplatonists such as Damascius to consider Christian bishops as \"dangerous, jealous figures who were also utterly unphilosophical.\" Hypatia became seen as a \"martyr for philosophy\", and her murder led philosophers to adopt attitudes that increasingly emphasized the pagan aspects of their beliefs system and helped create a sense of identity for philosophers as pagan traditionalists set apart from the Christian masses. Thus, while Hypatia's death did not bring an end to Neoplatonist philosophy as a whole, Watts argues that it did bring an end to her particular variety of it.",
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"plaintext": "Shortly after Hypatia's murder, a forged anti-Christian letter appeared under her name. Damascius was \"anxious to exploit the scandal of Hypatia's death\", and attributed responsibility for her murder to Bishop Cyril and his Christian followers. A passage from Damascius's Life of Isidore, preserved in the Suda, concludes that Hypatia's murder was due to Cyril's envy over \"her wisdom exceeding all bounds and especially in the things concerning astronomy\". Damascius's account of the Christian murder of Hypatia is the sole historical source attributing direct responsibility to Bishop Cyril. At the same time, Damascius was not entirely kind to Hypatia either; he characterizes her as nothing more than a wandering Cynic, and compares her unfavorably with his own teacher Isidore of Alexandria, remarking that \"Isidorus greatly outshone Hypatia, not just as a man does over a woman, but in the way a genuine philosopher will over a mere geometer.\"",
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"plaintext": "Hypatia's death was similar to those of Christian martyrs in Alexandria, who had been dragged through the streets during the Decian persecution in 250. Other aspects of Hypatia's life also fit the mold for a Christian martyr, especially her lifelong virginity. In the Early Middle Ages, Christians conflated Hypatia's death with stories of the Decian martyrs and she became part of the basis for the legend of Saint Catherine of Alexandria, a virgin martyr said to have been exceedingly wise and well-educated. The earliest attestation for the cult of Saint Catherine comes from the eighth century, around three hundred years after Hypatia's death. One story tells of Saint Catherine being confronted by fifty pagan philosophers seeking to convert her, but instead converting all of them to Christianity through her eloquence. Another legend claimed that Saint Catherine had been a student of Athanasius of Alexandria. In the Laodikeia of Asia Minor (today Denizli in Turkey) till late 19th century Hypatia was venerated as identical to St. Catherine. ",
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"plaintext": "The Byzantine Suda encyclopedia contains a very long entry about Hypatia, which summarizes two different accounts of her life. The first eleven lines come from one source and the rest of the entry comes from Damascius's Life of Isidore. Most of the first eleven lines of the entry probably come from Hesychius's Onomatologos, but some parts are of unknown origin, including a claim that she was \"the wife of Isidore the Philosopher\" (apparently Isidore of Alexandria). Watts describes this as a very puzzling claim, not only because Isidore of Alexandria was not born until long after Hypatia's death, and no other philosopher of that name contemporary with Hypatia is known, but also because it contradicts Damascius's own statement quoted in the same entry about Hypatia being a lifelong virgin. Watts suggests that someone probably misunderstood the meaning of the word gynē used by Damascius to describe Hypatia in his Life of Isidore, since the same word can mean either \"woman\" or \"wife\".",
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"plaintext": "The Byzantine and Christian intellectual Photios ( 810/820–893) includes both Damascius's account of Hypatia and Socrates Scholasticus's in his Bibliotheke. In his own comments, Photios remarks on Hypatia's great fame as a scholar, but does not mention her death, perhaps indicating that he saw her scholarly work as more significant. The intellectual Eudokia Makrembolitissa (1021–1096), the second wife of Byzantine emperor Constantine X Doukas, was described by the historian Nicephorus Gregoras as a \"second Hypatia\".",
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"plaintext": "Early eighteenth-century Deist scholar John Toland used the murder of Hypatia as the basis for an anti-Catholic tract, portraying Hypatia's death in the worst possible light by changing the story and inventing elements not found in any of the ancient sources. A 1721 response by Thomas Lewis defended Cyril, rejected Damascius's account as unreliable because its author was \"a heathen\" and argued that Socrates Scholasticus was \"a Puritan\", who was consistently biased against Cyril.",
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"plaintext": "Voltaire, in his Examen important de Milord Bolingbroke ou le tombeau de fanatisme (1736) interpreted Hypatia as a believer in \"the laws of rational Nature\" and \"the capacities of the human mind free of dogmas\" and described her death as \"a bestial murder perpetrated by Cyril's tonsured hounds, with a fanatical gang at their heels\". Later, in an entry for his Dictionnaire philosophique (1772), Voltaire again portrayed Hypatia as a freethinking deistic genius brutally murdered by ignorant and misunderstanding Christians. Most of the entry ignores Hypatia herself altogether and instead deals with the controversy over whether or not Cyril was responsible for her death. Voltaire concludes with the snide remark that \"When one strips beautiful women naked, it is not to massacre them.\"",
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"plaintext": "In his monumental work The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, the English historian Edward Gibbon expanded on Toland and Voltaire's misleading portrayals by declaring Cyril as the sole cause of all evil in Alexandria at the beginning of the fifth century and construing Hypatia's murder as evidence to support his thesis that the rise of Christianity hastened the decline of the Roman Empire. He remarks on Cyril's continued veneration as a Christian saint, commenting that \"superstition [Christianity] perhaps would more gently expiate the blood of a virgin, than the banishment of a saint.\" In response to these accusations, Catholic authors, as well as some French Protestants, insisted with increased vehemence that Cyril had absolutely no involvement in Hypatia's murder and that Peter the Lector was solely responsible. In the course of these heated debates, Hypatia herself tended to be cast aside and ignored, while the debates focused far more intently on the question of whether Peter the Lector had acted alone or under Cyril's orders.",
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"plaintext": "In the nineteenth century European literary authors spun the legend of Hypatia as part of neo-Hellenism, a movement that romanticised ancient Greeks and their values. Interest in the \"literary legend of Hypatia\" began to rise. Diodata Saluzzo Roero's 1827 Ipazia ovvero delle Filosofie suggested that Cyril had actually converted Hypatia to Christianity, and that she had been killed by a \"treacherous\" priest.",
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"plaintext": "In his 1852 Hypatie and 1857 Hypathie et Cyrille, French poet Charles Leconte de Lisle portrayed Hypatia as the epitome of \"vulnerable truth and beauty\". Leconte de Lisle's first poem portrayed Hypatia as a woman born after her time, a victim of the laws of history. His second poem reverted to the eighteenth-century Deistic portrayal of Hypatia as the victim of Christian brutality, but with the twist that Hypatia tries and fails to convince Cyril that Neoplatonism and Christianity are actually fundamentally the same. Charles Kingsley's 1853 novel Hypatia; Or, New Foes with an Old Face was originally intended as a historical treatise, but instead became a typical mid-Victorian romance with a militantly anti-Catholic message, portraying Hypatia as a \"helpless, pretentious, and erotic heroine\" with the \"spirit of Plato and the body of Aphrodite.\"",
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"plaintext": "Kingsley's novel was tremendously popular; it was translated into several European languages and remained continuously in print for the rest of the century. It promoted the romantic vision of Hypatia as \"the last of the Hellenes\" and was quickly adapted into a broad variety of stage productions, the first of which was a play written by Elizabeth Bowers, performed in Philadelphia in 1859, starring the writer herself in the titular role. On 2 January 1893, a much higher-profile stage play adaptation Hypatia, written by G. Stuart Ogilvie and produced by Herbert Beerbohm Tree, opened at the Haymarket Theatre in London. The title role was initially played by Julia Neilson, and it featured an elaborate musical score written by the composer Hubert Parry. The novel also spawned works of visual art, including an 1867 image portraying Hypatia as a young woman by the early photographer Julia Margaret Cameron and an 1885 painting by Charles William Mitchell showing a nude Hypatia standing before an altar in a church.",
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"plaintext": "At the same time, European philosophers and scientists described Hypatia as the last representative of science and free inquiry before a \"long medieval decline\". In 1843, German authors Soldan and Heppe argued in their highly influential History of the Witchcraft Trials that Hypatia may have been, in effect, the first famous \"witch\" punished under Christian authority (see witch-hunt).",
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"plaintext": "Hypatia was honored as an astronomer when 238 Hypatia, a main belt asteroid discovered in 1884, was named for her. The lunar crater Hypatia was also named for her, in addition to craters named for her father Theon. The 180km Rimae Hypatia are located north of the crater, one degree south of the equator, along the Mare Tranquillitatis.",
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"plaintext": "In 1908, American writer Elbert Hubbard published a putative biography of Hypatia in his series Little Journeys to the Homes of Great Teachers. The book is almost entirely a work of fiction. In it, Hubbard relates a completely made-up physical exercise program which he claims Theon established for his daughter, involving \"fishing, horseback-riding, and rowing\". He claims that Theon taught Hypatia to \"Reserve your right to think, for even to think wrongly is better than to never think at all.\" Hubbard claims that, as a young woman, Hypatia traveled to Athens, where she studied under Plutarch of Athens. All of this supposed biographical information, however, is completely fictional and is not found in any ancient source. Hubbard even attributes to Hypatia numerous completely fabricated quotations in which she presents modern, rationalist views. The cover illustration for the book, a drawing of Hypatia by artist Jules Maurice Gaspard showing her as a beautiful young woman with her wavy hair tied back in the classical style, has now become the most iconic and widely reproduced image of her.",
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"plaintext": "Around the same time, Hypatia was adopted by feminists, and her life and death began to be viewed in the light of the women's rights movement. The author Carlo Pascal claimed in 1908 that her murder was an anti-feminist act and brought about a change in the treatment of women, as well as the decline of the Mediterranean civilization in general. Dora Russell published a book on the inadequate education of women and inequality with the title Hypatia or Woman and Knowledge in 1925. The prologue explains why she chose the title: \"Hypatia was a university lecturer denounced by Church dignitaries and torn to pieces by Christians. Such will probably be the fate of this book.\" Hypatia's death became symbolic for some historians. For example, Kathleen Wider proposes that the murder of Hypatia marked the end of Classical antiquity, and Stephen Greenblatt writes that her murder \"effectively marked the downfall of Alexandrian intellectual life\". On the other hand, Christian Wildberg notes that Hellenistic philosophy continued to flourish in the 5th and 6th centuries, and perhaps until the age of Justinian I.",
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"plaintext": "Falsehoods and misconceptions about Hypatia continued to proliferate throughout the late twentieth century. Although Hubbard's fictional biography was intended for children, Lynn M. Osen relied on it as her main source in her influential 1974 article on Hypatia in her 1974 book Women in Mathematics. Fordham University used Hubbard's biography as the main source of information about Hypatia in a medieval history course. Carl Sagan's 1980 PBS series A Personal Voyage relates a heavily fictionalized retelling of Hypatia's death, which results in the \"Great Library of Alexandria\" being burned by militant Christians. In actuality, though Christians led by Theophilus did indeed destroy the Serapeum in 391 AD, the Library of Alexandria had already ceased to exist in any recognizable form centuries prior to Hypatia's birth. As a female intellectual, Hypatia became a role model for modern intelligent women and two feminist journals were named after her: the Greek journal Hypatia: Feminist Studies was launched in Athens in 1984, and A Journal of Feminist Philosophy in the United States in 1986. In the United Kingdom, the Hypatia Trust maintains a library and archive of feminine literary, artistic and scientific work; and, sponsors the Hypatia-in-the-Woods women's retreat in Washington, United States.",
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"plaintext": "Judy Chicago's large-scale art piece The Dinner Party awards Hypatia a table setting. The table runner depicts Hellenistic goddesses weeping over her death. Chicago states that the social unrest leading to Hypatia's murder resulted from Roman patriarchy and mistreatment of women and that this ongoing unrest can only be brought to an end through the restoration of an original, primeval matriarchy. She (anachronistically and incorrectly) concludes that Hypatia's writings were burned in the Library of Alexandria when it was destroyed. Major works of twentieth century literature contain references to Hypatia, including Marcel Proust's stories \"Madame Swann At Home\" and \"Within a Budding Grove\" from In Search of Lost Time, and Iain Pears's The Dream of Scipio.",
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"plaintext": "Hypatia has continued to be a popular subject in both fiction and nonfiction by authors in many countries and languages. In 2015, the planet designated Iota Draconis b was named after Hypatia.",
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"plaintext": "In Umberto Eco's 2002 novel Baudolino, the hero's love interest is a half-satyr, half-woman descendant of a female-only community of Hypatia's disciples, collectively known as \"hypatias\". Charlotte Kramer's 2006 novel Holy Murder: the Death of Hypatia of Alexandria portrays Cyril as an archetypal villain, while Hypatia is described as brilliant, beloved, and more knowledgeable of scripture than Cyril. Ki Longfellow's novel Flow Down Like Silver (2009) invents an elaborate backstory for why Hypatia first started teaching. Youssef Ziedan's novel Azazeel (2012) describes Hypatia's murder through the eyes of a witness. Bruce MacLennan's 2013 book The Wisdom of Hypatia presents Hypatia as a guide who introduces Neoplatonic philosophy and exercises for modern life. In The Plot to Save Socrates (2006) by Paul Levinson and its sequels, Hypatia is a time-traveler from the twenty-first century United States. In the TV series The Good Place, Hypatia is played by Lisa Kudrow as one of the few ancient philosophers eligible for heaven, by not having defended slavery.",
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"plaintext": "The 2009 film Agora, directed by Alejandro Amenábar and starring Rachel Weisz as Hypatia, is a heavily fictionalized dramatization of Hypatia's final years. The film, which was intended to criticize contemporary Christian fundamentalism, has had wide-ranging impact on the popular conception of Hypatia. It emphasizes Hypatia's astronomical and mechanical studies rather than her philosophy, portraying her as \"less Plato than Copernicus\", and emphasizes the restrictions imposed on women by the early Christian church, including depictions of Hypatia being sexually assaulted by one of her father's Christian slaves, and of Cyril reading from forbidding women from teaching. The film contains numerous historical inaccuracies: It inflates Hypatia's achievements and incorrectly portrays her as finding a proof of Aristarchus of Samos's heliocentric model of the universe, which there is no evidence that Hypatia ever studied. It also contains a scene based on Carl Sagan's Cosmos in which Christians raid the Serapeum and burn all of its scrolls, leaving the building itself largely intact. In reality, the Serapeum probably did not have any scrolls in it at that time, and the Christians demolished the building. The film also implies that Hypatia is an atheist, directly contradictory to the surviving sources, which all portray her as following the teachings of Plotinus that the goal of philosophy was \"a mystical union with the divine.\"",
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"plaintext": " Timeline of women in science",
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"plaintext": " . See also The Life of Hypatia from The Suda (Jeremiah Reedy, trans.), pp.57–58, The Life of Hypatia by Socrates Scholasticus from his Ecclesiastical History 7.13, pp.59–60, and The Life of Hypatia by John, Bishop of Nikiu, from his Chronicle 84.87–103, pp.61–63.",
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"plaintext": " .",
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"plaintext": " International Society for Neoplatonic Studies",
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"plaintext": " Socrates of Constantinople, Ecclesiastical History, VII.15, at the Internet Archive",
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"plaintext": " Socrates of Constantinople, Ecclesiastical History, VII.15 (pp.760–761), at the Documenta Catholica Omnia",
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| 11,903 | 31,464 | 181 | 233 | 1 | 0 | Hypatia | Greek Neoplatonist philosopher | [
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"plaintext": "Spoken English shows great variation across regions where it is the predominant language. For example, the United Kingdom has the largest variation of accents of any country in the world, and therefore no single \"British accent\" exists. This article provides an overview of the numerous identifiable variations in pronunciation; such distinctions usually derive from the phonetic inventory of local dialects, as well as from broader differences in the Standard English of different primary-speaking populations.",
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"plaintext": "Accent is the part of dialect concerning local pronunciation. Vocabulary and grammar are described elsewhere; see the list of dialects of the English language. Secondary English speakers tend to carry over the intonation and phonetics of their mother tongue in English speech. For more details on this, see non-native pronunciations of English.",
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"plaintext": "Primary English speakers show great variability in terms of regional accents. Examples such as Pennsylvania Dutch English are easily identified by key characteristics, but others are more obscure or easily confused. Broad regions can possess subforms; for instance, towns located less than from the city of Manchester (such as Bolton, Oldham, Rochdale, and Salford) each have distinct accents, all of which are grouped together under the broader Lancashire accent. These sub-dialects are very similar to each other, but non-local listeners can identify firm differences. On the other side of the spectrum, Australia has a General Australian accent which remains almost unchanged over thousands of miles.",
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"plaintext": "English accents can differ enough to create room for misunderstandings. For example, the pronunciation of \"pearl\" in some variants of Scottish English can sound like the entirely unrelated word \"petal\" to an American. For a summary of the differences between accents, see the International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects.",
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"plaintext": "English dialects differ greatly in their pronunciation of open vowels. In Received Pronunciation, there are four open back vowels, , but in General American there are only three, , and in most dialects of Canadian English only two, . In addition, which words have which vowel varies between dialects. Words like bath and cloth have the vowels in Received Pronunciation, but in General American. The table above shows some of these dialectal differences.",
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"plaintext": "Accents and dialects vary widely across Great Britain, Ireland and nearby smaller islands. The UK has the most local accents of any English speaking country. As such, a single \"British accent\" does not exist. However, someone could be said to have an English, Scottish, Welsh or Irish accent, although these all have many different sub-types.",
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"plaintext": "There are considerable variations within the accents of English across England, one of the most obvious being the trap–bath split of the southern half of the country.",
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"plaintext": "Two main sets of accents are spoken in the West Country, namely Cornish and West Country spoken primarily in the counties of Devon, Somerset, Gloucestershire, Bristol, Dorset (not as common in Dorset), and Wiltshire (again, less common in eastern Wiltshire). However, a range of variations can be heard within different parts of the West Country: the Bristolian dialect is distinctive from the accent heard in Gloucestershire (especially south of Cheltenham), for example.",
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"plaintext": "The Cornwall accent has an east–west variation with the East of the county having influences from West country English and the West of the county having direct influences from the Cornish language.",
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"plaintext": "There is also great variation within Greater London, with various accents such as Cockney, Estuary English, Multicultural London English and Received Pronunciation being found all throughout the region and the Home Counties.",
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"plaintext": "Other accents are those of",
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"plaintext": " the East Midlands (Derby, Leicester and Rutland, Lincoln, Northampton, and Nottingham),",
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"plaintext": " East Anglia (Norfolk, Suffolk and Cambridgeshire) and",
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"plaintext": " the Home Counties (typically Buckinghamshire, Essex, Hertfordshire, Berkshire, Surrey, Kent, Hampshire). The Essex accent has an east–west variation with the county's west having Estuary English speech features and the county's east having the traditional Essaxon features.",
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"plaintext": " A range of accents are spoken in the West Midlands (in the major towns and conurbations (The Black Country, Birmingham, Coventry, Stoke-on-Trent and Wolverhampton) and in rural areas (such as in Herefordshire and south Worcestershire).",
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"plaintext": "On 20 February 2019, the New York Times published a quiz that maps the geographical differences between British and Irish dialects.",
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"plaintext": "The accents of Northern England have a range of regional variations.",
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"plaintext": "Cumbria has regional variants in Western Cumbria (Workington), Southern Cumbria (Barrow-in-Furness) and Carlisle.",
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"plaintext": "Modern Northumbrian has local variants in Northern Northumberland (Berwick-upon-Tweed), Eastern Northumberland (Ashington) and Newcastle, Sunderland and Mid-County Durham and Southern County Durham. A specialist dialect called Pitmatic is within this group, found across the region, it includes terms specific to coal mining.",
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"plaintext": "Yorkshire is also distinctive, having regional variants around Leeds, Bradford, Hull, Middlesbrough, Sheffield, and York. Although many Yorkshire accents sound similar, accents in areas around Hull and Middlesbrough are markedly different. Due to this, the Middlesbrough accent is sometimes grouped with Modern Northumbrian accents being a mid-way between the two regions.",
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"plaintext": "The Hull accent's rhythm is more like that of northern Lincolnshire than that of the rural East Riding, perhaps due to migration from Lincolnshire to the city during its industrial growth. One feature that it does share with the surrounding rural area is that an /aɪ/ sound in the middle of a word often becomes an /ɑː/: for example, \"five\" may sound like \"fahve\", \"time\" like \"tahme\".",
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"plaintext": "Historic Lancashire, with regional variants in Bolton, Burnley, Blackburn, Manchester, Preston, Blackpool, Liverpool and Wigan. Many of the Lancashire accents may sound similar to outsiders, with the exception of Manchester and Wigan, where an older dialect has been maintained.",
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"plaintext": "The Liverpool accent, known as Scouse, is an exception to the Lancashire regional variant of English; it has also spread to some of the surrounding towns. Before the 1840s, Liverpool's accent was similar to others in Lancashire, though with some distinct features due to the city's proximity to Wales. However, the city's population of around 60,000 was swelled in the 1840s by the arrival of around 300,000 Irish refugees escaping the Great Famine, as Liverpool was England's main Atlantic port and a popular departure point for people leaving for a new life in the United States. While many of the Irish refugees moved away, a vast amount remained in Liverpool and permanently influenced the local accent.",
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"plaintext": "The regional accents of Scottish English generally draw on the phoneme inventory of the dialects of Modern Scots, a language spoken by around 30% of the Scottish population with characteristic vowel realisations due to the Scottish vowel length rule.",
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"plaintext": "Highland English accents are more strongly influenced by Scottish Gaelic than other forms of Scottish English.",
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"plaintext": "The accents of English in Wales are strongly influenced by the phonology of the Welsh language, which more than 20% of the population of Wales speak as their first or second language. The North Wales accent is distinct from South Wales; North East Wales is influenced by Scouse and Cheshire accents; while South East Wales accents are influenced by West Country accents. The Wenglish of the South Wales Valleys shows a deep cross-fertilisation between the two.",
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"plaintext": "The Cardiff dialect and accent is also quite distinctive from that of the South Wales Valleys, primarily:",
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"plaintext": "Rounding of the second element of to ",
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"plaintext": "here pronounced or in broader accents",
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"plaintext": "A closer pronunciation of as in love and other",
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"plaintext": " is widely realised as , giving a pronunciation of Cardiff as Kahdiff ",
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"plaintext": "Manx English has its own distinctive accent, influenced to some extent by the Lancashire dialect and to a lesser extent by some variant of Irish English.",
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"plaintext": "Ireland has several main groups of accents, including (1) the accents of Ulster, with a strong influence from Scotland as well as the underlying Gaelic linguistic stratum, which in that province approaches the Gaelic of Scotland, (2) those of Dublin and surrounding areas on the east coast where English has been spoken since the earliest period of colonisation from Britain, and (3) the various accents of west, midlands and south.",
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"plaintext": "The Ulster accent has two main sub accents, namely Mid Ulster English and Ulster Scots. The language is spoken throughout the nine counties of Ulster, and in some northern areas of bordering counties such as Louth and Leitrim. It bears many similarities to Scottish English through influence from the Ulster varieties of Scots.",
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"plaintext": "Some characteristics of the Ulster accent include:",
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"plaintext": " As in Scotland, the vowels and are merged, so that look and Luke are homophonous. The vowel is a high central rounded vowel, .",
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"plaintext": " The diphthong is pronounced approximately , but wide variation exists, especially between social classes in Belfast",
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"plaintext": " In Belfast, is a monophthong in open syllables (e.g. day ) but an ingliding diphthong in closed syllables (e.g. daze ). But the monophthong remains when inflectional endings are added, thus daze contrasts with days .",
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"plaintext": " The alveolar stops become dental before , e.g. tree and spider",
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"plaintext": " often undergoes flapping to before an unstressed syllable, e.g. eighty ",
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"plaintext": "The accent of these three provinces fluctuates greatly from the flat tone of the midlands counties of Laois, Kildare, and Offaly, the perceived sing-song of Cork and Kerry, to the soft accents of Mayo and Galway.",
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"plaintext": "Historically the Dublin City and county area, parts of Wicklow and Louth, came under heavy exclusive influence from the first English settlements (known as The Pale). It remained until Independence from Britain as the biggest concentration of English influence in the whole island.",
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"plaintext": "Some Cork accents have a unique lyrical intonation. Every sentence typically ends in the trademark elongated tail-off on the last word. In Cork heavier emphasis yet is put on the brrr sound to the letter R. This is usually the dialect in northern parts of Cork City.",
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"plaintext": "Similar to the Cork accent but without the same intonation, Kerry puts even heavier emphasis on the brrr sound to the letter R. For example: the word Forty. Throughout the south this word is pronounced whereby the r exhibits the typified Irish brrr. In Kerry however (especially in rural areas) the roll on the r is enforced with vibrations from the tongue (not unlike Scottish here). \"Are you?\" becomes a co-joined \"A-rrou?\" single tongue flutter (esp. in rural areas). This extra emphasis on R is also seen in varying measures through parts of West Limerick and West Cork in closer proximity to Kerry.",
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"plaintext": "Another feature in the Kerry accent is the S before the consonant. True to its Gaelic origins in a manner similar to parts of Connacht \"s\" maintains the shh sound as in shop or sheep. The word Start becomes \"Shtart\". Stop becomes Shtop.",
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"plaintext": "Irish Travellers have a very distinct accent closely related to a rural Hiberno-English, particularly the English of south-eastern Ireland. Many Irish Travellers who were born in parts of Dublin or Britain have the accent in spite of it being strikingly different from the local accents in those regions. They also have their own language, Shelta, which strongly links in with their dialect/accent of English.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Britain and Ireland",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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0,
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72,
87
],
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340,
346
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "North American English is a collective term for the dialects of the United States and Canada; it does not include the varieties of Caribbean English spoken in the West Indies.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "North America",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
131,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rhoticity: Most North American English accents differ from Received Pronunciation and some other British dialects by being rhotic; the rhotic consonant is pronounced before consonants and at the end of syllables, and the r-colored vowel is used as a syllable nucleus. For example, while the words hard and singer would be pronounced and in Received Pronunciation, they would be pronounced and in General American. (Exceptions are certain traditional accents found in eastern New England, New York City, and the Southern United States, plus African-American English.)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "North America",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
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],
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],
[
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],
[
475,
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],
[
496,
509
],
[
519,
541
],
[
548,
572
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mergers before : R-coloring has led to some vowel mergers before historic that do not happen in most other native dialects. In many North American accents, Mary, merry and marry sound the same (Mary–marry–merry merger), but they have the vowels , , , respectively, in RP. Similarly, nearer rhymes with mirror (mirror–nearer merger), though the two have different vowels in RP: and . Other mergers before occur in various North American dialects.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "North America",
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],
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196,
219
],
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312,
332
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mergers of the low back vowels: Other North American mergers that are absent in Received Pronunciation are the merger of the vowels of caught and cot ( and in RP) in many accents, and the merger of father (RP ) and bother (RP ) in almost all.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "North America",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
136,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Flat a: Most North American accents lack the so-called trap–bath split found in Southern England: Words like ask, answer, grass, bath, staff, dance are pronounced with the short-a of trap, not with the broad A of father heard in Southern England as well as in most of the Southern hemisphere. (In North America, the vowel of father has merged with that of lot and bother, see above.) However, related to the trap–bath split, North American dialects have a feature known as /æ/ tensing. This results in /æ/ in some environments, particularly nasals to be raised and even diphthongized, typically transcribed as . Thus, answer is typically pronounced as rather than .",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "North America",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
56,
71
],
[
412,
427
],
[
477,
488
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Flapping of and: In North American English, and both become the alveolar flap after a stressed syllable and between vowels or syllabic consonants, making the words latter and ladder homophones, either as or .",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "North America",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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],
[
68,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The United States does not have a concrete 'standard' accent in the same way that Britain has Received Pronunciation. Nonetheless, a form of speech known to linguists as General American is perceived by many Americans to be \"accent-less\", meaning a person who speaks in such a manner does not appear to be from anywhere in particular. The region of the United States that most resembles this is the central Midwest, specifically eastern Nebraska (including Omaha and Lincoln), southern and central Iowa (including Des Moines), parts of Missouri, Indiana, Ohio and western Illinois (including Peoria and the Quad Cities, but not the Chicago area).",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "North America",
"target_page_ids": [
26247
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
94,
116
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Three major dialect areas can be found in Canada: Western/Central Canada, the Maritimes, and Newfoundland.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "North America",
"target_page_ids": [
21803
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
93,
105
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The phonology of West/Central Canadian English, also called General Canadian, is broadly similar to that of the Western US, except for the following features:",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "North America",
"target_page_ids": [
47843464
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
17,
46
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " The diphthongs and are raised to approximately and before voiceless consonants; thus, for example, the vowel sound of out is different from that of loud . This feature is known as Canadian raising. The is even more raised in Atlantic Canada, closer to .",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "North America",
"target_page_ids": [
49678
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
186,
202
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " The short a of bat is more open than almost everywhere else in North America . The other front lax vowels and , too, can be lowered and/or retracted. This phenomenon has been labelled the Canadian Shift.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "North America",
"target_page_ids": [
5507298
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
190,
204
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The pronunciation of certain words shows a British influence. For instance, shone is ; been is often ; lieutenant is ; process can be ; etc.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "North America",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Words like drama, pajamas/pyjamas, pasta tend to have rather than ~. Words like sorrow, Florida, orange have rather than ; therefore, sorry rhymes with story rather than with starry.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "North America",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "For discussion, see:",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "North America",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Bahamian English",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "North America",
"target_page_ids": [
8475291
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Barbadian English",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "North America",
"target_page_ids": [
28076212
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Bequia English",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "North America",
"target_page_ids": [
71002806
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Bermudian English",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "North America",
"target_page_ids": [
620427
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Caribbean English",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "North America",
"target_page_ids": [
371381
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Jamaican English",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "North America",
"target_page_ids": [
153752
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Saban English",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "North America",
"target_page_ids": [
53942651
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Trinidadian English",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "North America",
"target_page_ids": [
1594257
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Australian English is relatively homogeneous when compared to British and American English. There is however some regional variation between the states, particularly in regard to South Australia, Victoria, Queensland, Northern Territory and Western Australia.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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],
[
74,
82
],
[
145,
151
],
[
179,
194
],
[
196,
204
],
[
206,
216
],
[
218,
236
],
[
241,
258
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Three main varieties of Australian English are spoken according to linguists: Broad Australian, General Australian and Cultivated Australian. They are part of a continuum, reflecting variations in accent. They can, but do not always reflect the social class, education and urban or rural background of the speaker.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Oceania",
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"anchor_spans": [
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],
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],
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119,
140
],
[
245,
257
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Australian Aboriginal English refers to the various varieties of the English language used by Indigenous Australians. These varieties, which developed differently in different parts of Australia, vary along a continuum, from forms close to General Australian to more nonstandard forms. There are distinctive features of accent, grammar, words and meanings, as well as language use.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
2222769
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
30
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " The furthest extent of the Aboriginal dialect is Australian Kriol language, which is not mutually intelligible with General Australian English.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
50,
75
],
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90,
111
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " On the Torres Strait Islands, a distinctive dialect known as Torres Strait English is spoken.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
550958,
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
8,
29
],
[
62,
83
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " In Australian English, pronunciations vary regionally according to the type of vowel that occurs before the sounds , , , , and . In words like \"chance\", \"plant\", \"branch\", \"sample\" and \"demand\", the vast majority of Australians use the short /æ/ vowel from the word \"cat\". In South Australian English however there is a high proportion of people who use the broad /aː/ vowel from the word \"cart\" in these words.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
1986406
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
277,
301
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Centring diphthongs, which are the vowels that occur in words like ear, beard and air, sheer. In Western Australian English there is a tendency for centring diphthongs to be pronounced as full diphthongs. Those in the eastern states will tend to pronounce \"fear\" and \"sheer\" without any jaw movement, while the westerners would pronounce them like \"fia\" and \"shia\", respectively which slightly resembles South African English but in a dialect different from New Zealand English.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
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21670
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
10,
20
],
[
98,
124
],
[
405,
426
],
[
459,
478
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The New Zealand accent is most similar to Australian accents (particularly those of Victoria, Tasmania, New South Wales and South Australia) but is distinguished from these accents by the presence of three \"clipped\" vowels, slightly resembling South African English. Phonetically, these are centralised or raised versions of the short \"i\", \"e\" and \"a\" vowels, which in New Zealand are close to , and respectively rather than , and . New Zealand pronunciations are often popularly represented outside New Zealand by writing \"fish and chips\" as \"fush and chups\", \"yes\" as \"yiss\", \"sixty-six\" as \"suxty-sux\". Scottish English influence is most evident in the southern regions of New Zealand, notably Dunedin. Another difference between New Zealand and Australian English is the length of the vowel in words such as \"dog\", and \"job\" which are longer than in Australian English which shares the short and staccato pronunciation shared with British English. There is also a tendency in New Zealand English, also found in some but not all Australian English, to add a schwa between some grouped consonants in words, such that — for example — \"shown\" and \"thrown\" may be pronounced \"showun\" and \"throwun\".",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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244,
265
],
[
700,
707
],
[
1064,
1069
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Geographical variations appear slight, and mainly confined to individual special local words. One group of speakers, however, hold a recognised place as \"talking differently\": the regions of Otago and especially Southland, both in the south of the South Island, harbour a \"Celtic fringe\" of people speaking with what is known as the \"Southland burr\" in which R is pronounced with a soft burr, particularly in words that rhyme with 'nurse'. The area formed a traditional repository of immigration from Scotland. Some sections of the main urban areas of Auckland and Wellington also show a stronger influence of Pacific island (e.g., Samoan) pronunciations than most of the country.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
100011,
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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191,
196
],
[
212,
221
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The trilled 'r' is also used by some Māori, who may also pronounce 't' and 'k' sounds without aspiration, striking other English speakers as similar to 'd' and 'g'. This is also encountered in South African English, especially among Afrikaans speakers.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
2162
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
233,
242
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The English spoken in the isolated Pacific islands of Norfolk and Pitcairn shows evidence of the islands' long isolation from the world. In the case of Pitcairn, the local creole (Pitkern) shows strong evidence of its rural English 19th century origins, with an accent which has traces of both the English southwest and Geordie. The Norfolk Island equivalent, Norfuk, was greatly influenced in its development by Pitkern. The accents heard in the islands when English is used are similarly influenced but in a much milder way. In the case of Norfolk Island, Australian English is the primary influence, producing an accent which is like a softened version of an Australian accent. The Pitcairn accent is for the most part largely indistinguishable from the New Zealand accent.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
868450,
70489,
501615
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
180,
187
],
[
320,
327
],
[
360,
366
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The Falkland Islands have a large non-native born population, mainly from Britain, but also from Saint Helena. In rural areas, the Falkland accent tends to be stronger. The accent has resemblances to both Australia-NZ English, and that of Norfolk in England, and contains a number of Spanish loanwords.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Africa and the Atlantic",
"target_page_ids": [
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26945,
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
4,
20
],
[
97,
109
],
[
239,
246
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "\"Saints\", as Saint Helenan islanders are called, have a variety of different influences on their accent. To outsiders, the accent has resemblances to the accents of South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Africa and the Atlantic",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "\"Saint\" is not just a different pronunciation of English, it also has its own distinct words. So 'bite' means spicy, as in full of chillies; 'us' is used instead of 'we' ('us has been shopping'); and 'done' is used to generate a past tense, hence 'I done gorn fishing' ('I have been fishing').",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Africa and the Atlantic",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Television is a reasonably recent arrival there, and is only just beginning to have an effect. American terms are becoming more common, e.g. 'chips' for crisps.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Africa and the Atlantic",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "South Africa has 11 official languages, one of which is English. Accents vary significantly between ethnic and language groups. Home-language English speakers (Black, White, Indian and Coloured) in South Africa have an accent that generally resembles British Received Pronunciation (modified with varying degrees of Germanic inflection due to Afrikaans).",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Africa and the Atlantic",
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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0,
12
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185,
193
],
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259,
281
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The Coloured community is generally bilingual; however, English accents are strongly influenced by primary mother-tongue (Afrikaans or English). A range of accents can be seen, with the majority of Coloureds showing a strong Afrikaans inflection. Similarly, Afrikaners (and Cape Coloureds), both descendant of mainly Dutch settlers, tend to pronounce English phonemes with a strong Afrikaans inflection. The English accents of both related groups are significantly different and easily distinguishable (primarily because of prevalent code-switching among the majority of Coloured English speakers, particularly in the Western Cape of South Africa). The range of accents found among English-speaking Coloureds (from the distinctive \"Cape Flats or Coloured English\" to the standard \"colloquial\" South African English accent) are of special interest. Geography and education levels play major roles therein.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Africa and the Atlantic",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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259,
268
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[
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549
],
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631
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Black Africans generally speak English as a second language, and accent is strongly influenced by mother-tongue (particularly Bantu languages). However, urban middle-class black Africans have developed an English accent, with similar inflection as first-language English speakers. Within this ethnic group variations exist: most Nguni (Xhosa, Zulu, Swazi and Ndebele) speakers have a distinct accent, with the pronunciation of words like 'the' and 'that' as would 'devil' and 'dust', respectively; and words like 'rice' as 'lice'. This may be as a result of the inadequacy of 'r' in the languages. Sotho (Tswana, Northern Sotho and Southern Sotho) speakers have a similar accent, with slight variations. Tsonga and Venda speakers have very similar accents with far less intonation than Ngunis and Sothos. Some Black speakers have no distinction between the 'i' in determine and the one in decline, pronouncing it similarly to the one in 'mine'.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Africa and the Atlantic",
"target_page_ids": [
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373198
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
6,
14
],
[
159,
171
],
[
330,
335
],
[
599,
604
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Black, Indian and Coloured students educated in former Model C schools or at formerly white tertiary institutions will generally adopt a similar accent to their white English-home-language speaking classmates. Code-switching and the \"Cape Flats\" accent are becoming popular among white learners in public schools within Cape Town.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Africa and the Atlantic",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "South African accents also vary between major cities (particularly Cape Town, Durban and Johannesburg) and provinces (regions). Accent variation is also observed within respective citiesfor instance, Johannesburg, where the northern suburbs (Parkview, Parkwood, Parktown North, Saxonwold, etc.) tend to be less strongly influenced by Afrikaans. These suburbs are more affluent and populated by individuals with tertiary education and higher incomes. The accents of native English speakers from the southern suburbs (Rosettenville, Turffontein, etc.) tend to be more strongly influenced by Afrikaans. These suburbs are populated by tradesmen and factory workers, with lower incomes. The extent of Afrikaans influence is explained by the fact that Afrikaans urbanisation would historically have been from failed marginal farms or failing economies in rural towns, into the southern and western suburbs of Johannesburg. The western suburbs of Johannesburg (Newlands, Triomf, which has now reverted to its old name Sophiatown, Westdene, etc.) are predominantly Afrikaans speaking. In a similar fashion, people from predominantly or traditionally Jewish areas in the Johannesburg area (such as Sandton, Linksfield or Victory Park) may have accents influenced by Yiddish or Hebrew ancestry.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Africa and the Atlantic",
"target_page_ids": [
1327945
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1011,
1021
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "South African English accent, across the spectrum, is non-rhotic.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Africa and the Atlantic",
"target_page_ids": [
43120428
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
54,
64
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Examples of South African accents (obtained from http://accent.gmu.edu)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Africa and the Atlantic",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Native English: Male (Cape Town, South Africa)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Africa and the Atlantic",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Native English: Female (Cape Town, South Africa)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Africa and the Atlantic",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Native English: Male (Port Elizabeth, South Africa)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Africa and the Atlantic",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Native English: Male (Nigel, South Africa)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Africa and the Atlantic",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Afrikaans (Primary): Female (Pretoria, South Africa)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Africa and the Atlantic",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Afrikaans (Primary): Male (Pretoria, South Africa)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Africa and the Atlantic",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Afrikaans (Primary): Male (Pretoria, South Africa)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Africa and the Atlantic",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Northern Sotho (Primary): Female (Polokwane, South Africa)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Africa and the Atlantic",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Additional samples of South African accents and dialects can be found at http://web.ku.edu/~idea/africa/southafrica/southafrica.htm",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Africa and the Atlantic",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Regardless of regional and ethnic differences (in accents), South African English accent is sometimes confused with Australian (or New Zealand) English by British and American English speakers.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Africa and the Atlantic",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "In Zimbabwe, formerly Rhodesia, native English speakers (mainly the white and Coloured minority) have a similar speech pattern to that of South Africa. Hence those with high degrees of Germanic inflection would pronounce 'Zimbabwe' as zim-bah-bwi, as opposed to the African pronunciation zeem-bah-bweh. Zimbwabwean accents also vastly vary, with some Black Africans sounding British while others will have a much stronger accent influenced by their mother tongues, usually this distinction is brought about by where speakers grew up and the school attended. For example, most people that grew up in and around Harare have a British sounding accent while those in the rural areas have a more \"pidgin-english\" sort of accent",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Africa and the Atlantic",
"target_page_ids": [
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284322
],
"anchor_spans": [
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3,
11
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"plaintext": "Example of a Zimbabwean English accent (obtained from http://accent.gmu.edu)",
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"plaintext": "Shona (Primary): Female (Bulawayo, Zimbabwe)",
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"plaintext": "Namibian English tends to be strongly influenced by South African English. Most Namibians that grew up in and around the capital city (Windhoek) have developed an English accent while those in the rural areas have an accent strongly influenced by their mother tongue particularly Bantu languages.",
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"plaintext": "A number of distinct dialects of English are spoken in South Asia. There are many languages spoken in South Asia like Nepali, Hindi, Punjabi, Rajasthani, Sindhi, Balochi, Pashto, Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Kannada, Kashmiri, Marathi, Odia, Maithili, Malayalam, Sinhala, Tamil, Telugu, Tulu, Urdu and many more, creating a variety of accents of English. Accents originating in this part of the world tend to display several distinctive features, including:",
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"plaintext": " syllable-timing, in which a roughly equal time is allocated to each syllable. Akin to the English of Singapore and Malaysia. (Elsewhere, English speech timing is based predominantly on stress);",
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"plaintext": " \"sing-song\" pitch (somewhat reminiscent of those of Welsh English).",
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"plaintext": " retroflexion of \"t\" and \"d\"",
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"plaintext": "Philippine English employs a rhotic accent that originated from the time when it was first introduced by the Americans during the colonization period in the attempt to replace Spanish as the dominant political language. As there are no /f/ or /v/ sounds in most native languages in the Philippines, [p] is used as alternative to /f/ as [b] is to /v/. Thus, the words \"fifty\" and \"five\" are often pronounced and “pibe” by many Filipinos. Similarly, /θ/ is more often changed to [t] as /ð/ is to [d]. Hence, \"three\" becomes /tri/ while \"that\" becomes /dat/. This feature is consistent with many Malayo-Polynesian languages.",
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"plaintext": "Apart from the frequent inability to pronounce certain fricatives (e.g., [f], [v], [θ], [ð]), in reality, there is no single Philippine English accent. This is because native languages influence spoken English in different ways throughout the archipelago. For instance, those from Visayas usually interchange sounds /e/ and /i/ as well as /o/ and /u/ because the distinction is not very pronounced in native Visayan languages.",
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"plaintext": "People from the northern Philippines may pronounce /r/ with a strong trill instead of a flap as it is one feature of the Ilokano language. Ilokano people also generally pronounce the schwa sound /ə/ better because they use a similar sound in their language.",
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"plaintext": "The accent of English spoken in Hong Kong follows mainly British, with rather strong influence from Cantonese on the pronunciations of a few consonants and vowels, and sentence grammar and structure.",
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"plaintext": "Malay is the lingua franca of Malaysia, a federation of former British colonies and similar dependencies. English is a foreign language with no official status, but it is commonly learnt as a second or third language.",
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"plaintext": "The Malaysian accent appears to be a melding of British, Chinese, Tamil and Malay influences.",
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"plaintext": "Many Malaysians adopt different accents and usages depending on the situation; for example, an office worker may speak with less colloquialism and with a more British accent on the job than with friends or while out shopping.",
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"plaintext": "syllable-timing, where speech is timed according to syllable, akin to the English of the Indian Subcontinent. (Elsewhere, speech is usually timed to stress.)",
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"plaintext": " A quick, staccato style, with \"puncturing\" syllables and well-defined, drawn out tones.",
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"plaintext": " Non-rhoticity, like most varieties of English language in England. Hence caught and court are homophonous as (in actuality, or , see \"Simplification\" below); can't rhymes with aren't, etc.",
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"plaintext": " The \"ay\" and \"ow\" sounds in raid and road ( and respectively) are pronounced as monophthongs, i.e. with no \"glide\": and .",
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"plaintext": " is pronounced as [t] and as [d]; hence, thin is and then is .",
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"plaintext": " Depending on how colloquial the situation is: many discourse particles, or words inserted at the end of sentences that indicate the role of the sentence in discourse and the mood it conveys, like \"lah\", \"leh\", \"mah\", \"hor\", etc.",
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"plaintext": "Singapore is effectively a multi-lingual nation. The Singapore government recognises four official languages: English, Malay, Mandarin Chinese, and Tamil.",
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"plaintext": "Students in primary and secondary schools learning English as the language of instruction also learn a second language called their \"Mother Tongue\" by the Ministry of Education, where they are taught Mandarin Chinese, Malay or Tamil. A main point to note is while \"Mother Tongue\" generally refers to the first language (L1) overseas, in Singapore, it is used by the Ministry of Education to denote the traditional language of one's ethnic group, which sometimes can be their second language (L2).",
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"plaintext": "There are two main types of English spoken in Singapore – Standard Singapore English and Singlish. Singlish is more widely spoken than standard English. It has a very distinctive tone and sentence structure which are both strongly influenced by Malay and the many varieties of Chinese spoken in the city.",
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"plaintext": "A 2005 census showed that around 30% of Singaporeans speak English as their main language at home.",
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"plaintext": "There are many foreigners working in Singapore. 36% of the population in Singapore are foreigners and foreigners make up 50% of the service sector. Therefore, it is very common to encounter service staff who are not fluent in English. Most of these staff speak Mandarin Chinese. Those who do not speak Mandarin Chinese tend to speak either broken English or Singlish, which they have learnt from the locals.",
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"plaintext": "Phonetic change in the English spoken at a base in Antarctica has also been registered. This has been referred to as the start of a new accent.",
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"plaintext": "American English",
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"plaintext": "List of dialects of the English language",
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"plaintext": "Koiné language",
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"plaintext": "The Speech Accent Archive 1254 audio samples of people with various accents reading the same paragraph.",
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"plaintext": "Sounds Familiar?— Listen to examples of regional accents and dialects from across the UK on the British Library's 'Sounds Familiar' website",
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"plaintext": "'Hover & Hear' Accents of English from Around the World, listen and compare side by side instantaneously.",
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"plaintext": "English Accents and Dialects Searchable free-access archive of 681 speech samples, England only, wma format with linguistic commentary",
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"plaintext": "Britain's crumbling ruling class is losing the accent of authority An article on the connection of class and accent in the UK, its decline, and the spread of Estuary English",
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"plaintext": "The Telsur Project Homepage of the telephone survey of North American English accents",
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"plaintext": "Pittsburgh Speech & Society A site for non-linguists, by Barbara Johnstone of Carnegie Mellon University",
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"plaintext": "Linguistic Geography of Pennsylvania by Claudio Salvucci",
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"plaintext": "Phillyspeak A newspaper article on Philadelphia speech",
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"plaintext": "J.C. Wells' English Accents course Includes class handouts describing Cockney, Scottish, Australian, and Scouse, among other things.",
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"plaintext": "Evaluating English Accents Worldwide",
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"plaintext": "Do You Speak American? A series of web pages by PBS that attempts to discuss the differences between dialects in the United States",
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"plaintext": "Language by Video Short videos demonstrating differences in English accents around the world.",
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| [
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| 7,309,189 | 10,328 | 158 | 285 | 0 | 0 | regional accent of English | accents by region | [
"Regional accents of English"
]
|
38,378 | 1,068,669,498 | Sebastian_Münster | [
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"plaintext": "Sebastian Münster (20 January 1488 – 26 May 1552) was a German cartographer, cosmographer, and a Christian Hebraist scholar.",
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"plaintext": "He was born in Ingelheim, near Mainz, the son of Andreas Münster. His parents and other ancestors were farmers.",
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"plaintext": "In 1505, he entered the Franciscan order. Four years later, he entered a monastery where he became a student of Konrad Pelikan for five years. Münster completed his studies at the University of Tübingen in 1518. His graduate adviser was Johannes Stöffler.",
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"plaintext": "He left the Franciscans for the Lutheran Church in order to accept an appointment at the Reformed Church-dominated University of Basel in 1529. He had long harboured an interest in Lutheranism, and during the German Peasants' War, as a monk, he had been repeatedly attacked. A professor of Hebrew, and a disciple of Elias Levita, he edited the Hebrew Bible (2 vols. fol., Basel, 1534–1535), accompanied by a Latin translation and a large number of annotations. He was the first German to produce an edition of the Hebrew Bible.",
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"plaintext": "He published more than one Hebrew grammar, and was the first to prepare a Grammatica Chaldaica (Basel, 1527). His lexicographical labours included a Dictionarium Chaldaicum (1527), and a Dictionarium trilingue for Latin, Greek, and Hebrew in 1530.",
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"plaintext": "He released a Mappa Europae (map of Europe) in 1536. In 1537, he published a Rabbinical translation of the Gospel of Matthew in Hebrew which he had obtained from Spanish Conversos. In 1540 he published a Latin edition of Ptolemy's Geographia with illustrations. The 1550 edition contains cities, portraits, and costumes. These editions, printed in Germany, are the most valued of this work. Other writings that followed are Horologiographia (a treatise on dialling – constructing sundials, Basel, 1531), and Organum Uranicum (a treatise on the planetary motions, 1536).",
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"plaintext": "His Cosmographia of 1544 was the earliest description of the world in the German-language. It had numerous editions in different languages including Latin, French, Italian, English, and even Czech. The Cosmographia was one of the most successful and popular works of the 16th century. It passed through 24 editions in 100 years. This success was due to the fascinating woodcuts (some by Hans Holbein the Younger, Urs Graf, Hans Rudolph Manuel Deutsch, and David Kandel), in addition to including the first to introduce \"separate maps for each of the four continents known then – America, Africa, Asia and Europe.\" It was most important in reviving geography in 16th-century Europe. The last German edition was published in 1628, long after his death.",
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"plaintext": "Münster was also known as translator of the Hebrew Bible (Hebraica Biblia). His edition was published in two volumes (1546) in Basel. The first volume contains Genesis-2 Kings, following the order of the Masoretic codices. The second volume contains The Prophets (Major and Minor), The Psalms, Job, Proverb, Daniel, Chronicles, and the Five Scrolls (The Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes and Esther).",
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"plaintext": "His Rudimenta Mathematica was published in Basel in 1551.",
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"plaintext": "He died at Basel of the plague in 1552. Münster's tombstone describes him as the Ezra and the Strabo of the German people.",
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"plaintext": "Several paintings with oil on canvas, woodcuts and copper etchings depict Sebastian Münster, by Hans Holbein d. J. (Basel, c. 1530), Willem de Haen (1615), as rector of the University of Basel (by Christoph Amberger, um 1547), and on the 100-DM-bill as used 1962 to 1991.",
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"plaintext": "Karl Heinz Burmeister: Sebastian Münster – Versuch eines biographischen Gesamtbildes. Basler Beiträge zur Geschichtswissenschaft, Band 91, Basel und Stuttgart 1963 und 1969.",
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"plaintext": "Karl Heinz Burmeister: Sebastian Münster – Eine Bibliographie. Wiesbaden 1964.",
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"plaintext": "Ralf Kern: Wissenschaftliche Instrumente in ihrer Zeit. Vol. 1. Cologne, 2010. pp.307–311.",
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"plaintext": "Hans Georg Wehrens: Freiburg in der „Cosmographia“ von Sebastian Münster (1549); in Freiburg im Breisgau 1504 m–1803, Holzschnitte und Kupferstiche. Verlag Herder, Freiburg 2004, S. 34 ff. .",
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"plaintext": "Günther Wessel: Von einem, der daheim blieb, die Welt zu entdecken - Die Cosmographia des Sebastian Münster oder Wie man sich vor 500 Jahren die Welt vorstellte. Campus Verlag, Frankfurt 2004, .",
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"plaintext": " Werner Raupp: MÜNSTER, Sebastian. In: Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon (BBKL). Band 6, Bautz, Herzberg 1993, , Sp. 316–326 (with detailed bibliography).",
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"plaintext": "Lateinische Werke im Internet",
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"plaintext": "Wer war Sebastian Münster? - Umfangreiche Dokumentensammlung des Sebastian-Münster-Gymnasiums in Ingelheim.",
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"plaintext": "Sebastian Münster, La Cosmographie universelle online excerpts",
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"plaintext": "Historic Cities: Sebastian Münster",
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"plaintext": "Schreckenfuchs 1553 Oratio Funebris de Obitu Ssebastiani Munsteri",
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"plaintext": "Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries High resolution images of works by and/or portraits of Sebastian Munster in .jpg and .tiff format.",
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"plaintext": " \"The Strange Career of the Biblia Rabbinica among Christian Hebraists, 1517–1620\"",
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"plaintext": " The Munster Map - Simcoe County Archives",
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"plaintext": "Maps by Munster, Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, the National Library of Israel",
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38,382 | 1,091,821,339 | List_of_German_monarchs | [
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"plaintext": "This is a list of monarchs who ruled over East Francia, and the Kingdom of Germany (Regnum Teutonicum), from the division of the Frankish Empire in 843 until the collapse of the German Empire in 1918.",
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"plaintext": "The Kingdom of Germany started out as the eastern section of the Frankish kingdom, which was split by the Treaty of Verdun in 843. The rulers of the eastern area thus called themselves rex Francorum (\"king of the Franks\"), rex Francorum orientalium (\"king of the East Franks\"), and later just rex. A reference to the \"Germans\", indicating the emergence of a German nation of some sort, did not appear until the eleventh century, when the pope referred to his enemy Henry IV as rex teutonicorum, king of the Germans, in order to brand him as a foreigner. The kings reacted by consistently using the title rex Romanorum, king of the Romans, to emphasize their universal rule even before becoming emperor. This title remained until the end of the Empire in 1806, though after 1508 emperors-elect added \"king in Germany\" to their titles. (Note: in this and related entries, the kings are called kings of Germany, for clarity's sake)",
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"plaintext": "The Kingdom of Germany was never entirely hereditary; rather, ancestry was only one of the factors that determined the succession of kings. During the 10th to 13th centuries, the king was formally elected by the leading nobility in the realm, continuing the Frankish tradition. Gradually the election became the privilege of a group of princes called electors, and the Golden Bull of 1356 formally defined election proceedings.",
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"plaintext": "In the Middle Ages, the king did not assume the title \"emperor\" (from 982 the full title was Imperator Augustus Romanorum, Venerable Emperor of the Romans) until crowned by the pope. Moving to Italy, he was usually first crowned with the Iron Crown of Lombardy, after which he assumed the title of rex Italiae, king of Italy. After this he would ride on to Rome and be crowned emperor by the pope.",
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"plaintext": "Maximilian I was the first king to bear the title of emperor-elect. After his march to Rome for his Imperial coronation failed in 1508, he had himself proclaimed emperor-elect with papal consent. His successor Charles V also assumed that title after his coronation in 1520 until he was crowned emperor by the pope in 1530. From Ferdinand I onwards, all emperors did not get crowned by the Pope anymore. At the same time, chosen successors of the emperors held the title of king of the Romans, if elected by the college of electors during their predecessor's lifetime.",
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"plaintext": "Emperors are listed in bold. Rival kings, anti-kings, and junior co-regents are italicized.",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Note on titles",
"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": "The title \"King of the Romans\", used in the Holy Roman Empire, was, from the coronation of Henry II, considered equivalent to King of Germany. A king was chosen by the German electors and would then proceed to Rome to be crowned emperor by the pope.",
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"plaintext": " Kings of Germany family tree",
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"plaintext": " List of German monarchs in 1918",
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"plaintext": " List of rulers of Bavaria",
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"plaintext": " List of rulers of Württemberg",
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| 7,883,514 | 10,726 | 214 | 28 | 0 | 0 | list of German monarchs | Wikimedia list article | [
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"list of monarchs of Germany"
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|
38,386 | 1,069,919,264 | Don_Pasquale | [
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"plaintext": "Don Pasquale () is an opera buffa, or comic opera, in three acts by Gaetano Donizetti with an Italian libretto completed largely by Giovanni Ruffini as well as the composer. It was based on a libretto by Angelo Anelli for Stefano Pavesi's opera Ser Marcantonio written in 1810 but, on the published libretto, the author appears as \"M.A.\"",
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"plaintext": "Donizetti so dominated the preparation of the libretto that Ruffini refused to allow his name to be put on the score. This resulted in confusion over the identity of the librettist for more than half a century, but as Herbert Weinstock establishes, it was largely Ruffini's work and, in withholding his name from it as librettist, \"Donizetti or [his assistant] Accursi may have thought that, lacking Ruffini's name, the authorship might as well be assigned to Accursi's initials as to a pseudonym\".",
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"plaintext": "The opera was first performed on 3 January 1843 by the Théâtre-Italien at the Salle Ventadour in Paris with great success and it is generally regarded as being the high point of the 19th century opera buffa tradition and, in fact, marking its ending.",
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"plaintext": "Donizetti had just returned to Paris from Vienna in the autumn of 1842 and it was there that it was suggested to him by Jules Janin, the newly appointed director of the Théâtre-Italien, that he might compose a new opera for that house. Janin prepared a formal proposal on 27 September, but while no specific subject nor title was mentioned, Janin suggested that it should be a new opera buffa tailored to the talents of some major singers including Giulia Grisi, Antonio Tamburini, and Luigi Lablache.",
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"plaintext": " At around the same time in September, the Italian émigré librettist Giovanni Ruffini, who lived in Paris, was approached by Michele Accursi (who is described as \"Donizetti's Paris factotum, [an] Italian exile, and politically treacherous double agent\" ) with the suggestion that Ruffini offer his services to Donizetti as a librettist. This is confirmed by a letter from Ruffini to his mother of around 5 October in which the librettist tells her of Accursi's suggestion that the composer would use a story which was written in 1810 and that he would need \"a working stonemason of verses to remake the old libretto, to cut, change, add, plaster, and I don't know what.\" In addition, it is clear from another letter on 11 October to his mother that Ruffini is hard at work: \"I've been eating up the paper, as they say. It's not a question of doing it well or doing it badly, but of doing it fast.\" By the end, Ruffini stated that so much of the refinement of the work had been done by Donizetti that he felt that \"my freedom of action having been paralyzed by the maestro, I don't, so to say, recognize it as mine\". Therefore, he refused to have his name associated with the libretto, which was eventually published by Casa Ricordi as by \"M.A.\", since it was Accursi who officially ceded the rights to Ricordi so long as his name was never associated with the work.",
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"plaintext": "In the tradition of opera buffa, the opera makes reference to the stock characters of the commedia dell'arte. Pasquale is recognizable as the blustery Pantalone, Ernesto as the lovesick Pierrot, Malatesta as the scheming Scapino, and Norina as a wily Columbina. The false Notary echoes a long line of false officials as operatic devices.",
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"plaintext": "With rehearsals in progress in December 1842, it appeared that there was general pessimism as to its success: \"the atmosphere during rehearsals was frigid\" states Weinstock and records the lack of interest from the management and the orchestra musicians. \"The work had been condemned, judged\", he concludes. However, during the evening of the final dress rehearsal, Donizetti added a new piece which he had already written for the tenor, Com'è gentil, which was designed for the third act. As for fears for the opera's success, the composer had none: \"Have no fear for me...My work will be a success\", he stated.",
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"plaintext": "At its premiere Don Pasquale was performed by four of the most celebrated singers of the day and was an immediate success. It was recognized at the time as Donizetti's comic masterpiece and, to this day, is still considered as such. Pasquale remains one of the most popular of his 66 operas, as well as being one of the three most popular Italian comic operas, the others being Rossini's The Barber of Seville and Donizetti's own L'elisir d'amore.",
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"plaintext": "The first performance in Italy was at La Scala in Milan on 17 April 1843 with Ottavia Malvani (Norina), Napoleone Rossi (Pasquale), Leone Corelli (Ernesto), and Achille De Bassini (Malatesta). Its first performance in Vienna was at the Kärtnertortheater (in Italian) on 14 May 1843, a production in which Donizetti participated and added the comic baritone duet \"Cheti, cheti, immantinente\" from a discarded portion of his unperformed opera L'Ange de Nisida. In England it was first presented on 29 June 1843 at Her Majesty's Theatre in London (in Italian).",
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"plaintext": "The opera was translated into French by Gustave Vaëz and Alphonse Royer and given in Brussels on 11 August 1843, Lille on 9 November 1843, and at the Théâtre d'Orléans in New Orleans on 7 January 1845. The first Australian performance was presented in Sydney on 12 October 1854 at the Royal Victoria Theatre.",
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"plaintext": "Time: Early 19th century",
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"plaintext": "Place: Rome",
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"plaintext": "The music is suggestive of a comic opera; bright and lively, it starts with plenty of percussion and brass instruments. After a while, the ambience changes to suggesting a party, and concludes with a brass fanfare.",
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"plaintext": "Scenes 1–3: A room in the home of Don Pasquale, at 9 o'clock",
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"plaintext": "Ernesto has refused the woman that his uncle Don Pasquale had found for him, and as a result is to be disinherited. Ernesto declares his devotion to the young – but poor – widow Norina. In view of Ernesto's determination, Don Pasquale decides to marry in old age to produce his own heir, and anxiously awaits the arrival of his physician, Dr. Malatesta, who is determined to teach Don Pasquale how foolish he is being, but has been pretending to search for a suitable bride. Malatesta, confronted with Pasquale's impatience, mutters that he is a buffoon, but proceeds to describe the attributes of the bride-to-be (Bella siccome un angelo – \"Beautiful like an angel\"). Honest, modest and sweet – when pressed, Malatesta reveals she is in fact his sister. Overcome with joy, Pasquale demands to meet her at once, and sends Malatesta to fetch her, before singing of the love that has gripped him (Ah, un foco insolito – \"A sudden fire\").",
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"plaintext": "Ernesto comes back and pleads with the Don to consult with his friend Malatesta – when he hears that Malatesta supposedly supports Pasquale, he is amazed at this apparent betrayal (Mi fa il destino mendico – \"Fate has made a beggar of me\"). Ernesto determines to elope and writes to tell Norina that all is lost.",
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"plaintext": "Scenes 4–5: An apartment in the home of Norina",
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"plaintext": "Norina sits alone, reading a book. She recites a passage, before laughing at the situation described and reflecting on her own temperament (So anch'io la virtù magica – \"I too know your magical virtues\"). She is in cahoots with Dr. Malatesta and impatiently waits for him to come and explain his plan at which he had only hinted. A servant delivers the letter from Ernesto, which she quickly reads and is instantly dismayed.",
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"plaintext": "Malatesta arrives to explain the stratagem, but Norina cuts him off and hands him the letter, which he reads aloud: Ernesto has announced his intention to leave Rome, and Europe altogether. Malatesta reassures her, saying that he has adapted his plan: Norina shall play the part of Malatesta's sister. Having arranged for his cousin to act as a notary, they will easily deceive the Don. Norina consents to play her part in the deception, and they discuss her strategies in a lively duet (Pronta son; purch'io non manchi – \"I am ready; if I do not miss\").",
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"plaintext": "A salon in the home of Don Pasquale",
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"plaintext": "Ernesto is alone: lamenting his fate, he considers his decision to leave Rome (Cercherò lontana terra – \"I shall seek a distant land\"). He leaves the room just as Pasquale enters, dressed in his outdated finery, along with his servants, to whom he gives instructions to admit Malatesta on his arrival. He parades around in his grand costume, hoping it will conceal his advancing years.",
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"plaintext": "Malatesta arrives with Norina in tow, and introduces her to Pasquale as his sister, Sofronia, fresh out of the convent. Pasquale is smitten, and Norina plays the part of a dutiful, modest and submissive lady, to Pasquale's satisfaction. Norina consents to the proposed marriage, which delights Pasquale. He wants to send for the notary to conduct the ceremony straight away – conveniently, Malatesta has brought one along, who waits in the antechamber.",
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"plaintext": "Malatesta fetches the supposed notary, as servants arrange a table. Taking his seat, the \"notary\" writes out a marriage contract as dictated by Malatesta and Pasquale (Fra da una parta – \"Between, on one hand\"), where the Don bequeaths all his estate to be administrated by Sofronia. The contract is quickly drawn up: Pasquale signs but, before Norina can affix her signature, Ernesto bursts in. Intending to say a final farewell, he is amazed to see Norina about to marry Pasquale. However, Malatesta persuades him not to say anything (Figliol non mi far scene – \"Son, don't make a scene\"), and he is forced to act as the final witness much to Don Pasquale's delight.",
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"plaintext": "As soon as the contract is signed, Norina abandons her pretence of docility, and refuses Pasquale's embrace. She announces her intention to teach him manners, and to have Ernesto as a gallant to accompany her on evening strolls. Pasquale is horrified at this transformation, while Malatesta and Ernesto can barely conceal their amusement (È rimasto là impietrato – \"He stands there, petrified\"). Summoning the household staff, Norina recites a long list of demands – more servants (young and handsome at that), carriages and horses, furniture – and instructs them to spare no expense, doubling all their wages. Pasquale is stricken at his misfortune, so Malatesta urges him to go to bed.",
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"plaintext": "Pasquale sits in a room, surrounded by piles of newly purchased jewels, dresses and the like, as the servants bustle in and out of Norina's apartment (I diamanti presto presto – \"The diamonds, quickly, quickly\"). Dismayed by the piles of bills and invoices, the Don summons the courage to confront his tyrannical new wife. Norina emerges, dressed to go out. He attempts to reason with her, but she pays little heed (Signorina, in tanta fretta – \"Madam, where are you off to in such a hurry\"). He suggests that if she leaves, he may not allow her to return, an idea that she meets with patronising insincerity (Via, caro sposino – \"There, there, dear little husband\") but the discussion ends in her slapping him. As she exits, she drops a note which Pasquale picks up and reads. The note is addressed to Sofronia, arranging a meeting in the garden with its unnamed, admiring author. Pasquale calls for a servant to summon Malatesta, before leaving the room.",
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"plaintext": "The servants return and, amongst themselves, at once complain at the amount of work they are being made to do, and reveal how much they are enjoying the farcical drama developing between Pasquale and his new wife (Che interminabile andirivieni! – \"Such endless coming and going!\"). At the approach of Malatesta and Ernesto, however, they exit, assured of more entertainment to come. Malatesta reminds Ernesto of the finer points of their plan, and the latter leaves. The doctor moves forward to greet Don Pasquale, who tells him of Norina's intended assignation, and his own plan to expose her unfaithfulness before a magistrate. Malatesta persuades him to moderate his plan and Pasquale, believing him an ally, consents to his conditions, while plotting his revenge on Norina (Aspetta, aspetta, cara sposina – \"Wait, wait, dear little wife\").",
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"plaintext": "Scenes 6–7: The garden, adjoining Pasquale's house",
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"plaintext": "In the garden, as night draws in, Ernesto sings of his love for Norina, as he waits for her arrival (Com'è gentil – \"How lovely\"). At last, Norina emerges, and they express their love: (Tornami a dir che m'ami – \"Tell me once more that you love me\"). Don Pasquale and Malatesta have observed and, as they reveal themselves, Ernesto covers himself with a cloak and runs to the house. Pasquale tries to confront Norina – he has caught her in flagrante – but this only provokes a fight that leaves the Don spluttering. She refuses to leave at his demand, so Malatesta, as per his agreement with Pasquale, takes over. Pretending to negotiate with Norina/Sofronia, he tells Pasquale that the only way to make her leave will be to allow Ernesto to marry his beloved, whom \"Sofronia\" apparently despises. Pasquale consents, and calls out to the house, from which Ernesto and the servants emerge. He instructs Ernesto to send for his would-be bride, but Malatesta reveals that Norina is in fact the woman Pasquale thinks he married, while the real Sofronia remains in a convent. All are reconciled, and the moral of the story – not to marry in old age – is revealed in a playful quartet (La moral di tutto questo – \"The moral of all this\").",
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"plaintext": "Notes",
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"plaintext": "Cited sources",
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"plaintext": " Ashbrook, William (1982), Donizetti and His Operas, Cambridge University Press. ",
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"plaintext": " Ashbrook, William (1992). \"Don Pasquale\" in Sadie 1992, vol. 1, pp.1224–1226.",
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"plaintext": " Ashbrook, William; Sarah Hibberd (2001), in Holden, Amanda (Ed.), The New Penguin Opera Guide, New York: Penguin Putnam. .",
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"plaintext": " Budden, Julian (1992). \"Donizetti, Gaetano. 5. Operas\" in Sadie 1992, vol. 1, pp.1209–1214.",
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"plaintext": " Chouquet, Gustave (1889). \"Ventadour, Théâtre\" in A Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by George Grove, Vol. 4, pp.237–238. London: Macmillan.",
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"plaintext": " Donizetti, Gaetano (n.d. [1870]). Don Pasquale, dramma buffo in tre atti, piano-vocal score. Milan: Ricordi. IMSLP file #141736. ",
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"plaintext": " Harewood, The Earl of and Peattie, Antony, editors (1997). The New Kobbe's Opera Book. London: Ebury Press. ",
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"plaintext": " Loewenberg, Alfred (1978). Annals of Opera 1597–1940 (third edition, revised). Totowa, New Jersey: Rowman and Littlefield. .",
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"plaintext": " Melitz, Leo (1921), The Opera Goer's Complete Guide on Google books.",
"section_idx": 6,
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"plaintext": " Osborne, Charles (1994). The Bel Canto Operas of Rossini, Donizetti, and Bellini. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press. .",
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"plaintext": " Sadie, Stanley, editor (1992). The New Grove Dictionary of Opera (4 volumes). London: Macmillan. .",
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"plaintext": " Weinstock, Herbert (1963). Donizetti and the World of Opera in Italy, Paris, and Vienna in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century, New York: Pantheon Books. . .",
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"plaintext": "Allitt, John Stewart (1991), Donizetti: in the light of Romanticism and the teaching of Johann Simon Mayr, Shaftesbury, UK: Element Books, Ltd; Rockport, MA: Element, Inc.(US) ",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
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"plaintext": "Black, John (1982), Donizetti’s Operas in Naples, 1822–1848. London: The Donizetti Society.",
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"plaintext": " Donizetti Society (London) website",
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"plaintext": " Longer synopsis of Don Pasquale from English Touring Opera.",
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"plaintext": " French libretto (Brussels, 1843)",
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"plaintext": " Discography from Stanford website",
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"plaintext": " The Language of Don Pasquale - Italian Opera Explained",
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"plaintext": " Portrait of the opera in the online opera-guide www.opera-inside.com",
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| 723,941 | 4,150 | 495 | 47 | 0 | 0 | Don Pasquale | opera by Gaetano Donizetti | []
|
38,387 | 1,085,983,690 | Lucia_di_Lammermoor | [
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"plaintext": "Lucia di Lammermoor is a dramma tragico (tragic opera) in three acts by Italian composer Gaetano Donizetti. Salvadore Cammarano wrote the Italian-language libretto loosely based upon Sir Walter Scott's 1819 historical novel The Bride of Lammermoor.",
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"plaintext": "Donizetti wrote Lucia di Lammermoor in 1835, when he was reaching the peak of his reputation as an opera composer. Gioachino Rossini had recently retired and Vincenzo Bellini had died shortly before the premiere of Lucia leaving Donizetti as \"the sole reigning genius of Italian opera\". Not only were conditions ripe for Donizetti's success as a composer, but there was also a widespread interest in the history and culture of Scotland. The perceived romance of its violent wars and feuds, as well as its folklore and mythology, intrigued 19th century readers and audiences. Sir Walter Scott dramatized these elements in his novel The Bride of Lammermoor, which inspired several musical works including Lucia.",
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"plaintext": "The story concerns the emotionally fragile Lucy Ashton (Lucia) who is caught in a feud between her own family and that of the Ravenswoods. The setting is the Lammermuir Hills of Scotland (Lammermoor) in the 17th century.",
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"plaintext": "The opera premiered on 26 September 1835 at the Teatro di San Carlo in Naples. However, John Black notes that \"the surprising feature of its subsequent performance history is that it established so slowly in the Neapolitan repertoire\", noting that while there were 18 performances in the rest of 1835,",
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"plaintext": "there were only four in 1836, 16 in 1837, two in 1838, and continuing in this manner with only two in each of 1847 and 1848.",
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"plaintext": "London saw the opera on 5 April 1838 and, for Paris, Donizetti revised the score for a French version which debuted on 6 August 1839 at the Théâtre de la Renaissance in Paris. It reached the United States with a production in New Orleans on 28 May 1841.",
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"plaintext": "The opera was never absent from the repertory of the Metropolitan Opera for more than one season at a time from 1903 until 1972. After World War II, a number of sopranos were instrumental in giving new life to the opera, including Maria Callas (with performances from 1954 at La Scala and Berlin in 1955 under Herbert von Karajan) and Dame Joan Sutherland (with 1959 and 1960 performances at the Royal Opera House Covent Garden).",
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"plaintext": "It has remained a staple of the operatic repertoire.",
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"plaintext": "The instrumentation is:",
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"plaintext": "Woodwinds: piccolo, 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets and 2 bassoons",
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"plaintext": "Strings: harp, first violins, second violins, violas, violoncellos and double basses.",
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"plaintext": "Additionally an off-stage wind band is used; Donizetti did not provide instrumentation. ",
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"plaintext": "Also, occasionally the glass harmonica is substituted for solo flute in Lucia's mad scene, per Donizetti's original score.",
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"plaintext": "Time: 17th century",
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"plaintext": "Place: Scotland",
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"plaintext": "Scene 1: The gardens of Lammermoor Castle",
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"plaintext": "Normanno, captain of the castle guard, and other retainers are searching for an intruder. He tells Enrico that he believes that the man is Edgardo of Ravenswood, and that he comes to the castle to meet Enrico's sister, Lucia. It is confirmed that Edgardo is indeed the intruder. Enrico reaffirms his hatred for the Ravenswood family and his determination to end the relationship.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 2: By a fountain at the entrance to the park, beside the castle",
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"plaintext": "Lucia waits for Edgardo. In her famous aria \"\", Lucia tells her maid Alisa that she has seen the ghost of a girl killed on the very same spot by a jealous Ravenswood ancestor. Alisa tells Lucia that the apparition is a warning and that she must give up her love for Edgardo. Edgardo enters; for political reasons, he must leave immediately for France. He hopes to make his peace with Enrico and marry Lucia. Lucia tells him this is impossible, and instead they take a sworn vow of marriage and exchange rings. Edgardo leaves.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 1: Lord Ashton's apartments",
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"plaintext": "Preparations have been made for the imminent wedding of Lucia to Arturo. Enrico worries about whether Lucia will really submit to the wedding. He shows his sister a forged letter seemingly proving that Edgardo has forgotten her and taken a new lover. Enrico leaves Lucia to further persuasion, this time by Raimondo, Lucia's chaplain and tutor, that she should renounce her vow to Edgardo, for the good of the family, and marry Arturo.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 2: A hall in the castle",
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"plaintext": "Arturo arrives for the marriage. Lucia seems distressed, but Enrico explains that this is due to the death of her mother. Arturo signs the marriage contract, followed reluctantly by Lucia. At that point Edgardo suddenly appears in the hall, which leads to the celebrated sextet Chi mi frena in tal momento. Raimondo prevents a fight, and he shows Edgardo Lucia's signature on the marriage contract. Edgardo curses her, demanding that they return their rings to each other. He tramples his ring on the ground, before being forced out of the castle.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 1: Wolfcrag",
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"plaintext": "Enrico visits Edgardo to challenge him to a duel. He tells him that Lucia is already enjoying her bridal bed. Edgardo agrees to fight him. They will meet later by the graveyard of the Ravenswoods, near the Wolf's Crag.",
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"plaintext": "Raimondo interrupts the marriage celebrations to tell the guests that Lucia has gone mad and killed her bridegroom Arturo. Lucia enters. In the aria \"\" she imagines being with Edgardo, soon to be happily married. Enrico enters and at first threatens Lucia but later softens when he realizes her condition. Lucia collapses. Raimondo blames Enrico for precipitating the whole tragedy.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 3: The graveyard of the Ravenswood family",
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"plaintext": "Edgardo is resolved to kill himself on Enrico's sword. He learns that Lucia is dying and then Raimondo comes to tell him that she has already died. Edgardo stabs himself with a dagger, hoping to be reunited with Lucia in heaven.",
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"plaintext": "The cabaletta \"\" following the more lyrical \"\" from the \"mad scene\" (Act 3, Scene 2), has historically been a vehicle for several coloratura sopranos (providing a breakthrough for Dame Joan Sutherland) and is a technically and expressively demanding piece. Donizetti wrote it in F major, but it is often transposed down a tone (two half-steps) into E-flat.",
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"plaintext": "The original scoring of this scene was for glass harmonica and soprano. However, an adaptation for flute and the soprano soloist has been more commonly performed since, mostly for practical reasons. Glass harmonica players Sascha Reckert and Philipp Alexander Marguerre resuscitated Gaetano Donizetti's vision in 2006 at the Opera La Scala in Milan, accompanying Mariella Devia, and have since brought Donizetti’s original score back to all major opera houses, including the venue of its premiere, Teatro di San Carlo. Friedrich Heinrich Kern, who has been collaborating with Reckert and Marguerre as Ensemble Sinfonia di Vetro, started to revive the original performance practice in the United States, recently featured in Lucia di Lammermoor productions at the Metropolitan Opera, Santa Fe Opera, and Opera Philadelphia.",
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"plaintext": "The popular soprano and flute duet cadenza was composed in 1888 by Mathilde Marchesi for her student Nellie Melba's performance of the role, requiring ten weeks of rehearsal for the new addition and causing a critical reevaluation and surge of new interest in the opera.",
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"plaintext": "After Lucia di Lammermoor was produced in Paris, a French version was commissioned for the Théâtre de la Renaissance in Paris. Donizetti was living there at the time, preparing the revision of Poliuto into its French version (which became Les Martyrs). Lucie opened on 6 August 1839 and this version toured extensively throughout France. The libretto, written by Alphonse Royer and Gustave Vaëz, is not simply a translation, as Donizetti altered some of the scenes and characters. One of the more notable changes is the disappearance of Alisa, Lucia's handmaid and confidante. This allows the French version to isolate Lucia, thus increasing the story's emotional impact. Furthermore, Lucia loses most of Raimondo's support; his role is dramatically diminished while Arturo's is increased. Donizetti also added a new character, Gilbert, who is loosely based on the huntsman in the Italian version. However, Gilbert is a more developed figure who serves both Edgardo and Enrico, divulging their secrets to the other for money.",
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"plaintext": "The French version is performed far less frequently than the Italian, but it was revived to great acclaim by Natalie Dessay and Roberto Alagna at the Opéra National de Lyon in 2002. It was co-produced by the Boston Lyric Opera and the Glimmerglass Opera. Sarah Coburn sang the title role as her first \"Lucia\" in this French version in 2005. In 2008 Lucie was produced by the Cincinnati Opera with Coburn again in the title role.",
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"plaintext": "Lucia has received over twenty commercial studio recordings, and dozens more of live performances. Among these, two of the French versions and one of the original Italian edition are translated into English. The earliest complete recording was made in 1929 with Lorenzo Molajoli conducting the La Scala Orchestra and Chorus and Mercedes Capsir in the title role. There are several recordings with Maria Callas in the title role, including two studio versions conducted by Tullio Serafin (1953 and 1959) and two live versions by Herbert von Karajan (1954 and 1955). Joan Sutherland, who was particularly noted for performances as Lucia, has also been recorded in the role several times including a 1971 Decca Records recording conducted by Richard Bonynge with Luciano Pavarotti as Edgardo. In 2002, Chandos Records released the English version with David Parry conducting and Elizabeth Futral as Lucia. Several video recordings have also been released, including one in French. Charles Mackerras returned to Donizetti's autograph score and prepared a new edition of the score. He returned to the original key structure and the Mad Scene is quite different. He recorded this version for Sony in 1997. Another noteworthy recording is Diana Damrau's along with Joseph Calleja in the role of Edgardo and Ludovic Tézier as Enrico.",
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"plaintext": "Cited sources",
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"plaintext": "Ashbrook, William; Sarah Hibberd (2001), in Holden, Amanda (Ed.), The New Penguin Opera Guide, New York: Penguin Putnam. .",
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"plaintext": "Black, John (1982), Donizetti’s Operas in Naples, 1822—1848. London: The Donizetti Society.",
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"plaintext": "Osborne, Charles (1994), The Bel Canto Operas of Rossini, Donizetti, and Bellini, Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press. ",
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"plaintext": "Other sources",
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"plaintext": "Allitt, John Stewart (1991), Donizetti: in the light of Romanticism and the teaching of Johann Simon Mayr, Shaftesbury: Element Books, Ltd (UK); Rockport, MA: Element, Inc. (US)",
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"plaintext": "Ashbrook, William (1982), Donizetti and His Operas, Cambridge University Press. ",
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"plaintext": "Ashbrook, William (1998), \"Donizetti, Gaetano\" in Stanley Sadie (Ed.), The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, Vol. One. London: Macmillan Publishers, Inc. ",
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"plaintext": "Loewenberg, Alfred (1970). Annals of Opera, 1597–1940, 2nd edition. Rowman and Littlefield",
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"plaintext": "Osborne, Charles, (1994), The Bel Canto Operas of Rossini, Donizetti, and Bellini, Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press. ",
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"plaintext": "Sadie, Stanley, (Ed.); John Tyrell (Exec. Ed.) (2004), The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. 2nd edition. London: Macmillan. (hardcover). (eBook).",
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"plaintext": " Weinstock, Herbert (1963), Donizetti and the World of Opera in Italy, Paris, and Vienna in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century, New York: Pantheon Books. ",
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"plaintext": " Libretto of the French version at stanford.edu",
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"plaintext": " Italian libretto with line-by-line English, French, German libretto",
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"plaintext": " Libretto of the French version in the Magasin théâtral at the Internet Archive.",
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"plaintext": " Vocal score of the French version at the Internet Archive.",
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"plaintext": " Further Lucia di Lammermoor discography",
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"plaintext": " Lucia di Lammermoor synopsis (Metropolitan Opera)",
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"plaintext": "The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), has re-described dementia as a major neurocognitive disorder with varying degrees of severity and many causative subtypes. The International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11) also classes dementia as a neurocognitive disorder with many forms or subclasses. Dementia is listed as an acquired brain syndrome, marked by a decline in cognitive function, and is contrasted with neurodevelopmental disorders. Causative subtypes of dementia may be based on a known disorder, such as Parkinson's disease, for Parkinson's disease dementia; Huntington's disease, for Huntington's disease dementia; vascular disease, for vascular dementia – as vascular brain injury, including stroke, often results in vascular dementia; or many other medical conditions, including HIV infection, causing HIV dementia; and prion diseases. Subtypes may be based on various symptoms, possibly due to a neurodegenerative disorder: frontotemporal lobar degeneration for frontotemporal dementia, or Lewy body disease for dementia with Lewy bodies. More than one type of dementia, known as mixed dementia, may exist together.",
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"plaintext": "Diagnosis is usually based on history of the illness and cognitive testing with imaging. Blood tests may be taken to rule out other possible causes that may be reversible, such as an underactive thyroid, and to determine the subtype. One commonly used cognitive test is the Mini–Mental State Examination. The greatest risk factor for developing dementia is aging, however dementia is not a normal part of aging. Several risk factors for dementia, such as smoking and obesity, are preventable by lifestyle changes. Screening the general older population for the disorder is not seen to affect the outcome.",
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"plaintext": "Sensory dysfunction is claimed for this stage which may precede the first clinical signs of dementia by up to ten years. Most notably the sense of smell is lost. The loss of the sense of smell is associated with depression and loss of appetite leading to poor nutrition. It is suggested that this dysfunction may come about because the olfactory epithelium is exposed to the environment. The lack of blood–brain barrier protection here means that toxic elements can enter and cause damage to the chemosensory networks.",
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"plaintext": "In this stage signs and symptoms may be subtle. Often, the early signs become apparent when looking back. 70% of those diagnosed with MCI later progress to dementia. In MCI, changes in the person's brain have been happening for a long time, but symptoms are just beginning to appear. These problems, however, are not severe enough to affect daily function. If and when they do, the diagnosis becomes dementia. They may have some memory trouble and trouble finding words, but they solve everyday problems and competently handle their life affairs.",
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"plaintext": "Mild cognitive impairment has been relisted in both DSM-5, and ICD-11, as mild neurocognitive disorders – milder forms of the major neurocognitive disorder (dementia) subtypes.",
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"plaintext": "In the early stage of dementia, symptoms become noticeable to other people. In addition, the symptoms begin to interfere with daily activities, and will register a score on a Mini–Mental State Examination (MMSE). MMSE scores are set at 24 to 30 for a normal cognitive rating and lower scores reflect severity of symptoms. The symptoms are dependent on the type of dementia. More complicated chores and tasks around the house or at work become more difficult. The person can usually still take care of themselves but may forget things like taking pills or doing laundry and may need prompting or reminders.",
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"plaintext": "The symptoms of early dementia usually include memory difficulty, but can also include some word-finding problems, and problems with executive functions of planning and organization. Managing finances may prove difficult. Other signs might be getting lost in new places, repeating things, and personality changes.",
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"plaintext": "In some types of dementia, such as dementia with Lewy bodies and frontotemporal dementia, personality changes and difficulty with organization and planning may be the first signs.",
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"plaintext": "As dementia progresses, initial symptoms generally worsen. The rate of decline is different for each person. MMSE scores between 6–17 signal moderate dementia. For example, people with moderate Alzheimer's dementia lose almost all new information. People with dementia may be severely impaired in solving problems, and their social judgment is usually also impaired. They cannot usually function outside their own home, and generally should not be left alone. They may be able to do simple chores around the house but not much else, and begin to require assistance for personal care and hygiene beyond simple reminders. A lack of insight into having the condition will become evident.",
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"plaintext": "People with late-stage dementia typically turn increasingly inward and need assistance with most or all of their personal care. Persons with dementia in the late stages usually need 24-hour supervision to ensure their personal safety, and meeting of basic needs. If left unsupervised, they may wander or fall; may not recognize common dangers such as a hot stove; or may not realize that they need to use the bathroom and become incontinent. They may not want to get out of bed, or may need assistance doing so. Commonly, the person no longer recognizes familiar faces. They may have significant changes in sleeping habits or have trouble sleeping at all.",
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"plaintext": "Changes in eating frequently occur. Cognitive awareness is needed for eating and swallowing and progressive cognitive decline results in eating and swallowing difficulties. This can cause food to be refused, or choked on, and help with feeding will often be required. For ease of feeding, food may be liquidized into a thick purée. They may also struggle to walk, particularly among those with Alzheimer's disease.",
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"plaintext": "Many of the subtypes of dementia are neurodegenerative, and protein toxicity is a cardinal feature of these.",
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"plaintext": " Alzheimer's disease accounts for 60–70% of cases of dementia worldwide. The most common symptoms of Alzheimer's disease are short-term memory loss and word-finding difficulties. Trouble with visuospatial functioning (getting lost often), reasoning, judgment and insight fail. Insight refers to whether or not the person realizes they have memory problems.",
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"plaintext": "The part of the brain most affected by Alzheimer's is the hippocampus. Other parts that show atrophy (shrinking) include the temporal and parietal lobes. Although this pattern of brain shrinkage suggests Alzheimer's, it is variable and a brain scan is insufficient for a diagnosis. The relationship between general anesthesia and Alzheimer's in elderly people is unclear.",
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"plaintext": "Little is known about the events that occur during and that actually cause Alzheimer's disease. This is due to the fact that brain tissue from patients with the disease can only be studied after the person's death. However, it is known that one of the first aspects of the disease is a dysfunction in the gene that produces amyloid. Extracellular senile plaques (SPs), consisting of beta-amyloid (Aβ) peptides, and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) that are formed by hyperphosphorylated tau proteins, are two well-established pathological hallmarks of AD. Amyloid causes inflammation around the senile plaques of the brain, and too much build up of this inflammation leads to changes in the brain that cannot be controlled, leading to the symptoms of Alzheimer's.",
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"plaintext": "Vascular dementia accounts for at least 20% of dementia cases, making it the second most common type. It is caused by disease or injury affecting the blood supply to the brain, typically involving a series of mini-strokes. The symptoms of this dementia depend on where in the brain the strokes occurred and whether the blood vessels affected were large or small. Multiple injuries can cause progressive dementia over time, while a single injury located in an area critical for cognition such as the hippocampus, or thalamus, can lead to sudden cognitive decline. Elements of vascular dementia may be present in all other forms of dementia.",
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"plaintext": "Brain scans may show evidence of multiple strokes of different sizes in various locations. People with vascular dementia tend to have risk factors for disease of the blood vessels, such as tobacco use, high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, high cholesterol, diabetes, or other signs of vascular disease such as a previous heart attack or angina.",
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"plaintext": "The prodromal symptoms of dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) include mild cognitive impairment, and delirium onset.",
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"plaintext": "The symptoms of DLB are more frequent, more severe, and earlier presenting than in the other dementia subtypes.",
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"plaintext": "Dementia with Lewy bodies has the primary symptoms of fluctuating cognition, alertness or attention; REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD); one or more of the main features of parkinsonism, not due to medication or stroke; and repeated visual hallucinations. The visual hallucinations in DLB are generally vivid hallucinations of people or animals and they often occur when someone is about to fall asleep or wake up. Other prominent symptoms include problems with planning (executive function) and difficulty with visual-spatial function, and disruption in autonomic bodily functions. Abnormal sleep behaviors may begin before cognitive decline is observed and are a core feature of DLB. RBD is diagnosed either by sleep study recording or, when sleep studies cannot be performed, by medical history and validated questionnaires.",
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"plaintext": "Parkinson's disease is a Lewy body disease that often progresses to Parkinson's disease dementia following a period of dementia-free Parkinson's disease.",
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"plaintext": "Frontotemporal dementias (FTDs) are characterized by drastic personality changes and language difficulties. In all FTDs, the person has a relatively early social withdrawal and early lack of insight. Memory problems are not a main feature. There are six main types of FTD. The first has major symptoms in personality and behavior. This is called behavioral variant FTD (bv-FTD) and is the most common. The hallmark feature of bv-FTD is impulsive behaviour, and this can be detected in pre-dementia states. In bv-FTD, the person shows a change in personal hygiene, becomes rigid in their thinking, and rarely acknowledges problems; they are socially withdrawn, and often have a drastic increase in appetite. They may become socially inappropriate. For example, they may make inappropriate sexual comments, or may begin using pornography openly. One of the most common signs is apathy, or not caring about anything. Apathy, however, is a common symptom in many dementias.",
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"plaintext": "Two types of FTD feature aphasia (language problems) as the main symptom. One type is called semantic variant primary progressive aphasia (SV-PPA). The main feature of this is the loss of the meaning of words. It may begin with difficulty naming things. The person eventually may lose the meaning of objects as well. For example, a drawing of a bird, dog, and an airplane in someone with FTD may all appear almost the same. In a classic test for this, a patient is shown a picture of a pyramid and below it a picture of both a palm tree and a pine tree. The person is asked to say which one goes best with the pyramid. In SV-PPA the person cannot answer that question. The other type is called non-fluent agrammatic variant primary progressive aphasia (NFA-PPA). This is mainly a problem with producing speech. They have trouble finding the right words, but mostly they have a difficulty coordinating the muscles they need to speak. Eventually, someone with NFA-PPA only uses one-syllable words or may become totally mute.",
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"plaintext": "A frontotemporal dementia associated with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) known as (FTD-ALS) includes the symptoms of FTD (behavior, language and movement problems) co-occurring with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (loss of motor neurons). Two FTD-related disorders are progressive supranuclear palsy (also classed as a Parkinson-plus syndrome), and corticobasal degeneration. These disorders are tau-associated.",
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"plaintext": "Huntington's disease is a neurodegenerative disease caused by mutations in a single gene HTT, that encodes for huntingtin protein. Symptoms include cognitive impairment and this usually declines further into dementia.",
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"plaintext": "The first main symptoms of Huntington's disease often include:",
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"plaintext": " difficulty concentrating.",
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"plaintext": " memory lapses.",
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"plaintext": " depression- this can include low mood, lack of interest in things, or just abnormal feelings of hopelessness.",
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"plaintext": " stumbling and clumsiness that is out of the ordinary.",
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"plaintext": " mood swings, such as irritability or aggressive behavior to insignificant things.",
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"plaintext": "HIV-associated dementia results as a late stage from HIV infection, and mostly affects younger people. The essential features of HIV-associated dementia are disabling cognitive impairment accompanied by motor dysfunction, speech problems and behavioral change. Cognitive impairment is characterised by mental slowness, trouble with memory and poor concentration. Motor symptoms include a loss of fine motor control leading to clumsiness, poor balance and tremors. Behavioral changes may include apathy, lethargy and diminished emotional responses and spontaneity. Histopathologically, it is identified by the infiltration of monocytes and macrophages into the central nervous system (CNS), gliosis, pallor of myelin sheaths, abnormalities of dendritic processes and neuronal loss.",
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"plaintext": "Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease is a rapidly progressive prion disease that typically causes dementia that worsens over weeks to months. Prions are disease-causing pathogens created from abnormal proteins.",
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"plaintext": "Alcohol-related dementia also called alcohol-related brain damage occurs as a result of excessive use of alcohol particularly as a substance abuse disorder. Different factors can be involved in this development including thiamine deficiency and age vulnerability. A degree of brain damage is seen in more than 70% of those with alcohol use disorder. Brain regions affected are similar to those that are affected by aging, and also by Alzheimer's disease. Regions showing loss of volume include the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes, as well as the cerebellum, thalamus, and hippocampus. This loss can be more notable, with greater cognitive impairments seen in those aged 65 years and older.",
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"plaintext": "More than one type of dementia, known as mixed dementia, may exist together in about 10% of dementia cases. The most common type of mixed dementia is Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia. This particular type of mixed dementia's main onsets are a mixture of old age, high blood pressure, and damage to blood vessels in the brain.",
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"plaintext": "Diagnosis of mixed dementia can be difficult, as often only one type will predominate. This makes the treatment of people with mixed dementia uncommon, with many people missing out on potentially helpful treatments. Mixed dementia can mean that symptoms onset earlier, and worsen more quickly since more parts of the brain will be affected.",
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"plaintext": "Although it is not very common to inherit dementia from a parent or grandparent, there are genetic linked causes of dementia. These are only a small overall portion of the overall cases of dementia, but it is possible.",
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"plaintext": "Chronic inflammatory conditions that may affect the brain and cognition include Behçet's disease, multiple sclerosis, sarcoidosis, Sjögren's syndrome, lupus, celiac disease, and non-celiac gluten sensitivity. These types of dementias can rapidly progress, but usually have a good response to early treatment. This consists of immunomodulators or steroid administration, or in certain cases, the elimination of the causative agent. A 2019 review found no association between celiac disease and dementia overall but a potential association with vascular dementia. A 2018 review found a link between celiac disease or non-celiac gluten sensitivity and cognitive impairment and that celiac disease may be associated with Alzheimer's disease, vascular dementia, and frontotemporal dementia. A strict gluten-free diet started early may protect against dementia associated with gluten-related disorders.",
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"plaintext": "Cases of easily reversible dementia include hypothyroidism, vitamin B12 deficiency, Lyme disease, and neurosyphilis. For Lyme disease and neurosyphilis, testing should be done if risk factors are present. Because risk factors are often difficult to determine, testing for neurosyphilis and Lyme disease, as well as other mentioned factors, may be undertaken as a matter of course where dementia is suspected.",
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"plaintext": "Many other medical and neurological conditions include dementia only late in the illness. For example, a proportion of patients with Parkinson's disease develop dementia, though widely varying figures are quoted for this proportion. When dementia occurs in Parkinson's disease, the underlying cause may be dementia with Lewy bodies or Alzheimer's disease, or both. Cognitive impairment also occurs in the Parkinson-plus syndromes of progressive supranuclear palsy and corticobasal degeneration (and the same underlying pathology may cause the clinical syndromes of frontotemporal lobar degeneration). Although the acute porphyrias may cause episodes of confusion and psychiatric disturbance, dementia is a rare feature of these rare diseases. Limbic-predominant age-related TDP-43 encephalopathy (LATE) is a type of dementia that primarily affects people in their 80s or 90s and in which TDP-43 protein deposits in the limbic portion of the brain.",
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"plaintext": "Hereditary disorders that can also cause dementia include: some metabolic disorders, lysosomal storage disorders, leukodystrophies, and spinocerebellar ataxias.",
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"plaintext": "Symptoms are similar across dementia types and it is difficult to diagnose by symptoms alone. Diagnosis may be aided by brain scanning techniques. In many cases, the diagnosis requires a brain biopsy to become final, but this is rarely recommended (though it can be performed at autopsy). In those who are getting older, general screening for cognitive impairment using cognitive testing or early diagnosis of dementia has not been shown to improve outcomes. However, screening exams are useful in 65+ persons with memory complaints.",
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"plaintext": "Normally, symptoms must be present for at least six months to support a diagnosis. Cognitive dysfunction of shorter duration is called delirium. Delirium can be easily confused with dementia due to similar symptoms. Delirium is characterized by a sudden onset, fluctuating course, a short duration (often lasting from hours to weeks), and is primarily related to a somatic (or medical) disturbance. In comparison, dementia has typically a long, slow onset (except in the cases of a stroke or trauma), slow decline of mental functioning, as well as a longer trajectory (from months to years).",
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"plaintext": "Some mental illnesses, including depression and psychosis, may produce symptoms that must be differentiated from both delirium and dementia. These are differently diagnosed as pseudodementias, and any dementia evaluation needs to include a depression screening such as the Neuropsychiatric Inventory or the Geriatric Depression Scale. Physicians used to think that people with memory complaints had depression and not dementia (because they thought that those with dementia are generally unaware of their memory problems). However, researchers have realized that many older people with memory complaints in fact have mild cognitive impairment the earliest stage of dementia. Depression should always remain high on the list of possibilities, however, for an elderly person with memory trouble. Changes in thinking, hearing and vision are associated with normal ageing and can cause problems when diagnosing dementia due to the similarities. Given the challenging nature of predicting the onset of dementia and making a dementia diagnosis clinical decision making aids underpinned by machine learning and artificial intelligence have the potential to enhance clinical practice.",
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"plaintext": "Various brief cognitive tests (5–15 minutes) have reasonable reliability to screen for dementia, but may be affected by factors such as age, education and ethnicity. While many tests have been studied, presently the mini mental state examination (MMSE) is the best studied and most commonly used. The MMSE is a useful tool for helping to diagnose dementia if the results are interpreted along with an assessment of a person's personality, their ability to perform activities of daily living, and their behaviour. Other cognitive tests include the abbreviated mental test score (AMTS), the, Modified Mini-Mental State Examination (3MS), the Cognitive Abilities Screening Instrument (CASI), the Trail-making test, and the clock drawing test. The MoCA (Montreal Cognitive Assessment) is a reliable screening test and is available online for free in 35 different languages. The MoCA has also been shown somewhat better at detecting mild cognitive impairment than the MMSE. The AD-8 – a screening questionnaire used to assess changes in function related to cognitive decline – is potentially useful, but is not diagnostic, is variable, and has risk of bias. An integrated cognitive assessment (CognICA) is a five-minute test that is highly sensitive to the early stages of dementia, and uses an application deliverable to an iPad. Previously in use in the UK, in 2021 CognICA was given FDA approval for its commercial use as a medical device.",
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"plaintext": "Another approach to screening for dementia is to ask an informant (relative or other supporter) to fill out a questionnaire about the person's everyday cognitive functioning. Informant questionnaires provide complementary information to brief cognitive tests. Probably the best known questionnaire of this sort is the Informant Questionnaire on Cognitive Decline in the Elderly (IQCODE). Evidence is insufficient to determine how accurate the IQCODE is for diagnosing or predicting dementia. The Alzheimer's Disease Caregiver Questionnaire is another tool. It is about 90% accurate for Alzheimer's when by a caregiver. The General Practitioner Assessment Of Cognition combines both a patient assessment and an informant interview. It was specifically designed for use in the primary care setting.",
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"plaintext": "Clinical neuropsychologists provide diagnostic consultation following administration of a full battery of cognitive testing, often lasting several hours, to determine functional patterns of decline associated with varying types of dementia. Tests of memory, executive function, processing speed, attention and language skills are relevant, as well as tests of emotional and psychological adjustment. These tests assist with ruling out other etiologies and determining relative cognitive decline over time or from estimates of prior cognitive abilities.",
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"plaintext": "Routine blood tests are usually performed to rule out treatable causes. These include tests for vitamin B12, folic acid, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), C-reactive protein, full blood count, electrolytes, calcium, renal function, and liver enzymes. Abnormalities may suggest vitamin deficiency, infection, or other problems that commonly cause confusion or disorientation in the elderly.",
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"plaintext": "A CT scan or MRI scan is commonly performed to possibly find either normal pressure hydrocephalus, a potentially reversible cause of dementia, or connected tumor. The scans can also yield information relevant to other types of dementia, such as infarction (stroke) that would point at a vascular type of dementia. These tests do not pick up diffuse metabolic changes associated with dementia in a person who shows no gross neurological problems (such as paralysis or weakness) on a neurological exam.",
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"plaintext": "The functional neuroimaging modalities of SPECT and PET are more useful in assessing long-standing cognitive dysfunction, since they have shown similar ability to diagnose dementia as a clinical exam and cognitive testing. The ability of SPECT to differentiate vascular dementia from Alzheimer's disease, appears superior to differentiation by clinical exam.",
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"plaintext": "The value of PiB-PET imaging using Pittsburgh compound B (PiB) as a radiotracer has been established in predictive diagnosis, particularly Alzheimer's disease.",
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"plaintext": "The number of associated risk factors for dementia was increased from nine to twelve in 2020. The three newly added risks are over-indulgence in alcohol, traumatic brain injury, and air pollution. The other nine risk factors are: lower levels of education, high blood pressure, hearing loss, smoking, obesity, depression, inactivity, diabetes, and low social contact. Many of these identified risk factors including, the lower level of education, smoking, physical inactivity and diabetes, are modifiable. Several of the group are known vascular risk factors that may be able to be reduced or eliminated. Managing these risk factors can reduce the risk of dementia in individuals in their late midlife or older age. A reduction in a number of these risk factors can give a positive outcome. The decreased risk achieved by adopting a healthy lifestyle is seen even in those with a high genetic risk.",
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"plaintext": "Based on the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ELSA), research found that loneliness in older people increased the risk of dementia by one-third. Not having a partner (being single, divorced, or widowed) doubled the risk of dementia. However, having two or three closer relationships reduced the risk by three-fifths.",
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"plaintext": "The two most modifiable risk factors for dementia are physical inactivity and lack of cognitive stimulation. Physical activity, in particular aerobic exercise, is associated with a reduction in age-related brain tissue loss, and neurotoxic factors thereby preserving brain volume and neuronal integrity. Cognitive activity strengthens neural plasticity and together they help to support cognitive reserve. The neglect of these risk factors diminishes this reserve.",
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"plaintext": "Studies suggest that sensory impairments of vision and hearing are modifiable risk factors for dementia. These impairments may precede the cognitive symptoms of Alzheimer's disease for example, by many years. Hearing loss may lead to social isolation which negatively affects cognition. Social isolation is also identified as a modifiable risk factor. Age-related hearing loss in midlife is linked to cognitive impairment in late life, and is seen as a risk factor for the development of Alzheimer's disease and dementia. Such hearing loss may be caused by a central auditory processing disorder that makes the understanding of speech against background noise difficult. Age-related hearing loss is characterised by slowed central processing of auditory information. Worldwide, mid-life hearing loss may account for around 9% of dementia cases.",
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"plaintext": "Evidence suggests that frailty may increase the risk of cognitive decline, and dementia, and that the inverse also holds of cognitive impairment increasing the risk of frailty. Prevention of frailty may help to prevent cognitive decline.",
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"plaintext": "A 2018 review however concluded that no medications have good evidence of a preventive effect, including blood pressure medications. A 2020 review found a decrease in the risk of dementia or cognitive problems from 7.5% to 7.0% with blood pressure lowering medications.",
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"plaintext": "Economic disadvantage has been shown to have a strong link to higher dementia prevalence, which cannot yet be fully explained by other risk factors.",
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"plaintext": "Limited evidence links poor oral health to cognitive decline. However, failure to perform tooth brushing and gingival inflammation can be used as dementia risk predictors.",
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"plaintext": "The link between Alzheimer's and gum disease is oral bacteria. In the oral cavity, bacterial species include P. gingivalis, F. nucleatum, P. intermedia, and T. forsythia. Six oral treponema spirochetes have been examined in the brains of Alzheimer's patients. Spirochetes are neurotropic in nature, meaning they act to destroy nerve tissue and create inflammation. Inflammatory pathogens are an indicator of Alzheimer's disease and bacteria related to gum disease have been found in the brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease. The bacteria invade nerve tissue in the brain, increasing the permeability of the blood–brain barrier and promoting the onset of Alzheimer's. Individuals with a plethora of tooth plaque risk cognitive decline. Poor oral hygiene can have an adverse effect on speech and nutrition, causing general and cognitive health decline.",
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"plaintext": "Herpes simplex virus (HSV) has been found in more than 70% of those aged over 50. HSV persists in the peripheral nervous system and can be triggered by stress, illness or fatigue. High proportions of viral-associated proteins in amyloid plaques or neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) confirm the involvement of HSV-1 in Alzheimer's disease pathology. NFTs are known as the primary marker of Alzheimer's disease. HSV-1 produces the main components of NFTs.",
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"plaintext": "Diet is seen to be a modifiable risk factor for the development of dementia. Thiamine deficiency is identified to increase the risk of Alzheimer's disease in adults. The role of thiamine in brain physiology is unique and essential for the normal cognitive function of older people. Many dietary choices of the elderly population, including the higher intake of gluten-free products, compromise the intake of thiamine as these products are not fortified with thiamine.",
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"plaintext": "The Mediterranean and DASH diets are both associated with less cognitive decline. A different approach has been to incorporate elements of both of these diets into one known as the MIND diet. These diets are generally low in saturated fats while providing a good source of carbohydrates, mainly those that help stabilize blood sugar and insulin levels. Raised blood sugar levels over a long time, can damage nerves and cause memory problems if they are not managed. Nutritional factors associated with the proposed diets for reducing dementia risk include unsaturated fatty acids, vitamin E, vitamin C, flavonoids, vitamin B, and vitamin D.",
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"plaintext": "The MIND diet may be more protective but further studies are needed. The Mediterranean diet seems to be more protective against Alzheimer's than DASH but there are no consistent findings against dementia in general. The role of olive oil needs further study as it may be one of the most important components in reducing the risk of cognitive decline and dementia.",
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"plaintext": "In those with celiac disease or non-celiac gluten sensitivity, a strict gluten-free diet may relieve the symptoms given a mild cognitive impairment. Once dementia is advanced no evidence suggests that a gluten-free diet is useful.",
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"plaintext": "Omega-3 fatty acid supplements do not appear to benefit or harm people with mild to moderate symptoms. However, there is good evidence that omega-3 incorporation into the diet is of benefit in treating depression, a common symptom, and potentially modifiable risk factor for dementia.",
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"plaintext": "There are limited options for treating dementia, with most approaches focused on managing or reducing individual symptoms. There are no treatment options available to delay the onset of dementia. Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors are often used early in the disorder course; however, benefit is generally small. More than half of people with dementia may experience psychological or behavioral symptoms including agitation, sleep problems, aggression, and/or psychosis. Treatment for these symptoms is aimed at reducing the person's distress and keeping the person safe. Treatments other than medication appear to be better for agitation and aggression. Cognitive and behavioral interventions may be appropriate. Some evidence suggests that education and support for the person with dementia, as well as caregivers and family members, improves outcomes. Palliative care interventions may improve lead to improvements in comfort in dying, but the evidence is low. Exercise programs are beneficial with respect to activities of daily living, and potentially improve dementia.",
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"plaintext": "The effect of therapies can be evaluated for example by assessing agitation using the Cohen-Mansfield Agitation Inventory (CMAI); by assessing mood and engagement with the Menorah Park Engagement Scale (MPES); and the Observed Emotion Rating Scale (OERS) or by assessing indicators for depression using the Cornell Scale for Depression in Dementia (CSDD) or a simplified version thereof.",
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"plaintext": "Often overlooked in treating and managing dementia is the role of the caregiver and what is known about how they can support multiple interventions. Findings from a 2021 systematic review of the literature found caregivers of people with dementia in nursing homes do not have sufficient tools or clinical guidance for behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD) along with medication use. Simple measures like talking to people about their interest can improve the quality of life for care home residents living with dementia. A programme showed that such simple measures reduced residents' agitation and depression. They also needed fewer GP visits and hospital admissions, which also meant that the programme was cost-saving.",
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"plaintext": "Psychological therapies for dementia include some limited evidence for reminiscence therapy (namely, some positive effects in the areas of quality of life, cognition, communication and mood – the first three particularly in care home settings), some benefit for cognitive reframing for caretakers, unclear evidence for validation therapy and tentative evidence for mental exercises, such as cognitive stimulation programs for people with mild to moderate dementia. Offering personally tailored activities may help reduce challenging behavior and may improve quality of life. It is not clear if personally tailored activities have an impact on affect or improve for the quality of life for the caregiver.",
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"plaintext": "Adult daycare centers as well as special care units in nursing homes often provide specialized care for dementia patients. Daycare centers offer supervision, recreation, meals, and limited health care to participants, as well as providing respite for caregivers. In addition, home care can provide one-to-one support and care in the home allowing for more individualized attention that is needed as the disorder progresses. Psychiatric nurses can make a distinctive contribution to people's mental health.",
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"plaintext": "Since dementia impairs normal communication due to changes in receptive and expressive language, as well as the ability to plan and problem solve, agitated behavior is often a form of communication for the person with dementia. Actively searching for a potential cause, such as pain, physical illness, or overstimulation can be helpful in reducing agitation. Additionally, using an \"ABC analysis of behavior\" can be a useful tool for understanding behavior in people with dementia. It involves looking at the antecedents (A), behavior (B), and consequences (C) associated with an event to help define the problem and prevent further incidents that may arise if the person's needs are misunderstood. The strongest evidence for non-pharmacological therapies for the management of changed behaviors in dementia is for using such approaches. Low quality evidence suggests that regular (at least five sessions of) music therapy may help institutionalized residents. It may reduce depressive symptoms and improve overall behaviors. It may also supply a beneficial effect on emotional well-being and quality of life, as well as reduce anxiety. In 2003, The Alzheimer's Society established 'Singing for the Brain' (SftB) a project based on pilot studies which suggested that the activity encouraged participation and facilitated the learning of new songs. The sessions combine aspects of reminiscence therapy and music. Musical and interpersonal connectedness can underscore the value of the person and improve quality of life.",
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"plaintext": "Some London hospitals found that using color, designs, pictures and lights helped people with dementia adjust to being at the hospital. These adjustments to the layout of the dementia wings at these hospitals helped patients by preventing confusion.",
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"plaintext": "Life story work as part of reminiscence therapy, and video biographies have been found to address the needs of clients and their caregivers in various ways, offering the client the opportunity to leave a legacy and enhance their personhood and also benefitting youth who participate in such work. Such interventions can be more beneficial when undertaken at a relatively early stage of dementia. They may also be problematic in those who have difficulties in processing past experiences",
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"plaintext": "Animal-assisted therapy has been found to be helpful. Drawbacks may be that pets are not always welcomed in a communal space in the care setting. An animal may pose a risk to residents, or may be perceived to be dangerous. Certain animals may also be regarded as \"unclean\" or \"dangerous\" by some cultural groups.",
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"plaintext": "Occupational therapy also addresses psychological and psychosocial needs of patients with dementia through improving daily occupational performance and caregivers' competence. When compensatory intervention strategies are added to their daily routine, the level of performance is enhanced and reduces the burden commonly placed on their caregivers. Occupational therapists can also work with other disciplines to create a client centered intervention. To manage cognitive disability, and coping with behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia, combined occupational and behavioral therapies can support patients with dementia even further.",
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"plaintext": "There is no strong evidence to suggest that cognitive training is beneficial for people with Parkinson's disease, dementia, or mild cognitive impairment.",
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"plaintext": "Offering personally tailored activity sessions to people with dementia in long-term care homes may help manage challenging behavior.",
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"plaintext": "No medications have been shown to prevent or cure dementia. Medications may be used to treat the behavioral and cognitive symptoms, but have no effect on the underlying disease process.",
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"plaintext": "Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, such as donepezil, may be useful for Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease dementia, DLB, or vascular dementia. The quality of the evidence is poor and the benefit is small. No difference has been shown between the agents in this family. In a minority of people side effects include a slow heart rate and fainting. Rivastigmine is recommended for treating symptoms in Parkinson's disease dementia.",
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"plaintext": "Medications that have anticholinergic effects increase all-cause mortality in people with dementia, although the effect of these medications on cognitive function remains uncertain, according to a systematic review published in 2021.",
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"plaintext": "Before prescribing antipsychotic medication in the elderly, an assessment for an underlying cause of the behavior is needed. Severe and life-threatening reactions occur in almost half of people with DLB, and can be fatal after a single dose. People with Lewy body dementias who take neuroleptics are at risk for neuroleptic malignant syndrome, a life-threatening illness. Extreme caution is required in the use of antipsychotic medication in people with DLB because of their sensitivity to these agents. Antipsychotic drugs are used to treat dementia only if non-drug therapies have not worked, and the person's actions threaten themselves or others. Aggressive behavior changes are sometimes the result of other solvable problems, that could make treatment with antipsychotics unnecessary. Because people with dementia can be aggressive, resistant to their treatment, and otherwise disruptive, sometimes antipsychotic drugs are considered as a therapy in response. These drugs have risky adverse effects, including increasing the person's chance of stroke and death. Given these adverse events and small benefit antipsychotics are avoided whenever possible. Generally, stopping antipsychotics for people with dementia does not cause problems, even in those who have been on them a long time.",
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"plaintext": "N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor blockers such as memantine may be of benefit but the evidence is less conclusive than for AChEIs. Due to their differing mechanisms of action memantine and acetylcholinesterase inhibitors can be used in combination however the benefit is slight.",
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"plaintext": "An extract of Ginkgo biloba known as EGb 761 has been widely used for treating mild to moderate dementia and other neuropsychiatric disorders. Its use is approved throughout Europe. The World Federation of Biological Psychiatry guidelines lists EGb 761 with the same weight of evidence (level B) given to acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, and mementine. EGb 761 is the only one that showed improvement of symptoms in both AD and vascular dementia. EGb 761 is seen as being able to play an important role either on its own or as an add-on particularly when other therapies prove ineffective. EGb 761 is seen to be neuroprotective; it is a free radical scavenger, improves mitochondrial function, and modulates serotonin and dopamine levels. Many studies of its use in mild to moderate dementia have shown it to significantly improve cognitive function, activities of daily living, neuropsychiatric symptoms, and quality of life. However, its use has not been shown to prevent the progression of dementia.",
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"plaintext": "While depression is frequently associated with dementia, the use of antidepressants such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) do not appear to affect outcomes. However, the SSRIs sertraline and citalopram have been demonstrated to reduce symptoms of agitation, compared to placebo.",
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"plaintext": "The use of medications to alleviate sleep disturbances that people with dementia often experience has not been well researched, even for medications that are commonly prescribed. In 2012 the American Geriatrics Society recommended that benzodiazepines such as diazepam, and non-benzodiazepine hypnotics, be avoided for people with dementia due to the risks of increased cognitive impairment and falls. Benzodiazepines are also known to promote delirium. Additionally, little evidence supports the effectiveness of benzodiazepines in this population. No clear evidence shows that melatonin or ramelteon improves sleep for people with dementia due to Alzheimer's, but it is used to treat REM sleep behavior disorder in dementia with Lewy bodies. Limited evidence suggests that a low dose of trazodone may improve sleep, however more research is needed.",
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"plaintext": "No solid evidence indicates that folate or vitamin B12 improves outcomes in those with cognitive problems. Statins have no benefit in dementia. Medications for other health conditions may need to be managed differently for a person who has a dementia diagnosis. It is unclear whether blood pressure medication and dementia are linked. People may experience an increase in cardiovascular-related events if these medications are withdrawn.",
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"plaintext": "The Medication Appropriateness Tool for Comorbid Health Conditions in Dementia (MATCH-D) criteria can help identify ways that a diagnosis of dementia changes medication management for other health conditions. These criteria were developed because people with dementia live with an average of five other chronic diseases, which are often managed with medications. The systematic review that informed the criteria were published subsequently in 2018 and updated in 2022.",
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"plaintext": "As people age, they experience more health problems, and most health problems associated with aging carry a substantial burden of pain; therefore, between 25% and 50% of older adults experience persistent pain. Seniors with dementia experience the same prevalence of conditions likely to cause pain as seniors without dementia. Pain is often overlooked in older adults and, when screened for, is often poorly assessed, especially among those with dementia, since they become incapable of informing others of their pain. Beyond the issue of humane care, unrelieved pain has functional implications. Persistent pain can lead to decreased ambulation, depressed mood, sleep disturbances, impaired appetite, and exacerbation of cognitive impairment and pain-related interference with activity is a factor contributing to falls in the elderly.",
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"plaintext": "Although persistent pain in people with dementia is difficult to communicate, diagnose, and treat, failure to address persistent pain has profound functional, psychosocial and quality of life implications for this vulnerable population. Health professionals often lack the skills and usually lack the time needed to recognize, accurately assess and adequately monitor pain in people with dementia. Family members and friends can make a valuable contribution to the care of a person with dementia by learning to recognize and assess their pain. Educational resources and observational assessment tools are available.",
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"plaintext": "Persons with dementia may have difficulty eating. Whenever it is available as an option, the recommended response to eating problems is having a caretaker assist them. A secondary option for people who cannot swallow effectively is to consider gastrostomy feeding tube placement as a way to give nutrition. However, in bringing comfort and maintaining functional status while lowering risk of aspiration pneumonia and death, assistance with oral feeding is at least as good as tube feeding. Tube-feeding is associated with agitation, increased use of physical and chemical restraints and worsening pressure ulcers. Tube feedings may cause fluid overload, diarrhea, abdominal pain, local complications, less human interaction and may increase the risk of aspiration.",
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"plaintext": "Benefits in those with advanced dementia has not been shown. The risks of using tube feeding include agitation, rejection by the person (pulling out the tube, or otherwise physical or chemical immobilization to prevent them from doing this), or developing pressure ulcers. The procedure is directly related to a 1% fatality rate with a 3% major complication rate. The percentage of people at end of life with dementia using feeding tubes in the US has dropped from 12% in 2000 to 6% as of 2014.",
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"plaintext": "The immediate and long-term effects of modifying the thickness of fluids for swallowing difficulties in people with dementia are not well known. While thickening fluids may have an immediate positive effect on swallowing and improving oral intake, the long-term impact on the health of the person with dementia should also be considered.",
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"plaintext": "Exercise programs may improve the ability of people with dementia to perform daily activities, but the best type of exercise is still unclear. Getting more exercise can slow the development of cognitive problems such as dementia, proving to reduce the risk of Alzheimer's disease by about 50%. A balance of strength exercise, to help muscles pump blood to the brain, and balance exercises are recommended for aging people. A suggested amount of about hours per week can reduce risks of cognitive decay as well as other health risks like falling.",
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"plaintext": "There is a lack of high-quality evidence to determine whether assistive technology effectively supports people with dementia to manage memory issues. Some of the specific things that are used today that helps with dementia today are: clocks, communication aids, electrical appliances the use monitoring, GPS location/ tracking devices, home care robots, in-home cameras, and medication management are just to name a few.",
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"plaintext": "Aromatherapy and massage have unclear evidence. It is not clear if cannabinoids are harmful or effective for people with dementia.",
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"plaintext": "Given the progressive and terminal nature of dementia, palliative care can be helpful to patients and their caregivers by helping people with the disorder and their caregivers understand what to expect, deal with loss of physical and mental abilities, support the person's wishes and goals including surrogate decision making, and discuss wishes for or against CPR and life support. Because the decline can be rapid, and because most people prefer to allow the person with dementia to make their own decisions, palliative care involvement before the late stages of dementia is recommended. Further research is required to determine the appropriate palliative care interventions and how well they help people with advanced dementia.",
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"plaintext": "Person-centered care helps maintain the dignity of people with dementia.",
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"plaintext": "Remotely delivered interventions including support, training and information may reduce the burden for the informal caregiver and improve their depressive symptoms. There is no certain evidence that they improve health-related quality of life.",
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"plaintext": "In several localities in Japan, digital surveillance may be made available to family members, if a dementia patient is prone to wandering and going missing.",
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"plaintext": "The most common type of dementia is Alzheimer's disease. Other common types include vascular dementia, dementia with Lewy bodies, frontotemporal dementia, and mixed dementia (commonly Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia). Less common causes include normal pressure hydrocephalus, Parkinson's disease dementia, syphilis, HIV, and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease.",
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"plaintext": "The number of cases of dementia worldwide in 2021 was estimated at 55 million, with close to 10 million new cases each year. By 2050, the number of people living with dementia is estimated to be over 150 million globally. An estimated 58% of people with dementia are living in low and middle income countries. The prevalence of dementia differs in different world regions, ranging from 4.7% in Central Europe to 8.7% in North Africa/Middle East; the prevalence in other regions is estimated to be between 5.6 and 7.6%. The number of people living with dementia is estimated to double every 20 years. In 2016 dementia resulted in about 2.4 million deaths, up from 0.8 million in 1990.",
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"plaintext": "The annual incidence of dementia diagnosis is nearly 10 million worldwide. Almost half of new dementia cases occur in Asia, followed by Europe (25%), the Americas (18%) and Africa (8%). The incidence of dementia increases exponentially with age, doubling with every 6.3 year increase in age. Dementia affects 5% of the population older than 65 and 20–40% of those older than 85. Rates are slightly higher in women than men at ages 65 and greater. The disease trajectory is varied and the median time from diagnosis to death depends strongly on age at diagnosis, from 6.7 years for people diagnosed aged 60–69 to 1.9 years for people diagnosed at 90 or older.",
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"plaintext": "Dementia impacts not only individuals with dementia, but also their carers and the wider society. Among people aged 60 years and over, dementia is ranked the 9th most burdensome condition according to the 2010 Global Burden of Disease (GBD) estimates. The global costs of dementia was around US$818 billion in 2015, a 35.4% increase from US$604 billion in 2010.",
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"plaintext": "About 3% of people between the ages of 65–74 have dementia, 19% between 75 and 84, and nearly half of those over 85 years of age. As more people are living longer, dementia is becoming more common. For people of a specific age, however, it may be becoming less frequent in the developed world, due to a decrease in modifiable risk factors made possible by greater financial and educational resources. It is one of the most common causes of disability among the elderly but can develop before the age of 65 when it is known as early-onset dementia or presenile dementia. Less than 1% of those with Alzheimer's have gene mutations that cause a much earlier development of the disease, around the age of 45, known as early-onset Alzheimer's disease. More than 95% of people with Alzheimer's disease have the sporadic form (late onset, 80–90 years of age). Worldwide the cost of dementia in 2015 was put at US$818 billion. People with dementia are often physically or chemically restrained to a greater degree than necessary, raising issues of human rights. Social stigma is commonly perceived by those with the condition, and also by their caregivers.",
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"plaintext": "Until the end of the 19th century, dementia was a much broader clinical concept. It included mental illness and any type of psychosocial incapacity, including reversible conditions. Dementia at this time simply referred to anyone who had lost the ability to reason, and was applied equally to psychosis, \"organic\" diseases like syphilis that destroy the brain, and to the dementia associated with old age, which was attributed to \"hardening of the arteries\".",
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"plaintext": "Dementia has been referred to in medical texts since antiquity. One of the earliest known allusions to dementia is attributed to the 7th-century BC Greek philosopher Pythagoras, who divided the human lifespan into six distinct phases: 0–6 (infancy), 7–21 (adolescence), 22–49 (young adulthood), 50–62 (middle age), 63–79 (old age), and 80–death (advanced age). The last two he described as the \"senium\", a period of mental and physical decay, and that the final phase was when \"the scene of mortal existence closes after a great length of time that very fortunately, few of the human species arrive at, where the mind is reduced to the imbecility of the first epoch of infancy\". In 550BC, the Athenian statesman and poet Solon argued that the terms of a man's will might be invalidated if he exhibited loss of judgement due to advanced age. Chinese medical texts made allusions to the condition as well, and the characters for \"dementia\" translate literally to \"foolish old person\".",
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"plaintext": "Athenian philosophers Aristotle and Plato discussed the mental decline that can come with old age and predicted that this affects everyone who becomes old and nothing can be done to stop this decline from taking place. Plato specifically talked about how the elderly should not be in positions that require responsibility because, \"There is not much acumen of the mind that once carried them in their youth, those characteristics one would call judgement, imagination, power of reasoning, and memory. They see them gradually blunted by deterioration and can hardly fulfill their function.\"",
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"plaintext": "For comparison, the Roman statesman Cicero held a view much more in line with modern-day medical wisdom that loss of mental function was not inevitable in the elderly and \"affected only those old men who were weak-willed\". He spoke of how those who remained mentally active and eager to learn new things could stave off dementia. However, Cicero's views on aging, although progressive, were largely ignored in a world that would be dominated for centuries by Aristotle's medical writings. Physicians during the Roman Empire, such as Galen and Celsus, simply repeated the beliefs of Aristotle while adding few new contributions to medical knowledge.",
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"plaintext": "Byzantine physicians sometimes wrote of dementia. It is recorded that at least seven emperors whose lifespans exceeded 70 years displayed signs of cognitive decline. In Constantinople, special hospitals housed those diagnosed with dementia or insanity, but these did not apply to the emperors, who were above the law and whose health conditions could not be publicly acknowledged.",
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"plaintext": "Otherwise, little is recorded about dementia in Western medical texts for nearly 1700 years. One of the few references was the 13th-century friar Roger Bacon, who viewed old age as divine punishment for original sin. Although he repeated existing Aristotelian beliefs that dementia was inevitable, he did make the progressive assertion that the brain was the center of memory and thought rather than the heart.",
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"plaintext": "Poets, playwrights, and other writers made frequent allusions to the loss of mental function in old age. William Shakespeare notably mentions it in plays such as Hamlet and King Lear.",
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"plaintext": "During the 19th century, doctors generally came to believe that elderly dementia was the result of cerebral atherosclerosis, although opinions fluctuated between the idea that it was due to blockage of the major arteries supplying the brain or small strokes within the vessels of the cerebral cortex.",
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"plaintext": "In 1907, Bavarian psychiatrist Alois Alzheimer was the first to identify and describe the characteristics of progressive dementia in the brain of 51-year-old Auguste Deter. Deter had begun to behave uncharacteristically, including accusing her husband of adultery, neglecting household chores, exhibiting difficulties writing and engaging in conversations, heightened insomnia, and loss of directional sense. At one point, Deter was reported to have \"dragged a bed sheet outside, wandered around wildly, and cried for hours at midnight.\" Alzheimer began treating Deter when she entered a Frankfurt mental hospital on November 25, 1901. During her ongoing treatment, Deter and her husband struggled to afford the cost of the medical care, and Alzheimer agreed to continue her treatment in exchange for Deter's medical records and donation of her brain upon death. Deter died on April 8, 1906, after succumbing to sepsis and pneumonia. Alzheimer conducted the brain biopsy using the Bielschowsky stain method, which was a new development at the time, and he observed senile plaques, neurofibrillary tangles, and atherosclerotic alteration. At the time, the consensus among medical doctors had been that senile plaques were generally found in older patients, and the occurrence of neurofibrillary tangles was an entirely new observation at the time. Alzheimer presented his findings at the 37th psychiatry conference of southwestern Germany in Tübingen on April 11, 1906; however, the information was poorly received by his peers. By 1910, Alois Alzheimer's teacher, Emil Kraepelin, published a book in which he coined the term \"Alzheimer's disease\" in an attempt to acknowledge the importance of Alzheimer's discovery.",
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"plaintext": "By the 1960s, the link between neurodegenerative diseases and age-related cognitive decline had become more established. By the 1970s, the medical community maintained that vascular dementia was rarer than previously thought and Alzheimer's disease caused the vast majority of old age mental impairments. More recently however, it is believed that dementia is often a mixture of conditions.",
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"plaintext": "In 1976, neurologist Robert Katzmann suggested a link between senile dementia and Alzheimer's disease. Katzmann suggested that much of the senile dementia occurring (by definition) after the age of 65, was pathologically identical with Alzheimer's disease occurring in people under age 65 and therefore should not be treated differently. Katzmann thus suggested that Alzheimer's disease, if taken to occur over age 65, is actually common, not rare, and was the fourth- or 5th-leading cause of death, even though rarely reported on death certificates in 1976.",
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"plaintext": "A helpful finding was that although the incidence of Alzheimer's disease increased with age (from 5–10% of 75-year-olds to as many as 40–50% of 90-year-olds), no threshold was found by which age all persons developed it. This is shown by documented supercentenarians (people living to 110 or more) who experienced no substantial cognitive impairment. Some evidence suggests that dementia is most likely to develop between ages 80 and 84 and individuals who pass that point without being affected have a lower chance of developing it. Women account for a larger percentage of dementia cases than men, although this can be attributed to their longer overall lifespan and greater odds of attaining an age where the condition is likely to occur.",
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"plaintext": "Much like other diseases associated with aging, dementia was comparatively rare before the 20th century, because few people lived past 80. Conversely, syphilitic dementia was widespread in the developed world until it was largely eradicated by the use of penicillin after World War II. With significant increases in life expectancy thereafter, the number of people over 65 started rapidly climbing. While elderly persons constituted an average of 3–5% of the population prior to 1945, by 2010 many countries reached 10–14% and in Germany and Japan, this figure exceeded 20%. Public awareness of Alzheimer's Disease greatly increased in 1994 when former US president Ronald Reagan announced that he had been diagnosed with the condition.",
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"plaintext": "In the 21st century, other types of dementia were differentiated from Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementias (the most common types). This differentiation is on the basis of pathological examination of brain tissues, by symptomatology, and by different patterns of brain metabolic activity in nuclear medical imaging tests such as SPECT and PETscans of the brain. The various forms have differing prognoses and differing epidemiologic risk factors. The main cause for many diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, remains unclear.",
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"plaintext": "Dementia in the elderly was once called senile dementia or senility, and viewed as a normal and somewhat inevitable aspect of aging.",
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"plaintext": "By 1913–20 the term dementia praecox was introduced to suggest the development of senile-type dementia at a younger age. Eventually the two terms fused, so that until 1952 physicians used the terms dementia praecox (precocious dementia) and schizophrenia interchangeably. Since then, science has determined that dementia and schizophrenia are two different disorders, though they share some similarities. The term precocious dementia for a mental illness suggested that a type of mental illness like schizophrenia (including paranoia and decreased cognitive capacity) could be expected to arrive normally in all persons with greater age (see paraphrenia). After about 1920, the beginning use of dementia for what is now understood as schizophrenia and senile dementia helped limit the word's meaning to \"permanent, irreversible mental deterioration\". This began the change to the later use of the term. In recent studies, researchers have seen a connection between those diagnosed with schizophrenia and patients who are diagnosed with dementia, finding a positive correlation between the two diseases.",
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"plaintext": "The view that dementia must always be the result of a particular disease process led for a time to the proposed diagnosis of \"senile dementia of the Alzheimer's type\" (SDAT) in persons over the age of 65, with \"Alzheimer's disease\" diagnosed in persons younger than 65 who had the same pathology. Eventually, however, it was agreed that the age limit was artificial, and that Alzheimer's disease was the appropriate term for persons with that particular brain pathology, regardless of age.",
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"plaintext": "After 1952, mental illnesses including schizophrenia were removed from the category of organic brain syndromes, and thus (by definition) removed from possible causes of \"dementing illnesses\" (dementias). At the same, however, the traditional cause of senile dementia – \"hardening of the arteries\" – now returned as a set of dementias of vascular cause (small strokes). These were now termed multi-infarct dementias or vascular dementias.",
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"plaintext": "The societal cost of dementia is high, especially for caregivers. According to a UK-based study, almost two out of three carers of people with dementia feel lonely. Most of the carers in the study were family members or friends.",
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"plaintext": ", the annual cost per Alzheimer's patient in the United States was around $19,144.36. The total costs for the nation is estimated to be about $167.74 billion. By 2030, it is predicted the annual socioeconomic cost will total to about $507 billion, and by 2050 that number is expected to reach $1.89 trillion. This steady increase will be seen not just within the United States but globally. Global estimates for the costs of dementia were $957.56 billion in 2015, but by 2050 the estimated global cost is 9.12 trillion.",
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"plaintext": "Many countries consider the care of people living with dementia a national priority and invest in resources and education to better inform health and social service workers, unpaid caregivers, relatives and members of the wider community. Several countries have authored national plans or strategies. These plans recognize that people can live reasonably with dementia for years, as long as the right support and timely access to a diagnosis are available. Former British Prime Minister David Cameron described dementia as a \"national crisis\", affecting 800,000 people in the United Kingdom. In fact, dementia has become the leading cause of death for women in England.",
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"plaintext": "There, as with all mental disorders, people with dementia could potentially be a danger to themselves or others, they can be detained under the Mental Health Act 1983 for assessment, care and treatment. This is a last resort, and is usually avoided by people with family or friends who can ensure care.",
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"plaintext": "Some hospitals in Britain work to provide enriched and friendlier care. To make the hospital wards calmer and less overwhelming to residents, staff replaced the usual nurses' station with a collection of smaller desks, similar to a reception area. The incorporation of bright lighting helps increase positive mood and allow residents to see more easily.",
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"plaintext": "Driving with dementia can lead to injury or death. Doctors should advise appropriate testing on when to quit driving. The United Kingdom DVLA (Driver & Vehicle Licensing Agency) states that people with dementia who specifically have poor short-term memory, disorientation, or lack of insight or judgment are not allowed to drive, and in these instances the DVLA must be informed so that the driving license can be revoked. They acknowledge that in low-severity cases and those with an early diagnosis, drivers may be permitted to continue driving.",
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"plaintext": "Many support networks are available to people with dementia and their families and caregivers. Charitable organizations aim to raise awareness and campaign for the rights of people living with dementia. Support and guidance are available on assessing testamentary capacity in people with dementia.",
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"plaintext": "In 2015, Atlantic Philanthropies announced a $177 million gift aimed at understanding and reducing dementia. The recipient was Global Brain Health Institute, a program co-led by the University of California, San Francisco and Trinity College Dublin. This donation is the largest non-capital grant Atlantic has ever made, and the biggest philanthropic donation in Irish history.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2020, the Caretaker's last music release, Everywhere at the End of Time, was popularized by TikTok users for its depiction of the stages of dementia. Caregivers were in favor of this phenomenon; Leyland Kirby, the creator of the record, echoed this sentiment, explaining it could cause empathy among a younger public.",
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"plaintext": "On 2 November 2020, Scottish billionaire Sir Tom Hunter donated £1 million to dementia charities, after watching a former music teacher with dementia, Paul Harvey, playing one of his own compositions on the piano in a viral video. The donation was announced to be split between the Alzheimer's Society and Music for Dementia.",
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"plaintext": "Currently, rubber is harvested mainly in the form of the latex from the rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) or others. The latex is a sticky, milky and white colloid drawn off by making incisions in the bark and collecting the fluid in vessels in a process called \"tapping\". The latex then is refined into the rubber that is ready for commercial processing. In major areas, latex is allowed to coagulate in the collection cup. The coagulated lumps are collected and processed into dry forms for sale.",
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"plaintext": "Natural rubber is used extensively in many applications and products, either alone or in combination with other materials. In most of its useful forms, it has a large stretch ratio and high resilience and also is water-proof.",
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"plaintext": "Industrial demand for rubber-like materials began to outstrip natural rubber supplies by the end of the 19th century, leading to the synthesis of synthetic rubber in 1909 by chemical means. ",
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"plaintext": "The major commercial source of natural rubber latex is the Amazonian rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis), a member of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae. This species is preferred because it grows well under cultivation. A properly managed tree responds to wounding by producing more latex for several years. ",
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"plaintext": "Congo rubber, formerly a major source of rubber, came from vines in the genus Landolphia (L. kirkii, L. heudelotis, and L. owariensis).",
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"plaintext": "Dandelion milk contains latex. The latex exhibits the same quality as the natural rubber from rubber trees. In the wild types of dandelion, latex content is low and varies greatly. In Nazi Germany, research projects tried to use dandelions as a base for rubber production, but failed. In 2013, by inhibiting one key enzyme and using modern cultivation methods and optimization techniques, scientists in the Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME) in Germany developed a cultivar of the Russian dandelion (Taraxacum kok-saghyz) that is suitable for commercial production of natural rubber. In collaboration with Continental Tires, IME began a pilot facility.",
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"plaintext": "Many other plants produce forms of latex rich in isoprene polymers, though not all produce usable forms of polymer as easily as the Pará. Some of them require more elaborate processing to produce anything like usable rubber, and most are more difficult to tap. Some produce other desirable materials, for example gutta-percha (Palaquium gutta) and chicle from Manilkara species. Others that have been commercially exploited, or at least showed promise as rubber sources, include the rubber fig (Ficus elastica), Panama rubber tree (Castilla elastica), various spurges (Euphorbia spp.), lettuce (Lactuca species), the related Scorzonera tau-saghyz, various Taraxacum species, including common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) and Russian dandelion, and, perhaps most importantly for its hypoallergenic properties, guayule (Parthenium argentatum). The term gum rubber is sometimes applied to the tree-obtained version of natural rubber in order to distinguish it from the synthetic version.",
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"plaintext": "The first use of rubber was by the indigenous cultures of Mesoamerica. The earliest archeological evidence of the use of natural latex from the Hevea tree comes from the Olmec culture, in which rubber was first used for making balls for the Mesoamerican ballgame. Rubber was later used by the Maya and Aztec cultures – in addition to making balls Aztecs used rubber for other purposes such as making containers and to make textiles waterproof by impregnating them with the latex sap.",
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"plaintext": "Charles Marie de La Condamine is credited with introducing samples of rubber to the Académie Royale des Sciences of France in 1736. In 1751, he presented a paper by François Fresneau to the Académie (published in 1755) that described many of rubber's properties. This has been referred to as the first scientific paper on rubber. In England, Joseph Priestley, in 1770, observed that a piece of the material was extremely good for rubbing off pencil marks on paper, hence the name \"rubber\". It slowly made its way around England. In 1764, François Fresnau discovered that turpentine was a rubber solvent. Giovanni Fabbroni is credited with the discovery of naphtha as a rubber solvent in 1779. Charles Goodyear redeveloped vulcanization in 1839, although Mesoamericans had used stabilized rubber for balls and other objects as early as 1600 BC.",
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"plaintext": "South America remained the main source of latex rubber used during much of the 19th century. The rubber trade was heavily controlled by business interests but no laws expressly prohibited the export of seeds or plants. In 1876, Henry Wickham smuggled 70,000 Amazonian rubber tree seeds from Brazil and delivered them to Kew Gardens, England. Only 2,400 of these germinated. Seedlings were then sent to India, British Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Dutch East Indies (Indonesia), Singapore, and British Malaya. Malaya (now Peninsular Malaysia) was later to become the biggest producer of rubber.",
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"plaintext": "In the early 1900s, the Congo Free State in Africa was also a significant source of natural rubber latex, mostly gathered by forced labor. King Leopold II's colonial state brutally enforced production quotas. Tactics to enforce the rubber quotas included removing the hands of victims to prove they had been killed. Soldiers often came back from raids with baskets full of chopped-off hands. Villages that resisted were razed to encourage better compliance locally. ",
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"plaintext": "In India, commercial cultivation was introduced by British planters, although the experimental efforts to grow rubber on a commercial scale were initiated as early as 1873 at the Calcutta Botanical Garden. The first commercial Hevea plantations were established at Thattekadu in Kerala in 1902. In later years the plantation expanded to Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India. Today, India is the world's 3rd largest producer and 4th largest consumer of rubber.",
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"plaintext": "In Singapore and Malaya, commercial production was heavily promoted by Sir Henry Nicholas Ridley, who served as the first Scientific Director of the Singapore Botanic Gardens from 1888 to 1911. He distributed rubber seeds to many planters and developed the first technique for tapping trees for latex without causing serious harm to the tree. Because of his fervent promotion of this crop, he is popularly remembered by the nickname \"Mad Ridley\".",
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"plaintext": "Before World War II significant uses included door and window profiles, hoses, belts, gaskets, matting, flooring, and dampeners (antivibration mounts) for the automotive industry. The use of rubber in car tires (initially solid rather than pneumatic) in particular consumed a significant amount of rubber. Gloves (medical, household, and industrial) and toy balloons were large consumers of rubber, although the type of rubber used is concentrated latex. Significant tonnage of rubber was used as adhesives in many manufacturing industries and products, although the two most noticeable were the paper and the carpet industries. Rubber was commonly used to make rubber bands and pencil erasers.",
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"plaintext": "Rubber produced as a fiber, sometimes called 'elastic', had significant value to the textile industry because of its excellent elongation and recovery properties. For these purposes, manufactured rubber fiber was made as either an extruded round fiber or rectangular fibers cut into strips from extruded film. Because of its low dye acceptance, feel and appearance, the rubber fiber was either covered by yarn of another fiber or directly woven with other yarns into the fabric. Rubber yarns were used in foundation garments. While rubber is still used in textile manufacturing, its low tenacity limits its use in lightweight garments because latex lacks resistance to oxidizing agents and is damaged by aging, sunlight, oil and perspiration. The textile industry turned to neoprene (polymer of chloroprene), a type of synthetic rubber, as well as another more commonly used elastomer fiber, spandex (also known as elastane), because of their superiority to rubber in both strength and durability.",
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"plaintext": "Rubber exhibits unique physical and chemical properties. Rubber's stress–strain behavior exhibits the Mullins effect and the Payne effect and is often modeled as hyperelastic. Rubber strain crystallizes. Because there are weakened allylic C-H bonds in each repeat unit, natural rubber is susceptible to vulcanisation as well as being sensitive to ozone cracking. The two main solvents for rubber are turpentine and naphtha (petroleum). Because rubber does not dissolve easily, the material is finely divided by shredding prior to its immersion. An ammonia solution can be used to prevent the coagulation of raw latex. Rubber begins to melt at approximately .",
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"plaintext": "On a microscopic scale, relaxed rubber is a disorganized cluster of erratically changing wrinkled chains. In stretched rubber, the chains are almost linear. The restoring force is due to the preponderance of wrinkled conformations over more linear ones. For the quantitative treatment see ideal chain, for more examples see entropic force.",
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"plaintext": "Cooling below the glass transition temperature permits local conformational changes but a reordering is practically impossible because of the larger energy barrier for the concerted movement of longer chains. \"Frozen\" rubber's elasticity is low and strain results from small changes of bond lengths and angles: this caused the Challenger disaster, when the American Space Shuttle's flattened o-rings failed to relax to fill a widening gap. The glass transition is fast and reversible: the force resumes on heating.",
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"plaintext": "The parallel chains of stretched rubber are susceptible to crystallization. This takes some time because turns of twisted chains have to move out of the way of the growing crystallites. Crystallization has occurred, for example, when, after days, an inflated toy balloon is found withered at a relatively large remaining volume. Where it is touched, it shrinks because the temperature of the hand is enough to melt the crystals.",
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"plaintext": "Vulcanization of rubber creates di- and polysulfide bonds between chains, which limits the degrees of freedom and results in chains that tighten more quickly for a given strain, thereby increasing the elastic force constant and making the rubber harder and less extensible.",
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"plaintext": "Raw rubber storage depots and rubber processing can produce malodour that is serious enough to become a source of complaints and protest to those living in the vicinity. Microbial impurities originate during the processing of block rubber. These impurities break down during storage or thermal degradation and produce volatile organic compounds. Examination of these compounds using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and gas chromatography (GC) indicates that they contain sulfur, ammonia, alkenes, ketones, esters, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen, and low-molecular-weight fatty acids (C2–C5). When latex concentrate is produced from rubber, sulfuric acid is used for coagulation. This produces malodourous hydrogen sulfide. The industry can mitigate these bad odours with scrubber systems.",
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"plaintext": "Rubber is the polymer cis-1,4-polyisoprene – with a molecular weight of 100,000 to 1,000,000 daltons. Typically, a small percentage (up to 5% of dry mass) of other materials, such as proteins, fatty acids, resins, and inorganic materials (salts) are found in natural rubber. Polyisoprene can also be created synthetically, producing what is sometimes referred to as \"synthetic natural rubber\", but the synthetic and natural routes are distinct. Some natural rubber sources, such as gutta-percha, are composed of trans-1,4-polyisoprene, a structural isomer that has similar properties. Natural rubber is an elastomer and a thermoplastic. Once the rubber is vulcanized, it is a thermoset. Most rubber in everyday use is vulcanized to a point where it shares properties of both; i.e., if it is heated and cooled, it is degraded but not destroyed. The final properties of a rubber item depend not just on the polymer, but also on modifiers and fillers, such as carbon black, factice, whiting and others.",
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"plaintext": "Rubber particles are formed in the cytoplasm of specialized latex-producing cells called laticifers within rubber plants. Rubber particles are surrounded by a single phospholipid membrane with hydrophobic tails pointed inward. The membrane allows biosynthetic proteins to be sequestered at the surface of the growing rubber particle, which allows new monomeric units to be added from outside the biomembrane, but within the lacticifer. The rubber particle is an enzymatically active entity that contains three layers of material, the rubber particle, a biomembrane and free monomeric units. The biomembrane is held tightly to the rubber core by the high negative charge along the double bonds of the rubber polymer backbone. Free monomeric units and conjugated proteins make up the outer layer. The rubber precursor is isopentenyl pyrophosphate (an allylic compound), which elongates by Mg2+-dependent condensation by the action of rubber transferase. The monomer adds to the pyrophosphate end of the growing polymer. The process displaces the terminal high-energy pyrophosphate. The reaction produces a cis polymer. The initiation step is catalyzed by prenyltransferase, which converts three monomers of isopentenyl pyrophosphate into farnesyl pyrophosphate. The farnesyl pyrophosphate can bind to rubber transferase to elongate a new rubber polymer.",
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"plaintext": "The required isopentenyl pyrophosphate is obtained from the mevalonate pathway, which derives from acetyl-CoA in the cytosol. In plants, isoprene pyrophosphate can also be obtained from the 1-deox-D-xyulose-5-phosphate/2-C-methyl-D-erythritol-4-phosphate pathway within plasmids. The relative ratio of the farnesyl pyrophosphate initiator unit and isoprenyl pyrophosphate elongation monomer determines the rate of new particle synthesis versus elongation of existing particles. Though rubber is known to be produced by only one enzyme, extracts of latex host numerous small molecular weight proteins with unknown function. The proteins possibly serve as cofactors, as the synthetic rate decreases with complete removal.",
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"plaintext": "More than 28 million tons of rubber were produced in 2017, of which approximately 47% was natural. Since the bulk is synthetic, which is derived from petroleum, the price of natural rubber is determined, to a large extent, by the prevailing global price of crude oil. Asia was the main source of natural rubber, accounting for about 94% of output in 2005. The three largest producers, Thailand, Indonesia, and Malaysia, together account for around 72% of all natural rubber production. Natural rubber is not cultivated widely in its native continent of South America because of the South American leaf blight, and other natural predators, there.",
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"plaintext": "Rubber latex is extracted from rubber trees. The economic life period of rubber trees in plantations is around 32 years, up to 7 years of immature phase and about 25 years of productive phase.",
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"plaintext": "The soil requirement is well-drained, weathered soil consisting of laterite, lateritic types, sedimentary types, nonlateritic red or alluvial soils.",
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"plaintext": "The climatic conditions for optimum growth of rubber trees are:",
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"plaintext": " Rainfall of around evenly distributed without any marked dry season and with at least 100 rainy days per year",
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"plaintext": " Temperature range of about , with a monthly mean of ",
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"plaintext": " Atmospheric humidity of around 80%",
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"plaintext": " About 2,000 hours sunshine per year at the rate of six hours per day throughout the year",
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"plaintext": " Absence of strong winds",
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"plaintext": "Many high-yielding clones have been developed for commercial planting. These clones yield more than of dry rubber per year, under ideal conditions.",
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"plaintext": "In places such as Kerala and Sri Lanka, where coconuts are in abundance, the half shell of coconut was used as the latex collection container. Glazed pottery or aluminium or plastic cups became more common in Kerala-India and other countries. The cups are supported by a wire that encircles the tree. This wire incorporates a spring so it can stretch as the tree grows. The latex is led into the cup by a galvanised \"spout\" knocked into the bark. Rubber tapping normally takes place early in the morning, when the internal pressure of the tree is highest. A good tapper can tap a tree every 20 seconds on a standard half-spiral system, and a common daily \"task\" size is between 450 and 650 trees. Trees are usually tapped on alternate or third days, although many variations in timing, length and number of cuts are used. \"Tappers would make a slash in the bark with a small hatchet. These slanting cuts allowed latex to flow from ducts located on the exterior or the inner layer of bark (cambium) of the tree. Since the cambium controls the growth of the tree, growth stops if it is cut. Thus, rubber tapping demanded accuracy, so that the incisions would not be too many given the size of the tree, or too deep, which could stunt its growth or kill it.\"",
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"plaintext": "It is usual to tap a pannel at least twice, sometimes three times, during the tree's life. The economic life of the tree depends on how well the tapping is carried out, as the critical factor is bark consumption. A standard in Malaysia for alternate daily tapping is 25cm (vertical) bark consumption per year. The latex-containing tubes in the bark ascend in a spiral to the right. For this reason, tapping cuts usually ascend to the left to cut more tubes. The trees drip latex for about four hours, stopping as latex coagulates naturally on the tapping cut, thus blocking the latex tubes in the bark. Tappers usually rest and have a meal after finishing their tapping work and then start collecting the liquid \"field latex\" at about midday.",
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"plaintext": "The four types of field coagula are \"cuplump\", \"treelace\", \"smallholders' lump\", and \"earth scrap\". Each has significantly different properties. Some trees continue to drip after the collection leading to a small amount of \"cup lump\" that is collected at the next tapping. The latex that coagulates on the cut is also collected as \"tree lace\". Tree lace and cup lump together account for 10%–20% of the dry rubber produced. Latex that drips onto the ground, \"earth scrap\", is also collected periodically for processing of low-grade product.",
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"plaintext": "Cup lump is the coagulated material found in the collection cup when the tapper next visits the tree to tap it again. It arises from latex clinging to the walls of the cup after the latex was last poured into the bucket, and from late-dripping latex exuded before the latex-carrying vessels of the tree become blocked. It is of higher purity and of greater value than the other three types.",
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"plaintext": "'Cup lumps' can also be used to describe a completely different type of coagulate that has collected in smallholder plantations over a period of 1–2 weeks. After tapping all of the trees, the tapper will return to each tree and stir in some type of acid, which allows the newly harvested latex to mix with the previously coagulated material. The rubber/acid mixture is what gives rubber plantations, markets, and factories a strong odor.",
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"plaintext": "Tree lace is the coagulum strip that the tapper peels off the previous cut before making a new cut. It usually has higher copper and manganese contents than cup lump. Both copper and manganese are pro-oxidants and can damage the physical properties of the dry rubber.",
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"plaintext": "Smallholders' lump is produced by smallholders, who collect rubber from trees far from the nearest factory. Many Indonesian smallholders, who farm paddies in remote areas, tap dispersed trees on their way to work in the paddy fields and collect the latex (or the coagulated latex) on their way home. As it is often impossible to preserve the latex sufficiently to get it to a factory that processes latex in time for it to be used to make high quality products, and as the latex would anyway have coagulated by the time it reached the factory, the smallholder will coagulate it by any means available, in any container available. Some smallholders use small containers, buckets etc., but often the latex is coagulated in holes in the ground, which are usually lined with plastic sheeting. Acidic materials and fermented fruit juices are used to coagulate the latex— a form of assisted biological coagulation. Little care is taken to exclude twigs, leaves, and even bark from the lumps that are formed, which may also include tree lace.",
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"plaintext": "Earth scrap is material that gathers around the base of the tree. It arises from latex overflowing from the cut and running down the bark, from rain flooding a collection cup containing latex, and from spillage from tappers' buckets during collection. It contains soil and other contaminants, and has variable rubber content, depending on the amount of contaminants. Earth scrap is collected by field workers two or three times a year and may be cleaned in a scrap-washer to recover the rubber, or sold to a contractor who cleans it and recovers the rubber. It is of low quality.",
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"plaintext": "Latex coagulates in the cups, if kept for long and must be collected before this happens. The collected latex, \"field latex\", is transferred into coagulation tanks for the preparation of dry rubber or transferred into air-tight containers with sieving for ammoniation. Ammoniation, invented by patent lawyer and vice-president of the United States Rubber Company Ernest Hopkinson around 1920, preserves the latex in a colloidal state for longer periods of time. Latex is generally processed into either latex concentrate for manufacture of dipped goods or coagulated under controlled, clean conditions using formic acid. The coagulated latex can then be processed into the higher-grade, technically specified block rubbers such as SVR 3L or SVR CV or used to produce Ribbed Smoke Sheet grades. Naturally coagulated rubber (cup lump) is used in the manufacture of TSR10 and TSR20 grade rubbers. Processing for these grades is a size reduction and cleaning process to remove contamination and prepare the material for the final stage of drying.",
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"plaintext": "The dried material is then baled and palletized for storage and shipment.",
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"plaintext": "Natural rubber is often vulcanized – a process by which the rubber is heated and sulfur, peroxide, or bisphenol are added to improve resistance and elasticity and to prevent it from perishing. Carbon black is often used as an additive to rubber to improve its strength, especially in vehicle tires, which account for about 70% (~9 million tons) of carbon black production.",
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"plaintext": "Natural rubber latex is shipped from factories in Southeast Asia, South America, and West and Central Africa to destinations around the world. As the cost of natural rubber has risen significantly and rubber products are dense, the shipping methods offering the lowest cost per unit weight are preferred. Depending on destination, warehouse availability, and transportation conditions, some methods are preferred by certain buyers. In international trade, latex rubber is mostly shipped in 20-foot ocean containers. Inside the container, smaller containers are used to store the latex.",
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"plaintext": "There is growing concern for the future supply of rubber because of various things, including",
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"plaintext": "plant disease, climate change, and the falling commodity price of rubber.",
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"plaintext": "Uncured rubber is used for cements; for adhesive, insulating, and friction tapes; and for crepe rubber used in insulating blankets and footwear. Vulcanized rubber has many more applications. Resistance to abrasion makes softer kinds of rubber valuable for the treads of vehicle tires and conveyor belts, and makes hard rubber valuable for pump housings and piping used in the handling of abrasive sludge.",
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"plaintext": "The flexibility of rubber is appealing in hoses, tires and rollers for devices ranging from domestic clothes wringers to printing presses; its elasticity makes it suitable for various kinds of shock absorbers and for specialized machinery mountings designed to reduce vibration. Its relative gas impermeability makes it useful in the manufacture of articles such as air hoses, balloons, balls and cushions. The resistance of rubber to water and to the action of most fluid chemicals has led to its use in rainwear, diving gear, and chemical and medicinal tubing and as a lining for storage tanks, processing equipment and railroad tank cars. Because of their electrical resistance, soft rubber goods are used as insulation and for protective gloves, shoes, and blankets; hard rubber is used for articles such as telephone housings and parts for radio sets, meters, and other electrical instruments. The coefficient of friction of rubber, which is high on dry surfaces and low on wet surfaces, leads to its use for power-transmission belting, highly flexible couplings, and for water-lubricated bearings in deep-well pumps. Indian rubber balls or lacrosse balls are made of rubber.",
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"plaintext": "Around 25 million tonnes of rubber are produced each year, of which 30 percent is natural. The remainder is synthetic rubber derived from petrochemical sources. The top end of latex production results in latex products such as surgeons' gloves, balloons, and other relatively high-value products. The mid-range which comes from the technically specified natural rubber materials ends up largely in tires but also in conveyor belts, marine products, windshield wipers, and miscellaneous goods. Natural rubber offers good elasticity, while synthetic materials tend to offer better resistance to environmental factors such as oils, temperature, chemicals, and ultraviolet light. \"Cured rubber\" is rubber that has been compounded and subjected to the vulcanisation process to create cross-links within the rubber matrix.",
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"plaintext": "Some people have a serious latex allergy, and exposure to natural latex rubber products such as latex gloves can cause anaphylactic shock. The antigenic proteins found in Hevea latex may be deliberately reduced (though not eliminated) through processing.",
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"plaintext": "Latex from non-Hevea sources, such as guayule, can be used without allergic reaction by persons with an allergy to Hevea latex.",
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"plaintext": "Some allergic reactions are not to the latex itself, but from residues of chemicals used to accelerate the cross-linking process. Although this may be confused with an allergy to latex, it is distinct from it, typically taking the form of Type IV hypersensitivity in the presence of traces of specific processing chemicals.",
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"plaintext": "Natural rubber is susceptible to degradation by a wide range of bacteria.",
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"plaintext": "The bacteria Streptomyces coelicolor, Pseudomonas citronellolis, and Nocardia spp. are capable of degrading vulcanized natural rubber.",
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"plaintext": " Akron, Ohio, center of the United States rubber industry",
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"plaintext": " Crepe rubber",
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"plaintext": " Ebonite",
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"plaintext": " Emulsion dispersion",
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"plaintext": " Fordlândia, failed attempt to establish a rubber plantation in Brazil",
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"plaintext": " Reinforced rubber",
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"plaintext": " Resilin, a highly elastic protein found in insects",
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"plaintext": " Rubber seed oil",
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"plaintext": " Rubber technology",
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"plaintext": " Stevenson Plan, historical British plan to stabilize rubber prices",
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"plaintext": " Charles Greville Williams, researched natural rubber being a polymer of the monomer isoprene",
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"plaintext": " Ali, Muhammad Fadzli, et al. \"The dynamics of rubber production in Malaysia: Potential impacts, challenges and proposed interventions.\" Forest Policy and Economics 127 (2021): 102449.",
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"plaintext": " (1999 Granta edition).",
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"plaintext": "Dean, Warren. (1997) Brazil and the Struggle for Rubber: A Study in Environmental History. Cambridge University Press.",
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"plaintext": "Grandin, Greg. Fordlandia: The Rise and Fall of Henry Ford's Forgotten Jungle City. Picador Press 2010. ",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": "Weinstein, Barbara (1983) The Amazon Rubber Boom 1850–1920. Stanford University Press.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": "Tully, John A. The Devil’s Milk; A Social History of Rubber. New York: Monthly Review Press, 2011.",
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"Adhesives",
"Crops",
"Forestry_in_Indonesia",
"Forestry_in_Malaysia",
"Forestry_in_Thailand",
"History_of_forestry",
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"Non-timber_forest_products",
"Nonwoven_fabrics",
"Organic_polymers",
"Terpenes_and_terpenoids",
"Thermoplastic_elastomers"
]
| 131,877 | 25,744 | 2,131 | 191 | 0 | 0 | natural rubber | polymers of the organic compound isoprene, with minor impurities of other organic compounds; refined from latex harvested from rubber trees | [
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"caoutchouc",
"rubber",
"NR",
"India-rubber",
"gum elastic",
"latex rubber"
]
|
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"plaintext": "The original SG-1 team disbands after the events of Season 8, but slowly reunites under new team leader Lt Col. Cameron Mitchell after the SGC inadvertently draws the attention of the Ori to the existence of sentient life in the Milky Way; the Ori are revealed to be a faction of ascended Ancients residing in another galaxy that are diametrically opposed to the Ancients' belief in strict noninterference in the lower planes of existence, sapping the energy from untold billions of \"lower beings\" (non-ascended sentient beings) by means of their worship in a religion called Origin. While the Ori send enhanced human beings named Priors to the Milky Way to convert the galaxy to Origin, Ba'al and some minor Goa'uld infiltrate Earth through The Trust (a coalition of rogue NID operatives) to rebuild their power. At the end of Season 9 (\"Camelot (Part 1)\"), the Ori begin an evangelistic crusade with their warships and effortlessly wipe out the combined fleet of Earth and its allies. The leader of the Ori, Adria (Morena Baccarin), is introduced in the premiere of Season 10 (\"Flesh and Blood (Part 2)\"). SG-1 searches for the Sangraal, an Ancient weapon that might defeat the Ori, while Ba'al and his clones attempt to find the weapon for their own purposes. With the help of the powerful Ancient Merlin (Matthew Walker), SG-1 finds the construction plans of the Sangraal and sends a working version to the Ori galaxy. Shortly thereafter, Adria ascends. The direct-to-DVD film The Ark of Truth ends the Ori Arc.",
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"plaintext": " Richard Dean Anderson as Jonathan \"Jack\" O'Neill (Seasons 1–8 main, Seasons 9–10 guest) – A United States Air Force Colonel and an Air Force Special Operations veteran who led the original mission through the Stargate in Stargate (where he was played by Kurt Russell). He is coaxed out of retirement in the pilot episode and serves as the leader of the SG-1 team in the first seven seasons. He takes charge of Stargate Command (SGC) after his promotion to brigadier general at the beginning of Season 8. The series repeatedly alludes to romantic feelings between O'Neill and his second-in-command, Carter, but the relationship is never shown as consummated outside alternate reality scenarios. O'Neill is reassigned to Washington, D.C. before Season 9 and receives a promotion to major general. He appears in a recurring role in Seasons 9 and 10 of Stargate SG-1, as well as in Stargate: Continuum and in Seasons 1 and 3 of Stargate Atlantis. O'Neill appears as a lieutenant general in multiple episodes of Stargate Universe where he is in command of the Department of Homeworld Security.",
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"plaintext": " Michael Shanks as Daniel Jackson (Seasons 1–5 and 7–10 main, Season 6 recurring) – A brilliant Egyptologist whose far-fetched theories about Egyptian pyramids having been built by aliens led to his participation in the original Stargate mission in the feature film (where he was played by James Spader). He joins the SG-1 team to facilitate his search for his wife, who was kidnapped by Apophis in the pilot episode, but his naïveté and curiosity regularly create obstacles for the team. He gradually evolves from being an archaeologist and translator, into the moral conscience for the team, and remains part of SG-1 until he ascends to a higher plane of existence at the end of Season 5. Following his forced de-ascension at the beginning of Season 7, he rejoins SG-1 for the remainder of the series. The last three seasons show his flirty, yet antagonistic relationship with Vala Mal Doran. Daniel also appears in both direct-to-DVD films, in Seasons 1 and 5 of Stargate Atlantis and in three Stargate Universe episodes.",
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"plaintext": " Amanda Tapping as Samantha \"Sam\" Carter (Seasons 1–10 main) – A brilliant young astrophysicist and United States Air Force Captain who joins SG-1 under the command of Col. O'Neill in the pilot episode. Following her promotion to Major in Season 3, she is promoted to lieutenant colonel early in Season 8 and assumes command of SG-1. Carter assists Lieutenant Colonel Cameron Mitchell in Seasons 9 and 10. After her appearance in Stargate: The Ark of Truth, she is promoted to Colonel and becomes the new commander of the Atlantis expedition in Season 4 of Stargate Atlantis, before joining SG-1 again for Stargate: Continuum. Carter appears in a recurring role in all seasons of Stargate Atlantis (and as a regular in Season 4) and in the first episode of Stargate Universe as commander of the starship George Hammond.",
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"plaintext": " Christopher Judge as Teal'c (Seasons 1–10 main) – A quiet and strong Jaffa alien who defects from his position as the First Prime of the Goa'uld Apophis. He joins SG-1 after the first episode, in hopes of leading his race to freedom. Despite achieving this goal at the end of Season 8, he remains a member of SG-1 until the end of the series. He also appears in both direct-to-DVD films and in Season 4 of Stargate Atlantis as a mentor for Ronon Dex during an interview for the IOA.",
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"plaintext": " Don S. Davis as George Hammond (Seasons 1–7 main, Seasons 8–10 recurring) – A United States Air Force Major General (later Lieutenant General) who commands Stargate Command in the first seven seasons. Besides recurring in Seasons 8 through 10 of Stargate SG-1, he appears in Season 1 of Stargate Atlantis. Davis died from a heart attack in June 2008, making his appearance in Stargate: Continuum his last.",
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"plaintext": " Corin Nemec as Jonas Quinn (Season 6 main, Season 5 guest and 7 recurring) – A humanoid alien and scientist from the country of Kelowna on the planet Langara. Daniel sacrifices his life (leading to his ascension) at the end of Season 5 in an attempt to save Kelowna, but the following gleeful reaction of the Kelownan leaders causes Jonas to turn his back on Langara. Jonas is a fast learner and fills Daniel's empty spot on SG-1 in Season 6. Following Daniel's return, Jonas returns to his planet and remains a recurring character in Season 7.",
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"plaintext": " Ben Browder as Cameron \"Cam\" Mitchell (Seasons 9–10 main) – A United States Air Force lieutenant colonel who is assigned as the new commanding officer of SG-1 at the beginning of Season 9. He struggles to reunite its former members under his command and commands SG-1 (with Lieutenant Colonel Carter's assistance) until the end of Season 10. He is promoted to colonel between his appearances in Stargate: The Ark of Truth and Stargate: Continuum.",
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"plaintext": " Beau Bridges as Henry \"Hank\" Landry (Seasons 9–10 main) – A United States Air Force Major General and the commander of Stargate Command in Seasons 9 and 10. He is the estranged father of the SGC's medical officer Carolyn Lam and appears in both direct-to-DVD films and in Seasons 2 and 3 of Stargate Atlantis. In Season 10, Episode 13 Hank Landry was President Of The United States, as well as Major General Hank Landry.",
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"plaintext": " Claudia Black as Vala Mal Doran (Season 10 main, Seasons 8–9 recurring) – A con artist from an unnamed planet and a former human host to the Goa'uld Qetesh. Her first appearance in Season 8's \"Prometheus Unbound\" is the beginning of her flirty yet antagonistic relationship with Daniel. In her recurring role in Season 9, she and Daniel unintentionally set off the new Ori threat. She is unwillingly impregnated by the Ori, gives birth to Adria and watches helplessly as Adria grows to adulthood in a few days time. She joins SG-1 after giving birth to the new leader of the Ori at the beginning of Season 10 and appears in both direct-to-DVD films.",
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"plaintext": "Brad Wright and Jonathan Glassner had worked together on the MGM television series The Outer Limits since 1995. Upon hearing of MGM's plan to create a television spin-off series of the feature film Stargate, Wright and Glassner independently and unbeknownst to each other approached MGM and proposed their concept for the television series. MGM president John Symes greenlit the project on the condition that Wright and Glassner work together as executive producers of the new show. The show was named Stargate SG-1 after Wright flightily agreed to Symes's pitch question of whether the team should be called \"SG-1\". MGM released posters titled Stargate SG-1 within the next week without the knowledge of Wright or Glassner.",
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"plaintext": "John Symes approached Michael Greenburg and Richard Dean Anderson, former star of the long-running MacGyver. Anderson agreed to become involved if his character Jack O'Neill were allowed more comedic leeway than Kurt Russell's character in the feature film. He also requested that Stargate SG-1 be an ensemble show, so that he would not be carrying most of the plot alone as he had on MacGyver. The American subscription channel Showtime made a two-season commitment for 44 episodes in 1996. Principal photography began in Vancouver in February 1997.",
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"plaintext": "After Anderson accepted the part, Brad Wright and Jonathan Glassner reviewed several thousand taped auditions and invited approximately 25 promising actors to screen tests in Los Angeles. Michael Shanks, Amanda Tapping and Christopher Judge are said to have gravitated towards each other during the casting process before they knew that they would ultimately be cast. The producers found Judge the easiest to cast due to his muscular presence. Shanks was cast because he did \"the perfect imitation of James Spader\", according to Wright. The producers knew Don S. Davis from his work as a stand-in and stunt-double for Dana Elcar in MacGyver and approached him to read for the role of George Hammond.",
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"plaintext": "Showtime's announcement that it would not renew Stargate SG-1 after Season 5 coincided with Michael Shanks's decision to leave the show over concerns of being underutilized. The Sci Fi Channel picked up the show and substituted a new character, played by Corin Nemec. Casting agents had met Nemec in the courtyard of MGM's Santa Monica offices by chance and had offered him the role of Jonas Quinn. Addressing rumors that it had forced Shanks's departure, Sci Fi said in February 2002 that the network had \"absolutely never requested that any cast changes be made... and although we regret the loss of Michael Shanks, we think that Corin Nemec will be a great new presence in the cast.\" Nemec's early appearances, beginning with the penultimate episode of Season 5 \"Meridian\", failed to win over some of the show's fans. Nemec was willing to continue playing the character after Season 6 or in a feature film or a spin-off series. However, the producers reached an agreement with Shanks to return full-time in Season 7, leaving Nemec with a recurring role. Don S. Davis left Stargate SG-1 after Season 7 for health reasons, but appeared in a recurring capacity until his death on June 29, 2008.",
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"plaintext": "Due to prior engagements, Claudia Black of Farscape fame could not accept the offers to guest-star on Stargate SG-1 until the Season 8 episode \"Prometheus Unbound\". The producers liked the on-screen chemistry between Black's Vala Mal Doran and Shanks's Daniel so much that they re-introduced her in a six-episode story Arc to cover for the maternity leave of Amanda Tapping at the beginning of Season 9. At the same time, Richard Dean Anderson left the show to spend more time with his daughter (his schedule had been reduced incrementally since Season 6). The role of the leading man was filled with Ben Browder (also of Farscape fame), who had met with the Stargate producers as soon as the introduction of new main characters for Season 9 was discussed. The producers had met him during sci-fi conventions and had previously discussed casting him in other Stargate roles. The producers approached Emmy Award-winning actor Beau Bridges directly to play the role of Hank Landry. Claudia Black's guest appearances were so popular with the cast, crew and audience that the actress returned for the last two Season 9 episodes (with her pregnancy worked into the plot) and she joined the cast full-time in Season 10.",
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"plaintext": "Most of the producers, crew members and guest actors involved in Stargate SG-1 were Canadian. Creators Brad Wright and Jonathan Glassner were executive producers and show runners of Stargate SG-1 in the first three seasons, having the final say (besides MGM and the network) on stories, designs, effects, casting, editing and episode budgets. After Glassner's departure, Wright ran Stargate SG-1 alone for three seasons. Executive producer Robert C. Cooper took over as show-runner in Season 7 when Brad Wright took time off to develop the spin-off series Stargate Atlantis. Cooper and Wright remained show-runners of their respective shows until the end of SG-1. Also serving as executive and co-executive producers were Michael Greenburg and Richard Dean Anderson (Seasons 1–8), N. John Smith (Seasons 4–10) and the writer team Joseph Mallozzi & Paul Mullie (Seasons 7–10).",
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"plaintext": "Although Stargate SG-1 employed freelance writers, most of the 214 Stargate SG-1 episodes were written by Brad Wright (Seasons 1–10), Jonathan Glassner (Seasons 1–3), Katharyn Powers (Seasons 1–6), Robert C. Cooper (Seasons 1–10), Peter DeLuise (Seasons 4–8), Joseph Mallozzi & Paul Mullie (Seasons 4–10), Damian Kindler (Seasons 6–10) and Alan McCullough (Seasons 9–10). Martin Wood and Peter DeLuise directed the most episodes, with 46 episodes (Seasons 1–10) and 57 episodes (Seasons 2–10), respectively. Wood and DeLuise regularly made cameo appearances in their episodes and notably played the show-within-a-show directors in the cameo-heavy milestone episodes \"Wormhole X-Treme!\" and \"200\". Andy Mikita had been an assistant director since the pilot episode and directed 29 episodes from Season 3–10. SG-1 director of photography Peter Woeste and camera operator William Waring directed 13 episodes each. Most staff writers and staff directors held producer positions. Several cast members also contributed story ideas and directed SG-1 episodes.",
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"plaintext": "The main setting of Stargate SG-1, the fictional Stargate Command (SGC) at the (real) Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Station near Colorado Springs, Colorado, was filmed at stage 5 of The Bridge Studios. Martin Wood filmed half a dozen stock shots of the real Cheyenne Mountain complex for use in the series approximately ten days before the premiere of the pilot episode. Although these shots wore out over the years, the producers did not film new shots until the beginning of Season 9, thinking that Stargate SG-1 would be cancelled after each current year. By then, visitor questions and fan theories about the existence of a Stargate at the real Cheyenne Mountain complex had become so common that Cheyenne Mountain had installed a seemingly high-security door labeled \"Stargate Command\" for one of their storage rooms holding brooms and detergent.",
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"plaintext": "The first seven seasons had 22 episodes each, which was reduced to 20 episodes for the last three seasons. Episodes of the first seasons were filmed over a period of 7.5 working days, which decreased to a targeted average of six working days in the last seasons. All episodes were filmed in 9 wide-screen, although Stargate SG-1 was broadcast in 3 aspect ratio in its first years. The transition to the broadcast of episodes in the wider 16:9 ratio gave directors more freedom in frame composition. The first three seasons of Stargate SG-1 were filmed on 16 mm film, notwithstanding scenes involving visual effects that had always been shot on 35 mm film for various technical reasons. After a test run with the Season 3 finale, \"Nemesis\", Stargate SG-1 switched to 35mm film for all purposes at the beginning of Season 4. Digital HD cameras were used for filming beginning with Season 8.",
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"plaintext": "The art department generated all of the concepts and drawing for the prop department, the set decoration department, the construction department, the paint department and the model shop. They also collaborated with the visual effects department. Stargate SG-1 employed about 200 Canadian union workers, although that number could exceed 300 when new sets were built. Lead production designer Richard Hudolin joined the project in October 1996. Bridget McGuire, SG-1s art director since the pilot episode, took over as lead production designer in Season 6.",
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"plaintext": "Hudolin flew to Los Angeles in 1996 to gather material from the feature film as reference and found the original Stargate prop stored outside in the Californian desert. Although the prop had severely deteriorated, he was able to take a detailed mold for Stargate SG-1 production to build its own prop. The new Stargate was engineered to turn, to lock the chevrons and to be computer-controlled to dial specific gate addresses. A portable Stargate prop was built for on-location shoots and required six workers and one full day to set up. Since visual effects are sometimes faster and cheaper, a computer-generated Stargate was occasionally used in on-location shoots in later seasons.",
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"plaintext": "The SGC set had to be twice as high for shooting as the Stargate prop, but one of Hudolin's original plans of a three-level set was rejected in favor of a two-level set. The gateroom was the biggest room on set and could be redesigned for other scenes. Two multi-purpose rooms were frequently redecorated into the infirmary, Daniel's lab, the cafeteria or the gym. The SGC set and all other sets from the pilot episode were constructed within six weeks in January and February 1997, incorporating some original set pieces from the feature film. The SGC set would be largely dismantled in late 2008 to make room for the Icarus Base set of Stargate Universe.",
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"plaintext": "Most of the main SG-1 characters are US airmen and wear authentic United States Air Force uniforms. During missions, the members of the SG-1 team normally wear olive green Battle Dress Uniforms. Richard Dean Anderson and Don S. Davis received a regular military-style haircut on set. Amanda Tapping had her hair comparably short until the filming of the direct-to-DVD films. Playing a civilian, Michael Shanks adopted James Spader's hairstyle from the feature film but cut it short for the Season 2 finale and subsequent seasons. The Jaffa alien Teal'c (Christopher Judge) was the only main character whose look required more than basic make-up. His Egyptian look was reflective of the Goa'uld Ra from the feature film and was complemented with a forehead symbol and a gold skin tone, although his make-up process was simplified over the years. Judge shaved his head at home each day until the producers allowed him to let his hair grow in Season 8. As a trained nurse, key make-up artist Jan Newman could make burns, cuts, bruises and the SG-1 team's other wounds look authentic.",
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"plaintext": "For the look of aliens, the make-up department collaborated with prosthetics companies from Vancouver and Los Angeles, including Todd Masters. While the human origins of many alien races and human civilizations were left recognizable, the recurring characters who were members of the Unas race required elaborate prosthetics and make-up work. To convey the cultural origins of the various fictional human civilizations living on different planets after their displacement from Earth, the costume designers combined elements of their respective Earth cultures with modern fabrics, elaborate trims and chains to produce a historically rooted yet otherworldly appearance. The look of the Goa'uld such as Apophis was initially based on the look of Ra in the feature film. For the design of the Ori and the Priors in Season 9, the art department looked at Japanese and Samurai garments for costume design. Art director James Robbins found the face painting, scarification and burns of remote jungle tribes mystical and these served as inspiration for the face scarification of the Priors and the Doci. Early ideas to include finger extensions and scarification on these characters' hands were discarded as impracticable.",
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"plaintext": "Stargate SG-1 was one of the biggest employers in the Vancouver visual effects market, spending $400,000 per episode. The largest role was played by Rainmaker Digital Effects, whose senior digital compositing artist, Bruce Woloshyn, worked approximately 10 months a year in close collaboration with SG-1 visual effects supervisor/producer James Tichenor and visual effects supervisor Michelle Comens. Many companies were hired to create the Stargate's water-like event horizon in the beginning, but Rainmaker eventually became the only company to create those visual effects. Rainmaker's regular effects shots included the activation and use of the Stargate itself (with well over 300 event horizon shots in the first few years), the transport rings and the blast shots of the staff weapons and zat guns. They created the visual effects for Goa'uld cargo ships and death gliders on a less regular basis.",
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"plaintext": "Lost Boys Studios provided visual effects for SG-1 from the very beginning of the series up to the end of Season 5, and Image Engine worked on the show from Season 2. Stargate SG-1 and Stargate Atlantis were responsible for an estimated 30% to 40% of the business of Atmosphere Visual Effects. James Tichenor considered the few episodes with big visual effects budgets the most likely works to contain visual cues that would impress award judges. Stargate SG-1 helped win the local post production shops industry recognition, with Season 4's \"Small Victories\", Season 5's \"Revelations\" and Season 7's \"Lost City\" receiving the most visual effects awards and nominations (see List of awards and nominations received by Stargate SG-1).",
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"plaintext": "According to composer Joel Goldsmith, Stargate SG-1 had a traditional action-adventure score, \"with a sci-fi, fantasy flair\" that goes \"from comedy to drama to wondrous to suspense to heavy action to ethereal\". Brad Wright and Jonathan Glassner had known Goldsmith since the second season of The Outer Limits before they approached him to work on the pilot episode of Stargate SG-1. Goldsmith and David Arnold, the composer of the original feature film score, discussed themes for a television adaptation. The main titles of Stargate SG-1 were a medley of several themes from the feature film, although Goldsmith also wrote a unique end title for SG-1 to establish the show as its own entity. MGM eventually insisted on using Arnold's score in the pilot episode instead of Goldsmith's, but Brad Wright's 2009 direct-to-DVD recut of Children of the Gods uses Goldsmith's original score.",
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"plaintext": "For each episode's score, Goldsmith simulated a real orchestra with a synthesizer palette of an eighty-piece symphony orchestra for budgetary reasons, although he occasionally used two or three musicians for added orchestral authenticity. Goldsmith's long-time assistant Neal Acree started composing additional music for Stargate SG-1 in Season 8. The amount of composed music varied between 12 and 33 minutes out of a 44-minute episode, with an average of around 22 to 26 minutes, making the full symphonic score of SG-1 more time-consuming to create than for general TV shows. Since Goldsmith lived a thousand miles away from Vancouver, he and the producers discussed ideas over the phone and exchanged tapes via Federal Express for several years until the show switched to Internet file transfers.",
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"plaintext": "Goldsmith's reliance on Arnold's score decreased over the seasons when Stargate SG-1 departed from the Goa'uld theme and introduced new characters and races. Goldsmith had a thematic approach to races and spaceships. For example, he wanted a mechanical, repetitive musical motif for the Replicators; Gothic, Gregorian and Christian themes were the inspiration for the Ori motif. The Ancient theme was deliberately carried over to Stargate Atlantis. The end of \"Lost City\" has a basic melody that would become part of the main title of Atlantis per a suggestion by Goldsmith's assistant. Non-original music was rarely used on SG-1, although Goldsmith chose the aria \"Vesti la giubba\" from Leoncavallo's Pagliacci for season 3's \"Shades of Grey\". Additionally, Lily Frost's song \"Who am I\" played in Season 7's \"Fragile Balance\" and CCR's song \"Have You Ever Seen the Rain?\" played in the series finale \"Unending\". A television soundtrack with Goldsmith's adapted score was released in 1997, followed by a best-of release in 2001. In Season 1 Episode 7, \"The Nox\", the music that played when The Nox appeared was Spinning The Silk from the album Chrysalis by 2002.",
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"plaintext": "Stargate SG-1 has had several opening title sequences, which are generally preceded by a teaser act. The credits are normally sixty seconds long. Richard Dean Anderson was the only SG-1 actor whose name appeared before the show's title. Michael Shanks' name was moved near the end of the opening credits with the appendage \"as Daniel Jackson\" after his return to the show in Season 7. Some DVD versions of early SG-1 seasons have different opening credits from the television versions, as do the direct-to-DVD films. Composer Joel Goldsmith adapted David Arnold's Stargate feature film score for SG-1s opening title theme, which remained the same during the run of Stargate SG-1 and its direct-to-DVD films.",
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"plaintext": "The first opening title sequence, used in the first five seasons, shows a slow-pan camera move over Ra's mask. The Stargate SG-1 producers had run out of time before the premiere of Season 1 and simply re-used the accelerated opening title sequence of the feature film. Ra's mask had been created in the feature film's model shop and had originally been filmed with a motion-control camera. Partly because Ra's mask looked cross-eyed, Brad Wright approached the art department in the following years to produce a new opening title sequence; however, the sequence remained the same until the show's move to the Sci-Fi Channel. During the first five seasons when the show was syndicated, a separate introduction was used; this intro is still used by Sci-Fi for Seasons 1–5. This version uses action shots of the original cast.",
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"plaintext": "The opening title sequence of the first two Season 6 episodes shows a turning Stargate, for which a Frazier lens was put as close as inch (3mm) to the Stargate prop. The opening credits of the following episodes intercut this material with live-action shots of the characters from previous seasons and ended with the SG-1 team stepping through the Stargate. The opening credits stayed the same in the next two seasons except for minor clip and cast changes. The opening credits of Season 9 intercut shots of the Stargate with action sequences similar to the previous opening credits, although the Stargate was visibly computer-generated. The Sci Fi Channel cut the opening credits from sixty to ten seconds in their original broadcast of the first half of Season 9, but reinstated the full opening credits after strongly negative fan reactions. The writers poked fun at this move in SG-1s milestone episode \"200\" in Season 10, showing a five-second clip instead of the full titles. Beginning with Season 10's \"Company of Thieves\", the last clip of the opening credits shows Vala Mal Doran almost missing SG-1's trip through the Stargate.",
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"plaintext": "The U.S. Department of the Air Force, through the Air Force Office of Public Affairs, Entertainment Liaison in Los Angeles, co-operated closely with the Stargate SG-1 producers. Before the beginning of the series, the Air Force granted production access to the Cheyenne Mountain complex to film stock shots. They also read every script for mistakes and provided help with plausible background stories for all characters, ribbons, uniform regulations, hair advice, plot lines and military relationships & decorum on an active military base. The USAF flew up several T-38 Talon, F-15 and F-16 fighter jets to Vancouver for various episodes and direct-to-DVD films. Many of the extras portraying USAF personnel were real USAF staff.",
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"plaintext": "Two successive Chiefs of Staff of the Air Force, Generals Michael E. Ryan and John P. Jumper, appeared as themselves in Season 4's \"Prodigy\" and Season 7's \"Lost City\", respectively. General Jumper's second scheduled appearance in Season 9's \"The Fourth Horseman\" was cancelled due to ongoing real-world conflicts in the Middle East. The Air Force Association recognized Richard Dean Anderson at its 57th annual dinner on September 14, 2004 for his work as actor and executive producer of the show and for the show's positive depiction of the United States Air Force.",
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"plaintext": "Several scenes of Season 4's \"Small Victories\" were filmed aboard and outside a decommissioned Russian Foxtrot-class submarine, which had been brought from Vladivostok to Vancouver by a private owner. The United States Navy invited the cast and producers to film aboard the nuclear submarine and at their Applied Physics Laboratory Ice Station in the Arctic for the direct-to-DVD sequel Continuum.",
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"plaintext": "Stargate SG-1 takes place in a military science fiction environment and employs the common science fiction concepts of strongly differentiated characters fighting an unequivocally evil enemy (the Goa'uld). However, it links alien races with well-known Earth mythologies, by use of the central Stargate device. Near-instantaneous interplanetary travel allows quick narrative shifts between the politics on Earth and the realities of fighting an interstellar war. Stargate SG-1 gradually evolves the basic premise of the Stargate film into its own unique mythological superstructure, expanding upon Egyptian mythology (notably the gods Apep/Apophis and Anubis as Goa'uld villains), Norse mythology (notably the god Thor as an Asgard ally) and Arthurian legend (notably Merlin as an Ancient ally against the god-like Ori), among others. SG-1 introduces new alien races (as opposed to alien human civilizations) less often than other science fiction television series and integrates newly encountered races or visited planets in stand-alone episodes into its established mythology while leaving the plotlines accessible for new audience members. Despite the show's extensive intergalactic mythology and science fiction elements, scholar M. Keith Booker considered SG-1 ultimately character-driven and heavily dependent on the camaraderie among the SG-1 members.",
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"plaintext": "The producers embraced humor and wanted SG-1 to be a fun show that did not take itself too seriously. Brad Wright regarded SG-1 as a family show with adequate violence as opposed to random or gratuitous violence. Christopher Judge did not consider SG-1 as a \"message show by any stretch of the imagination, but occasionally there are messages there\". Aimed at a popular audience, Stargate SG-1 emphasized its present-day-Earth story frame by frequently referring to popular culture, like The X-Files and Buffy the Vampire Slayer had done before. Jonathan Glassner had written The Wizard of Oz references into his own scripts since the first season, which the other writers imitated after Richard Dean Anderson began referring to the film on his own. O'Neill refers to Richard Dean Anderson's favorite television series, The Simpsons, throughout the show. SG-1 makes meta-textual references to the process of writing and filming a science fiction TV series in several episodes and alludes to the main actors' previous TV roles in the pilot episode (Carter: \"It took us fifteen years and three supercomputers to MacGyver a system for the gate on Earth\") and in a Farscape vignette in the milestone episode \"200\".",
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"plaintext": "The American subscription channel Showtime ordered the first two seasons of Stargate SG-1 with 44 episodes total in 1996. The two-hour pilot episode received Showtime's highest-ever ratings for a series premiere with an audience of approximately 1.5 million households in the 8 p.m. Sunday slot of July 27, 1997. According to the SG-1 producers, a broadcast network would have cancelled SG-1 after a few episodes, but Showtime put no pressure on the show to \"deliver the meteoric ratings the way network shows do\". The show was consistently the channel's most-watched program (including theatrical movies), so Showtime ordered a third and fourth season of 22 episodes each in July 1998.",
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"plaintext": "Since Stargate SG-1 was expensive to produce, MGM arranged an agreement with Showtime that SG-1 could air in syndication six months after their premiere on Showtime. All 22 Fox stations aired the first seasons after their Showtime debut, providing a clearance of 41% of the United States. The Sci Fi Channel made its largest single programming acquisition of $150 million in 1998 by buying the exclusive basic cable rights to the MGM package Stargate SG-1, The Outer Limits and The Legacy. Showtime decided to end its association with Stargate SG-1 at the end of Season 5, saying that the show still had a sizeable viewership but could no longer draw new subscribers due to its availability in syndication.",
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"plaintext": "Since SG-1 ratings were good from a financial standpoint, the Sci Fi Channel picked up MGM's offer to continue the show into a sixth season, yet with a slightly reduced budget. Sci Fi aired new episodes of Stargate SG-1 in the 9 p.m. Friday slot between The Dead Zone and Farscape, while it aired older SG-1 episodes in a four-hour block every Monday at 7 p.m. Episodes were broadcast in US syndication six months after their premiere on Sci Fi. The sixth season was supposed to be the show's last, but Sci Fi renewed SG-1 at the last minute. The sixth and seventh seasons made Stargate SG-1 Sci Fi's highest-rated original series with an average of 2 million viewers in over 1.3 million households, elevating Sci Fi into the top 10 cable networks in the United States. For the next few years, the producers believed each current season to be the show's last and repeatedly wrote big series finales, but the success of Stargate SG-1 put off their plans of ending the show to write a new Stargate feature film. Sci Fi cut the length of an SG-1 season from 22 to 20 episodes from Season 8 onwards.",
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"plaintext": "Originally envisioned as a replacement for SG-1, the spin-off series Stargate Atlantis began airing in tandem with SG-1 eighth season in summer 2004, setting a series record of 3.2 million viewers for SG-1 and a Sci Fi record as most-watched episode of a regular series ever (at the time) for Atlantis with 4.2 million viewers. Battlestar Galactica joined the two Stargate series in January 2005, making Sci Fi the leader among basic cablers on Friday nights over the summer of 2005. The producers considered replacing Stargate SG-1 with a new show named Stargate Command after SG-1s eighth season, but the Sci Fi Channel decided to continue SG-1 with a slightly changed cast for a ninth season instead. Season 9's average slipped from 2.4 million viewers in late 2005 to 2.1 million viewers with 1.8 household rating during early 2006, which Sci Fi's Mark Stern attributed to the \"tech-savvy, toy-loving, time-shifting audience\" whose use of digital video recorders excluded them in ratings compilations. Meanwhile, the decline of SG-1 2005–2006 syndication household ratings was consistent with the overall decline in syndicated sci-fi action hours. Sci Fi ordered a record-breaking tenth season of SG-1 in 2005, but announced it would not renew the show for an eleventh season in summer 2006 (see Cancellation and future). The final SG-1 episode, \"Unending\", premiered on Sky1 in the UK on March 13, 2007 and attracted approximately 2.2 million viewers on the Sci Fi Channel on June 22, 2007.",
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"plaintext": "According to Wright and Cooper, the worldwide popularity of science fiction was a factor in SG-1 success and the good international reception helped keep the series on the air in the beginning. Several newspapers reported in 2005–2006 that Stargate SG-1 aired in over 100 countries with a weekly worldwide viewership of around 10 million, but The New York Times gave different numbers in 2004, saying that the show was broadcast in sixty-four countries with more than 17 million viewers a week. Stargate SG-1 had a particularly fervent response in the United Kingdom, Germany, France and Australia.",
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"plaintext": "Stargate SG-1 aired in the United Kingdom on Sky One with repeats on Sky Two, Sky Three and Channel 4. Sky One broadcast new episodes of the second half of most seasons before their American premiere. Brad Wright found it \"almost embarrassing\" that Stargate SG-1 was much more popular in the United Kingdom than in Canada, where the show aired on Space, Citytv, A-Channel, Movie Central and French-language channels TQS and Ztélé. Stargate SG-1 aired in Australia on Sci Fi Australia and Channel Seven. It aired in India on STAR World India and in Israel on Channel 1.",
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"plaintext": "On August 21, 2006, a few days after the premiere of SG-1 milestone episode \"200\", the Sci Fi Channel confirmed that Stargate SG-1 was not being renewed for an 11th season. While news outlets cited declining ratings, expensive production and lack of promotion as possible reasons for the cancellation, the Sci Fi Channel's Mark Stern merely stated the decision was not ratings-based. Instead, he said the production staff was given enough time to tie up all the loose ends of the story and SG-1 cast members were planned to be incorporated into the renewed Stargate Atlantis. Meanwhile, the SG-1 producers and rights-holder MGM expressed a desire to continue SG-1 as a movie, mini-series, or an eleventh season on another network. Brad Wright confirmed the production of two direct-to-DVD films in October 2006, and Amanda Tapping joined the Atlantis cast for their fourth season. The first film, The Ark of Truth, was released in March 2008 and wraps up the Ori storyline. The second film, Continuum, is an alternate time-line time travel story and was released in July 2008. A special edition of the two-hour pilot episode \"Children of the Gods\" with re-edited scenes and a different score has also been produced.",
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"plaintext": "In April 2009, MGM confirmed a third new SG-1 film that Brad Wright had first announced in May 2008. Joseph Mallozzi revealed the working title as Stargate: Revolution. The film was planned to be written by Wright and former Stargate Atlantis executive producer Carl Binder. Martin Wood would serve as director. The premise of the film would have been the \"possibility of the Stargate program going public\". According to Wright, the film would center on the Jack O'Neill character and would reunite as many of the SG-1 cast as possible, depending on the cost of the film and actor availability. The character of Vala Mal Doran would not appear in the film. Amanda Tapping confirmed her appearance in this SG-1 film and the first Atlantis movie in September 2008, and Michael Shanks (Daniel Jackson) confirmed his and Richard Dean Anderson's participation in January 2009. No contracts had been signed by April 2009, but Wright stated that he \"can almost guarantee we are proceeding with the SG-1 movie this year [2009]\". Nevertheless, production was put on hold. Wright explained that the late-2000s recession made DVD premieres less lucrative for MGM than in the years before, and he also pointed to the financial crisis of MGM as reason for the delay. Wright and Joe Mallozzi expressed optimism that production would eventually start, until Wright announced in April 2011 that the SG-1 film project was permanently shelved, along with plans for future Atlantis and Stargate Universe films and a cross-over film incorporating elements from all three series. By then, neither the Atlantis nor Universe television series were produced anymore. Still, Wright did not rule out future Stargate films, saying; \"It's a franchise. Stargate is not over. Somebody smart from MGM is going to figure it out and something will happen.\"",
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"plaintext": "Stargate SG-1 was first released on DVD in some European nations in volumes of typically four episodes each, beginning with \"The Best of Season 1\" as Volume 1 in the United Kingdom in 2000. Each following season was released as six individual volumes (except Season 10 with five volumes), beginning with the first four episodes of Season 2. In 2000, the series was first released in the United States on DVD with only three episodes. The following year, Seasons 1–8 were released in five-disc amaray box sets in the United States. MGM Home Entertainment (Europe) began releasing complete season box sets (including Season 1) alongside the individual volumes in 2002. The British season box sets were usually released half a year after a season's last volume release in the UK. Stargate SG-1 was also released in DVD season box sets in Australia.",
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"plaintext": " October 1: Several civilian children deaths, Muhammad Nabil Daoud Hamad al-Abasi, 16, of al-Bireh, killed by IDF gunfire to his head during a demonstration at Ayosh Junction. Sara Abdul-Azim Abdul-Haq Hasan, 18 months, of Sarah, near Salfit, killed by Israeli settler gunfire to her head while riding with her father in a car. Samer Samir Sudki Tabanja, 12, of Nablus, killed by IDF helicopter gunfire to his head while watching a demonstration. Sami Fathi Muhammad al-Taramsi, 17, of Gaza City, killed by IDF gunfire to his head during a demonstration at Netzarim Junction. Hussam Naim Hasan Bakhit, 17, of Balata refugee camp, killed by IDF helicopter fire to his head while watching a demonstration. Iyad Ahmad al-Khashishi, 16, of Nablus, died of chest wounds sustained Sept. 30 from IDF gunfire while at a demonstration on the Nablus-Ramallah road.",
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"plaintext": " October 2: an Israeli civilian and a soldier are killed in separate attacks by gunfire in West Bank. ",
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"plaintext": " October 2: Wael Tayseer Muhammad Qatawi, 14, of Balata refugee camp, killed by IDF gunfire to his chest.",
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"plaintext": " October 3: Hussam Mahmoud Ismael al-Hamshari, 15, of Tulkarm, died of head wounds sustained Oct. 1 from IDF gunfire during a demonstration. Amr Kahlil Mustafa al-Rifai, 17, of Maghazi refugee camp, Gaza, killed by IDF gunfire to his head and chest during a demonstration at Netzarim Junction.",
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"plaintext": " October 4: Muhammad Yousef Zayd abu-Asi, 13, of Bani Suheila, Gaza, killed by IDF gunfire to his head, chest and back during a demonstration at Netzarim Junction.",
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"plaintext": " October 6: Majdi Samir Musa al-Misilmani, 15, of Beit Hanina, near Jerusalem, killed by IDF gunfire to his head during a demonstration. Muhammad Khaled Mahmoud Tammam, 17, of Tulkarm, killed by IDF shelling to his chest.",
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"plaintext": " October 8: an Israeli settler found dead in Nablus.",
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"plaintext": " October 10: Aseel Hassan Asleh, 17, of Araba, near Nazareth, Palestinian with Israeli citizenship and an active Seeds of Peace participant, killed by Israeli police gunfire to his neck at close range while at a demonstration near his village.",
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"plaintext": " October 11: Sami Hasan Salim Silmi Salama, 17, of Tulkarm, killed by IDF gunfire to his chest.",
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"plaintext": "12 October Sami Fathi Abdallah abu-Jazar, 12, of Rafah, Gaza, died of head wounds sustained Oct. 10 from IDF gunfire during a demonstration.",
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"plaintext": "16 October Muayad Usama Ali al-Jawarish, 14, of Aida refugee camp, killed by IDF gunfire to his chest and abdomen while on the way to school.",
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"plaintext": "20 October Muhammad Adel Hasan abu-Tahun, 15, of Tulkarm, killed by IDF gunfire to his head and chest during a demonstration. Samer Talal al-Awaisi, 16, of Qalqilya, killed by IDF gunfire to his chest during a demonstration. Ala Bassam Abdullah Bani-Nimra, 13, of Salfit, killed by IDF gunfire to his head during a demonstration. Thaer Ali Daoud Omar Muala, 17, Amari refugee camp, killed by IDF gunfire to his head during a demonstration at Ayosh Junction.",
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"plaintext": "21 October Omar Ismael Omar al-Buhisi, 16, of Deir al-Balah, Gaza, killed by IDF gunfire to his chest during a demonstration near the Kfar Darom settlement. Majid Ibrahim Hasan Hawamdeh, 15, of al-Bireh, killed by IDF gunfire to his head during a demonstration.",
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"plaintext": "22 October Salahaldeen Fawzi Ahmad al-Nijmi, 15, of Maghazi refugee camp, Gaza, killed by IDF gunfire to his chest during a demonstration near the Kfar Darom settlement. Wael Mahmoud Imad al-Nasheet, 12, of Jabalya refugee camp, Gaza, killed by an IDF rubber-coated bullet to his head during a demonstration near the Erez industrial zone.",
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"plaintext": "23 October Ashraf Ahmad Abdul-Majid al-Habayeb, 15, of Askar refugee camp, died of head wounds sustained Oct. 16 from IDF gunfire during a demonstration. Saed Adnan Abdullah al-Tambour, 17, of Nablus, killed by IDF gunfire to his head while picking olives.",
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"plaintext": "24 October Nidal Muhammad Zuhdi al-Dbeiki, 16, of Gaza City, killed by IDF gunfire to his abdomen during a demonstration near the Erez industrial zone. Iyad Usama Taher Shath, 13, of Khan Younis, killed by an IDF rubber-coated bullet to his head during a demonstration. Ala Muhammad Abdul-Rahman Mahfuz al-Jawabra, 14, of Al-Arroub (camp), died of head wounds sustained Oct. 6 from IDF gunfire while on the terrace of his home one hour after injuring an Israeli soldier with a stone.",
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"plaintext": "27 October 2000 Bashir Saleh Musa Shalawit, 16, of Qalqilya, deaf, killed by IDF gunfire to his abdomen during a demonstration.",
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"plaintext": "29 October 2000 Husni Ibrahim Hasan al-Najjar, 17, of Rafah refugee camp, Gaza, killed by IDF gunfire to his head during a demonstration.",
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"plaintext": "31 October Thaer Ibrahim Shalsh al-Zayd, 17, of Jalazoun refugee camp, killed by IDF gunfire to his abdomen during a demonstration at Ayosh Junction.",
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"plaintext": " November 1: two Israeli soldiers killed in a shooting incident near Bethlehem, and another one while guarding a town in Jordan Valley. Ahmad Salman Ibrahim abu-Tayeh, 13, of Shati refugee camp, Gaza, killed by IDF gunfire to his head during a demonstration at the Karni checkpoint. Muhammad Ibrahim Muhammad al-Hajjaj, 14, of Gaza City, killed by IDF gunfire to his head and chest during a demonstration at the Karni checkpoint. Ibrahim Riziq Marzuq Omar 15, of Shati refugee camp, Gaza, killed by IDF gunfire to his chest during a demonstration at the Karni checkpoint.",
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"plaintext": " November 2: two Israeli civilians killed in a car bombing in Jerusalem. The Islamic Jihad claims responsibility. Khaled Muhammad Ahmed al-Katibw, 17, of Hazma, near Jerusalem, killed by IDF gunfire to his abdomen during a demonstration. Yazen Muhammad Eisa al-Haliqa, 17, of al-Khader, near Bethlehem, killed by IDF gunfire to his head and chest during a demonstration.",
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"plaintext": " November 3: Rami Ahmad Abdul-Fattah Mutawe, 15, of Hazma, near Jerusalem, killed by IDF gunfire to his abdomen during a demonstration.",
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"plaintext": " November 4: Hind Nidal Jamil Qauider, 23 days old, of Hebron, killed by IDF gas.",
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"plaintext": " November 5: Maher Muhammad Ibrahim al-Suedy, 16, of Bureij refugee camp, Gaza, killed by IDF gunfire to his head during a demonstration.",
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"plaintext": " November 6: Wajdi Alam al-Hattab, 15, of Tulkarm, killed by IDF gunfire to his chest during a demonstration. Muhammad Nawaf Hamad al-Taban, 17, of al-Zawaida, near Deir al-Balah, Gaza, killed by IDF gunfire to his back during a demonstration near the Kfar Darom settlement.",
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"plaintext": "November 7: Ahmad Amin al-Khuffash, 7, of Murda, near Salfit, murdered by an Israeli settler vehicle.",
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"plaintext": "November 8: Ibrahim Fuad Riziq al-Qasas, 16, of Khan Younis, Gaza, killed by IDF gunfire to his head during a demonstration near the Tufah checkpoint. Muhammad Musbah Ismael abu-Ghali, 16, of Khan Younis, Gaza, killed by IDF gunfire to his chest during a demonstration near the Tufah checkpoint. Khaled Fayez Suleiman abu-Zahra, 17, of Nur al-Shams refugee camp, killed by IDF gunfire to his chest and abdomen. Raed Abdul-Majed Muhammad Daoud, 14, of Hares, near Salfit, killed by IDF gunfire to his abdomen during a demonstration. Fares Fayq Odeh, 14, of Gaza City, killed by IDF gunfire to his head while throwing stones near the Karni checkpoint.",
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"plaintext": " November 8: an Israeli citizen is killed while driving to her job in Gaza. ",
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"plaintext": " November 10: Usama Mazen Salim Azouka, 14, of Jenin, killed by IDF gunfire to his chest during a demonstration. Usama Samir Abdul-Nabi al-Jirjawi, 17, of Gaza City, killed by IDF gunfire to his chest during a demonstration near the Karni checkpoint. An Israeli soldier killed by a Palestinian sniper while guarding a Jewish shrine in Bethlehem. ",
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"plaintext": " November 11: Musa Ibrahim Musa al-Dibs, 15, of Jabalya refugee camp, Gaza, killed by IDF gunfire to his chest during a demonstration near the Erez industrial zone. Basel Hussein abu-Qamer, 15, of Jabalya, Gaza, killed by IDF gunfire during a demonstration near the Erez industrial zone. An Israeli soldier killed in a shooting attack in the Gaza strip. ",
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"plaintext": "November 12: Mahmoud Nafez abu-Naji, 15, of Gaza City, killed by IDF gunfire to his chest during a demonstration.",
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"plaintext": " November 13: two civilians and two soldiers die in three shooting incidents in West Bank and Gaza. ",
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"plaintext": " November 14: Muhammad Khater Muhammad al-Ajla, 13, of Gaza City, killed by IDF gunfire to his head during a demonstration near the Karni checkpoint. Saber Khamis al-Barash, 15, of Amari refugee camp, killed by IDF gunfire to his chest during a demonstration near the Ayosh Junction.",
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"plaintext": "November 15: Jadou Maneh Jadou abul-Kabash, 16, of al-Samu, near Hebron, killed by IDF gunfire to his abdomen during a demonstration. Ahmad Samir Basal, 15, of Gaza City, killed by IDF gunfire to his chest during a demonstration near the Karni checkpoint. Ibrahim Abdul-Rauf al-Juedy, 17, of Qalqilya, killed by IDF gunfire to his chest and abdomen during a demonstration. Muhammad Nasr Muhammad al-Shurafi, 17, of Gaza City, killed by IDF gunfire to his head during a demonstration near the Karni checkpoint. Jihad Suheil Suleiman abu-Shahmeh, 13, of Khan Younis, killed by IDF gunfire to his head during a demonstration near the Tufah checkpoint.",
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"plaintext": "November 17: Muhammad Abdul-Jalil abu-Rayan, 17, of Halhoul, near Hebron, killed by IDF gunfire to his head during a demonstration on Route 60.",
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"plaintext": " November 18: an Israeli soldier killed by a senior Palestinian preventive security officer while guarding a settlement in Gaza strip. Another dies of his wounds obtained earlier.",
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"plaintext": " November 19: Abdul-Rahman Ziad al-Dahshan, 14, of Gaza City, killed by IDF gunfire to his chest during a demonstration at the Karni checkpoint.",
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"plaintext": " November 20: two adults killed while escorting a school bus in Gaza. 5 children and 4 adults are injured. Ibrahim Ahmad Hasan Othman, 16, of Rafah refugee camp, Gaza, killed by IDF gunfire to his chest.",
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"plaintext": " November 21: an Israeli settler youth killed by sniper in Gaza. Yaser Taleb Muhammad al-Nabtiti, 16, of Tulkarm, killed by IDF gunfire to his chest during a demonstration.",
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"plaintext": " November 22: two Israeli women killed and 60 civilians wounded in a car bomb attack in Hadera. Ibrahim Hasan al-Muqanan, 15, of Khan Younis, Gaza, killed by IDF gunfire to his head during a demonstration.",
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"plaintext": " November 23: Maram Imad Ahmad Hasouna, 3, of al-Bireh, killed by IDF gas near her home. A soldier killed by sniper fire in the Gaza strip. An Israeli officer killed in an explosion at the joint Israeli-Palestinian District Coordination in the same region. ",
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"plaintext": " November 24: an Israeli officer killed by sniper fire in Gaza strip, and an army-employed civilian killed in the West Bank. Majdi Ali Abed, 15, of Gaza City, died of head wounds sustained Nov. 17 from IDF gunfire during a demonstration near the Karni checkpoint. Aysar Muhammad Sadiq Hasis, 15, of al-Jalameh, near Jenin, killed by IDF gunfire to his head during a demonstration.",
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"plaintext": "25 November Abdul-Minem Muhammad Izaldeen al-Bosta, 17, of Araba, near Jenin, killed by IDF gunfire to his head during a demonstration.",
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"plaintext": "26 November Mahdi Qasem Jaber, 17, of Qalqilya, killed by IDF gunfire during a demonstration. Muhammad Mansur Nasr abu-Adwan, 16, of Qalqilya, killed by IDF gunfire during a demonstration.",
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"plaintext": "28 November Karam Fathi Shehada al-Kurd, 14, of Rafah, Gaza, died of head wounds sustained Nov. 23 from IDF gunfire during a demonstration near the Rafah border crossing with Egypt.",
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"plaintext": "29 November Muhammad Muhammad Abdallah al-Mashrawi, 14, of Gaza City, died of head wounds sustained Nov. 26 from IDF gunfire during a demonstration near the Karni checkpoint.",
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"plaintext": "30 November Shadi Ahmad Hasan Zhoul, 14, of Husan, near Bethlehem, killed by an Israeli settler vehicle while walking to school. Walid Muhammad Ahmad al-Badan, 17, of Taqou, near Bethlehem, killed by IDF gunfire to his chest during a demonstration near the Tekoa settlement.",
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"plaintext": " December 1: Muhammad Saleh Muhammad al-Arja, 12, of Rafah, Gaza, killed by Israeli sniper fire to his head near the Rafah border crossing. Medhat Muhammad Subhi Jadallah, 14, of Shati refugee camp, Gaza, killed by IDF gunfire to his head during a demonstration.",
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"plaintext": " December 5: Ramzi Adel Muhammad Bayatnah, 15, of Abu Qash, near Ramallah, killed by IDF gunfire to his head during a demonstration near the Ayosh Junction.",
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"plaintext": "December 7: Zuhair Mustafa Ali al-Hattab, 17, of Gaza City, died of head wounds sustained Nov. 20 from IDF gunfire during a demonstration near the Karni checkpoint. Mutaz Azmi Ismael Teilakh, 16, of Dheisheh refugee camp, killed by IDF gunfire to his head during a demonstration.",
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"plaintext": " December 8: An Israeli teacher travelling in a van and the van's driver killed in a drive-by attack in the West Bank. An Israeli soldier killed in a gunfire attack on a civilian bus. Omar Samir Abdul-Hamid al-Mashni, 16, of Beit Our al-Tahta, near Ramallah, killed by IDF gunfire to his head during a demonstration following Friday prayers at Jerusalem’s al-Aqsa mosque.",
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"plaintext": "December 9: Salim Muhammad Salim al-Hameida, 13, of Rafah, Gaza, died of head wounds sustained Dec. 5 from IDF gunfire near the Rafah border crossing.",
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"plaintext": "December 11: Ahmad Ali Darwish al-Qawasma, 14, of Hebron, died of head wounds sustained Dec. 8 from IDF gunfire at close range during clashes.",
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"plaintext": "December 22:Arafat Muhammad Ali al-Jabarin, 16, of Sair, near Hebron, killed by IDF gunfire to his head while throwing stones in Beit Einun.",
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"plaintext": "December 15: Muhammad Farouq Daoud, 17, of Harres, near Salfit, killed by IDF gunfire to his chest while throwing stones near the village checkpoint.",
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"plaintext": "December 20: Hani Yousef Hamid al-Sufi, 14, of Rafah, Gaza, killed by IDF shelling to his head while trying to block the passage of tanks and a bulldozer.",
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"plaintext": " December 21: an Israeli civilian ambushed and killed near Jerusalem.",
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"plaintext": " December 28: a soldier and a border police officer killed while dismantling a road-side bomb, by another explosive device, in the Gaza strip. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility.",
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"plaintext": " December 31: Binyamin Zeev Kahane (the son of Meir Kahane) and his wife, Talia killed in an ambush by Palestinian snipers. 5 of their children driving with them injured. Math Ahmad Muhammad abu-Hadwan, 11, of Hebron, killed by IDF gunfire to his head in Tel Rumeida. Abdul-Rahman Khaled Hammouda Khbeish, 4, of Balata refugee camp, killed by IDF gunfire to his head.",
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"plaintext": "October 2000 events",
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"plaintext": "house demolition in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict",
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| [
"2000_in_Israel",
"2000_in_the_Palestinian_territories",
"Conflicts_in_2000",
"Timelines_of_the_Israeli–Palestinian_conflict",
"Political_violence_in_Israel",
"Political_violence_in_the_Palestinian_territories",
"Terrorism_in_the_Palestinian_territories",
"Terrorist_incidents_in_Asia_in_2000",
"Terrorist_incidents_in_Israel_in_the_2000s"
]
| 7,933,142 | 60 | 4 | 31 | 0 | 0 | Violence in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict 2000 | Wikimedia list article | []
|
38,402 | 1,082,291,296 | Timeline_of_the_Israeli–Palestinian_conflict_in_2002 | [
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"plaintext": "Note: This compilation includes only those attacks that resulted in casualties. Attacks which did not kill or wound are not included.",
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"plaintext": "4 January: An Israeli army undercover unit kills a Hamas member in the village of Tal and arrests two others.",
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"plaintext": "9 January: Two Hamas militants wearing Palestinian police uniforms attack an IDF post near the Gaza Strip with grenades and assault rifles. Four Israeli soldiers and one of the attackers are killed.",
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"plaintext": "10 January-11: The Israeli army demolished 59 houses and damaged another 200 in Rafah refugee camp. Over six hundred Palestinians are made homeless. , ",
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"plaintext": "14 January: The IDF killed Raed al-Karmi, head of Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades (AMB) in Tulkarm. AMB gunmen kill an Israeli soldier near Shavei Shomron. ",
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"plaintext": "15 January: Israeli woman shot dead by an AMB gunman in Jerusalem. An American citizen living in Israel is kidnapped at a Palestinian security checkpoint in Beit Jala. He was then taken to Nablus and shot dead there.",
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"plaintext": "17 January: 2002 Bat Mitzvah massacre: A gunman killed six and wounded 33 in a Bat Mitzvah celebration in Hadera. The Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack. Wanted AMB member Khamis Abdallah is killed by the Israeli army in an apparent assassination in Nablus. A Palestinian is killed by shellfire on the Gaza border. Two Preventive Security Force officers are killed when an Israeli F-16 destroyed the Palestinian Authority's main police headquarters in Tulkarem.",
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"plaintext": "18 January: In an apparent assassination, wanted AMB member Faraj Hani Odeh Nazzal is killed in the West Bank.",
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"plaintext": "21 January: A 19-year-old Palestinian was killed and seven wounded in fighting with Israeli forces in the West Bank city of Tulkarm. Other sources put the number of dead as two with fifteen wounded in what is described as the largest military operation since 1967.",
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"plaintext": "22 January: An Al-Aqsa Brigades gunman in opens fire with an M16 assault rifle near a bus stop in downtown Jerusalem, killing two civilians and wounding forty. The Israeli army kill West Bank head of the Izzeddin al-Qassam Brigades, Yusif Suragji and three other Hamas members in Nablus.",
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"plaintext": "24 January: Senior Hamas member Adil Hamad is killed when the IDF fires missiles at his car in Khan Yunis. Five Palestinians are killed in other incidents during the day.",
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"plaintext": "25 January: Twenty people are injured in an Islamic Jihad suicide bombing in the Old Bus Station of Tel Aviv. Seven Palestinians are injured in retaliatory airstrikes by the Israeli Air Force in Gaza City and Tulkarm.",
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"plaintext": "26 January: A Hamas member is shot by the Israeli army at a checkpoint in Ramallah and dies of his wounds while an ambulance is denied access for 45 minutes. An Israeli settler driving in the West Bank is killed by Palestinian gunmen.",
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"plaintext": "27 January: A suicide bombing attack in Jerusalem by Fatah. An elderly Israeli was killed and seven wounded. The attack marked the first time a female suicide bomber was used.",
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"plaintext": "6 February: An Israeli woman, her 11-year-old daughter and a soldier guarding them are killed in a gun attack in Hamra. Both Fatah and Hamas claimed responsibility.",
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"plaintext": "8 February: An Israeli woman is stabbed to death in a Jerusalem park by several Palestinian youths.",
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"plaintext": "9 February: An elderly woman shot and killed while driving in the northern West Bank.",
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"plaintext": "10 February: Two female Israeli soldiers are killed and four people are injured in a shooting attack at a civilian bakery near a military base in Beersheba. Hamas claimed responsibility.",
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"plaintext": "14 February: A Merkava Mk III tank is destroyed by a mine near Netzarim, killing three Israeli soldiers and wounding four. Hamas claimed responsibility.",
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"plaintext": "16 February: Two teenagers killed in a suicide bombing at a pizzeria in the northern West Bank. Another teenage girl, wounded in the attack, died 11 days later. The PFLP claimed responsibility.",
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"plaintext": "18 February: An Israeli-Arab policeman is killed by a suicide bomber. Fatah (Al-Aqsa) claims responsibility. An Israeli settler woman is and two soldiers trying to assist her are killed in a combined shooting and bombing in the Gaza Strip. The gunman who killed the woman is run over and killed by an Israeli civilian who was driving nearby, who sustained gunshot wounds. Fatah (Al-Aqsa) claims responsibility.",
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"plaintext": "19 February: Palestinian guerillas attacked an army checkpoint at Ein 'Ariq near Ramallah killing six Israeli soldiers. The Al-Aqsa Brigade and Hamas claimed joint responsibility. ",
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"plaintext": "20 February: In retaliation of the raid 19 February, Israeli warplanes and helicopter gunships attack structures belonging to the Palestinian Authority. Israeli artillery also attacks Palestinian police checkpoints, and Israeli troops engage in firefights with Palestinians. A total of 16 Palestinians are killed. ",
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"plaintext": "22 February: An Israeli civilian was killed by gunmen in a drive-by shooting on the Atarot-Givat Ze'ev road north of Jerusalem, on his way home from his workplace.",
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"plaintext": "25 February: Two Israelis killed in a shooting attack between Tekoa and Nokdim, south of Bethlehem. One of the victims' pregnant daughter was injured. An Israeli policewoman is killed when a gunman opened fire at a bus stop in Jerusalem.",
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"plaintext": "26 February: A 15-year-old Palestinian girl, wielding a knife, was shot dead at an Israeli checkpoint near Tulkarm in what appeared to have been a failed attack at that checkpoint. ",
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"plaintext": "27 February: An Israeli is shot and killed by one of his Palestinian employees in a factory in the Atarot industrial area, north of Jerusalem.",
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"plaintext": "28 February: Two Palestinians were killed and more than 100 wounded as Israel forces stormed the Balata refugee camp. In Jenin, six Palestinian policemen were shot dead as tanks entered the camp.",
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"plaintext": "2 March: A suicide bombing near a yeshiva in a religious Jerusalem neighborhood killed 11 people and injured more than 50. The bullet-ridden body of a Jerusalem police detective was discovered next to his trail motorcycle, near the Mar Saba Monastery in the Judean Desert.",
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"plaintext": "3 March: A Palestinian sniper kills seven Israeli soldiers and three civilians at an IDF roadblock near the settlement of Ofra.",
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"plaintext": "4 March: Six Palestinians, five of them children, were killed in Ramallah when a tank shelled a pickup truck and another vehicle belonging to a suspected Hamas militant. In Jenin, six more Palestinians were killed in a clash with Israeli soldiers. In Rafah refugee camp, two Palestinian gunmen and one civilian was killed and three buildings demolished. ",
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"plaintext": "5 March: Three people were killed in Tel Aviv when a Palestinian gunman opened fire on two adjacent restaurants. An Israeli woman was killed in shooting attack on the Bethlehem bypass \"tunnel\" road, south of Jerusalem, on her way to work. Her husband was injured. An 85-year-old Israeli was killed in a suicide bombing on Egged bus No. 823 as it entered the Afula central bus station.",
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"plaintext": "7 March: Five Israeli teenagers were killed and 23 injured when a Hamas gunmen infiltrated the Gush Katif settlement of Atzmona, opening fire and throwing hand grenades at the school and nearby houses. One of those killed sustained third degree burns over 90% of his body after a grenade was thrown through the window of his dorm room. He died of his wounds in the hospital five hours after the attack.",
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"plaintext": "9 March: A 9-month-old baby and a man were killed when two Palestinians opened fire and threw grenades at cars and pedestrians in Netanya, close to the city's boardwalk and hotels. A Palestinian suicide bombing at Cafe Moment in central Jerusalem killed 11 people killed and injured 54 others.",
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"plaintext": "12 March: One Israeli was killed and another wounded in a shooting attack at the Kiryat Sefer checkpoint, east of Modi'in Illit. Six people (three men and three women, including a teenager) killed when two gunmen opened fire from an ambush on Israeli vehicles traveling between Shlomi and Kibbutz Metzuba near the northern border with Lebanon.",
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"plaintext": "14 March: An Israeli tank is destroyed by a mine near Netzarim, killing three soldiers and wounding two. DFLP and Fatah claimed responsibility.",
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"plaintext": "17 March: An 18-year-old girl was killed and 16 people were injured when a gunman opened fire on passersby in the center of Kfar Saba.",
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"plaintext": "20 March: Seven Israelis killed in a suicide bombing of an Egged bus No. 823 traveling from Tel Aviv to Nazareth, near Afula.",
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"plaintext": "21 March: Three people killed and 86 injured when a suicide bomber detonated a bomb, packed with metal spikes and nails, in the center of a crowd of shoppers on King George Street in central Jerusalem.",
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"plaintext": "24 March: Esther Kleinman, 23 years old, of N'vei Tzuf was shot and killed on the Abud Bypass Road in the Shomron en route to work as a kindergarten teacher in the community of Ofra. Avi Sabag, 24 years old, of Otniel was shot to dead by gunmen as he was returning home from shopping for Passover in Jerusalem. He was driving in the Hevron Hills area near his home community.",
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"plaintext": "27 March: The Passover Massacre: 30 Israelis were killed and over 140 wounded when a suicide bomber exploded in the crowded dining room of the Park Hotel in Netanya.",
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"plaintext": "28 March: Four family members killed in Elon Moreh, when a Palestinian gunman infiltrated the hilltop community near Nablus, burst into their home, and shot them.",
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"plaintext": "29 March: Two elderly men were stabbed to death while on their way to the synagogue for morning prayers, when a Palestinian gunman infiltrated the Neztarim settlement in the Gaza Strip.",
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"plaintext": "30 March: Two people killed when a female suicide bomber blew herself up in the Kiryat Yovel supermarket in Jerusalem. Some 30 people were injured in a suicide bombing in a cafe in southern Tel-Aviv. One of the victims, a 36-year-old woman, died of her wounds five days later.",
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"plaintext": "31 March: 15 people killed in a suicide bombing in Haifa, in the Matza restaurant of the gas station near the \"Grand Canyon\" shopping mall.",
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"plaintext": "1 April: A 19-year-old police volunteer was killed in Jerusalem, when a Palestinian suicide bomber driving toward the city center blew himself up after being stopped at a roadblock. The Fatah al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.",
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"plaintext": "10 April: Eight people killed and 22 wounded in a suicide bombing on Egged bus #960, en route from Haifa to Jerusalem, which exploded near Kibbutz Yagur, east of Haifa.",
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"plaintext": "12 April: Seven people killed by a woman suicide bomber who detonated a powerful charge at a bus stop on Jaffa road next to the entrance to Jerusalem's Mahane Yehuda open-air market. Another 104 people were injured in the blast, among them nine Arabs. The Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.",
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"plaintext": "17 April: Tel Aviv resident Meir Franco, 48, was murdered by gunman in Sinai.",
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"plaintext": "27 April: Four people, including a 5-year-old girl, killed when Palestinian gunmen dressed in IDF uniforms and combat gear cut through the settlement's defensive perimeter fence and entered Adora, west of Hebron. The gunmen entered several homes, firing on people in their bedrooms.",
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"plaintext": "29 April: Israeli forces invaded the West Bank town of Hebron and killed nine Palestinians. In the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, a Palestinian gunmen was shot dead by Israeli snipers. ",
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"plaintext": "From 3 April to 12 April: 52 Palestinians, 5-22 of them civilians (sources vary) and 23 Israeli soldiers were confirmed killed in Jenin. ",
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"plaintext": "7 May: 15 people killed and 55 wounded when a suicide bomber detonated a powerful charge in a game club located on the 3rd floor of a building in Rishon LeZion, causing part of the building to collapse. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.",
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"plaintext": "12 May: An Israeli settler of Pe'at Sadeh in the southern Gaza Strip was shot and killed by a Palestinian laborer, when he came to pick him up at a checkpoint.",
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"plaintext": "19 May: Three Israelis killed when a suicide bomber blew himself up in a crowded section of Netanya's open-air market.",
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"plaintext": "21 May: One Israeli injured when a bomb explodes Kehilat Katzuvitch Street in northern Tel Aviv.",
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"plaintext": "22 May: Two people (one of them a teenager) are killed in suicide bombing in the heart of Rishon LeZion.",
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"plaintext": "27 May: A woman and her infant granddaughter, aged 14 months, of Petah Tikva were killed when a suicide bomber detonated himself near an ice cream parlor outside a shopping mall.",
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"plaintext": "28 May: Two Israelis were killed when shots were fired at the car in which they were traveling south on the Ramallah bypass road. Three yeshiva high school students killed in Itamar, southeast of Nablus, when a Palestinian gunman infiltrated the community and opened fire on the teenagers.",
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"plaintext": "29 May: Two Palestinians were killed by Israeli troops. On in the southern Gaza Strip in Khan Yunis and one gunman belonging to Islamic Jihad in Jenin on the West Bank. Additionally, four homes were blown up and 20 damaged in Rafah. ",
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"plaintext": "5 June: 17 people killed when a car packed with a large quantity of explosives struck Egged bus No. 830 traveling from Tel-Aviv to Tiberias at the Megiddo junction near Afula. The car exploded near the gasoline tank of the bus, causing it to burst into flames. Most of the casualties were soldiers who were on their way to their bases. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.",
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"plaintext": "6 June: 18-year-old Israeli student died of gunshot wounds to the chest sustained in a shooting attack near Ofra, north of Ramallah, when Palestinian gunmen opened fire in an ambush.",
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"plaintext": "11 June: A 14-year-old girl was killed when a Palestinian suicide bomber set off a relatively small pipe bomb at a shwarma restaurant in Herzliya.",
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"plaintext": "18 June: 19 people killed and 74 wounded in a suicide bombing at the Patt junction in Egged bus no. 32A traveling from Gilo to the center of Jerusalem. The bomber boarded the bus at the stop in Beit Safafa, an Arab neighborhood opposite Gilo, and almost immediately detonated the large bomb which he carried in a bag stuffed with ball bearings. The blast destroyed the front half of the bus, packed with people on their way to work and schoolchildren.",
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"plaintext": "20 June: Five people, including a mother and three of her sons, were murdered when a gunman entered their home in Itamar, south of Nablus, and opened fire.",
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"plaintext": "16 July: Nine people (two men, six women, and an infant child) were killed in an attack on Dan bus no. 189 traveling from Bnei Brak to Emmanuel in the northern West Bank. Two 20-kilo bombs were set off about 200 meters from the town's entrance, damaging the bus's front tires and forcing it off the road. The explosion damaged the bus doors, trapping the passengers inside. The militants then started to shoot at the bus, firing through the unprotected roof and throwing grenades through the narrow upper windows, which are not armored.",
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"plaintext": "17 July: Five people were killed and about 40 injured in a double suicide bombing on Neve Sha'anan Street near the old central bus station in Tel Aviv. The bombs, which were strapped to the waists of the bombers, contained nails and metal shards.",
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"plaintext": "25 July: A 43-year-old Rabbi was killed and another civilian injured in a shooting attack near the West Bank community of Alei Zahav, west of Ariel.",
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"plaintext": "26 July: A couple and their 9-year-old son were killed in a shooting attack south of Hebron. Two of their other children were injured.",
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"plaintext": "30 July: Two brothers were shot and killed when their truck came under fire in the West Bank village of Jama'in, near Ariel, apparently while selling diesel oil to a cement factory in the village.",
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"plaintext": "31 July: Nine people, some of them American students, were killed when a bomb exploded in the Frank Sinatra cafeteria on the Hebrew University Mt. Scopus campus in Jerusalem.",
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"plaintext": "1 August: A 27-year-old Israeli man was found shot in the head at point-blank range and bound, west of Tulkarem, near the Green Line.",
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"plaintext": "4 August: Nine people were killed in the suicide bombing of Egged bus No. 361 traveling from Haifa to Safed at the Meron junction in northern Israel. The blast blew off the roof of the bus, which then burst into flames, killing or wounding nearly everyone inside. A 34-year-old Israeli and a 52-year-old Palestinian were killed when a Palestinian gunman opened fire with a pistol near the Damascus Gate of Jerusalem's Old City.",
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"plaintext": "5 August: A young Israeli couple were killed when gunmen opened fire on their car as they were traveling on the Ramallah-Nablus road near Eli in the northern West Bank. One of their children was wounded in the attack.",
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"plaintext": "10 August: A 31-year-old woman was killed and her husband seriously wounded when a Palestinian gunman infiltrated Moshav Mechora in the Jordan Valley, and opened fire outside their home.",
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"plaintext": "5 September: A Merkava heavy tank was destroyed by a mine near the Kissufim Crossing, killing 1 soldiers and wounding 3. Popular Resistance Committees claimed responsibility.",
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"plaintext": "23 September: A 48-year-old man was killed and three of his children wounded, one seriously, in a shooting attack near the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron during the Sukkot festival.",
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"plaintext": "9 October: Palestinian gunmen shot and wounded four Israelis traveling in a car near Hebron.",
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"plaintext": "10 October: A 71-year-old woman was killed and about 30 people were wounded when a suicide bomber blew himself up while trying to board Dan bus No. 87 across from Bar-Ilan University on the Geha highway (Route 4) in central Israel.",
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"plaintext": "15 November: 12 people killed, nine soldiers and three paramilitary security guards from the Kiryat Arba emergency response team, and 15 wounded in Hebron when Palestinian militants drew security forces into an ambush.",
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"plaintext": "28 November: Kenyan hotel bombing: Three Israelis, including two brothers, and 10 Kenyans killed when a car bomb exploded in the lobby of the Israeli-owned beachfront Paradise Hotel, frequented almost exclusively by Israeli tourists near Mombasa in Kenya. 21 Israelis and 60 Kenyans were wounded in the attack. Six Israelis were killed when two gunmen opened fire and threw grenades at the Likud polling station in Bet She'an, where party members were casting their votes in the Likud primary.",
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| [
"2002_in_Israel",
"2002_in_the_Palestinian_territories",
"Conflicts_in_2002",
"Timelines_of_the_Israeli–Palestinian_conflict",
"Political_violence_in_Israel",
"Political_violence_in_the_Palestinian_territories",
"Terrorism_in_the_Palestinian_territories",
"Terrorist_incidents_in_Israel_in_2002"
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| 7,933,143 | 110 | 7 | 182 | 0 | 0 | Violence in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict 2002 | Wikimedia list article | []
|
38,404 | 1,102,153,991 | Classless_Inter-Domain_Routing | [
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"plaintext": "Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR ) is a method for allocating IP addresses and for IP routing. The Internet Engineering Task Force introduced CIDR in 1993 to replace the previous classful network addressing architecture on the Internet. Its goal was to slow the growth of routing tables on routers across the Internet, and to help slow the rapid exhaustion of IPv4 addresses.",
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"plaintext": "During the first decade of the Internet after the invention of the Domain Name System (DNS) it became apparent that Classful Network (scheme of allocating the IP address space and the routing of IP packets) was not scalable. This led to the successive development of subnetting and CIDR. The formerly meaningful class distinctions based on the top 3 address bits were removed, and the new system was described as being classless, with respect to the old system, which became known as classful. Routing protocols were revised to carry not just Internet addresses, but also their matching subnet masks. Implementing CIDR required every host and router on the Internet to be reprogrammed in small ways—no small feat at a time when the Internet was entering a period of rapid growth. In 1993, the Internet Engineering Task Force published a new set of standards, and , to define this new concept of allocation of IP address blocks and new methods of routing IPv4 packets. An updated version of the specification was published as in 2006.",
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"plaintext": " |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| ||||",
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"plaintext": " |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| |||128 Single end-points and loopback",
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"plaintext": " |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| |||127 Point-to-point links (inter-router)",
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"plaintext": " |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| ||124",
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"plaintext": " |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| |120",
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"plaintext": " |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| 116",
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"plaintext": " |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| |||112",
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"plaintext": " |||| |||| |||| |||| |||80",
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"plaintext": " |||| |||| |||| |||| ||76",
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"plaintext": " |||| |||| |||| |||| 68",
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"plaintext": " |||| |||| |||| |||64 Single LAN; default prefix size for SLAAC",
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"plaintext": " |||| |||| |||| |56 Minimal end sites assignment; e.g. home network (/56 = 256 /64 blocks)",
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"plaintext": " |||| |||| |||| 52 /52 block = 4096 /64 blocks",
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"plaintext": " |||| |||| |||48 Typical assignment for larger sites (/48 = 65536 /64 blocks)",
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"plaintext": " |||| |||| ||44",
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"plaintext": " |||| |||| |40",
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"plaintext": " |||| |||| 36 possible future local Internet registry (LIR) extra-small allocations",
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"plaintext": " |||| |||32 LIR minimum allocations",
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"plaintext": " |||| ||28 LIR medium allocations",
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"plaintext": " |||| |24 LIR large allocations",
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"plaintext": " |||| 20 LIR extra large allocations",
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{
"plaintext": " |||16",
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"plaintext": " ||12 Regional Internet registry (RIR) allocations from IANA",
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"plaintext": " 4",
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"plaintext": "CIDR provides fine-grained routing prefix aggregation. For example, if the first 20 bits of their network prefixes match, sixteen contiguous networks can be aggregated and advertised to a larger network as a single routing table entry. This reduces the number of routes that have to be advertised.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " CIDR Report (updated daily)",
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"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
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{
"plaintext": "Supernetting",
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]
| [
"Internet_Standards",
"Internet_architecture",
"Routing",
"IP_addresses"
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| 646,589 | 49,007 | 93 | 54 | 0 | 0 | Classless Inter-Domain Routing | method for IP address allocation and routing | [
"CIDR"
]
|
38,405 | 1,017,995,769 | Octet | [
{
"plaintext": "Octet may refer to:",
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"plaintext": " Octet (music), ensemble consisting of eight instruments or voices, or composition written for such an ensemble",
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"plaintext": " String octet, a piece of music written for eight string instruments",
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"plaintext": " Octet (Mendelssohn), 1825 composition by Felix Mendelssohn",
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"plaintext": " Octet (Bruch), 1920 composition by Max Bruch",
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{
"plaintext": " Octet (Beethoven), 1793 composition by Ludwig van Beethoven",
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Octet (Lachner), 1850 composition by Franz Lachner",
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"section_name": "Music",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Octet (Reich), 1979 composition by Steve Reich",
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"section_name": "Music",
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Octet (Reinecke),1892 composition by Carl Reinicke",
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"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Octet (Schubert), 1824 composition by Franz Schubert",
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"section_name": "Music",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Octet (Stravinsky), 1923 composition by Igor Stravinsky",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Music",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Violin octet, a family of stringed instruments",
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"section_name": "Music",
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"anchor_spans": [
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{
"plaintext": " Octet (musical), a musical by Dave Malloy",
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{
"plaintext": " Octet (Christensen), 1958 ballet by Willam Christensen",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Octet (Martins), 2003 ballet by Peter Martins",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Octet (computing), a grouping of eight bits",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Byte, a unit of digital information that most commonly consists of eight bits",
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{
"plaintext": " Octet stream, alternative name for byte stream",
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"plaintext": " Octet rule, chemical theory stating that atoms tend to combine so they each have eight valence electrons",
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{
"plaintext": " Octet truss, type of space frame",
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"plaintext": " 8 (disambiguation)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Eightfold Way (physics), theory organizing subatomic baryons and mesons into octets",
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"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": " Octal, base-8 number system",
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"plaintext": " Octave (poetry)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Octetra, a sculpture by Isamu Noguchi",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Okta, a meteorological unit of measurement of cloud cover in terms of how many eighths of the sky are covered in clouds",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
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| [
"Octets"
]
| 225,603 | 306 | 1 | 25 | 0 | 0 | Octet | Wikimedia disambiguation page | []
|
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